Wikiversity enwikiversity https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Wikiversity:Main_Page MediaWiki 1.47.0-wmf.19 first-letter Media Special Talk User User talk Wikiversity Wikiversity talk File File talk MediaWiki MediaWiki talk Template Template talk Help Help talk Category Category talk School School talk Portal Portal talk Topic Topic talk Collection Collection talk Draft Draft talk TimedText TimedText talk Module Module talk Event Event talk 4 28 2832688 2832042 2026-09-10T20:00:51Z Mikael Häggström 12130 Call for interest: Paid part-time Administrative Officer position with WikiJournal 2832688 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Wikiversity:Colloquium/Header}} <!-- MESSAGES GO BELOW --> == Motivation and emotion - Student editing == We are underway with [[Motivation and emotion]] this semester (Aug - Nov), which will see ~150 students signing up to and edting [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026]]. Please be friendly and help them out as they learn their way around. Sincerely, James -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 00:16, 10 August 2026 (UTC) == Add an edit count requirement for autoconfirmed? == Currently, only waiting for four days is required for a user to become autoconfirmed. I am proposing that we include a minimum edit count of 10 edits (akin to Wikipedia) especially because of [[Special:AbuseFilter/16|a private abuse filter]], and LTAs may game autoconfirmed permissions to vandalize here. Thoughts? [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 23:01, 23 August 2026 (UTC) : [[Wikiversity:Autoconfirmed users]] : Are you suggesting an additional requirement? i.e., 4 days + 10 edits? : How is it adjusted? -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 03:57, 5 September 2026 (UTC) :: Yes. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 01:30, 6 September 2026 (UTC) :As a newly volunteered member, it doesn't seem unreasonable to me to require a certain number of edits to establish my bona fides. [[User:Cfm490|Cfm490]] ([[User talk:Cfm490|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Cfm490|contribs]]) 17:53, 5 September 2026 (UTC) :I agree that adding an edit count requirement is a reasonable expectation before the user can become autoconfirmed. [[User:IanVG|IanVG]] ([[User talk:IanVG|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/IanVG|contribs]]) 18:56, 6 September 2026 (UTC) :+ 1 —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 19:40, 6 September 2026 (UTC) :'''Weak support''' Generally reasonable, but I would caution that we should really make this clear for those instances where professors have students edit here and make it frictionless for them to get autoconfirmed status. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 19:42, 6 September 2026 (UTC) == Bartending Course on Wikiversity == I recently finished the course on [[Bartending]], and while I have experience editing on Wikipedia, this is my first Wikiversity project. If any of you have the time or interest, I could use an experienced eye to see if there's anything obviously missing from the course in terms of Wikiversity administration. I'm not sure what's active, if the course should belong in an existing school, or if there's any obvious discoverability tool I haven't implemented. Any tips are welcomed, or just a thumbs up saying it looks fine would be great. [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] recommended I post this here in case someone wanted to include the new course under News on the [[Wikiversity:Main Page|Main Page]]. Thanks! [[User:Sabbier|Sabbier]] ([[User talk:Sabbier|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Sabbier|contribs]]) 01:24, 1 September 2026 (UTC) :Wow! Fantastic work- I'm so impressed! Your work gives me inspiration on how to better organize the courses I'm working on. :) [[User:IanVG|IanVG]] ([[User talk:IanVG|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/IanVG|contribs]]) 21:32, 3 September 2026 (UTC) : Awesome work. I've added this course to the [[Main Page/News|main page news]]. : We could also consider for [[Wikiversity:Featured]]. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 00:43, 5 September 2026 (UTC) ::The course [[Creating Wikiversity Courses]] is intended to provide guidance to new Wikiversity editors. I hope it is helpful and I welcome improvement suggestions. Thanks. [[User:Lbeaumont|Lbeaumont]] ([[User talk:Lbeaumont|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Lbeaumont|contribs]]) 14:08, 6 September 2026 (UTC) == Writing news here == I'm bringing up this discussion again because I think it is beneficial to the project since Wikinews is gone, thank you. [[User:BigKrow|BigKrow]] ([[User talk:BigKrow|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/BigKrow|contribs]]) 03:17, 1 September 2026 (UTC) : Given that the community consensus here was not to replicate WikiNews within Wikiversity, I suggest thinking differently e.g., in terms of specific news-related projects you are interested in that have educational objectives that satisfy Wikiversity's mission. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 00:46, 5 September 2026 (UTC) == [[Wikiversity talk:Interface administrators#My thoughts about this user group]] == As I suggested, I would like to propose allowing permanent interface administrators on English Wikiversity. My temporary interface admin rights are about to expire soon, and I will soon create a new CfIA page (and its header). We should also have a minimum of two interface administrators. Thoughts? [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 16:44, 6 September 2026 (UTC) :I am also in favor of this and we did discuss it pretty recently and came to a consensus on extending IA rights and lowering the administrative overhead, but not allowing indefinite at this juncture. From my perspective, since we discussed this so recently and nothing seems to have changed much, I personally would recommend holding off for a couple of years or until/unless there is some critical new information. Again, I would continue to support indef IA rights were it to come up again and think that at least two is also a sensible proposal. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 17:32, 6 September 2026 (UTC) ::Responding to myself so that I don't derail: I would be interested/willing to be an indef IA. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 17:36, 6 September 2026 (UTC) : I made [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Interface Adminship]]. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 18:24, 6 September 2026 (UTC) :: CC to @[[User:Koavf|Koavf]]. I made a request since my IA rights are about to expire. We should also hold a separate vote to allow permanent IAs here (for this policy). [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 16:55, 7 September 2026 (UTC) == Paid part-time Administrative Officer position with WikiJournal == [[WikiJournal User Group|WikiJournal]] is an open-access, nonprofit scholarly publisher hosted on Wikiversity. It uses the wiki format to allow authors to write and develop scholarly articles directly online. Submitted articles then undergo formal academic peer review and, when accepted, are published as citable journal articles while remaining freely accessible. WikiJournal is seeking expressions of interest in a new part-time '''Administrative Officer''' position. The officer would support the project's day-to-day organizational work, including: * Setting up and administering a system for tracking contractor hours and issuing payments. * Coordinating the contracting, onboarding, timekeeping and payment of technical editors and other contractors. * Maintaining financial, contractor and administrative records. * Assisting with grant administration, budget tracking and reporting. * Following up on board action items, deadlines and recurring obligations. * Supporting recruitment and other operational tasks as needed. This is a remote, flexibly scheduled contractor role averaging approximately '''6 hours per week'''. Compensation is proposed at '''US$25 per hour''', with up to approximately '''320 hours (US$8,000) available over the year'''. Applicants may be based internationally, although appointment will depend on WikiJournal being able to establish a practical and legally appropriate contracting and payment arrangement in the applicant's country of residence. Relevant experience may include administrative organization, bookkeeping or financial administration, contractor or personnel coordination, nonprofit or grant administration, Wikimedia participation, academic publishing, and open-access work. Applicants are not expected to have experience in every area. For the complete role description and further details, see [[WikiJournal User Group/Administrative officer]]. Those interested should reply in the '''[[Talk:WikiJournal User Group#Call for interest: Administrative Officer|Call for interest: Administrative Officer]]''' discussion by '''30 September 2026''', briefly describing their relevant experience, any connection to WikiJournal or related communities, and their general availability. Expressions of interest received later may still be considered if the position has not been filled. Recommendations of potentially suitable candidates are also welcome. [[User:Mikael Häggström|Mikael Häggström]] ([[User talk:Mikael Häggström|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mikael Häggström|contribs]]) 20:00, 10 September 2026 (UTC) qio26gcms5xnrket1p4rcff9svika4x 5 1730 2832772 1567116 2026-09-11T06:39:24Z Michael Ten 654933 /* call the question? (for vision consensus) */ new section 2832772 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Comments on older versions of page== After reading this article I have no idea what is the vision of Wikiversity. Though, the description of Classical education (which may be biased) was entertaining, it helps me very little to understand the function of Wikiversity. Is this an attempt to define vision based on a problem-solution organization? If so, neither the problem nor vision has been developed.--[[User:68.222.30.194|68.222.30.194]] 21:42, 11 February 2006 (UTC) pls visit [[b:User_talk:Humble_Guy]], I have suggestions.... ---- please visit my suggestion too: [[b:User:Catpad/Odzilla|Odzilla]] --[[b:User:Catpad|Catpad]] 08:48, 24 Mar 2005 (UTC) ==Updated page== I think it's good to have this simplified page as one we can link people to to explain what Wikiversity is (though we need to keep these introductory pages in line with each other). I think it's a good idea to work on a single sentence vision statement, as well as an extended vision statement (one or two paragraphs). I've made a start on such an extended vision statement, and I've left it that ''"Your own vision is welcome..."'', having previously said that there are many individual visions for Wikiversity (which there are - eg [[Wikiversity:Vision/Historical perspective]]). I wonder if, instead of this page becoming a patchwork quilt of everyone's individual visions, we should encourage people to be as bold as they like with their own individual visions by setting up a page (perhaps a subpage of this one) which outlined their views? [[User:Cormaggio|Cormaggio]] ^{<small>[[User talk:Cormaggio|talk]]</small>} 12:29, 12 April 2008 (UTC) ==WikiCredentials== Hello Friends, Teachers and Fellow Students, My name is Gaon, and I firmly believe ''Wikiversity'' should include " WikiCredentials " ( WikiCreds ) upon the completion of Testing courses. This would inspire ''Millions'' around the world to learn and challenge our societies present accredidation system... and change our culture's perception of credentialism. It is time for freedom of thought to ''Flourish'', where '''anyone''' can learn and be accredited, regardless of age, mental capacity, location, economic status or the inability to pay tuition. Wikiversity could rival and surpass the Best education available, If we have the desire and diligence to fulfill this Grand Vision........ it would be The Most Good for the Most People, Literally, Billions of people. Do we have what it takes to fulfill this ''expansive'', ''innovative'' and '''BOLD''' endeavor? Kind regards, Intelligent Discussion Welcomed. ''Sincerely'' [[User:Gaon Yincang Abhinava|Gaon Yincang Abhinava]] 03:09, 23 July 2011 (UTC) 7/22/2011 10:08pm :Gaon created a page which I have moved to [[Wikiversity:Wikicredentials]], and started a Colloquium discussion which I've moved to Talk for the Wikicredentials page. --[[User:Abd|Abd]] 14:01, 25 July 2011 (UTC) == Share your learning curve == Recently I found a TED talk from Joris Luyendijk, a Dutch journalist (see link below). [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cJCZkYwuCBM TED-filmpje] In this TED talk he explains that people should share their lightbulb-moments. When many people do this, knowledge gaps will be bridged. I think the wikiversity project should include the thought of sharing lightbulb-moments. This is something else then only sharing learning resources. What do you think? Tim, [[User:Timboliu|Timboliu]] ([[User talk:Timboliu|talk]]) 11:26, 29 July 2012 (UTC) == Wikiversity versus wikibooks == In 2014 all 5000 pages on the Dutch wikiversity (still in beta) were removed because the did not meet the quality standards of the Dutch community. In 2015 we want to start with a new learning project around programming language Scratch. The plan for 2015 is to involve the Dutch community in creating this learning project. Some questions arose. One of the questions was: "why not create a wikibook instead of creating learning material on wikiversity?". What is the difference between wikibooks and wikiversity? [[User:Timboliu|Timboliu]] ([[User talk:Timboliu|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Timboliu|contribs]]) 19:38, 2 February 2015 (UTC) :Wikibooks is open content textbooks. Wikiversity is open learning projects and resources. For an example of the differences, consider a book and a lesson plan. A book explains the concept. A lesson plan pulls together a variety of resources to help learn the concept. Technically, one might even argue that an effective lesson plan must include reading, media, and hands-on activities to address all learning styles. The common understanding of 'textbook' is insufficient to meet that perspective. And unfortunately, there are too many resources at Wikiversity that are nothing more than textbook chapters or encyclopedia articles. The only significant learning activity provided was for the author, rather the user community. :But, rather than asking us to define the difference between Wikibooks and Wikiversity, you would be better off asking the Dutch community what they perceive the differences to be, if that's where the content will be created. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 21:17, 2 February 2015 (UTC) ==Propposals== * Our vision is to live in a world with a virtual Worldwide University where everybody can freely learn and develop about anything and everything to better themselves and society. -- {{Unsigned|Javier José Moreno Tovar18|8 May 2016}} == call the question? (for vision consensus) == === Call for Consensus Regarding Finalizing a Vision Statement === {{Template:AI-generated-section}} This wiki has operated without a finalized, project-specific vision statement for a very long time (it seems). The vision page has remained an unresolved working draft for many years, leaving us to rely on the general Wikimedia Foundation statement rather than articulating a distinct identity for this wiki? A vision statement defines the transformed future we want to bring into existence (eh?). Unlike Wikipedia, which serves as a neutral encyclopedia of established knowledge, this wiki is an active laboratory for inquiry, collaborative experimentation, and lifelong learning - learning, teaching, and research (...). However, this project may have an academic blind spot. Contributors frequently treat education as an abstract pursuit for its own sake perhaps, while overlooking practical competence. For most people, education is an essential vehicle for solving daily problems in living, acquiring marketable skills, and securing a dependable livelihood. Genuine empowerment requires both intellectual curiosity and economic self-reliance. When learners apply their abilities directly in the wider economy, their practical experience feeds back into and enriches our research. * Many community colleges have welding programs, auto-repair, clean energy repair, plumbing, electrician, auto mechanic * many universities have professional degrees meant to help secure economic employment that ideally does something to help society - counselors, doctors, physical therapists, lawyers * this is in addition to all the programs and classes meant to either pursue knowledge for its own-sake that may or may not be immediately economically productive like some of the aforementioned- but might be low, medium, or high risk research that advances knowledge and may have practical/economic applications later To resolve our draft status and establish community consensus, I propose that we consider two forward-looking statements: * Suggestion Set 1 (The Balanced Agency Vision): ** "A world where anyone can freely master deep knowledge to understand our universe and practical skills to build a self-reliant livelihood." ** "We envision a universe in which anyone can freely master deep knowledge to understand our universe and practical skills to build a self-reliant livelihood." * Suggestion Set 2 (The Dual Pillar Vision): ** "To cultivate an open commons where learning satisfies human curiosity and practical necessity, empowering individuals to solve real-world problems and achieve economic independence." ** "We have a vision to cultivate an open commons where learning satisfies human curiosity and practical necessity, empowering individuals to solve real-world problems and achieve economic independence." ** "We envision an open global commons where learning satisfies both intellectual curiosity and practical necessity, empowering individuals to solve real problems and achieve economic agency." This being a wiki, collaborators can share your feedback, indicate your preferred direction, propose refinements below, or so on and so forth. {end/{ Template:AI-generated-section [edited and reviewed the aforementioned to ensure it was sufficiently in line with my original thoughts on this matter]/ }} === and... === o-o-o-o-o That is my thinking on this; that is some of my thinking about a vision for this wiki. Limitless peace. [[User:Michael Ten|Michael Ten]] ([[User talk:Michael Ten|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Michael Ten|contribs]]) 06:39, 11 September 2026 (UTC) 98603g07zfwnkvcicc6bcdnm0ii8ghb 2832773 2832772 2026-09-11T06:42:03Z Michael Ten 654933 /* call the question? (for vision consensus) */ spacing 2832773 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Comments on older versions of page== After reading this article I have no idea what is the vision of Wikiversity. Though, the description of Classical education (which may be biased) was entertaining, it helps me very little to understand the function of Wikiversity. Is this an attempt to define vision based on a problem-solution organization? If so, neither the problem nor vision has been developed.--[[User:68.222.30.194|68.222.30.194]] 21:42, 11 February 2006 (UTC) pls visit [[b:User_talk:Humble_Guy]], I have suggestions.... ---- please visit my suggestion too: [[b:User:Catpad/Odzilla|Odzilla]] --[[b:User:Catpad|Catpad]] 08:48, 24 Mar 2005 (UTC) ==Updated page== I think it's good to have this simplified page as one we can link people to to explain what Wikiversity is (though we need to keep these introductory pages in line with each other). I think it's a good idea to work on a single sentence vision statement, as well as an extended vision statement (one or two paragraphs). I've made a start on such an extended vision statement, and I've left it that ''"Your own vision is welcome..."'', having previously said that there are many individual visions for Wikiversity (which there are - eg [[Wikiversity:Vision/Historical perspective]]). I wonder if, instead of this page becoming a patchwork quilt of everyone's individual visions, we should encourage people to be as bold as they like with their own individual visions by setting up a page (perhaps a subpage of this one) which outlined their views? [[User:Cormaggio|Cormaggio]] ^{<small>[[User talk:Cormaggio|talk]]</small>} 12:29, 12 April 2008 (UTC) ==WikiCredentials== Hello Friends, Teachers and Fellow Students, My name is Gaon, and I firmly believe ''Wikiversity'' should include " WikiCredentials " ( WikiCreds ) upon the completion of Testing courses. This would inspire ''Millions'' around the world to learn and challenge our societies present accredidation system... and change our culture's perception of credentialism. It is time for freedom of thought to ''Flourish'', where '''anyone''' can learn and be accredited, regardless of age, mental capacity, location, economic status or the inability to pay tuition. Wikiversity could rival and surpass the Best education available, If we have the desire and diligence to fulfill this Grand Vision........ it would be The Most Good for the Most People, Literally, Billions of people. Do we have what it takes to fulfill this ''expansive'', ''innovative'' and '''BOLD''' endeavor? Kind regards, Intelligent Discussion Welcomed. ''Sincerely'' [[User:Gaon Yincang Abhinava|Gaon Yincang Abhinava]] 03:09, 23 July 2011 (UTC) 7/22/2011 10:08pm :Gaon created a page which I have moved to [[Wikiversity:Wikicredentials]], and started a Colloquium discussion which I've moved to Talk for the Wikicredentials page. --[[User:Abd|Abd]] 14:01, 25 July 2011 (UTC) == Share your learning curve == Recently I found a TED talk from Joris Luyendijk, a Dutch journalist (see link below). [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cJCZkYwuCBM TED-filmpje] In this TED talk he explains that people should share their lightbulb-moments. When many people do this, knowledge gaps will be bridged. I think the wikiversity project should include the thought of sharing lightbulb-moments. This is something else then only sharing learning resources. What do you think? Tim, [[User:Timboliu|Timboliu]] ([[User talk:Timboliu|talk]]) 11:26, 29 July 2012 (UTC) == Wikiversity versus wikibooks == In 2014 all 5000 pages on the Dutch wikiversity (still in beta) were removed because the did not meet the quality standards of the Dutch community. In 2015 we want to start with a new learning project around programming language Scratch. The plan for 2015 is to involve the Dutch community in creating this learning project. Some questions arose. One of the questions was: "why not create a wikibook instead of creating learning material on wikiversity?". What is the difference between wikibooks and wikiversity? [[User:Timboliu|Timboliu]] ([[User talk:Timboliu|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Timboliu|contribs]]) 19:38, 2 February 2015 (UTC) :Wikibooks is open content textbooks. Wikiversity is open learning projects and resources. For an example of the differences, consider a book and a lesson plan. A book explains the concept. A lesson plan pulls together a variety of resources to help learn the concept. Technically, one might even argue that an effective lesson plan must include reading, media, and hands-on activities to address all learning styles. The common understanding of 'textbook' is insufficient to meet that perspective. And unfortunately, there are too many resources at Wikiversity that are nothing more than textbook chapters or encyclopedia articles. The only significant learning activity provided was for the author, rather the user community. :But, rather than asking us to define the difference between Wikibooks and Wikiversity, you would be better off asking the Dutch community what they perceive the differences to be, if that's where the content will be created. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 21:17, 2 February 2015 (UTC) ==Propposals== * Our vision is to live in a world with a virtual Worldwide University where everybody can freely learn and develop about anything and everything to better themselves and society. -- {{Unsigned|Javier José Moreno Tovar18|8 May 2016}} == call the question? (for vision consensus) == === Call for Consensus Regarding Finalizing a Vision Statement === {{Template:AI-generated-section}} This wiki has operated without a finalized, project-specific vision statement for a very long time (it seems). The vision page has remained an unresolved working draft for many years, leaving us to rely on the general Wikimedia Foundation statement rather than articulating a distinct identity for this wiki? A vision statement defines the transformed future we want to bring into existence (eh?). Unlike Wikipedia, which serves as a neutral encyclopedia of established knowledge, this wiki is an active laboratory for inquiry, collaborative experimentation, and lifelong learning - learning, teaching, and research (...). However, this project may have an academic blind spot. Contributors frequently treat education as an abstract pursuit for its own sake perhaps, while overlooking practical competence. For most people, education is an essential vehicle for solving daily problems in living, acquiring marketable skills, and securing a dependable livelihood. Genuine empowerment requires both intellectual curiosity and economic self-reliance. When learners apply their abilities directly in the wider economy, their practical experience feeds back into and enriches our research. * Many community colleges have welding programs, auto-repair, clean energy repair, plumbing, electrician, auto mechanic * many universities have professional degrees meant to help secure economic employment that ideally does something to help society - counselors, doctors, physical therapists, lawyers * this is in addition to all the programs and classes meant to either pursue knowledge for its own-sake that may or may not be immediately economically productive like some of the aforementioned- but might be low, medium, or high risk research that advances knowledge and may have practical/economic applications later To resolve our draft status and establish community consensus, I propose that we consider two forward-looking statements: * Suggestion Set 1 (The Balanced Agency Vision): ** "A world where anyone can freely master deep knowledge to understand our universe and practical skills to build a self-reliant livelihood." ** "We envision a universe in which anyone can freely master deep knowledge to understand our universe and practical skills to build a self-reliant livelihood." * Suggestion Set 2 (The Dual Pillar Vision): ** "To cultivate an open commons where learning satisfies human curiosity and practical necessity, empowering individuals to solve real-world problems and achieve economic independence." ** "We have a vision to cultivate an open commons where learning satisfies human curiosity and practical necessity, empowering individuals to solve real-world problems and achieve economic independence." ** "We envision an open global commons where learning satisfies both intellectual curiosity and practical necessity, empowering individuals to solve real problems and achieve economic agency." This being a wiki, collaborators can share your feedback, indicate your preferred direction, propose refinements below, or so on and so forth. {end/{ Template:AI-generated-section [edited and reviewed the aforementioned to ensure it was sufficiently in line with my original thoughts on this matter]/ }} === and... === o-o-o-o-o That is my thinking on this; that is some of my thinking about a vision for this wiki. Limitless peace. [[User:Michael Ten|Michael Ten]] ([[User talk:Michael Ten|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Michael Ten|contribs]]) 06:39, 11 September 2026 (UTC) ttabsorw9dus4ae9jfy57d6efa2z6mr 2832774 2832773 2026-09-11T06:46:08Z Michael Ten 654933 added clarifying note/thought 2832774 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Comments on older versions of page== After reading this article I have no idea what is the vision of Wikiversity. Though, the description of Classical education (which may be biased) was entertaining, it helps me very little to understand the function of Wikiversity. Is this an attempt to define vision based on a problem-solution organization? If so, neither the problem nor vision has been developed.--[[User:68.222.30.194|68.222.30.194]] 21:42, 11 February 2006 (UTC) pls visit [[b:User_talk:Humble_Guy]], I have suggestions.... ---- please visit my suggestion too: [[b:User:Catpad/Odzilla|Odzilla]] --[[b:User:Catpad|Catpad]] 08:48, 24 Mar 2005 (UTC) ==Updated page== I think it's good to have this simplified page as one we can link people to to explain what Wikiversity is (though we need to keep these introductory pages in line with each other). I think it's a good idea to work on a single sentence vision statement, as well as an extended vision statement (one or two paragraphs). I've made a start on such an extended vision statement, and I've left it that ''"Your own vision is welcome..."'', having previously said that there are many individual visions for Wikiversity (which there are - eg [[Wikiversity:Vision/Historical perspective]]). I wonder if, instead of this page becoming a patchwork quilt of everyone's individual visions, we should encourage people to be as bold as they like with their own individual visions by setting up a page (perhaps a subpage of this one) which outlined their views? [[User:Cormaggio|Cormaggio]] ^{<small>[[User talk:Cormaggio|talk]]</small>} 12:29, 12 April 2008 (UTC) ==WikiCredentials== Hello Friends, Teachers and Fellow Students, My name is Gaon, and I firmly believe ''Wikiversity'' should include " WikiCredentials " ( WikiCreds ) upon the completion of Testing courses. This would inspire ''Millions'' around the world to learn and challenge our societies present accredidation system... and change our culture's perception of credentialism. It is time for freedom of thought to ''Flourish'', where '''anyone''' can learn and be accredited, regardless of age, mental capacity, location, economic status or the inability to pay tuition. Wikiversity could rival and surpass the Best education available, If we have the desire and diligence to fulfill this Grand Vision........ it would be The Most Good for the Most People, Literally, Billions of people. Do we have what it takes to fulfill this ''expansive'', ''innovative'' and '''BOLD''' endeavor? Kind regards, Intelligent Discussion Welcomed. ''Sincerely'' [[User:Gaon Yincang Abhinava|Gaon Yincang Abhinava]] 03:09, 23 July 2011 (UTC) 7/22/2011 10:08pm :Gaon created a page which I have moved to [[Wikiversity:Wikicredentials]], and started a Colloquium discussion which I've moved to Talk for the Wikicredentials page. --[[User:Abd|Abd]] 14:01, 25 July 2011 (UTC) == Share your learning curve == Recently I found a TED talk from Joris Luyendijk, a Dutch journalist (see link below). [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cJCZkYwuCBM TED-filmpje] In this TED talk he explains that people should share their lightbulb-moments. When many people do this, knowledge gaps will be bridged. I think the wikiversity project should include the thought of sharing lightbulb-moments. This is something else then only sharing learning resources. What do you think? Tim, [[User:Timboliu|Timboliu]] ([[User talk:Timboliu|talk]]) 11:26, 29 July 2012 (UTC) == Wikiversity versus wikibooks == In 2014 all 5000 pages on the Dutch wikiversity (still in beta) were removed because the did not meet the quality standards of the Dutch community. In 2015 we want to start with a new learning project around programming language Scratch. The plan for 2015 is to involve the Dutch community in creating this learning project. Some questions arose. One of the questions was: "why not create a wikibook instead of creating learning material on wikiversity?". What is the difference between wikibooks and wikiversity? [[User:Timboliu|Timboliu]] ([[User talk:Timboliu|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Timboliu|contribs]]) 19:38, 2 February 2015 (UTC) :Wikibooks is open content textbooks. Wikiversity is open learning projects and resources. For an example of the differences, consider a book and a lesson plan. A book explains the concept. A lesson plan pulls together a variety of resources to help learn the concept. Technically, one might even argue that an effective lesson plan must include reading, media, and hands-on activities to address all learning styles. The common understanding of 'textbook' is insufficient to meet that perspective. And unfortunately, there are too many resources at Wikiversity that are nothing more than textbook chapters or encyclopedia articles. The only significant learning activity provided was for the author, rather the user community. :But, rather than asking us to define the difference between Wikibooks and Wikiversity, you would be better off asking the Dutch community what they perceive the differences to be, if that's where the content will be created. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 21:17, 2 February 2015 (UTC) ==Propposals== * Our vision is to live in a world with a virtual Worldwide University where everybody can freely learn and develop about anything and everything to better themselves and society. -- {{Unsigned|Javier José Moreno Tovar18|8 May 2016}} == call the question? (for vision consensus) == === Call for Consensus Regarding Finalizing a Vision Statement === {{Template:AI-generated-section}} This wiki has operated without a finalized, project-specific vision statement for a very long time (it seems). The vision page has remained an unresolved working draft for many years, leaving us to rely on the general Wikimedia Foundation statement rather than articulating a distinct identity for this wiki? A vision statement defines the transformed future we want to bring into existence (eh?). Unlike Wikipedia, which serves as a neutral encyclopedia of established knowledge, this wiki is an active laboratory for inquiry, collaborative experimentation, and lifelong learning - learning, teaching, and research (...). If or when a vision is adopted, it can be subject to change in consensus. However, perhaps it should change deliberately rather than on a whim, much like the Senate compared to the House. Perhaps a ratified statement could only be reconsidered every year or two, ensuring long-term stability through broad consensus (?). However, this project may have an academic blind spot. Contributors frequently treat education as an abstract pursuit for its own sake perhaps, while overlooking practical competence. For most people, education is an essential vehicle for solving daily problems in living, acquiring marketable skills, and securing a dependable livelihood. Genuine empowerment requires both intellectual curiosity and economic self-reliance. When learners apply their abilities directly in the wider economy, their practical experience feeds back into and enriches our research. * Many community colleges have welding programs, auto-repair, clean energy repair, plumbing, electrician, auto mechanic * many universities have professional degrees meant to help secure economic employment that ideally does something to help society - counselors, doctors, physical therapists, lawyers * this is in addition to all the programs and classes meant to either pursue knowledge for its own-sake that may or may not be immediately economically productive like some of the aforementioned- but might be low, medium, or high risk research that advances knowledge and may have practical/economic applications later To resolve our draft status and establish community consensus, I propose that we consider two forward-looking statements: * Suggestion Set 1 (The Balanced Agency Vision): ** "A world where anyone can freely master deep knowledge to understand our universe and practical skills to build a self-reliant livelihood." ** "We envision a universe in which anyone can freely master deep knowledge to understand our universe and practical skills to build a self-reliant livelihood." * Suggestion Set 2 (The Dual Pillar Vision): ** "To cultivate an open commons where learning satisfies human curiosity and practical necessity, empowering individuals to solve real-world problems and achieve economic independence." ** "We have a vision to cultivate an open commons where learning satisfies human curiosity and practical necessity, empowering individuals to solve real-world problems and achieve economic independence." ** "We envision an open global commons where learning satisfies both intellectual curiosity and practical necessity, empowering individuals to solve real problems and achieve economic agency." This being a wiki, collaborators can share your feedback, indicate your preferred direction, propose refinements below, or so on and so forth. {end/{ Template:AI-generated-section [edited and reviewed the aforementioned to ensure it was sufficiently in line with my original thoughts on this matter]/ }} === and... === o-o-o-o-o That is my thinking on this; that is some of my thinking about a vision for this wiki. Limitless peace. [[User:Michael Ten|Michael Ten]] ([[User talk:Michael Ten|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Michael Ten|contribs]]) 06:39, 11 September 2026 (UTC) 989z2uew2bfre295e1w8d5zqd08elgm 2832779 2832774 2026-09-11T07:24:49Z Jtneill 10242 /* Call for Consensus Regarding Finalizing a Vision Statement */ reply ([[mw:c:Special:MyLanguage/User:JWBTH/CD|CD]]) 2832779 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Comments on older versions of page== After reading this article I have no idea what is the vision of Wikiversity. Though, the description of Classical education (which may be biased) was entertaining, it helps me very little to understand the function of Wikiversity. Is this an attempt to define vision based on a problem-solution organization? If so, neither the problem nor vision has been developed.--[[User:68.222.30.194|68.222.30.194]] 21:42, 11 February 2006 (UTC) pls visit [[b:User_talk:Humble_Guy]], I have suggestions.... ---- please visit my suggestion too: [[b:User:Catpad/Odzilla|Odzilla]] --[[b:User:Catpad|Catpad]] 08:48, 24 Mar 2005 (UTC) ==Updated page== I think it's good to have this simplified page as one we can link people to to explain what Wikiversity is (though we need to keep these introductory pages in line with each other). I think it's a good idea to work on a single sentence vision statement, as well as an extended vision statement (one or two paragraphs). I've made a start on such an extended vision statement, and I've left it that ''"Your own vision is welcome..."'', having previously said that there are many individual visions for Wikiversity (which there are - eg [[Wikiversity:Vision/Historical perspective]]). I wonder if, instead of this page becoming a patchwork quilt of everyone's individual visions, we should encourage people to be as bold as they like with their own individual visions by setting up a page (perhaps a subpage of this one) which outlined their views? [[User:Cormaggio|Cormaggio]] ^{<small>[[User talk:Cormaggio|talk]]</small>} 12:29, 12 April 2008 (UTC) ==WikiCredentials== Hello Friends, Teachers and Fellow Students, My name is Gaon, and I firmly believe ''Wikiversity'' should include " WikiCredentials " ( WikiCreds ) upon the completion of Testing courses. This would inspire ''Millions'' around the world to learn and challenge our societies present accredidation system... and change our culture's perception of credentialism. It is time for freedom of thought to ''Flourish'', where '''anyone''' can learn and be accredited, regardless of age, mental capacity, location, economic status or the inability to pay tuition. Wikiversity could rival and surpass the Best education available, If we have the desire and diligence to fulfill this Grand Vision........ it would be The Most Good for the Most People, Literally, Billions of people. Do we have what it takes to fulfill this ''expansive'', ''innovative'' and '''BOLD''' endeavor? Kind regards, Intelligent Discussion Welcomed. ''Sincerely'' [[User:Gaon Yincang Abhinava|Gaon Yincang Abhinava]] 03:09, 23 July 2011 (UTC) 7/22/2011 10:08pm :Gaon created a page which I have moved to [[Wikiversity:Wikicredentials]], and started a Colloquium discussion which I've moved to Talk for the Wikicredentials page. --[[User:Abd|Abd]] 14:01, 25 July 2011 (UTC) == Share your learning curve == Recently I found a TED talk from Joris Luyendijk, a Dutch journalist (see link below). [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cJCZkYwuCBM TED-filmpje] In this TED talk he explains that people should share their lightbulb-moments. When many people do this, knowledge gaps will be bridged. I think the wikiversity project should include the thought of sharing lightbulb-moments. This is something else then only sharing learning resources. What do you think? Tim, [[User:Timboliu|Timboliu]] ([[User talk:Timboliu|talk]]) 11:26, 29 July 2012 (UTC) == Wikiversity versus wikibooks == In 2014 all 5000 pages on the Dutch wikiversity (still in beta) were removed because the did not meet the quality standards of the Dutch community. In 2015 we want to start with a new learning project around programming language Scratch. The plan for 2015 is to involve the Dutch community in creating this learning project. Some questions arose. One of the questions was: "why not create a wikibook instead of creating learning material on wikiversity?". What is the difference between wikibooks and wikiversity? [[User:Timboliu|Timboliu]] ([[User talk:Timboliu|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Timboliu|contribs]]) 19:38, 2 February 2015 (UTC) :Wikibooks is open content textbooks. Wikiversity is open learning projects and resources. For an example of the differences, consider a book and a lesson plan. A book explains the concept. A lesson plan pulls together a variety of resources to help learn the concept. Technically, one might even argue that an effective lesson plan must include reading, media, and hands-on activities to address all learning styles. The common understanding of 'textbook' is insufficient to meet that perspective. And unfortunately, there are too many resources at Wikiversity that are nothing more than textbook chapters or encyclopedia articles. The only significant learning activity provided was for the author, rather the user community. :But, rather than asking us to define the difference between Wikibooks and Wikiversity, you would be better off asking the Dutch community what they perceive the differences to be, if that's where the content will be created. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 21:17, 2 February 2015 (UTC) ==Propposals== * Our vision is to live in a world with a virtual Worldwide University where everybody can freely learn and develop about anything and everything to better themselves and society. -- {{Unsigned|Javier José Moreno Tovar18|8 May 2016}} == call the question? (for vision consensus) == === Call for Consensus Regarding Finalizing a Vision Statement === {{Template:AI-generated-section}} This wiki has operated without a finalized, project-specific vision statement for a very long time (it seems). The vision page has remained an unresolved working draft for many years, leaving us to rely on the general Wikimedia Foundation statement rather than articulating a distinct identity for this wiki? A vision statement defines the transformed future we want to bring into existence (eh?). Unlike Wikipedia, which serves as a neutral encyclopedia of established knowledge, this wiki is an active laboratory for inquiry, collaborative experimentation, and lifelong learning - learning, teaching, and research (...). If or when a vision is adopted, it can be subject to change in consensus. However, perhaps it should change deliberately rather than on a whim, much like the Senate compared to the House. Perhaps a ratified statement could only be reconsidered every year or two, ensuring long-term stability through broad consensus (?). However, this project may have an academic blind spot. Contributors frequently treat education as an abstract pursuit for its own sake perhaps, while overlooking practical competence. For most people, education is an essential vehicle for solving daily problems in living, acquiring marketable skills, and securing a dependable livelihood. Genuine empowerment requires both intellectual curiosity and economic self-reliance. When learners apply their abilities directly in the wider economy, their practical experience feeds back into and enriches our research. * Many community colleges have welding programs, auto-repair, clean energy repair, plumbing, electrician, auto mechanic * many universities have professional degrees meant to help secure economic employment that ideally does something to help society - counselors, doctors, physical therapists, lawyers * this is in addition to all the programs and classes meant to either pursue knowledge for its own-sake that may or may not be immediately economically productive like some of the aforementioned- but might be low, medium, or high risk research that advances knowledge and may have practical/economic applications later To resolve our draft status and establish community consensus, I propose that we consider two forward-looking statements: * Suggestion Set 1 (The Balanced Agency Vision): ** "A world where anyone can freely master deep knowledge to understand our universe and practical skills to build a self-reliant livelihood." ** "We envision a universe in which anyone can freely master deep knowledge to understand our universe and practical skills to build a self-reliant livelihood." * Suggestion Set 2 (The Dual Pillar Vision): ** "To cultivate an open commons where learning satisfies human curiosity and practical necessity, empowering individuals to solve real-world problems and achieve economic independence." ** "We have a vision to cultivate an open commons where learning satisfies human curiosity and practical necessity, empowering individuals to solve real-world problems and achieve economic independence." ** "We envision an open global commons where learning satisfies both intellectual curiosity and practical necessity, empowering individuals to solve real problems and achieve economic agency." This being a wiki, collaborators can share your feedback, indicate your preferred direction, propose refinements below, or so on and so forth. {end/{ Template:AI-generated-section [edited and reviewed the aforementioned to ensure it was sufficiently in line with my original thoughts on this matter]/ }} : This page is a draft, so I suggest going ahead and improving it. : Personally, I am comfortable with these sorts of statements suggested above, although I probably lean more towards WV as a repository because it typically doesn't offer formal education courses. I would steer away from mastery because much of the learning from Wikiversity is likely ad hoc, just-in-time etc. : Also note [[Wikiversity:Mission]]. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 07:24, 11 September 2026 (UTC) === and... === o-o-o-o-o That is my thinking on this; that is some of my thinking about a vision for this wiki. Limitless peace. [[User:Michael Ten|Michael Ten]] ([[User talk:Michael Ten|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Michael Ten|contribs]]) 06:39, 11 September 2026 (UTC) 0sxneuu1iw6typwemjy8be2voj0odia 2832782 2832779 2026-09-11T07:44:29Z Michael Ten 654933 /* call the question? (for vision consensus) */ oranzigint threadd so reply is after my note concluded (please revert if best). bless up 2832782 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Comments on older versions of page== After reading this article I have no idea what is the vision of Wikiversity. Though, the description of Classical education (which may be biased) was entertaining, it helps me very little to understand the function of Wikiversity. Is this an attempt to define vision based on a problem-solution organization? If so, neither the problem nor vision has been developed.--[[User:68.222.30.194|68.222.30.194]] 21:42, 11 February 2006 (UTC) pls visit [[b:User_talk:Humble_Guy]], I have suggestions.... ---- please visit my suggestion too: [[b:User:Catpad/Odzilla|Odzilla]] --[[b:User:Catpad|Catpad]] 08:48, 24 Mar 2005 (UTC) ==Updated page== I think it's good to have this simplified page as one we can link people to to explain what Wikiversity is (though we need to keep these introductory pages in line with each other). I think it's a good idea to work on a single sentence vision statement, as well as an extended vision statement (one or two paragraphs). I've made a start on such an extended vision statement, and I've left it that ''"Your own vision is welcome..."'', having previously said that there are many individual visions for Wikiversity (which there are - eg [[Wikiversity:Vision/Historical perspective]]). I wonder if, instead of this page becoming a patchwork quilt of everyone's individual visions, we should encourage people to be as bold as they like with their own individual visions by setting up a page (perhaps a subpage of this one) which outlined their views? [[User:Cormaggio|Cormaggio]] ^{<small>[[User talk:Cormaggio|talk]]</small>} 12:29, 12 April 2008 (UTC) ==WikiCredentials== Hello Friends, Teachers and Fellow Students, My name is Gaon, and I firmly believe ''Wikiversity'' should include " WikiCredentials " ( WikiCreds ) upon the completion of Testing courses. This would inspire ''Millions'' around the world to learn and challenge our societies present accredidation system... and change our culture's perception of credentialism. It is time for freedom of thought to ''Flourish'', where '''anyone''' can learn and be accredited, regardless of age, mental capacity, location, economic status or the inability to pay tuition. Wikiversity could rival and surpass the Best education available, If we have the desire and diligence to fulfill this Grand Vision........ it would be The Most Good for the Most People, Literally, Billions of people. Do we have what it takes to fulfill this ''expansive'', ''innovative'' and '''BOLD''' endeavor? Kind regards, Intelligent Discussion Welcomed. ''Sincerely'' [[User:Gaon Yincang Abhinava|Gaon Yincang Abhinava]] 03:09, 23 July 2011 (UTC) 7/22/2011 10:08pm :Gaon created a page which I have moved to [[Wikiversity:Wikicredentials]], and started a Colloquium discussion which I've moved to Talk for the Wikicredentials page. --[[User:Abd|Abd]] 14:01, 25 July 2011 (UTC) == Share your learning curve == Recently I found a TED talk from Joris Luyendijk, a Dutch journalist (see link below). [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cJCZkYwuCBM TED-filmpje] In this TED talk he explains that people should share their lightbulb-moments. When many people do this, knowledge gaps will be bridged. I think the wikiversity project should include the thought of sharing lightbulb-moments. This is something else then only sharing learning resources. What do you think? Tim, [[User:Timboliu|Timboliu]] ([[User talk:Timboliu|talk]]) 11:26, 29 July 2012 (UTC) == Wikiversity versus wikibooks == In 2014 all 5000 pages on the Dutch wikiversity (still in beta) were removed because the did not meet the quality standards of the Dutch community. In 2015 we want to start with a new learning project around programming language Scratch. The plan for 2015 is to involve the Dutch community in creating this learning project. Some questions arose. One of the questions was: "why not create a wikibook instead of creating learning material on wikiversity?". What is the difference between wikibooks and wikiversity? [[User:Timboliu|Timboliu]] ([[User talk:Timboliu|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Timboliu|contribs]]) 19:38, 2 February 2015 (UTC) :Wikibooks is open content textbooks. Wikiversity is open learning projects and resources. For an example of the differences, consider a book and a lesson plan. A book explains the concept. A lesson plan pulls together a variety of resources to help learn the concept. Technically, one might even argue that an effective lesson plan must include reading, media, and hands-on activities to address all learning styles. The common understanding of 'textbook' is insufficient to meet that perspective. And unfortunately, there are too many resources at Wikiversity that are nothing more than textbook chapters or encyclopedia articles. The only significant learning activity provided was for the author, rather the user community. :But, rather than asking us to define the difference between Wikibooks and Wikiversity, you would be better off asking the Dutch community what they perceive the differences to be, if that's where the content will be created. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 21:17, 2 February 2015 (UTC) ==Propposals== * Our vision is to live in a world with a virtual Worldwide University where everybody can freely learn and develop about anything and everything to better themselves and society. -- {{Unsigned|Javier José Moreno Tovar18|8 May 2016}} == call the question? (for vision consensus) == === Call for Consensus Regarding Finalizing a Vision Statement === {{Template:AI-generated-section}} This wiki has operated without a finalized, project-specific vision statement for a very long time (it seems). The vision page has remained an unresolved working draft for many years, leaving us to rely on the general Wikimedia Foundation statement rather than articulating a distinct identity for this wiki? A vision statement defines the transformed future we want to bring into existence (eh?). Unlike Wikipedia, which serves as a neutral encyclopedia of established knowledge, this wiki is an active laboratory for inquiry, collaborative experimentation, and lifelong learning - learning, teaching, and research (...). If or when a vision is adopted, it can be subject to change in consensus. However, perhaps it should change deliberately rather than on a whim, much like the Senate compared to the House. Perhaps a ratified statement could only be reconsidered every year or two, ensuring long-term stability through broad consensus (?). However, this project may have an academic blind spot. Contributors frequently treat education as an abstract pursuit for its own sake perhaps, while overlooking practical competence. For most people, education is an essential vehicle for solving daily problems in living, acquiring marketable skills, and securing a dependable livelihood. Genuine empowerment requires both intellectual curiosity and economic self-reliance. When learners apply their abilities directly in the wider economy, their practical experience feeds back into and enriches our research. * Many community colleges have welding programs, auto-repair, clean energy repair, plumbing, electrician, auto mechanic * many universities have professional degrees meant to help secure economic employment that ideally does something to help society - counselors, doctors, physical therapists, lawyers * this is in addition to all the programs and classes meant to either pursue knowledge for its own-sake that may or may not be immediately economically productive like some of the aforementioned- but might be low, medium, or high risk research that advances knowledge and may have practical/economic applications later To resolve our draft status and establish community consensus, I propose that we consider two forward-looking statements: * Suggestion Set 1 (The Balanced Agency Vision): ** "A world where anyone can freely master deep knowledge to understand our universe and practical skills to build a self-reliant livelihood." ** "We envision a universe in which anyone can freely master deep knowledge to understand our universe and practical skills to build a self-reliant livelihood." * Suggestion Set 2 (The Dual Pillar Vision): ** "To cultivate an open commons where learning satisfies human curiosity and practical necessity, empowering individuals to solve real-world problems and achieve economic independence." ** "We have a vision to cultivate an open commons where learning satisfies human curiosity and practical necessity, empowering individuals to solve real-world problems and achieve economic independence." ** "We envision an open global commons where learning satisfies both intellectual curiosity and practical necessity, empowering individuals to solve real problems and achieve economic agency." This being a wiki, collaborators can share your feedback, indicate your preferred direction, propose refinements below, or so on and so forth. {end/{ Template:AI-generated-section [edited and reviewed the aforementioned to ensure it was sufficiently in line with my original thoughts on this matter]/ }} === and... === o-o-o-o-o That is my thinking on this; that is some of my thinking about a vision for this wiki. Limitless peace. [[User:Michael Ten|Michael Ten]] ([[User talk:Michael Ten|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Michael Ten|contribs]]) 06:39, 11 September 2026 (UTC) : This page is a draft, so I suggest going ahead and improving it. : Personally, I am comfortable with these sorts of statements suggested above, although I probably lean more towards WV as a repository because it typically doesn't offer formal education courses. I would steer away from mastery because much of the learning from Wikiversity is likely ad hoc, just-in-time etc. : Also note [[Wikiversity:Mission]]. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 07:24, 11 September 2026 (UTC) ssnl028v90lqix84yodwzrgzco0r5az 4 32963 2832756 2819543 2026-09-11T02:41:59Z ~2026-49149-10 3110889 2832756 wikitext text/x-wiki {{about wikiversity}} [[Image:Construction Workers.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Wiki culture is a culture of collaboration and creation.]] [[:Category:Wikiversity culture|Wikiversity's culture]] of [http://nostalgia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jimbo_Wales/Statement_of_principles diplomatic honesty] and [[Wikiversity:Assume Good Faith|good faith]] is important. <p style="text-align:center;">"''..... the idea here is to also host learning communities, so people who are actually trying to learn, actually have a place to come and interact and help each other figure out how to learn things''."<br /> ([http://wikimania2006.wikimedia.org/wiki/Opening_Plenary_%28transcript%29#Wikiversity_.2826:35.29 Jimbo Wales - In the opening session of Wikimania 2006 talking about Wikiversity])</p> This section explores Wikiversity's image, mission and effectiveness in terms of its [[w:Portal:Sociology|social aspects]]. ==Structure== The use of [[m:Help:Namespace|namespaces]] at Wikiversity is perhaps one of its the most unique and innovative features, particularly the addition of '''[[Wikiversity:Schools|School:]]''' and '''[[Wikiversity:Topics|Topic:]]''', which designate what might traditionally be thought of as "departments" or "divisions" within a "brick and mortar" university. But as we develop Wikiversity, we should pay more attention to the '''User:''' namespace than is allowed by the policies on other [[Wikimedia]] projects for a variety of reasons. As our [[:Category:Wikiversity policy|policies]] form, we must realize that personal expression, interpersonal dialog and cultural distinction are inherent parts of a typical university environment, both in brick-and-mortar institutions and online learning networks. ==People== Wikiversity participants (occasionally called [[:Category:Wikiversitans|Wikiversitans]]) are generally creative, thoughtful people who come here to do serious work, growing as learners and teachers, producing useful work and making a positive difference in their World. But we also have less serious sides, playful sides. As members of a tightly-knit [[Wikiversity:Learning community|learning community]], we learn to express ourselves responsibly and allow ourselves to be impressed upon by others, thereby forming interpersonal relationship through our encounters. We join groups of like-minded folks through Schools, Topics, and other group learning situations where we focus on the tasks at hand. In the process, we learn to work together to achieve [[Wikiversity:learning goals|learning goals]], which can be both individual and collective. When we build our [[Help:userpage|userpage]]s, we are acutely aware of how public they are. Everyone has a different personality. Some people may not create a userpage because they are shy or it is not important to them. (See [[Special:Logs]] for evidence.) Others go to extremes to make an impression. Everytime we edit a page, we risk "face" because of [[Topic:MediaWiki|MediaWiki]]'s ability to track our every move. Doing something "foolish", as most wiki users know, seldom goes "unpunished". However, as long as users make edits in good faith, it is not hard to save face. Learning what is appropriate and where, is not a bad priority for the responsible Wikiversitan. It is important to develop [[centers of culture]] at Wikiversity that allow the [[w:freedom of expression|freedom of expression]]. It is also important to realize that we have a "collective face" to those outside our circle. ==Relationships== As a Campus, our "places" and "spaces" matter. All users are allowed their own personal space in the form of [[Help:User subpages|user subpages]] for self-reflection and the development of organized thoughts that we are working through individually. There are as many ways to use these subpages as there are Wikiversity users. As we [[Wikiversity:Assume Good Faith|assume good faith]], we learn to respect each other's privacy through the practice of good [[w:Netizenship|netizenship]]. We learn to understand each other's [[w:identity|identity]], tolerate each other's [[w:idiosyncrasy|idiosyncrasies]], and develop ways to foster [[w:mutual respect|mutual respect]]. We also learn to balance scholarship, focus, and fun, while getting better at what we do as topic-focused teams, taskforces, interest groups and scholarly associations, large and small. Through association with others within our online shared spaces, practice is the only way to learn netizenship . Schools, Divisions and Departments are collections of both people and [[learning resource]]s. Our [[w:Portal:Culture|culture]] and Wikiversity's relaxed policies allow us to develop as individuals within a [[w:comfort zone|comfort zone]] unique in the context of the larger [[Wikimedia]] [[metacommunity]]. One cannot fully think about [[Topic:Developing Wikiversity|developing Wikiversity]] without being aware of its culture. As our learning community grows, our hope is to produce not only valuable learning resources, but also better people who indeed can bring about [[w:positive social change|positive social change]] both online and in the real world. ==See also== {{Wikiversity culture}} {{Free culture}} [[Category:Wikiversity culture]] p1dmr1rbkqomjige5it8g3avic0npl2 2832777 2832756 2026-09-11T07:05:23Z Michael Ten 654933 /* Relationships */ fixing spacing. 2832777 wikitext text/x-wiki {{about wikiversity}} [[Image:Construction Workers.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Wiki culture is a culture of collaboration and creation.]] [[:Category:Wikiversity culture|Wikiversity's culture]] of [http://nostalgia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jimbo_Wales/Statement_of_principles diplomatic honesty] and [[Wikiversity:Assume Good Faith|good faith]] is important. <p style="text-align:center;">"''..... the idea here is to also host learning communities, so people who are actually trying to learn, actually have a place to come and interact and help each other figure out how to learn things''."<br /> ([http://wikimania2006.wikimedia.org/wiki/Opening_Plenary_%28transcript%29#Wikiversity_.2826:35.29 Jimbo Wales - In the opening session of Wikimania 2006 talking about Wikiversity])</p> This section explores Wikiversity's image, mission and effectiveness in terms of its [[w:Portal:Sociology|social aspects]]. ==Structure== The use of [[m:Help:Namespace|namespaces]] at Wikiversity is perhaps one of its the most unique and innovative features, particularly the addition of '''[[Wikiversity:Schools|School:]]''' and '''[[Wikiversity:Topics|Topic:]]''', which designate what might traditionally be thought of as "departments" or "divisions" within a "brick and mortar" university. But as we develop Wikiversity, we should pay more attention to the '''User:''' namespace than is allowed by the policies on other [[Wikimedia]] projects for a variety of reasons. As our [[:Category:Wikiversity policy|policies]] form, we must realize that personal expression, interpersonal dialog and cultural distinction are inherent parts of a typical university environment, both in brick-and-mortar institutions and online learning networks. ==People== Wikiversity participants (occasionally called [[:Category:Wikiversitans|Wikiversitans]]) are generally creative, thoughtful people who come here to do serious work, growing as learners and teachers, producing useful work and making a positive difference in their World. But we also have less serious sides, playful sides. As members of a tightly-knit [[Wikiversity:Learning community|learning community]], we learn to express ourselves responsibly and allow ourselves to be impressed upon by others, thereby forming interpersonal relationship through our encounters. We join groups of like-minded folks through Schools, Topics, and other group learning situations where we focus on the tasks at hand. In the process, we learn to work together to achieve [[Wikiversity:learning goals|learning goals]], which can be both individual and collective. When we build our [[Help:userpage|userpage]]s, we are acutely aware of how public they are. Everyone has a different personality. Some people may not create a userpage because they are shy or it is not important to them. (See [[Special:Logs]] for evidence.) Others go to extremes to make an impression. Everytime we edit a page, we risk "face" because of [[Topic:MediaWiki|MediaWiki]]'s ability to track our every move. Doing something "foolish", as most wiki users know, seldom goes "unpunished". However, as long as users make edits in good faith, it is not hard to save face. Learning what is appropriate and where, is not a bad priority for the responsible Wikiversitan. It is important to develop [[centers of culture]] at Wikiversity that allow the [[w:freedom of expression|freedom of expression]]. It is also important to realize that we have a "collective face" to those outside our circle. ==Relationships== As a Campus, our "places" and "spaces" matter. All users are allowed their own personal space in the form of [[Help:User subpages|user subpages]] for self-reflection and the development of organized thoughts that we are working through individually. There are as many ways to use these subpages as there are Wikiversity users. As we [[Wikiversity:Assume Good Faith|assume good faith]], we learn to respect each other's privacy through the practice of good [[w:Netizenship|netizenship]]. We learn to understand each other's [[w:identity|identity]], tolerate each other's [[w:idiosyncrasy|idiosyncrasies]], and develop ways to foster [[w:mutual respect|mutual respect]]. We also learn to balance scholarship, focus, and fun, while getting better at what we do as topic-focused teams, taskforces, interest groups and scholarly associations, large and small. Through association with others within our online shared spaces, practice is the only way to learn netizenship . Schools, Divisions and Departments are collections of both people and [[learning resource]]s. Our [[w:Portal:Culture|culture]] and Wikiversity's relaxed policies allow us to develop as individuals within a [[w:comfort zone|comfort zone]] unique in the context of the larger [[Wikimedia]] [[metacommunity]]. One cannot fully think about [[Topic:Developing Wikiversity|developing Wikiversity]] without being aware of its culture. As our learning community grows, our hope is to produce not only valuable learning resources, but also better people who indeed can bring about [[w:positive social change|positive social change]] both online and in the real world. ==See also== {{Wikiversity culture}} {{Free culture}} [[Category:Wikiversity culture]] n8xob01zrfhk6kqlicxujrz3pgf4cta 0 46464 2832788 2691338 2026-09-11T09:59:17Z Dronebogus 3054149 /* Overview */ random AI slop 2832788 wikitext text/x-wiki A critical understanding of '''research methods in psychology''' examines how different types of scientific [[research methods]] are used to investigate psychological phenomena, highlightint their benefits and limitations. ==Overview== [[Psychology]] is a [[w:Science|science]]. [[Psychological research]] uses the [[w:Scientific method|scientific method]] to systematically investigate and understand human experience and behaviour (Willig, 2019). The scientific method is a systematic refinement of everyday thinking (Einstein, 1936). A useful distinction is made between research which is: * [[Quantitative research|quantitative]] (using numerical data) and * [[Qualitative research|qualitative]] (using non-numerical data) research. The approaches represent two sides of the same coin. Or, as Karl Marx wrote: {{quote|Merely quantitative differences, beyond a certain point, pass into qualitative changes.<br>- Karl Marx “Capital: An abridged edition”, 1999, p. 322, OUP Oxford}} Though predating the term "qualitative research", early pioneers such as [[w:Sigmund Freud|Freud]], [[w:Carl Jung|Jung]], and [[w:Jean Piaget|Piaget]] utilised such methods in their early work (e.g., case studies) and, by doing so, provided the foundation for modern psychology (del Rio Carral & Tseliou, 2019). Since the first experimental psychology laboratory was established in 1879 by [[w:Wilhelm Wundt|Wundt]], psychological research become highly quantitative during the 20th century. During the 21st century, the methods and foci of psychological research have expanded and diversified (Nelson, 2015). Each research method has strengths and weaknesses, so the selection of which method(s) to use should depend on the aims and nature of the research question. ==List of psychological research methods== Many different research methods are used in psychological research, including: {{colbegin}} * [[Action research]] * [[w:Autoethnography|Autoenthnography]] * [[Case study in psychology]] * [[w:Content analysis|Content analysis]] * [[Correlational research]] * [[Delphi method]] * [[Discourse analysis]] * [[Ethnography]] * [[w:Experiment|Experiment]] * [[w:Exploratory research|Exploratory research]] * [[Grounded theory]] * [[Indigenous research]] * [[Meta-analysis]] * [[w:Observarational techniques|Observation]] * [[Participatory research]] * [[Qualitative research]] * [[Quantitative research]] * [[w:Quasi-experiment|Quasi-experiment]] * [[w:Randomized experiment|Randomised experiment]] * [[w:Secondary research|Secondary research]] (Wikipedia) * [[Survey research]] - [[Survey research and design in psychology]] {{colend}} ==See also== {{wikipedia|Research methods}} * [[Constructivism]] * [[Epistemology]] * [[w:List of psychological research methods|List of psychological research methods]] (Wikipedia) * [[w:Ontology|Ontology]] (Wikipedia) * [[Portal:Research]] * [[w:Positivism|Positivism]] (Wikipedia) * [[Psychological research goals]] * [[Psychological statistics]] * [[Research methods]] * [[b:Introduction to Psychology/Child and Adolescent Psychology/Research Methods|Research methods]] (Introduction to Psychology - Wikibooks) * [[w:Category:Social science methodology|Social science methodology]] (Wikipedia) * [[Statistical Analysis]] ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= del Rio Carrall, M., & Tseliou, E. (2019). Mapping qualitative research in psychology across Europe: Contemporary trends. ''Qualitative Research in Psychology'', ''16''(3), 325–335. https://doi.org/10.1080/14780887.2019.1605276 Einstein, A. (1936). ''Physics and reality''. https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/34651272/Physics_and_Reality_by_Albert_Einstein-libre.pdf Nelson, K. (2015). Quantitative and qualitative research in psychological science. ''Biological Theory'', ''10''(3), 263–272. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13752-015-0216-0 Willig, C. (2019). What can qualitative psychology contribute to psychological knowledge? ''Psychological Methods'', ''24''(6), 796–804. https://doi.org/10.1037/met0000218 }} ==External links== * [https://online225.psych.wisc.edu/ PSY 225: Research methods] (University of Wisconsin-Madison) * [https://kpu.pressbooks.pub/psychmethods4e/ Research methods in psychology] (Jhangiani et al., 2019) [[Category:Research methods in psychology| ]] 6fecoqvv76ph0zfnamoby5gntl6jjmz 1 55166 2832775 2804729 2026-09-11T06:59:50Z ~2026-47852-42 3110503 /* Sh am i ha ahgid g o’odham */ Reply 2832775 wikitext text/x-wiki this doesnt help me at all {{unsigned|24.172.117.170|12:44, 7 April 2008}} :Sorry to hear this. Could you specify more in what matter it doesn't help you ? ----[[User:Erkan_Yilmaz|Erkan Yilmaz]] <small>uses the [[Wikiversity:Chat|Wikiversity:Chat]] ([http://java.freenode.net//index.php?channel=wikiversity-en try])</small> 15:48, 7 April 2008 (UTC) == Sh am i ha ahgid g o’odham == no te olvides del dinero 💰 [[User:Marcbenavides21|Marcbenavides21]] ([[User talk:Marcbenavides21|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Marcbenavides21|contribs]]) 19:12, 14 April 2026 (UTC) :@[[User:Marcbenavides21|Marcbenavides21]] [[Special:Contributions/~2026-47852-42|~2026-47852-42]] ([[User talk:~2026-47852-42|talk]]) 06:59, 11 September 2026 (UTC) dsw8x9qbl34gny5w6v25v82xpsywshr 2832776 2832775 2026-09-11T07:00:26Z ~2026-47852-42 3110503 /* 😶‍🌫️ 🗣️ 🎯 🔝 👋 ©️ 😅 ❤️ ❤️ 🔝 😘 🙄 😘 🙄 😘 🙄 😘 🙄 😘 ဩဩဩဩဩဩဩဩ */ new section 2832776 wikitext text/x-wiki this doesnt help me at all {{unsigned|24.172.117.170|12:44, 7 April 2008}} :Sorry to hear this. Could you specify more in what matter it doesn't help you ? ----[[User:Erkan_Yilmaz|Erkan Yilmaz]] <small>uses the [[Wikiversity:Chat|Wikiversity:Chat]] ([http://java.freenode.net//index.php?channel=wikiversity-en try])</small> 15:48, 7 April 2008 (UTC) == Sh am i ha ahgid g o’odham == no te olvides del dinero 💰 [[User:Marcbenavides21|Marcbenavides21]] ([[User talk:Marcbenavides21|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Marcbenavides21|contribs]]) 19:12, 14 April 2026 (UTC) :@[[User:Marcbenavides21|Marcbenavides21]] [[Special:Contributions/~2026-47852-42|~2026-47852-42]] ([[User talk:~2026-47852-42|talk]]) 06:59, 11 September 2026 (UTC) == 😶‍🌫️ 🗣️ 🎯 🔝 👋 ©️ 😅 ❤️ ❤️ 🔝 😘 🙄 😘 🙄 😘 🙄 😘 🙄 😘 ဩဩဩဩဩဩဩဩ == [[Special:Contributions/~2026-47852-42|~2026-47852-42]] ([[User talk:~2026-47852-42|talk]]) 07:00, 11 September 2026 (UTC) 4178irvae60xxrct1b09ssav6nwfkih 2832809 2832776 2026-09-11T11:48:35Z Pristome 3054107 Revert vandalism 2832809 wikitext text/x-wiki this doesnt help me at all {{unsigned|24.172.117.170|12:44, 7 April 2008}} :Sorry to hear this. Could you specify more in what matter it doesn't help you ? ----[[User:Erkan_Yilmaz|Erkan Yilmaz]] <small>uses the [[Wikiversity:Chat|Wikiversity:Chat]] ([http://java.freenode.net//index.php?channel=wikiversity-en try])</small> 15:48, 7 April 2008 (UTC) 5ejkcttfw0s0gkdp7zdbuxfj6u7mume 0 68069 2832789 2829195 2026-09-11T09:59:59Z Dronebogus 3054149 Rm the AI slop 2832789 wikitext text/x-wiki {{5%done}} [[File:There's no crying in baseball! (4549295140) 2.jpg|thumb|200px|A child displays empathy to another child by comforting her, showing that he understands that she is in distress.]] '''Empathy''' is a common affective human reaction to another person’s situation and, in particular, is about the extent to which a person understands another's perspectives (Davis, 1983). Empathy essentially involves mirroring the emotional experience of another human, but one can also feel empathic towards an animal or place. In [[emotion]] science, empathy can be distinguished from related interpersonal emotions such as [[w:compassion|compassion]] and [[w:sympathy|sympathy]]. Emotions, such as empathy involve subjective feelings, physiological reactions, expressive behaviours (e.g., facial expressions), and can [[motivation|motivate]] caring and helping behaviours. ==See also== * [[w:Empathy|Empathy]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Individual emotions|Individual emotions]] (Motivation and emotion lecture) ==Reference== {{Hanging indent|1= Davis, M. H. (1983). Measuring individual differences in empathy: Evidence for a multidimensional approach. ''Journal of Personality and Social Psychology'', ''44'', 113–126. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.44.1.113 }} {{psych-stub}} <!--==See also==--> {{search}} [[Category:Social psychology]] [[Category:Empathy| ]] grepuh9mvmwmrtu1elarqi0nw4hh55b 0 94960 2832764 563682 2026-09-11T04:01:26Z JackBot 238563 Bot: Fixing double redirect from [[Emotional self-regulation]] to [[Emotional regulation]] 2832764 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Emotional regulation]] i1ixj3htc8lf47hryodggt5ajgpir9v 0 96387 2832746 2826578 2026-09-11T00:26:26Z Jtneill 10242 /* Length (word count) */ Update 2832746 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Book chapter — Guidelines}} <div style="text-align: center;">''Collaborative online book chapter authoring'' <!-- ---------------------------------- ---> <!-- Count down --> <!-- ---------------------------------- ---><!-- {{countdown |year = 2026 |month = 10 |day = 12 |hour = 0 |event = this assessment is due }} --><!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Assessment/In development}} --> {{/Contents/}}</div> {{TOCright}} ==Overview== * Weight: 50% * Due {{/Due}} * Tasks ** Author an online [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapter]] (up to 4,000 words) that explains key psychological theory and research about a unique, specific motivation or emotion topic. ** Develop the chapter by building on the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]] plan and addressing feedback. ** Contribute to the development of other book chapters (social contribution). * Follow the [[#Instructions|instructions]] and address the [[#Marking criteria|marking criteria]]. ==Purpose== The purpose of the book chapter is to explain and critically evaluate what psychological science says about a specific motivation or emotion topic, and to demonstrate how this knowledge can be applied to understanding and improving human behaviour in everyday life. ==Marking and feedback== * Submissions will be marked according to the [[#Marking criteria|marking criteria]] and [https://docs.google.com/document/d/15NXyApC5i6svEcJAnXv9QeRA-cbojy1m8lKReZgBH60/edit?usp=sharing marking rubric]. * Marks will be provided via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} when the university releases unit results (see [https://www.canberra.edu.au/about-uc/key-dates/ Key dates]). * Up to 5 bonus marks will be awarded in exceptional circumstances where social contributions are above and beyond those required for HD-level (see [https://docs.google.com/document/d/15NXyApC5i6svEcJAnXv9QeRA-cbojy1m8lKReZgBH60 rubric]). * Written feedback about how well the chapter addresses the marking criteria will be available via the topic's Wikiversity discussion page. * Follow up with the [[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|unit convener]] if you have any questions. ==Extensions and late submissions== * Apply for extension using the unit's online Extension Application Form (see {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}}) with appropriate documentary evidence. * Submissions will be accepted up to 3 days late (-10% per day). * If you don't submit this assessment it is unlikely that you will pass the unit. ==Learning outcomes== How the unit's [[Motivation and emotion/About/Learning outcomes|learning outcomes]] are addressed by this assessment exercise: {| border=1 cellpadding=5 cellspacing="0" background:transparent style="width:90%; margin: auto; vertical-align:top;" |- | style="width:40%;" | '''Learning outcome''' | style="width:60%;" | '''Assessment task''' |- | style="vertical-align:top;" | Integrate theories and current research towards explaining the role of motivation and emotions in human behaviour. | style="vertical-align:top;" | Use the most relevant theories and peer-reviewed research to explain a specific motivation or emotion topic. |- | style="vertical-align:top;" | Critically apply knowledge of motivation or emotion to an indepth understanding of a specific topic in this field. | style="vertical-align:top;" | Explain how psychological science can be applied to a specific motivation or emotion topic. Use figures, examples, and/or other interactive learning features to illustrate how this knowledge can apply to understanding human behaviour in everyday life. |} ==Graduate attributes== How the unit's [[Motivation and emotion/About/Graduate attributes|graduate attributes]] are addressed by this assessment exercise: {| border=1 cellpadding=5 cellspacing="0" background:transparent style="width:90%; margin: auto;" |- ! style="width:20%;" | Category ! style="width:20%;" | Graduate attribute ! style="width:60%;" | Assessment task |- | rowspan="4" style="vertical-align:top;" | '''Be professional''' | style="vertical-align:top;" | Communicate effectively | style="vertical-align:top;" | Review scholarly knowledge in an open, online environment and address feedback. |- | style="vertical-align:top;" | Display initiative and drive | style="vertical-align:top;" | Produce an online book chapter about a novel motivation or emotion topic. |- | style="vertical-align:top;" | Up-to-date knowledge and skills | style="vertical-align:top;" | Utilise the most relevant psychological theory and research to address a practical question. |- | style="vertical-align:top;" | Solve problems via thinking | style="vertical-align:top;" | Use critical thinking to explain how psychological science can address real-world problems. |- | rowspan="3" style="vertical-align:top;" | '''Be a global citizen''' | style="vertical-align:top;" | Informed and balanced | style="vertical-align:top;" | Provide a balanced, critical chapter which is accessible to a lay audience. |- | style="vertical-align:top;" | Communicate diversely | style="vertical-align:top;" | Collaborate with peers to communicate knowledge openly with a global audience. |- | style="vertical-align:top;" | Creative use of technology | style="vertical-align:top;" | Learn how to collaborate using wiki technology. |- | rowspan="2" style="vertical-align:top;" | '''Be a lifelong learner''' | style="vertical-align:top;" | Engage in new ideas | style="vertical-align:top;" | Engage in a collaborative learning culture by incorporating feedback and suggestions. |- | style="vertical-align:top;" | Evaluate and adopt new technology | style="vertical-align:top;" | Experience project work in a collaborative, online editing environment. |} ==Instructions== The book chapter should communicate your understanding of the topic based on the best available psychological theory and research. Explain and apply the most relevant evidence in a clear, engaging, and accessible way. The aim is to demonstrate your ability to synthesise and critically evaluate psychological science in order to understand and respond to a specific motivation or emotion phenomenon. The following instructions should be used to guide the development of the book chapter. ===Theme=== * Chapters should fit the book theme which is "understanding and improving our motivational and emotional lives using psychological science" ===Audience=== * The target audience is a general (non-topic-expert) reader interested in personal growth and development based on knowledge in psychological science (theory and research). This is a [[w:science communication|science communication]] exercise. ===Wikiversity=== * Present the chapter as a single page on the [[Main Page|English Wikiversity]] website. A link to the chapter should appear in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book|table of contents]] along with the lead author's Wikiversity user name ===Topic=== * The title and sub-title must be approved by the [[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|unit convener]] ===Collaboration and feedback=== * Chapters should be independently developed and written primarily by the lead author, but collaboration is strongly encouraged (e.g., by incorporating useful edits and feedback from others) * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|Generative AI]] may be used with appropriate acknowledgement * Lead authors are encouraged to seek feedback about the chapter during the drafting process (e.g., start a {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} discussion thread<!-- (use the chapter title and subtitle in the subject line and include a clickable hyperlink to the chapter in the message)-->) * Feedback is usually best placed on the chapter's wiki discussion page * Feedback on the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]] (chapter plan) will be provided by the [[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|unit convener]] ===Length (word count)=== {{Anchor|Wordcount}}{{Anchor|Word count}} * There is no minimum length * Maximum 4,000 words ** There is no additional 10% allowance ** Words beyond the maximum will not be considered for marking purposes ** Count everything from top to bottom of the editable page (in view mode, not edit mode): *** Include the title, subtitle, headings, text, tables, figures, references, see also, and external links; don't include menu text across the top and down the left, or categories at the bottom ** How to count: *** Google Chrome extension: [https://chromewebstore.google.com/detail/word-counter/cbjddaobmdfhbfgdgjocbhklpmclcboe Word Counter]. This extension is probably the easiest reliable method for counting words on a Wikiversity page. However, UC recently started blocking this extension on UC devices. *** Website: Paste the URL into [https://hsuper.tools/web-page-word-counter Webpage Word Counter] (it overcounts by ~100 words because it includes menus etc.) *** Word processor: Cut and paste into a word processor (i.e., copy starting at title and finishing with the last external link) * If the chapter exceeds the maximum word count, see [[/Word count|these suggestions]] for strategies to reduce the length while retaining the key content. ===Submission=== * Submit the chapter URL (website address), your Wikiversity user name, and a PDF of the chapter via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} ==Marking criteria== [[File:Balanced scales.svg|right|125px]] Book chapters will be marked against the following criteria. ===Overview (5%)=== * Scenario: Provide an engaging scenario or case study in a feature box, with an illustrative figure * Problem statement: Easy to read and understand outline of the key concepts and explanation of practical/real-world problem to be solved * Focus questions: Establish [[/Focus questions|focus questions]] which align with the sub-title and subsequent heading structure ===Theory (20%)=== * Clearly explain the theoretical framework for understanding the topic * Select the most relevant psychological theories/models that apply to the problem. Depending on the topic, this may involve focusing on a single theory or comparing and contrasting two or more theories. * Use at least the best dozen or so peer-reviewed theory references about the topic (e.g., see [[Motivation and emotion/Journals|list of motivation and emotion journals) * Clearly explain and apply the theory(ies) * Include illustrative examples, such as case studies * Demonstrate a critical perspective ===Research (25%)=== * Clearly explain how key, peer-reviewed research findings apply to the problem * Use at least the best dozen or so peer-reviewed research references about the topic (e.g., see [[Motivation and emotion/Journals|list of motivation and emotion journals) * Include relevant major reviews (such as systematic reviews and meta-analyses) * [[w:Critical thinking|Critical analyse]] the key research findings, including limitations and implications ===Integration (10%)=== * Integrate discussion of theory and review of relevant research * Use research to critically inform interpretation and application of the theory(ies) ===Conclusion (5%)=== * Clear and concise communication of key points and take-home messages * Aligned with the subtitle and focus questions, with implications for the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/Theme|book theme]] ===Style (20%)=== * Overall ** Present and illustrate the problem and knowledge in an interesting way, using a logical structure, clear layout, correct spelling and grammar, and [[APA style]] ** [[/Readability|Readable]] for a layperson interested in psychological science ** Address the [[#Theme|book theme]] by providing practical, academically sound, self-improvement information ** Address an international audience (i.e., avoid an overly local or national perspective) ** Use default wiki style for paragraph alignment, font colour, type, and size, and heading styles ** Use Australian spelling (e.g., hypothesise, behaviour, fulfilment) rather than American spelling (e.g., hypothesize, behavior, fulfillment) ** Correct grammar (e.g., see [[/Writing tips|writing tips]]) * Structure ** Use a logical heading structure that aligns with the focus questions ** Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] throughout, including for headings and sub-headings ** Use the default heading style (e.g., do not add italics and/or bold) ** Sub-headings are optional *** Avoid having sections with a single sub-heading — each section should contain 0 or 2+ sub-headings. *** If sub-headings are used, provides at least 1 introductory paragraph before branching into sub-sections. * Sentences ** [[w:Narration#Narrative point of view|Narrative point of view]][https://www.grammarly.com/blog/first-second-and-third-person/]: In the main text, use [[w:Narration#Third-person|3rd person perspective]] (e.g., "it", "they"). Where [[w:Aside|aside]]s are used, such as examples, case studies, and feature boxes, [[w:First-person narrative|1st person perspective]] (e.g., "I" and "we") and/or [[w:Narration#Second-person|2nd person perspective]] (e.g., "you") can work well. * Paragraphs ** A well-constructed paragraph is generally 3 to 5 sentences (opening sentence, body sentences, and a concluding/linking sentence). Avoid one-sentence paragraphs and overly long paragraphs. ** Paragraphs flow logically * Use APA style (as much as reasonably possible), paying particular attention to: ** citations ** references (especially capitalisation, italicisation, and providing hyperlinked dois) ** table and figure captions ** quotes (include page numbers) * Citations ** Claims need citations using APA style or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing_sources|wiki citation style]]. Only use one style throughout the chapter — don't mix and match. For most psychology students, APA style will be the choice. ** Maximum of 3 citations per point (i.e., avoid 4 or more citations together). * References ** List all cited academic references in APA style or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing_sources|wiki citation style]]. Only use one style. ** Non-academic sources are not used in references. They can be included in the external links section. ===Learning features (5%)=== * Embed interactive learning features such as scenarios/case studies/examples, feature boxes, figures, quizzes, links to relevant Wikipedia and Wikipedia pages, as well as links to key resources via the "See also" and "External links" sections * Case studies ** Include 1 or more examples, scenarios, or case studies ** They can be true (if so, include citations) or fictional ** Use these examples to enhance understanding of theory, research, focus questions, and/or take-home messages ** Present in a feature box and include a figure ** Consider using a "progressive case study" (i.e., a case study presented in separate parts which describe, for example, the problem, attempt at change, and resolution/outcomes). ** Examples of chapters which make effective use of case studies: *** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Emotional abuse|emotional abuse]] (2019) *** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Food and fear|food and fear]] (2019) *** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Opioid system and human emotion|opioid system and human emotion]] (2019) *** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Social support and emotion|social support and emotion]] (2019) * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|Feature boxes]] ** Use to highlight key information, but avoid overuse ** There are various ways of creating coloured boxes, but the [[Template:RoundBoxTop|RoundBox]] template is a good option. * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Figures|Figures]] ** Include relevant, accompanying figures (e.g., photos, drawings, diagrams) to facilitate readers' understanding of the concepts ** Figures are accompanied by explanatory captions and be cited at least once in the main text ** For more information, see [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Figures|How to use figures]]). * [[Help:Links|Links]] ** In-text (embedded) links: Key words and concepts are [[Making links|linked]] to Wikipedia articles and/or related book chapters. Provide in-text wiki links the ''first time'' that key concepts are mentioned. For example: *** [[w:Emotion|emotion]] involves physiological, subjective feeling, motivational, and socially expressive aspects. The syntax for creating this link is <nowiki>[[w:Emotion|emotion]]</nowiki>). It is also possible to link to a section on this same page e.g., &lt;nowiki&gt;[[#Overview|Overview]]&lt;nowiki&gt; will link to the Overview section. *** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Fitspiration and body image|This chapter]] provides an excellent example of embedded links to Wikiversity pages. ** See also *** Provide interwiki links to key related Wikiversity book chapters and/or Wikipedia articles *** Include source in parentheses ** External links *** Provide at least three links to high quality, relevant external resources *** Include author and/or source in parentheses ** Published academic sources belong in References * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|Tables]] ** Use accompanying tables to help organise information and communicate concepts to readers ** Tables are accompanied by explanatory APA style captions and are cited in the body text * [[Help:Quiz|Quizzes]] ** Quiz questions or reflection questions encourage reader engagement ** Focus on core concepts (esp. take-home messages) rather than trivia ** Consider incorporating throughout the chapter {{anchor|Socialcontribution}} {{anchor|Social contribution}} ===Social contribution (10%)=== * '''Actions''': Logged contributions which enhance the quality of other book chapters. Useful actions include: ** '''Edits''': Direct edits which improve past or current chapters (e.g., fix errors, enhance clarity) or flag potential improvements by adding [[Template:Clarification templates|clarification templates]]. [[/Search for chapters to improve|Search for chapters to improve]]. ** '''Comments''': Feedback provided on book chapter [[Help:Talk page|talk page]]s ** '''Media uploads''': Upload free-to-use educational images to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] ** '''{{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} discussion posts''' * '''Evidence''': ** Provide a [[mw:Help:Lists|numbered list]] with summaries of contributions on your [[Help:User page|Wikiversity user page]], and '''direct links''' that show each change or contribution.<!-- To receive credit, contributions must be publicly logged (i.e., log in to Wikiversity so that the edit is recorded with your user name and time-stamp). Summarise each edit on your user page (in a section called "Social contributions") --> ** More info: [[/Summarising social contributions|summarising social contributions]] * '''Marking''' ** Marking of social contributions will be based on a combination of: *** '''Quantity''': **** Breadth: number of chapters contributed to **** Channels: range of communication channels used *** '''Quality''': **** Depth/Extent/Thoroughness **** Insightfulness **** Practical value *** '''Timeliness''' — there is generally: **** Greater value in earlier contributions **** Lesser value in last-minute contributions ** Marks will be allocated to each clearly evidenced contribution as follows: *** Minor <= 0.25 *** Moderate 0.50 *** Major 1.00 *** Very significant > 1.00 * '''Bonus marks''' ** Up to 5 bonus marks (out of 100 for the book chapter) will be awarded in exceptional circumstances where social contributions are above and beyond those required for HD-level. ** Approximately 5% of students receive social contribution bonus marks. ** This could include extensive copyediting of multiple chapters and/or regular feedback or support on multiple chapter discussion pages. It may also involve substantial activity on the UCLearn discussion forum. ==Marking rubric== {{Notice|1=[https://docs.google.com/document/d/1NUNjMCM5xOVsHj1LJuRnK8BgEdXPn4TbRf-Q6PH3oXg/edit?usp=sharing Marking rubric]}} ==Examples== Examples of high quality [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/AI use, cognitive load, and motivation|AI use, cognitive load, and motivation]] - How does generative AI reduce cognitive effort, and what are the motivational consequences? (2025) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Autonomy and intrinsic motivation in self-determination theory|Autonomy and intrinsic motivation in self-determination theory]]: How does autonomy influence intrinsic motivation according to SDT? (2025) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Disappointment|Disappointment]]: What is disappointment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? (2022) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Illicit drug taking at music festivals|Illicit drug taking at music festivals]]: What motivates young people to take illicit drugs at music festivals? (2016) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Organisational change motivation|Organisational change motivation]]: How can leaders build a culture of agility, adaptability, and resilience to deal with a constantly changing workplace? (2019) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Phobias|Phobias]]: What are phobias and how can they be dealt with? (2019) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Transactive goal dynamics theory and motivation|Transactive goal dynamics theory and motivation]]: What is transactive goal dynamics theory and how does it impact motivation? (2025) Note that as of 2025, chapters no longer include multimedia presentations. For more examples, see the {{Motivation and emotion/Book/High}}s in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book|lists of previous book chapters]]<!-- and the [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Top|top chapters of 2022]] -->. ==Licensing== Contributions to Wikiversity are made under a [http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ Creative Commons 4.0 Share-alike] (CC-BY-SA 4.0) license which is irrevocable. This license gives permission for others to edit and re-use, with appropriate acknowledgement. For more information, see the [[wmf:Terms of use|Wikimedia Foundation's Terms of use]]. If you do not wish to contribute your work under this license, discuss [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Alternative|alternative assessment options]] with the unit convener. ==See also== * [[/FAQ/]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Book|Previous chapters]] * Marking and feedback ** [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Feedback|General feedback]] ** [[Template:MEBF|Feedback template]] ** [https://docs.google.com/document/d/15NXyApC5i6svEcJAnXv9QeRA-cbojy1m8lKReZgBH60/edit?usp=sharing Marking rubric] * [[#Socialcontribution|Social contributions]] ** [[/Search for chapters to improve/]] ** [[/Summarising social contributions/]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|Tutorials]] <!-- ** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Topic selection|Tutorial 01: Topic selection]] --> ** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2: Wiki editing]] ** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Functionalist theory and self-tracking#Google Scholar|Tutorial 5: Google Scholar]] ** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Measuring emotion#Topic development feedback|Tutorial 8: Topic development feedback]] * Wikiversity ** [[/Feature boxes/]] ** [[/Figures/]] ** [[How to find free-to-use images|Find free images]] ** [[/Tables/]] * [[/Writing tips/]] ** [[/How to handle a lack of information/|Handling a lack of information]] ** [[/Readability|Readability]] ** [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|Using generative AI]] ** [[/Word count|Word count]] {{Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Navigation}} [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter| ]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion guidelines]] 5iubh32jop4c6u7st6re2uznxptzkbe 0 119778 2832635 2832082 2026-09-10T18:18:50Z Young1lim 21186 /* Non-linear Equations */ 2832635 wikitext text/x-wiki == Calculus == === Numerical Differentiation === * Background on Differentiation ([[Media:NM.Diff.1Background.20240625.pdf |pdf]]) * Continuous Function Differentiation ([[Media:NM.Diff.1ContDiff.20241021.pdf |pdf]]) * Discrete Function Differentiation ([[Media:NM.Diff.1Discrete.20241116.pdf |pdf]]) * Forward, Backward, Central Divided Difference * High Accuracy Differentiation * Richardson Extrapolation * Unequal Spaced Data Differentiation * Numerical Differentiation with Octave </br> === Non-linear Equations === * Bisection Method ([[Media:NM.NLE.1Bisection.20241130.pdf |pdf]]) * Newton-Raphson Method ([[Media:NM.NLE.2Newton.20260907.pdf |pdf]]) * Secant Method * False-Position Method </br> === Numerical Integration === * Trapezoidal Rule * Simpson's 1/3 Rule * Romberg Rule * Gauss-Quadrature Rule * Adaptive Quadrature </br> === Roots of a Nonlinear Equation === </br> === Optimization === </br> </br> == Matrix Algebra == === Simultaneous Linear Equations === * A system of linear equations ([[Media:SystemLinearEq.20240521.pdf |pdf]]) </br> === Gaussian Elimination === </br> === LU Decomposition === </br> === Cholesky Decomposition === </br> === LDL Decomposition === </br> === Gauss-Seidel method === </br> === Adequacy of Solutions === </br> === Eigenvalue and Singular Value === </br> === QRD === </br> === SVD === </br> === Iterative methods === </br> </br> == Regression == === Linear Regression === </br> === Non-linear Regression === </br> === Linear Least Squares === </br> </br> == Interpolation == === Polynomial Interpolation === </br> === Linear Splines === </br> === Piecewise Interpolation === </br> </br> == Ordinary Differential Equation == </br> == Partial Differential Equation == </br> == FEM (Finite Element Method) == </br> </br> </br> == Using Symbolic Package in Octave == * Visit http://octave.sourceforge.net/index.html * Download symbolic-1.0.9.tar.gz * In Ubuntu, using the Ubuntu Software Center, I installed GiNac and CLN related software and symbolic package for Octave. But it did not properly installed. * After extracting files from symbolic-1.0.9.tar.gz, I followed the following steps. ./configure ./make ./make INSTALL_PATH=/usr/share/octave/packages/3.2/symbolic-1.0.9 * While doing this, I got an error message related to mkoctfile. So, I used the following command: sudo apt-get install ocatve3.2-headers. Then I was able to install the symbolic packages in the Ubuntu. == Read some tutorials about symbolic computation == * Symbolic Mathematics in Matlab/GNU Octave (http://faraday.elec.uow.edu.au/subjects/annual/ECTE313/Symbolic_Maths.pdf) * Symbolic Computations (http://www.math.ohiou.edu/courses/math344/lecture7.pdf) [[Category:Numerical methods]] == Using SymPy ( a Python library for symbolic mathematics) == </br> </br> go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ] 6luwh24j0fe5co50gmmnauf7em2a7s4 2832638 2832635 2026-09-10T18:21:33Z Young1lim 21186 /* Non-linear Equations */ 2832638 wikitext text/x-wiki == Calculus == === Numerical Differentiation === * Background on Differentiation ([[Media:NM.Diff.1Background.20240625.pdf |pdf]]) * Continuous Function Differentiation ([[Media:NM.Diff.1ContDiff.20241021.pdf |pdf]]) * Discrete Function Differentiation ([[Media:NM.Diff.1Discrete.20241116.pdf |pdf]]) * Forward, Backward, Central Divided Difference * High Accuracy Differentiation * Richardson Extrapolation * Unequal Spaced Data Differentiation * Numerical Differentiation with Octave </br> === Non-linear Equations === * Bisection Method ([[Media:NM.NLE.1Bisection.20241130.pdf |pdf]]) * Newton-Raphson Method ([[Media:NM.NLE.2Newton.20260908.pdf |pdf]]) * Secant Method * False-Position Method </br> === Numerical Integration === * Trapezoidal Rule * Simpson's 1/3 Rule * Romberg Rule * Gauss-Quadrature Rule * Adaptive Quadrature </br> === Roots of a Nonlinear Equation === </br> === Optimization === </br> </br> == Matrix Algebra == === Simultaneous Linear Equations === * A system of linear equations ([[Media:SystemLinearEq.20240521.pdf |pdf]]) </br> === Gaussian Elimination === </br> === LU Decomposition === </br> === Cholesky Decomposition === </br> === LDL Decomposition === </br> === Gauss-Seidel method === </br> === Adequacy of Solutions === </br> === Eigenvalue and Singular Value === </br> === QRD === </br> === SVD === </br> === Iterative methods === </br> </br> == Regression == === Linear Regression === </br> === Non-linear Regression === </br> === Linear Least Squares === </br> </br> == Interpolation == === Polynomial Interpolation === </br> === Linear Splines === </br> === Piecewise Interpolation === </br> </br> == Ordinary Differential Equation == </br> == Partial Differential Equation == </br> == FEM (Finite Element Method) == </br> </br> </br> == Using Symbolic Package in Octave == * Visit http://octave.sourceforge.net/index.html * Download symbolic-1.0.9.tar.gz * In Ubuntu, using the Ubuntu Software Center, I installed GiNac and CLN related software and symbolic package for Octave. But it did not properly installed. * After extracting files from symbolic-1.0.9.tar.gz, I followed the following steps. ./configure ./make ./make INSTALL_PATH=/usr/share/octave/packages/3.2/symbolic-1.0.9 * While doing this, I got an error message related to mkoctfile. So, I used the following command: sudo apt-get install ocatve3.2-headers. Then I was able to install the symbolic packages in the Ubuntu. == Read some tutorials about symbolic computation == * Symbolic Mathematics in Matlab/GNU Octave (http://faraday.elec.uow.edu.au/subjects/annual/ECTE313/Symbolic_Maths.pdf) * Symbolic Computations (http://www.math.ohiou.edu/courses/math344/lecture7.pdf) [[Category:Numerical methods]] == Using SymPy ( a Python library for symbolic mathematics) == </br> </br> go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ] hina8cjozeex68f5esrgo9l4a4xdrfy 2832640 2832638 2026-09-10T18:23:38Z Young1lim 21186 /* Non-linear Equations */ 2832640 wikitext text/x-wiki == Calculus == === Numerical Differentiation === * Background on Differentiation ([[Media:NM.Diff.1Background.20240625.pdf |pdf]]) * Continuous Function Differentiation ([[Media:NM.Diff.1ContDiff.20241021.pdf |pdf]]) * Discrete Function Differentiation ([[Media:NM.Diff.1Discrete.20241116.pdf |pdf]]) * Forward, Backward, Central Divided Difference * High Accuracy Differentiation * Richardson Extrapolation * Unequal Spaced Data Differentiation * Numerical Differentiation with Octave </br> === Non-linear Equations === * Bisection Method ([[Media:NM.NLE.1Bisection.20241130.pdf |pdf]]) * Newton-Raphson Method ([[Media:NM.NLE.2Newton.20260909.pdf |pdf]]) * Secant Method * False-Position Method </br> === Numerical Integration === * Trapezoidal Rule * Simpson's 1/3 Rule * Romberg Rule * Gauss-Quadrature Rule * Adaptive Quadrature </br> === Roots of a Nonlinear Equation === </br> === Optimization === </br> </br> == Matrix Algebra == === Simultaneous Linear Equations === * A system of linear equations ([[Media:SystemLinearEq.20240521.pdf |pdf]]) </br> === Gaussian Elimination === </br> === LU Decomposition === </br> === Cholesky Decomposition === </br> === LDL Decomposition === </br> === Gauss-Seidel method === </br> === Adequacy of Solutions === </br> === Eigenvalue and Singular Value === </br> === QRD === </br> === SVD === </br> === Iterative methods === </br> </br> == Regression == === Linear Regression === </br> === Non-linear Regression === </br> === Linear Least Squares === </br> </br> == Interpolation == === Polynomial Interpolation === </br> === Linear Splines === </br> === Piecewise Interpolation === </br> </br> == Ordinary Differential Equation == </br> == Partial Differential Equation == </br> == FEM (Finite Element Method) == </br> </br> </br> == Using Symbolic Package in Octave == * Visit http://octave.sourceforge.net/index.html * Download symbolic-1.0.9.tar.gz * In Ubuntu, using the Ubuntu Software Center, I installed GiNac and CLN related software and symbolic package for Octave. But it did not properly installed. * After extracting files from symbolic-1.0.9.tar.gz, I followed the following steps. ./configure ./make ./make INSTALL_PATH=/usr/share/octave/packages/3.2/symbolic-1.0.9 * While doing this, I got an error message related to mkoctfile. So, I used the following command: sudo apt-get install ocatve3.2-headers. Then I was able to install the symbolic packages in the Ubuntu. == Read some tutorials about symbolic computation == * Symbolic Mathematics in Matlab/GNU Octave (http://faraday.elec.uow.edu.au/subjects/annual/ECTE313/Symbolic_Maths.pdf) * Symbolic Computations (http://www.math.ohiou.edu/courses/math344/lecture7.pdf) [[Category:Numerical methods]] == Using SymPy ( a Python library for symbolic mathematics) == </br> </br> go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ] sckwescsp9w6xpl8ft3zzeubfe8x6bc 2832642 2832640 2026-09-10T18:24:25Z Young1lim 21186 /* Non-linear Equations */ 2832642 wikitext text/x-wiki == Calculus == === Numerical Differentiation === * Background on Differentiation ([[Media:NM.Diff.1Background.20240625.pdf |pdf]]) * Continuous Function Differentiation ([[Media:NM.Diff.1ContDiff.20241021.pdf |pdf]]) * Discrete Function Differentiation ([[Media:NM.Diff.1Discrete.20241116.pdf |pdf]]) * Forward, Backward, Central Divided Difference * High Accuracy Differentiation * Richardson Extrapolation * Unequal Spaced Data Differentiation * Numerical Differentiation with Octave </br> === Non-linear Equations === * Bisection Method ([[Media:NM.NLE.1Bisection.20241130.pdf |pdf]]) * Newton-Raphson Method ([[Media:NM.NLE.2Newton.20260910.pdf |pdf]]) * Secant Method * False-Position Method </br> === Numerical Integration === * Trapezoidal Rule * Simpson's 1/3 Rule * Romberg Rule * Gauss-Quadrature Rule * Adaptive Quadrature </br> === Roots of a Nonlinear Equation === </br> === Optimization === </br> </br> == Matrix Algebra == === Simultaneous Linear Equations === * A system of linear equations ([[Media:SystemLinearEq.20240521.pdf |pdf]]) </br> === Gaussian Elimination === </br> === LU Decomposition === </br> === Cholesky Decomposition === </br> === LDL Decomposition === </br> === Gauss-Seidel method === </br> === Adequacy of Solutions === </br> === Eigenvalue and Singular Value === </br> === QRD === </br> === SVD === </br> === Iterative methods === </br> </br> == Regression == === Linear Regression === </br> === Non-linear Regression === </br> === Linear Least Squares === </br> </br> == Interpolation == === Polynomial Interpolation === </br> === Linear Splines === </br> === Piecewise Interpolation === </br> </br> == Ordinary Differential Equation == </br> == Partial Differential Equation == </br> == FEM (Finite Element Method) == </br> </br> </br> == Using Symbolic Package in Octave == * Visit http://octave.sourceforge.net/index.html * Download symbolic-1.0.9.tar.gz * In Ubuntu, using the Ubuntu Software Center, I installed GiNac and CLN related software and symbolic package for Octave. But it did not properly installed. * After extracting files from symbolic-1.0.9.tar.gz, I followed the following steps. ./configure ./make ./make INSTALL_PATH=/usr/share/octave/packages/3.2/symbolic-1.0.9 * While doing this, I got an error message related to mkoctfile. So, I used the following command: sudo apt-get install ocatve3.2-headers. Then I was able to install the symbolic packages in the Ubuntu. == Read some tutorials about symbolic computation == * Symbolic Mathematics in Matlab/GNU Octave (http://faraday.elec.uow.edu.au/subjects/annual/ECTE313/Symbolic_Maths.pdf) * Symbolic Computations (http://www.math.ohiou.edu/courses/math344/lecture7.pdf) [[Category:Numerical methods]] == Using SymPy ( a Python library for symbolic mathematics) == </br> </br> go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ] 2epze4zw8dyrw8am45q2svzevn0k32v 0 139384 2832603 2832348 2026-09-10T13:44:37Z Young1lim 21186 /* Adder */ 2832603 wikitext text/x-wiki == Adder == * Binary Adder Architecture Exploration ( [[Media:Adder.20131113.pdf|pdf]] ) {| class="wikitable" |- ! Adder type !! Overview !! Analysis !! VHDL Level Design !! CMOS Level Design |- | '''1. Ripple Carry Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1A.RCA.20250522.pdf|A]]|| || [[Media:Adder.rca.20140313.pdf|pdf]] || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1D.RCA.CMOS.20211108.pdf|pdf]] |- | '''2. Carry Lookahead Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2A.CLA.20260722.pdf|A]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2B.CLA.20260910.pdf|B]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2C.CLA.20260910.pdf|C]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2D.CLA.20260720.pdf|D]] || || [[Media:Adder.cla.20140313.pdf|pdf]]|| |- | '''3. Carry Save Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.CSave.20151209.pdf|A]]|| || || |- || '''4. Carry Select Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.CSelA.20191002.pdf|A]]|| || || |- || '''5. Carry Skip Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.5A.CSkip.20250405.pdf|A]]|| || || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.5D.CSkip.CMOS.20211108.pdf|pdf]] |- || '''6. Carry Chain Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6A.CCA.20211109.pdf|A]]|| || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6C.CCA.VHDL.20211109.pdf|pdf]], [[Media:Adder.cca.20140313.pdf|pdf]] || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6D.CCA.CMOS.20211109.pdf|pdf]] |- || '''7. Kogge-Stone Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.KSA.20140315.pdf|A]]|| || [[Media:Adder.ksa.20140409.pdf|pdf]]|| |- || '''8. Prefix Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.PFA.20140314.pdf|A]]|| || || |- || '''9.1 Variable Block Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1A.VBA.20221110.pdf|A]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1B.VBA.20230911.pdf|B]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1C.VBA.20240622.pdf|C]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1C.VBA.20250218.pdf|D]]|| || || |- || '''9.2 Multi-Level Variable Block Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.VBA-Multi.20221031.pdf|A]]|| || || |} </br> === Adder Architectures Suitable for FPGA === * FPGA Carry-Chain Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.FPGA-CCA.20210421.pdf|pdf]]) * FPGA Carry Select Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.B.FPGA-CarrySelect.20210522.pdf|pdf]]) * FPGA Variable Block Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.C.FPGA-VariableBlock.20220125.pdf|pdf]]) * FPGA Carry Lookahead Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.D.FPGA-CLookahead.20210304.pdf|pdf]]) * Carry-Skip Adder </br> == Barrel Shifter == * Barrel Shifter Architecture Exploration ([[Media:Bshift.20131105.pdf|bshfit.vhdl]], [[Media:Bshift.makefile.20131109.pdf|bshfit.makefile]]) </br> '''Mux Based Barrel Shifter''' * Analysis ([[Media:Arith.BShfiter.20151207.pdf|pdf]]) * Implementation </br> == Multiplier == === Array Multipliers === * Analysis ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.Mult.20151209.pdf|pdf]]) </br> === Tree Mulltipliers === * Lattice Multiplication ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.LatticeMult.20170204.pdf|pdf]]) * Wallace Tree ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.WallaceTree.20170204.pdf|pdf]]) * Dadda Tree ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.DaddaTree.20170701.pdf|pdf]]) </br> === Booth Multipliers === * [[Media:RNS4.BoothEncode.20161005.pdf|Booth Encoding Note]] * Booth Multiplier Note ([[Media:BoothMult.20160929.pdf|H1.pdf]]) </br> == Divider == * Binary Divider ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.Divider.20131217.pdf|pdf]])</br> </br> </br> go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ] [[Category:Digital Circuit Design]] [[Category:FPGA]] 5q3djipmfzt10p7a8880ofceil7lyut 0 147509 2832704 2826999 2026-09-10T20:33:51Z Jtneill 10242 Adjust title layout 2832704 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Fear of failure:<br>What motives underlie the fear of failure and how can the fear of failure be overcome?}} __TOC__ {{MECR|1=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4nvU3oQRypA}} ==Overview== {| class="wikitable" style="float: center; width: 60%; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto" |- | [[File:Sad Woman.jpg|thumb|200px|right|How do you feel in the face of failure?]] * A young boy dreams of being a basketballer someday, but gets cut from his high school basketball team * A man is fired by his newspaper editor because he is said to "lack imagination" * A band just starting out is rejected by a record company * A woman writes a novel, but all the publishers she goes to reject her To find out how these real life examples dealt with this failure click [[Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2013/Fear_of_failure#Conclusion_-_the_positive_side_to_failing|here]] or keep reading till the end of the chapter (White, 1978) |} Failure is something that everyone faces at some point in their lives. It is also something that most people try to avoid. Everyone wants to be respected and admired by others. This includes being seen as competent and able to achieve success. When someone tries hard at a task or challenge, they are essentially putting themselves at risk – there is a chance they may succeed, but there is also a chance they may fail. This is a dilemma that everyone faces, and while many people choose to chase success, there are those who fear gets the best of. This fear of failure can inhibit performance, induce maladaptive behaviour and result in self-doubt, and a lack of confidence in one’s own abilities (DeCastella, Byrne, & Covington, 2013). ===What is the fear of failure=== Failure can often induce fear. Fear of the consequences and the feelings that are associated with failure. It is also this fear that can lead to problematic behaviours and attitudes. Fear of failure is a type of avoidance motivation. That is, people seek to avoid failure, sometimes at all costs (Bartel, Magun-Jackson, & Ryan, 2010). ==Attributes of those who fear failure== Imagine that you love to play basketball and you are given the opportunity to try out for a well-renowned team. You also know that there will be many other people trying out who are exceptional players and whom you admire when they play. Do you take up the opportunity and go to tryouts ready to try your best? Do you avoid the tryouts and stay home or turn the opportunity down? Or do you go to the tryouts and tell everyone there that you have a sore leg, so that if you don't perform as well as the others you have an excuse? These are all different approaches that someone may take in the face of a challenge and potential failure. There are many different theories and attributes associated with the fear of failure. The study of achievement motivation takes into account many of these attributes and gives us a theory on the fear of failure. ==== Achievement motivation ==== The need for achievement is a motive where people seek to do well, demonstrate competence, persist at challenges, and achieve skills. Seeking competence and persisting at challenges can have an outcome of either success or failure. As a result some people have a high need for achievement, whereas others don’t. This difference in need for achievement motivates people to adopt different behaviours – either approach or avoidance behaviours (Bartels, Magun-Jackson, & Ryan, 2010). ====Approach motivation==== People who have a high need for achievement approach challenging tasks in full force and experience enjoyment and pride on accomplishment. They also set goals that revolve around achieving and striving towards success and achievement. These individuals do not shy away from tasks and in the face of adversity, even after failure, they persistently try to achieve success and mastery over the challenge (Bartels et al., 2010) ====Avoidance motivation==== People who don’t have this high need for achievement tend to set goals to avoid these challenging tasks, feeling more anxiety then a sense of mastery or persistence. Fear of failure is a form of avoidance motivation where individuals avoid situations where their ability or competence may be judged (Bartels et al., 2010) For more information on avoidance motivation and avoidance behaviours, see the [[Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2013/Avoidance_motivation|avoidance motivation]] chapter of this book. ====Success oriented vs. fear of failure==== This theory is based on the study of achievement motivation and suggests that there are two factors that play a role in deciding who avoids failure due to fear and who chases success. These are success orientation and fear of failure (DeCastella, Byrne, & Covington, 2013). People who are success oriented show motivation to achieve success, resilience to failure, an enthusiasm for learning, a confidence in their own abilities and skills, and approach challenges. Fear of failure on the other hand shows itself as fear, anxiety, lack of confidence in one’s ability and avoidance behaviours. While initial research looked at success orientation and fear of failure as two separate dimensions (someone was either success oriented or had a fear of failure), Covington (1992) proposed a quadripolar model that suggests these two factors interact to give people different motivational profiles. There are four profiles that someone may have (DeCastella et al., 2013). Someone who is high in success orientation and low in their fear of failure is an optimist, whereas someone who has a high success orientation, but is also high in their fear of failure is an overstriver. Similarly, someone who is low in success orientation and high in their fear of failure is a self-protector and someone who is low in both success orientation and fear of failure is a failure acceptor (see Figure 1) (DeCastella et al., 2013). [[File:Quadripolar model.png|thumb|600px|center|Figure 1-Diagram of the Quadripolar Model showing fear of failure and success orientation. Based on DeCastella, Byrne, & Covington (2013)]] {{RoundBoxTop}} ===Perfectionism and fear of failure=== Perfectionism is a personality disposition where someone has extremely high and sometimes unrealistic standards for performance and therefore is highly critical in their self-evaluations of their own behaviour (Sagar, & Stoeber, 2009).In terms of success orientation and fear of failure, these people would be characterized as overstrivers. While some people view perfectionism as something that can help achieve success and bring out the most effort in people, other's see it as something that may lead to maladaptive behaviours and attitudes that undermine performance and limit development. Despite this, perfectionism is a multi-faceted concept. Sagar and Stoeber (2009) refer to two factors of perfectionism, which are # Positive striving perfectionism - personal standards, organisation, self-oriented perfectionism and other oriented perfectionism # Maladaptive evaluation concerns perfectionism - concern over mistakes, parental expectations, parental criticism, doubts about actions and socially prescribed perfectionism. Perfectionism has been related to fear of failure, especially in athletes. Sagar and Stoeber (2009) carried out a study where they looked at perfectionism, fear of failure and emotion towards success or failure. Participants were 388 athletes who were asked to fill out a questionnaire. The athletes were then given a success scenario and a failure scenario and were asked to imagine how they would feel had the scenario happened to them. They then filled out an affect questionnaire. Sagar and Stoeber measured four aspects of perfectionism - personal standards, concern over mistakes, perceived parental pressure and perceived coach pressure. Results showed that personal standards of perfectionism predicted lower fear of shame and embarrassment and more positive emotions after success, perceived coach pressure predicted higher fear of shame and embarrassment and more negative emotion after failure and both perceived coach pressure and parental pressure predicted a high fear of upsetting important others. Concern over mistakes was associated with high fear of failure altogether. These findings show that not all aspects of perfectionism are maladaptive and lead to a greater fear of failure, however some aspects are. It also shows that the fear of shame and embarrassment results in perfectionism leading to greater fear of failure overall (Sagar and Stoeber, 2009). {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Why do people fear failure?== Imagine a time when you faced potential failure. Were you afraid to fail? If so why? There are many reasons why people are afraid to fail including risk to self-worth, risk of shame and humiliation and risk of letting others down. ===Damaging effects to self-worth and self-acceptance=== Self worth theory (Covington, 1992; DeCastella, Byrne, & Covington, 2013) suggests that the search for self acceptance and a feeling of self-worth is a psychological need that all humans seek. Achievement and success is one way that people can acquire this from others and failure is a way it can be damaged. As a result people can develop either an orientation to approach success or a fear of failure. For many people, failure only indicates a lack of competence if it is accompanied by a lot of effort. If someone fails because they did not try, for instance, then the failure does not suggest that the person lacks the ability or talent to succeed, but rather that they just didn’t try. However, if a person fails and they put in all of their effort, then it is viewed as evidence that the person lacks the ability to succeed in that area. This way of thinking can lead to problematic behaviours such as [[w:Self-handicapping|self-handicapping]] ,[[w:Defensive pessimism|defensive pessimism]] , and [[w:Learned helplessness|helplessness]] (this is looked at further in the section [[Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2013/Fear_of_failure#Fear_of_failure_in_school|fear of failure in school]]). DeCastella et al., (2013) found that these problematic behaviours are used by people who fear failure as a way to protect their self-worth and maintain acceptance from others in the face of potential failure. ===Love withdrawal=== Another reason why people fear failure is that they have learnt to associate failure with disappointing the one’s they love and having that person’s affection withdrawn. This assumes that high fear of failure is associated with feelings of incompetence and an unworthiness to be loved. This leads to fear of the possible danger of being abandoned or having their loved ones withdraw affection from them because of their failure and mistakes. This can largely be explained in terms of child-parent interactions. A parent who is afraid to fail may display emotions, thoughts and behaviours towards their own children’s mistakes and failures that teach their children that mistakes and failure are to be avoided at all costs. Children then learn to fear failure, as they don’t want to let their parent down or lose their parent’s love (Elliot, & Thrash, 2004). Love withdrawal is looked at more closely in the [[Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2013/Fear_of_failure#Fear_of_failure_in_relationships|fear of failure in relationships]] section of this chapter. ===Shame and humiliation=== [[File:Sad Beauty.jpg|thumb|right]] One of the biggest contributors to fear of failure is said to be shame and humiliation. Elliot and Thrash (2004) argue that it is not fear of the failure itself, but rather of the shame and humiliation that often arises when someone fails, especially in front of others, that results in avoidance behaviour. Shame is a painful experience where one feels that they are a failure, stupid or lack ability and talent. Not only this, shame also involves an awareness that this self, the self who has just stuffed up is exposed before a real or imagined audience and is being judged (Elliot, & Thrash, 2004). The feelings of shame and humiliation are associated with failure and so people begin to fear failure as they do not want to experience such feelings. This leads to withdrawal and avoidance because people want to escape the presence of others who judge them and hide. This can lead to excuses, self-handicapping, quitting, helplessness and other forms of problematic behaviours, attitudes and feelings (Elliot, & Thrash, 2004). McGregor and Elliot (2005) looked at the likelihood of students to feel shame in general (shame-proneness) and found that increased shame-proneness was related to increased fear of failure. They also found that individuals who reported high fear of failure also reported greater shame and overgeneralized this shame to other areas. These individuals who had a high fear of failure also indicated that they would be less likely to tell their parents about a circumstance where they failed, but would tell them about success. These results show that shame and humiliation are central to the fear of failure (McGregor, & Elliot, 2005). ==The impact of fearing failure== The fear of failure is a motive that influences people's behaviour, cognitions and emotions. It can be related to increased amounts of anxiety, giving up, interpersonal problems, self-handicapping, giving up/disinterest, stress, negative emotions, and helplessness. Not only this, the achievements of people who fear failure are not as great as those who are success/approach oriented (Bartels, Magun-Jackson, & Ryan, 2010). Fear of failure in school and in relationships are two specific examples of the impact that fear of failure can have. ===Fear of failure in school=== School is an environment where achievement is highly sought and some of a student’s self worth comes from their ability to succeed. Failure and feelings of inadequacy can lead to shame, self-doubt and humiliation. As a way of controlling their feelings and protecting themselves from possible failure, students have been shown to exhibit maladaptive behaviours and attitudes including self-handicapping, defensive pessimism and helplessness (See Table 1) (DeCastella, Byrne, & Covington, 2013). {| class="wikitable" |- | Self-Handicapping || The cause of failure is given to a premeditated excuse rather than the person|| e.g. a student goes out the night before an exam, then if they don't do well, they can say it was because they had a late night |- | Defensive pessimism || Pessimistic expectations a person has of how they are going to do on a task || e.g. a student goes into an exam expecting the worst. That way if they do well, it's a pleasant surprise and if they don't do well, it's not as much of a blow |- | Helplessness || Attributions a person has, where they believe they have no control over the situation || e.g. a student believes they have no control over their grades or how well they do because they believe they're a failure and will always fail not matter what they do |} Table 1 - Self-protective behaviours and attitudes shown by students who are afraid to fail. Based on DeCastella et al., (2013). DeCastella et al., (2013) investigated the effects of fear of failure and success orientation on self-protective behaviours (self-handicapping, defensive pessimism and helplessness). 1423 Japanese students as well as 680 Australian students from different schools were asked to fill out questionnaires measuring these items along with disengagement (giving up on school/not caring), truancy (wagging school/skipping class) and academic achievement. They found that students with a high success orientation were less likely to self-handicap and use defensive pessimism. These students also had greater academic achievement and were more interested in school, with a lesser rate of truancy. Helplessness, self-handicapping, defensive pessimism, disengagement and truancy were all associated with a fear of failure; however, self-protectors (high fear of failure, low success orientation) had the highest rate of self-handicapping behaviour (DeCastella et al., 2013). The sad part about the results of this study though, is that the self-protective behaviours that students who are afraid to fail engage in often bring about the failure that they are trying to avoid in the first place. So while, initially these behaviours may protect a person’s sense of self worth, after awhile it brings about more failure. This then increases that person’s sense of self-doubt and the process keeps going. As a person run’s out of excuses, they soon see themselves as responsible for the failure, however they also see it as uncontrollable and inevitable and take on a sense of helplessness. In some cases, students will event drop out of school (DeCastella et al., 2013). These results do suggest that success oriented goal striving may serve as protection against the fear of failure. Similarly a study conducted by Bartels, Magun-Jackson & Ryan (2010), looked at the relationship of approach/avoidance motivation and strategies used by students to help themselves learn. They found that a need for achievement was associated with students displaying self-regulated learning strategies, whereas students who were afraid to fail used far less of these of these learning strategies, if any at all. For more information on self-handicapping, see the [[Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2013/Self-handicapping|self-handicapping]] chapter of this book ===Fear of failure in relationships=== {|class="wikitable floatright" style="width: 20%" |- | {{center top}}'''<big>Love Withdrawal</big>'''{{center bottom}} Love withdrawal occurs when a parent withdraws affection or creates a physical separation from their child in response to their child's undesirable behaviour, mistakes or failures. Some examples include * looking coldly at the child * turning away from the child * refusing to speak to or acknowledge the child * removing the child from the room or house or threatening removal * verbal expression of dislike for the child |} The relationship between parent and child is one factor that can influence a person’s fear of failure and one parenting practice often employed unknowingly or on purpose by parents is love withdrawal. When a parent fails and feels less worthy of love and acceptance and a decrease in self-worth, they treat a child in the same way when the child fails. This form of behaviour, however, signals to the child that undesirable behaviour, mistakes and failure results in the parent’s emotional or physical withdrawal. They let the parent down and love is withdrawn (Elliot, & Thrash, 2004). The children’s failures and success’ also have a direct impact onto the parent’s self-evaluations. For example, if a child is caught shop lifting, the parent may see the child’s mistake as a failure in their own parenting (Elliot, & Thrash, 2004). A study conducted by Elliot, & Thrash (2004) investigated parent and child fear of failure. Students were asked to fill out questionnaires assessing fear of failure and love withdrawal. Questionnaires were also sent to the participant’s parents to be filled out and returned. They found that students whose parents had a high fear of failure also had a high fear of failure. Mothers were afraid to fail, were also found to show greater amounts of love withdrawal. Students with these mothers had a greater fear of failure. This shows that love withdrawal in response to failure is associated with the development of fear of failure and that children internalise love withdrawal as failure (Bartels, Magun-Jackson, & Ryan, 2010). The results of this study are troubling as it shows that avoidance behaviours and fear of failure can be passed down through the generations. While, withdrawal of love may change a child’s behaviour in the short term, it may result in maladaptive behaviours in the future including helplessness in future relationships. Not only this, the child will take on their fear of failure into relationships with friends, work mates, romantic partners and their own children (Elliot, & Thrash, 2004). Wright, Pincus, Conroy & Elliot (2009), also examined the role that fear of failure played in regards to interpersonal relationships. They found that fear of failure could be associated to two different maladaptive social emotions that had interpersonal effects. These were appeasement (loss of status results in submissiveness) and shame-based rage (loss of status results in indignation and rage). Results showed that people with a high fear of failure exhibited interpersonal profiles that were associated with domineering/vindictiveness or non-assertive/ exploitable behaviours and attitudes. The results of these studies show what a big impact a fear of failure can have on a person's everyday relationships with other people. ==Overcoming the fear of failure== Despite the anxiety that fear of failure can cause an individual, many of us still have this very real fear. This fear may cause anxiety, self-protective behaviours and result in withdrawal from challenges. Most of all, avoidance behaviours due to a fear of failure prevent us from achieving our full potential and striving for success (Martin, & Marsh, 2003). So, how can we overcome the fear of failure? As we have seen already in this chapter, the fear of failure revolves mostly around negative thought patterns and feelings associated with failure. Rather than focus on the positive opportunities that challenges bring like success oriented people, people who have a fear of failure tend to focus on the negative aspects, what they may lose from failing and their own belief that they are limited or unable to achieve (DeCastella, Byrne, & Covington, 2013). One way of overcoming fear of failure would be to alter our thought patterns and attitudes so that they are more success oriented (Martin, & Marsh, 2003). Martin and Marsh (2003) identified four aspects that people need for success orientation. They are... # Self-belief is associated with persistence and effort, even in the face of failure. It is the belief and confidence in your ability to understand, do well, meet the challenges you face and perform to the best of your ability. # Value or importance of the task is associated with engagement and interest. It is the belief that what you are doing is useful, that you can get something out of it # Learning focus is the focus on mastering a task and your effort rather than outperforming others and success # Control is associated with persistence, attention, effort and participation. It is the extent to which you believe you can avoid failure and achieve success and that this result is in your control. Based on these principles of success orientation proposed by Martin and Marsh (2003), here are some tips you can apply to help overcome your fear of failure {{Robelbox|theme={{{theme|9}}}|title=Overcoming the fear of failure}} <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> ===Tips=== #'''Maximize your opportunities or possibility for success''' by making work or tasks manageable and working on time management. E.g.start assignments early so that they are manageable and the self-handicapping behaviour stops). As you use your time effectively and begin to achieve and succeed in tasks, you will find that self-belief increases # '''Change the negative thoughts to positive ones.''' If you find yourself start to think negatively, make an effort to change it to a positive thought. E.g. If you find yourself struggling with a task instead of thinking 'I can't do this because I'm not smart', think 'this challenge is difficult, how can I find another way to master it?' # '''Don't give up, keep trying.''' Even when a challenge is difficult or you find yourself failing, think about ways that you can go about it differently # '''Find importance and purpose in the challenges you face.''' How is this task relevant to you? Find importance and relevance in what you are doing, even if you end up failing, what is this task going to teach you? Will you learn from it? Grow from it? # '''Focus on learning and developing skills rather than success.''' Achievement comes as you learn and develop new skills, not from final success. If you are learning something or you are more competent in a skill today then you were yesterday, then you have achieved something! # '''Focus on your effort not achievement.''' If you failed, but you developed new skills or you've developed in the process, then you've won. Every bit of effort you put in is success # '''Focus on causes of failure that are within your control.''' E.g. you can control the amount of time you spend studying or the amount of practice you do for sport. # '''Think of things you can improve on.''' Learn from previous failures and experience by noting things you need to improve on. Work towards improving these things so that next time you are more prepared. # '''Set goals.''' Break down each task or challenge into smaller parts and set goals of what you would like to achieve. # '''Use reinforcement.''' Reward yourself, your kids, your partner etc. for effort alone. Based on Martin and Marsh (2003) </div> {{Robelbox/close}} ==Conclusion - the positive side to failing== While many people fear failure and see failure as negative, it is not always so. There is a positive side to failure if you look hard enough. Failure helps us to learn, grow, improve, prepares us for future challenges and enables us to be persistent (Martin, & Marsh, 2003).A lot of us would not be who we are today or where we are if we had not made mistakes and learnt from them along the way. It is important that we don't let the fear of failure limit us by making us give up or stop trying. In every mistake, look for what you can learn and how you can improve for next time. Most of all, don't give up! {| class="wikitable" style="float: center; width: 60%; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto" |- | At the beginning of the chapter, four examples were given of people who experienced failure first hand. Well here's what happened. The boy who got cut from his high school basketball team was Michael Jordon, the man who was fired for 'lacking imagination' was Walt Disney, the band who were turned down by the record company was the Beatles and the author who was rejected was J.K Rowling (White, 1978). These people didn't let the fear of failure get the best of them and they didn't give up in the face of failure. Neither should you. |} ==See also== [[Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2013/Avoidance_motivation|Avoidance Motivation]] [[Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2013/Fear_of_success|Fear of Success]] [[Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2013/Self-handicapping|Self-handicapping]] [[Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2013/Fear|Fear]] [[Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2013/Failure_and_happiness|Failure and Happiness]] ==References== <div style="padding-left: 2em; text-indent: -2em"> Bartels, J.M., Magun-Jackson, S., & Ryan J.J.(2010). Dispositional approach-avoidance achievement motivation and cognitive self-regulated learning: the mediation of achievement goals. ''Individual Differences Research, 8(2)'', 97-110. Retrieved from http://web.ebscohost.com.ezproxy1.canberra.edu.au/ehost/detail?vid=3&sid=c76b931b-041c-4dd4-902b-b8c02dcaf70a%40sessionmgr15&hid=1&bdata=#db=a9h&AN=51789603 Covington, M.V.(1992). ''Making the grade: A self-worth perspective on motivation and school reform''. Cambridge, England:Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9781139173582 DeCastella,K., Byrne, D., & Covington, M.(2013). Unmotivated or motivated to fail? A cross-cultural study of achievement motivation, fear of failure, and student disengagement. ''Journal of Educational Psychology, 105(3)'', 861-880. doi:10.1037/a0032464 Elliot, A.J., & Thrash, T.M.(2004). The intergenerational transmission of fear of failure. ''Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 30(8)'', 957-971. doi:10.1177/0146167203262024 Martin, A.J.,& Marsh, H.W.(2003). Fear of failure:Friend or foe? ''Australian Psychologist, 38'', 31-38. doi:10.1080/00050060310001706997 McGregor, H.A., & Elliot, A.J.(2005). The shame of failure: Examining the link between fear of failure and shame. ''Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31(2)'', 218-231. doi:10.1177/0146167204271420 Sagar, S.S., & Stoeber,J.(2009). Perfectionism, fear of failure, and affective responses to success and failure:The central role of fear of experiencing shame and embarrassment. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 31(5), 602-627. Retrieved from http://web.ebscohost.com.ezproxy1.canberra.edu.au/ehost/detail?vid=6&sid=9ce6eb4a-9a1e-4267-9de1-5af9fdef08b5%40sessionmgr15&hid=1&bdata=#db=psyh&AN=2009-16713-002 White, J.(1978). ''Rejection''. Boston:Addison-Wesley Publishing Wright, A.G., Pincus, A.L., Conroy, D.E., & Elliot, A.J.(2009). The pathoplastic relationship between interpersonal problems and fear of failure. ''Journal of Personality, 77(4)'', 997-1024. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-6494.2009.00572.x </div> [[Category:Motivation and emotion|{{SUBPAGENAME}}]] afh0xpv0fkz5lkltqrrdj6rdpe1ez5n 2832705 2832704 2026-09-10T20:34:52Z Jtneill 10242 2832705 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Fear of failure:<br>What motives underlie the fear of failure and how can the fear of failure be overcome?}} __TOC__ {{MECR|1=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4nvU3oQRypA}} ==Overview== {| class="wikitable" style="float: center; width: 100%; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto" |- | [[File:Sad Woman.jpg|thumb|200px|right|How do you feel in the face of failure?]] * A young boy dreams of being a basketballer someday, but gets cut from his high school basketball team * A man is fired by his newspaper editor because he is said to "lack imagination" * A band just starting out is rejected by a record company * A woman writes a novel, but all the publishers she goes to reject her To find out how these real life examples dealt with this failure click [[Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2013/Fear_of_failure#Conclusion_-_the_positive_side_to_failing|here]] or keep reading till the end of the chapter (White, 1978) |} Failure is something that everyone faces at some point in their lives. It is also something that most people try to avoid. Everyone wants to be respected and admired by others. This includes being seen as competent and able to achieve success. When someone tries hard at a task or challenge, they are essentially putting themselves at risk – there is a chance they may succeed, but there is also a chance they may fail. This is a dilemma that everyone faces, and while many people choose to chase success, there are those who fear gets the best of. This fear of failure can inhibit performance, induce maladaptive behaviour and result in self-doubt, and a lack of confidence in one’s own abilities (DeCastella, Byrne, & Covington, 2013). ===What is the fear of failure=== Failure can often induce fear. Fear of the consequences and the feelings that are associated with failure. It is also this fear that can lead to problematic behaviours and attitudes. Fear of failure is a type of avoidance motivation. That is, people seek to avoid failure, sometimes at all costs (Bartel, Magun-Jackson, & Ryan, 2010). ==Attributes of those who fear failure== Imagine that you love to play basketball and you are given the opportunity to try out for a well-renowned team. You also know that there will be many other people trying out who are exceptional players and whom you admire when they play. Do you take up the opportunity and go to tryouts ready to try your best? Do you avoid the tryouts and stay home or turn the opportunity down? Or do you go to the tryouts and tell everyone there that you have a sore leg, so that if you don't perform as well as the others you have an excuse? These are all different approaches that someone may take in the face of a challenge and potential failure. There are many different theories and attributes associated with the fear of failure. The study of achievement motivation takes into account many of these attributes and gives us a theory on the fear of failure. ==== Achievement motivation ==== The need for achievement is a motive where people seek to do well, demonstrate competence, persist at challenges, and achieve skills. Seeking competence and persisting at challenges can have an outcome of either success or failure. As a result some people have a high need for achievement, whereas others don’t. This difference in need for achievement motivates people to adopt different behaviours – either approach or avoidance behaviours (Bartels, Magun-Jackson, & Ryan, 2010). ====Approach motivation==== People who have a high need for achievement approach challenging tasks in full force and experience enjoyment and pride on accomplishment. They also set goals that revolve around achieving and striving towards success and achievement. These individuals do not shy away from tasks and in the face of adversity, even after failure, they persistently try to achieve success and mastery over the challenge (Bartels et al., 2010) ====Avoidance motivation==== People who don’t have this high need for achievement tend to set goals to avoid these challenging tasks, feeling more anxiety then a sense of mastery or persistence. Fear of failure is a form of avoidance motivation where individuals avoid situations where their ability or competence may be judged (Bartels et al., 2010) For more information on avoidance motivation and avoidance behaviours, see the [[Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2013/Avoidance_motivation|avoidance motivation]] chapter of this book. ====Success oriented vs. fear of failure==== This theory is based on the study of achievement motivation and suggests that there are two factors that play a role in deciding who avoids failure due to fear and who chases success. These are success orientation and fear of failure (DeCastella, Byrne, & Covington, 2013). People who are success oriented show motivation to achieve success, resilience to failure, an enthusiasm for learning, a confidence in their own abilities and skills, and approach challenges. Fear of failure on the other hand shows itself as fear, anxiety, lack of confidence in one’s ability and avoidance behaviours. While initial research looked at success orientation and fear of failure as two separate dimensions (someone was either success oriented or had a fear of failure), Covington (1992) proposed a quadripolar model that suggests these two factors interact to give people different motivational profiles. There are four profiles that someone may have (DeCastella et al., 2013). Someone who is high in success orientation and low in their fear of failure is an optimist, whereas someone who has a high success orientation, but is also high in their fear of failure is an overstriver. Similarly, someone who is low in success orientation and high in their fear of failure is a self-protector and someone who is low in both success orientation and fear of failure is a failure acceptor (see Figure 1) (DeCastella et al., 2013). [[File:Quadripolar model.png|thumb|600px|center|Figure 1-Diagram of the Quadripolar Model showing fear of failure and success orientation. Based on DeCastella, Byrne, & Covington (2013)]] {{RoundBoxTop}} ===Perfectionism and fear of failure=== Perfectionism is a personality disposition where someone has extremely high and sometimes unrealistic standards for performance and therefore is highly critical in their self-evaluations of their own behaviour (Sagar, & Stoeber, 2009).In terms of success orientation and fear of failure, these people would be characterized as overstrivers. While some people view perfectionism as something that can help achieve success and bring out the most effort in people, other's see it as something that may lead to maladaptive behaviours and attitudes that undermine performance and limit development. Despite this, perfectionism is a multi-faceted concept. Sagar and Stoeber (2009) refer to two factors of perfectionism, which are # Positive striving perfectionism - personal standards, organisation, self-oriented perfectionism and other oriented perfectionism # Maladaptive evaluation concerns perfectionism - concern over mistakes, parental expectations, parental criticism, doubts about actions and socially prescribed perfectionism. Perfectionism has been related to fear of failure, especially in athletes. Sagar and Stoeber (2009) carried out a study where they looked at perfectionism, fear of failure and emotion towards success or failure. Participants were 388 athletes who were asked to fill out a questionnaire. The athletes were then given a success scenario and a failure scenario and were asked to imagine how they would feel had the scenario happened to them. They then filled out an affect questionnaire. Sagar and Stoeber measured four aspects of perfectionism - personal standards, concern over mistakes, perceived parental pressure and perceived coach pressure. Results showed that personal standards of perfectionism predicted lower fear of shame and embarrassment and more positive emotions after success, perceived coach pressure predicted higher fear of shame and embarrassment and more negative emotion after failure and both perceived coach pressure and parental pressure predicted a high fear of upsetting important others. Concern over mistakes was associated with high fear of failure altogether. These findings show that not all aspects of perfectionism are maladaptive and lead to a greater fear of failure, however some aspects are. It also shows that the fear of shame and embarrassment results in perfectionism leading to greater fear of failure overall (Sagar and Stoeber, 2009). {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Why do people fear failure?== Imagine a time when you faced potential failure. Were you afraid to fail? If so why? There are many reasons why people are afraid to fail including risk to self-worth, risk of shame and humiliation and risk of letting others down. ===Damaging effects to self-worth and self-acceptance=== Self worth theory (Covington, 1992; DeCastella, Byrne, & Covington, 2013) suggests that the search for self acceptance and a feeling of self-worth is a psychological need that all humans seek. Achievement and success is one way that people can acquire this from others and failure is a way it can be damaged. As a result people can develop either an orientation to approach success or a fear of failure. For many people, failure only indicates a lack of competence if it is accompanied by a lot of effort. If someone fails because they did not try, for instance, then the failure does not suggest that the person lacks the ability or talent to succeed, but rather that they just didn’t try. However, if a person fails and they put in all of their effort, then it is viewed as evidence that the person lacks the ability to succeed in that area. This way of thinking can lead to problematic behaviours such as [[w:Self-handicapping|self-handicapping]] ,[[w:Defensive pessimism|defensive pessimism]] , and [[w:Learned helplessness|helplessness]] (this is looked at further in the section [[Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2013/Fear_of_failure#Fear_of_failure_in_school|fear of failure in school]]). DeCastella et al., (2013) found that these problematic behaviours are used by people who fear failure as a way to protect their self-worth and maintain acceptance from others in the face of potential failure. ===Love withdrawal=== Another reason why people fear failure is that they have learnt to associate failure with disappointing the one’s they love and having that person’s affection withdrawn. This assumes that high fear of failure is associated with feelings of incompetence and an unworthiness to be loved. This leads to fear of the possible danger of being abandoned or having their loved ones withdraw affection from them because of their failure and mistakes. This can largely be explained in terms of child-parent interactions. A parent who is afraid to fail may display emotions, thoughts and behaviours towards their own children’s mistakes and failures that teach their children that mistakes and failure are to be avoided at all costs. Children then learn to fear failure, as they don’t want to let their parent down or lose their parent’s love (Elliot, & Thrash, 2004). Love withdrawal is looked at more closely in the [[Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2013/Fear_of_failure#Fear_of_failure_in_relationships|fear of failure in relationships]] section of this chapter. ===Shame and humiliation=== [[File:Sad Beauty.jpg|thumb|right]] One of the biggest contributors to fear of failure is said to be shame and humiliation. Elliot and Thrash (2004) argue that it is not fear of the failure itself, but rather of the shame and humiliation that often arises when someone fails, especially in front of others, that results in avoidance behaviour. Shame is a painful experience where one feels that they are a failure, stupid or lack ability and talent. Not only this, shame also involves an awareness that this self, the self who has just stuffed up is exposed before a real or imagined audience and is being judged (Elliot, & Thrash, 2004). The feelings of shame and humiliation are associated with failure and so people begin to fear failure as they do not want to experience such feelings. This leads to withdrawal and avoidance because people want to escape the presence of others who judge them and hide. This can lead to excuses, self-handicapping, quitting, helplessness and other forms of problematic behaviours, attitudes and feelings (Elliot, & Thrash, 2004). McGregor and Elliot (2005) looked at the likelihood of students to feel shame in general (shame-proneness) and found that increased shame-proneness was related to increased fear of failure. They also found that individuals who reported high fear of failure also reported greater shame and overgeneralized this shame to other areas. These individuals who had a high fear of failure also indicated that they would be less likely to tell their parents about a circumstance where they failed, but would tell them about success. These results show that shame and humiliation are central to the fear of failure (McGregor, & Elliot, 2005). ==The impact of fearing failure== The fear of failure is a motive that influences people's behaviour, cognitions and emotions. It can be related to increased amounts of anxiety, giving up, interpersonal problems, self-handicapping, giving up/disinterest, stress, negative emotions, and helplessness. Not only this, the achievements of people who fear failure are not as great as those who are success/approach oriented (Bartels, Magun-Jackson, & Ryan, 2010). Fear of failure in school and in relationships are two specific examples of the impact that fear of failure can have. ===Fear of failure in school=== School is an environment where achievement is highly sought and some of a student’s self worth comes from their ability to succeed. Failure and feelings of inadequacy can lead to shame, self-doubt and humiliation. As a way of controlling their feelings and protecting themselves from possible failure, students have been shown to exhibit maladaptive behaviours and attitudes including self-handicapping, defensive pessimism and helplessness (See Table 1) (DeCastella, Byrne, & Covington, 2013). {| class="wikitable" |- | Self-Handicapping || The cause of failure is given to a premeditated excuse rather than the person|| e.g. a student goes out the night before an exam, then if they don't do well, they can say it was because they had a late night |- | Defensive pessimism || Pessimistic expectations a person has of how they are going to do on a task || e.g. a student goes into an exam expecting the worst. That way if they do well, it's a pleasant surprise and if they don't do well, it's not as much of a blow |- | Helplessness || Attributions a person has, where they believe they have no control over the situation || e.g. a student believes they have no control over their grades or how well they do because they believe they're a failure and will always fail not matter what they do |} Table 1 - Self-protective behaviours and attitudes shown by students who are afraid to fail. Based on DeCastella et al., (2013). DeCastella et al., (2013) investigated the effects of fear of failure and success orientation on self-protective behaviours (self-handicapping, defensive pessimism and helplessness). 1423 Japanese students as well as 680 Australian students from different schools were asked to fill out questionnaires measuring these items along with disengagement (giving up on school/not caring), truancy (wagging school/skipping class) and academic achievement. They found that students with a high success orientation were less likely to self-handicap and use defensive pessimism. These students also had greater academic achievement and were more interested in school, with a lesser rate of truancy. Helplessness, self-handicapping, defensive pessimism, disengagement and truancy were all associated with a fear of failure; however, self-protectors (high fear of failure, low success orientation) had the highest rate of self-handicapping behaviour (DeCastella et al., 2013). The sad part about the results of this study though, is that the self-protective behaviours that students who are afraid to fail engage in often bring about the failure that they are trying to avoid in the first place. So while, initially these behaviours may protect a person’s sense of self worth, after awhile it brings about more failure. This then increases that person’s sense of self-doubt and the process keeps going. As a person run’s out of excuses, they soon see themselves as responsible for the failure, however they also see it as uncontrollable and inevitable and take on a sense of helplessness. In some cases, students will event drop out of school (DeCastella et al., 2013). These results do suggest that success oriented goal striving may serve as protection against the fear of failure. Similarly a study conducted by Bartels, Magun-Jackson & Ryan (2010), looked at the relationship of approach/avoidance motivation and strategies used by students to help themselves learn. They found that a need for achievement was associated with students displaying self-regulated learning strategies, whereas students who were afraid to fail used far less of these of these learning strategies, if any at all. For more information on self-handicapping, see the [[Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2013/Self-handicapping|self-handicapping]] chapter of this book ===Fear of failure in relationships=== {|class="wikitable floatright" style="width: 20%" |- | {{center top}}'''<big>Love Withdrawal</big>'''{{center bottom}} Love withdrawal occurs when a parent withdraws affection or creates a physical separation from their child in response to their child's undesirable behaviour, mistakes or failures. Some examples include * looking coldly at the child * turning away from the child * refusing to speak to or acknowledge the child * removing the child from the room or house or threatening removal * verbal expression of dislike for the child |} The relationship between parent and child is one factor that can influence a person’s fear of failure and one parenting practice often employed unknowingly or on purpose by parents is love withdrawal. When a parent fails and feels less worthy of love and acceptance and a decrease in self-worth, they treat a child in the same way when the child fails. This form of behaviour, however, signals to the child that undesirable behaviour, mistakes and failure results in the parent’s emotional or physical withdrawal. They let the parent down and love is withdrawn (Elliot, & Thrash, 2004). The children’s failures and success’ also have a direct impact onto the parent’s self-evaluations. For example, if a child is caught shop lifting, the parent may see the child’s mistake as a failure in their own parenting (Elliot, & Thrash, 2004). A study conducted by Elliot, & Thrash (2004) investigated parent and child fear of failure. Students were asked to fill out questionnaires assessing fear of failure and love withdrawal. Questionnaires were also sent to the participant’s parents to be filled out and returned. They found that students whose parents had a high fear of failure also had a high fear of failure. Mothers were afraid to fail, were also found to show greater amounts of love withdrawal. Students with these mothers had a greater fear of failure. This shows that love withdrawal in response to failure is associated with the development of fear of failure and that children internalise love withdrawal as failure (Bartels, Magun-Jackson, & Ryan, 2010). The results of this study are troubling as it shows that avoidance behaviours and fear of failure can be passed down through the generations. While, withdrawal of love may change a child’s behaviour in the short term, it may result in maladaptive behaviours in the future including helplessness in future relationships. Not only this, the child will take on their fear of failure into relationships with friends, work mates, romantic partners and their own children (Elliot, & Thrash, 2004). Wright, Pincus, Conroy & Elliot (2009), also examined the role that fear of failure played in regards to interpersonal relationships. They found that fear of failure could be associated to two different maladaptive social emotions that had interpersonal effects. These were appeasement (loss of status results in submissiveness) and shame-based rage (loss of status results in indignation and rage). Results showed that people with a high fear of failure exhibited interpersonal profiles that were associated with domineering/vindictiveness or non-assertive/ exploitable behaviours and attitudes. The results of these studies show what a big impact a fear of failure can have on a person's everyday relationships with other people. ==Overcoming the fear of failure== Despite the anxiety that fear of failure can cause an individual, many of us still have this very real fear. This fear may cause anxiety, self-protective behaviours and result in withdrawal from challenges. Most of all, avoidance behaviours due to a fear of failure prevent us from achieving our full potential and striving for success (Martin, & Marsh, 2003). So, how can we overcome the fear of failure? As we have seen already in this chapter, the fear of failure revolves mostly around negative thought patterns and feelings associated with failure. Rather than focus on the positive opportunities that challenges bring like success oriented people, people who have a fear of failure tend to focus on the negative aspects, what they may lose from failing and their own belief that they are limited or unable to achieve (DeCastella, Byrne, & Covington, 2013). One way of overcoming fear of failure would be to alter our thought patterns and attitudes so that they are more success oriented (Martin, & Marsh, 2003). Martin and Marsh (2003) identified four aspects that people need for success orientation. They are... # Self-belief is associated with persistence and effort, even in the face of failure. It is the belief and confidence in your ability to understand, do well, meet the challenges you face and perform to the best of your ability. # Value or importance of the task is associated with engagement and interest. It is the belief that what you are doing is useful, that you can get something out of it # Learning focus is the focus on mastering a task and your effort rather than outperforming others and success # Control is associated with persistence, attention, effort and participation. It is the extent to which you believe you can avoid failure and achieve success and that this result is in your control. Based on these principles of success orientation proposed by Martin and Marsh (2003), here are some tips you can apply to help overcome your fear of failure {{Robelbox|theme={{{theme|9}}}|title=Overcoming the fear of failure}} <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> ===Tips=== #'''Maximize your opportunities or possibility for success''' by making work or tasks manageable and working on time management. E.g.start assignments early so that they are manageable and the self-handicapping behaviour stops). As you use your time effectively and begin to achieve and succeed in tasks, you will find that self-belief increases # '''Change the negative thoughts to positive ones.''' If you find yourself start to think negatively, make an effort to change it to a positive thought. E.g. If you find yourself struggling with a task instead of thinking 'I can't do this because I'm not smart', think 'this challenge is difficult, how can I find another way to master it?' # '''Don't give up, keep trying.''' Even when a challenge is difficult or you find yourself failing, think about ways that you can go about it differently # '''Find importance and purpose in the challenges you face.''' How is this task relevant to you? Find importance and relevance in what you are doing, even if you end up failing, what is this task going to teach you? Will you learn from it? Grow from it? # '''Focus on learning and developing skills rather than success.''' Achievement comes as you learn and develop new skills, not from final success. If you are learning something or you are more competent in a skill today then you were yesterday, then you have achieved something! # '''Focus on your effort not achievement.''' If you failed, but you developed new skills or you've developed in the process, then you've won. Every bit of effort you put in is success # '''Focus on causes of failure that are within your control.''' E.g. you can control the amount of time you spend studying or the amount of practice you do for sport. # '''Think of things you can improve on.''' Learn from previous failures and experience by noting things you need to improve on. Work towards improving these things so that next time you are more prepared. # '''Set goals.''' Break down each task or challenge into smaller parts and set goals of what you would like to achieve. # '''Use reinforcement.''' Reward yourself, your kids, your partner etc. for effort alone. Based on Martin and Marsh (2003) </div> {{Robelbox/close}} ==Conclusion - the positive side to failing== While many people fear failure and see failure as negative, it is not always so. There is a positive side to failure if you look hard enough. Failure helps us to learn, grow, improve, prepares us for future challenges and enables us to be persistent (Martin, & Marsh, 2003).A lot of us would not be who we are today or where we are if we had not made mistakes and learnt from them along the way. It is important that we don't let the fear of failure limit us by making us give up or stop trying. In every mistake, look for what you can learn and how you can improve for next time. Most of all, don't give up! {| class="wikitable" style="float: center; width: 60%; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto" |- | At the beginning of the chapter, four examples were given of people who experienced failure first hand. Well here's what happened. The boy who got cut from his high school basketball team was Michael Jordon, the man who was fired for 'lacking imagination' was Walt Disney, the band who were turned down by the record company was the Beatles and the author who was rejected was J.K Rowling (White, 1978). These people didn't let the fear of failure get the best of them and they didn't give up in the face of failure. Neither should you. |} ==See also== [[Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2013/Avoidance_motivation|Avoidance Motivation]] [[Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2013/Fear_of_success|Fear of Success]] [[Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2013/Self-handicapping|Self-handicapping]] [[Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2013/Fear|Fear]] [[Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2013/Failure_and_happiness|Failure and Happiness]] ==References== <div style="padding-left: 2em; text-indent: -2em"> Bartels, J.M., Magun-Jackson, S., & Ryan J.J.(2010). Dispositional approach-avoidance achievement motivation and cognitive self-regulated learning: the mediation of achievement goals. ''Individual Differences Research, 8(2)'', 97-110. Retrieved from http://web.ebscohost.com.ezproxy1.canberra.edu.au/ehost/detail?vid=3&sid=c76b931b-041c-4dd4-902b-b8c02dcaf70a%40sessionmgr15&hid=1&bdata=#db=a9h&AN=51789603 Covington, M.V.(1992). ''Making the grade: A self-worth perspective on motivation and school reform''. Cambridge, England:Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9781139173582 DeCastella,K., Byrne, D., & Covington, M.(2013). Unmotivated or motivated to fail? A cross-cultural study of achievement motivation, fear of failure, and student disengagement. ''Journal of Educational Psychology, 105(3)'', 861-880. doi:10.1037/a0032464 Elliot, A.J., & Thrash, T.M.(2004). The intergenerational transmission of fear of failure. ''Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 30(8)'', 957-971. doi:10.1177/0146167203262024 Martin, A.J.,& Marsh, H.W.(2003). Fear of failure:Friend or foe? ''Australian Psychologist, 38'', 31-38. doi:10.1080/00050060310001706997 McGregor, H.A., & Elliot, A.J.(2005). The shame of failure: Examining the link between fear of failure and shame. ''Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31(2)'', 218-231. doi:10.1177/0146167204271420 Sagar, S.S., & Stoeber,J.(2009). Perfectionism, fear of failure, and affective responses to success and failure:The central role of fear of experiencing shame and embarrassment. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 31(5), 602-627. Retrieved from http://web.ebscohost.com.ezproxy1.canberra.edu.au/ehost/detail?vid=6&sid=9ce6eb4a-9a1e-4267-9de1-5af9fdef08b5%40sessionmgr15&hid=1&bdata=#db=psyh&AN=2009-16713-002 White, J.(1978). ''Rejection''. Boston:Addison-Wesley Publishing Wright, A.G., Pincus, A.L., Conroy, D.E., & Elliot, A.J.(2009). The pathoplastic relationship between interpersonal problems and fear of failure. ''Journal of Personality, 77(4)'', 997-1024. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-6494.2009.00572.x </div> [[Category:Motivation and emotion|{{SUBPAGENAME}}]] l30evnbq2q9lwm36pa6xapq5qb5mz5o 4 159012 2832785 2821513 2026-09-11T08:37:15Z MediaWiki message delivery 983498 /* This Month in GLAM: August 2026 */ new section 2832785 wikitext text/x-wiki == Archives == * [[Outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/Archives]] == ''This Month in GLAM'': January 2025 == {| style="width:100%;" | valign="top" align="center" style="border:1px gray solid; padding:1em;" | {| align="center" |- | style="text-align: center;" | [[File:This Month in GLAM logo 2018.png|350px|center|link=outreach:GLAM/Newsletter]]<br /> <hr /> <div style="font-size:12pt; font-family:Times New Roman; text-align:center;">[[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/January 2025|<span style="color:darkslategray;">This Month in GLAM – Volume XV, Issue I, January 2025</span>]]</div> <hr /><br /> |- style="text-align: center;" | <span style="font-size:12pt; font-family:Times New Roman;"> '''<u>Headlines</u>'''</span> |- style="font-size:10pt; font-family:Times New Roman; text-align:center;" | <div style="text-align:left; column-count:2; column-width:28em; vertical-align:top;"> * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/January 2025/Contents/Africa report|Africa report]]: Guinea-Bissau Heritage from Commons to the World * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/January 2025/Contents/Albania report|Albania report]]: Wikimedian in Residence at the Qemal Baholli Public Library in Elbasan (October - December 2024) * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/January 2025/Contents/Aruba report|Aruba report]]: Wikipedia on Aruba project has officially begun! * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/January 2025/Contents/Brazil report|Brazil report]]: Wiki Loves Maranhão * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/January 2025/Contents/Germany report|Germany report]]: Exploring Wikidata & Building Community for Cultural Heritage Professionals * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/January 2025/Contents/Indonesia report|Indonesia report]]: Celebrating Public Domain Day 2025 in Indonesia * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/January 2025/Contents/Italy report|Italy report]]: New Wikimedia Italia Grant for GLAMs * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/January 2025/Contents/Netherlands report|Netherlands report]]: 3 Million Dutch Cultural Heritage Images in Commons & 400,000 RCE images now in higher resolution & Usage of DBNL in Dutch Wikipedia articles * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/January 2025/Contents/New Zealand report|New Zealand report]]: Student led Edit-a-thon * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/January 2025/Contents/Poland report|Poland report]]: GLAM-Wiki 2024 in Poland: Achievements, Collaborations, and Impact * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/January 2025/Contents/Serbia report|Serbia report]]: Wikimedia Serbia: Advancing GLAM collaborations and digital heritage * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/January 2025/Contents/Switzerland report|Switzerland report]]: Swiss GLAM Programme * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/January 2025/Contents/UK report|UK report]]: Cairo Geniza * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/January 2025/Contents/USA report|USA report]]: Wikipedia Day * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/January 2025/Contents/Biodiversity Heritage Library report|Biodiversity Heritage Library report]]: BHL-Wiki Working Group January monthly highlights * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/January 2025/Contents/Special story|Special story]]: Join the Global GLAM Call – Tuesday, February 11th, 13:30 UTC! * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/January 2025/Contents/Memory of the World report|Memory of the World report]]: To the front page! * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/January 2025/Contents/Wikidata report|Wikidata report]]: Wikidata at WikiLibCon 2025 * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/January 2025/Contents/Events|Calendar]]: February's GLAM events </div> |- | style="font-family:Times New Roman; text-align:center; font-size:85%;" | [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter|Read this edition in full]] &bull; [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/January 2025/Single|Single-page]] |- | valign="top" colspan="2" style="padding:0.5em; font-family:Times New Roman;text-align:center; font-size:85%;" | To assist with preparing the newsletter, please visit the [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/Newsroom|newsroom]]. Past editions may be viewed [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/Archives|here]]. |- |} |} <div style="margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;">[[m:GLAM/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in GLAM'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/GLAM|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · [[:m:User:Romaine|Romaine]] 23:23, 9 February 2025 (UTC)</div> <!-- Message sent by User:Romaine@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/GLAM&oldid=28125057 --> == ''This Month in GLAM'': February 2025 == {| style="width:100%;" | valign="top" align="center" style="border:1px gray solid; padding:1em;" | {| align="center" |- | style="text-align: center;" | [[File:This Month in GLAM logo 2018.png|350px|center|link=outreach:GLAM/Newsletter]]<br /> <hr /> <div style="font-size:12pt; font-family:Times New Roman; text-align:center;">[[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/February 2025|<span style="color:darkslategray;">This Month in GLAM – Volume XV, Issue II, February 2025</span>]]</div> <hr /><br /> |- style="text-align: center;" | <span style="font-size:12pt; font-family:Times New Roman;"> '''<u>Headlines</u>'''</span> |- style="font-size:10pt; font-family:Times New Roman; text-align:center;" | <div style="text-align:left; column-count:2; column-width:28em; vertical-align:top;"> * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/February 2025/Contents/Albania report|Albania report]]: Celebrating the English Wikipedia’s Birthday in Albania! * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/February 2025/Contents/Belgium report|Belgium report]]: Belgium Public Domain Day and Dance Heritage * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/February 2025/Contents/Brazil report|Brazil report]]: Wiki and COP30 in the Amazon rainforest * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/February 2025/Contents/Germany report|Germany report]]: GLAM digital and seminar on Jewish life * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/February 2025/Contents/Italy report|Italy report]]: GLAM call and Progetto cultura * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/February 2025/Contents/Netherlands report|Netherlands report]]: [GLAM metrics] Usage of Delpher in Dutch Wikipedia articles * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/February 2025/Contents/New Zealand report|New Zealand report]]: Wikipedia podcast episode, Trilepidea newsletter article, and the Wikipedian at Large * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/February 2025/Contents/Macedonia report|North Macedonia report]]: Wikimedia MKD GLAM program for 2025 * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/February 2025/Contents/Poland report|Poland report]]: What's up in GLAM in Poland * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/February 2025/Contents/Switzerland report|Switzerland report]]: Swiss GLAM Programme * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/February 2025/Contents/UK report|UK report]]: Islamic and Jewish history * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/February 2025/Contents/Ukraine report|Ukraine report]]: GLAM news from Ukraine – events for libraries, #1Lib1Ref, launch of a larger GLAM product * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/February 2025/Contents/USA report|USA report]]: February meetings * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/February 2025/Contents/Biodiversity Heritage Library report|Biodiversity Heritage Library report]]: BHL-Wiki Working Group February monthly highlights * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/February 2025/Contents/AvoinGLAM report|AvoinGLAM report]]: Connecting Media Art Archives * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/February 2025/Contents/Memory of the World report|Memory of the World report]]: 5.1 million image views * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/February 2025/Contents/Wikidata report|Wikidata report]]: Wikidata event: Data Reuse Days 2025 * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/February 2025/Contents/Wikisource report|Wikisource report]]: Wikisource Conference 2025 * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/February 2025/Contents/Wikimedia and Libraries User Group report|Wikimedia and Libraries User Group report]]: Wikimedia + Libraries International Convention 2025 * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/February 2025/Contents/Events|Calendar]]: March's GLAM events </div> |- | style="font-family:Times New Roman; text-align:center; font-size:85%;" | [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter|Read this edition in full]] &bull; [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/February 2025/Single|Single-page]] |- | valign="top" colspan="2" style="padding:0.5em; font-family:Times New Roman;text-align:center; font-size:85%;" | To assist with preparing the newsletter, please visit the [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/Newsroom|newsroom]]. Past editions may be viewed [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/Archives|here]]. |- |} |} <div style="margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;">[[m:GLAM/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in GLAM'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/GLAM|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · [[:m:User:Romaine|Romaine]] 16:51, 10 March 2025 (UTC)</div> <!-- Message sent by User:Romaine@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/GLAM&oldid=28357408 --> == ''This Month in GLAM'': March 2025 == {| style="width:100%;" | valign="top" align="center" style="border:1px gray solid; padding:1em;" | {| align="center" |- | style="text-align: center;" | [[File:This Month in GLAM logo 2018.png|350px|center|link=outreach:GLAM/Newsletter]]<br /> <hr /> <div style="font-size:12pt; font-family:Times New Roman; text-align:center;">[[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/March 2025|<span style="color:darkslategray;">This Month in GLAM – Volume XV, Issue III, March 2025</span>]]</div> <hr /><br /> |- style="text-align: center;" | <span style="font-size:12pt; font-family:Times New Roman;"> '''<u>Headlines</u>'''</span> |- style="font-size:10pt; font-family:Times New Roman; text-align:center;" | <div style="text-align:left; column-count:2; column-width:28em; vertical-align:top;"> * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/March 2025/Contents/Albania report|Albania report]]: WikiGap in Albania 2025, and essential initiatives for free knowledge * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/March 2025/Contents/Argentina report|Argentina report]]: Archives and Human Rights activities * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/March 2025/Contents/Belgium report|Belgium report]]: International Women's Day, Wikipedia officially recognised as Digital Public Good and invitation for the General Assembly * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/March 2025/Contents/Brazil report|Brazil report]]: Every Book Its Reader is coming * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/March 2025/Contents/Czech Republic report|Czech Republic report]]: New Horizons of Czech GLAM Partnerships in 2025 * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/March 2025/Contents/France report|France report]]: Archivist Forum 2025 * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/March 2025/Contents/Italy report|Italy report]]: Ten winners of Wikimedia Italia 2025 GLAM call * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/March 2025/Contents/Netherlands report|Netherlands report]]: International Womensday; New Wikimedian in Residence at Maastricht University * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/March 2025/Contents/New Zealand report|New Zealand report]]: What's on at Auckland Museum, and International Women's Day at University of Otago * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/March 2025/Contents/Nigeria report|Nigeria report]]: GLAM in Africa, a Nigerian narrative in knowledge decolonization a case study of Benin City * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/March 2025/Contents/Poland report|Poland report]]: What's up in GLAM in Poland * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/March 2025/Contents/Switzerland report|Switzerland report]]: Switzerland report * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/March 2025/Contents/UK report|UK report]]: Gold in Bengali and Diversity in Arabic * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/March 2025/Contents/USA report|USA report]]: Women's History month * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/March 2025/Contents/Biodiversity Heritage Library report|Biodiversity Heritage Library report]]: BHL-Wiki Working Group March monthly highlights * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/March 2025/Contents/Memory of the World report|Memory of the World report]]: Manuscripts of Mali * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/March 2025/Contents/Structured Data on Wikimedia Commons report|Structured Data on Wikimedia Commons report]]: Creating an OpenRefine Wikimedia Group * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/March 2025/Contents/Events|Calendar]]: April's GLAM events </div> |- | style="font-family:Times New Roman; text-align:center; font-size:85%;" | [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter|Read this edition in full]] &bull; [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/March 2025/Single|Single-page]] |- | valign="top" colspan="2" style="padding:0.5em; font-family:Times New Roman;text-align:center; font-size:85%;" | To assist with preparing the newsletter, please visit the [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/Newsroom|newsroom]]. Past editions may be viewed [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/Archives|here]]. |- |} |} <div style="margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;">[[m:GLAM/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in GLAM'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/GLAM|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · [[:m:User:Romaine|Romaine]] 09:00, 9 April 2025 (UTC)</div> <!-- Message sent by User:Romaine@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/GLAM&oldid=28408819 --> == ''This Month in GLAM'': April 2025 == {| style="width:100%;" | valign="top" align="center" style="border:1px gray solid; padding:1em;" | {| align="center" |- | style="text-align: center;" | [[File:This Month in GLAM logo 2018.png|350px|center|link=outreach:GLAM/Newsletter]]<br /> <hr /> <div style="font-size:12pt; font-family:Times New Roman; text-align:center;">[[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/April 2025|<span style="color:darkslategray;">This Month in GLAM – Volume XV, Issue IV, April 2025</span>]]</div> <hr /><br /> |- style="text-align: center;" | <span style="font-size:12pt; font-family:Times New Roman;"> '''<u>Headlines</u>'''</span> |- style="font-size:10pt; font-family:Times New Roman; text-align:center;" | <div style="text-align:left; column-count:2; column-width:28em; vertical-align:top;"> * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/April 2025/Contents/Albania report|Albania report]]: Wikipedia Event for International Roma Day 2025 * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/April 2025/Contents/Australia report|Australia report]]: Highlighting Feminist and women's histories and a Wiki Day at the South Australian Museum * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/April 2025/Contents/Catalan areas report|Catalan areas report]]: Campaign to document the 2025 Falla monuments in Valencia * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/April 2025/Contents/Italy report|Italy report]]: Wikidata and Research * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/April 2025/Contents/Netherlands report|Netherlands report]]: Open Collection Highlights * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/April 2025/Contents/New Zealand report|New Zealand report]]: Women in Architecture, BHL, and the Commons Workflow * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/April 2025/Contents/Nigeria report|Nigeria report]]: Strengthening Cultural Heritage through Partnerships and Knowledge Sharing: Insights from World Heritage Day in Nigeria * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/April 2025/Contents/Macedonia report|North Macedonia report]]: Wikimedia MKD's new GLAM collaborations and activities * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/April 2025/Contents/Poland report|Poland report]]: What's up in GLAM in Poland * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/April 2025/Contents/Portugal report|Portugal report]]: Scholarships and Call for Sessions Proposals for GLAM Wiki 2025 will open soon: Stay tuned! * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/April 2025/Contents/Serbia report|Serbia report]]: GLAM Highlights from Serbia * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/April 2025/Contents/Switzerland report|Switzerland report]]: FemNetzCon 2025; GLAM Meeting Biel/Bienne; Digi Archive * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/April 2025/Contents/UK report|UK report]]: Mapping Museums / Art in Arabic * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/April 2025/Contents/USA report|USA report]]: April meetings * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/April 2025/Contents/Biodiversity Heritage Library report|Biodiversity Heritage Library report]]: BHL-Wiki Working Group April monthly highlights * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/April 2025/Contents/Memory of the World report|Memory of the World report]]: Surging forward in Spanish and Arabic * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/April 2025/Contents/Events|Calendar]]: May's GLAM events </div> |- | style="font-family:Times New Roman; text-align:center; font-size:85%;" | [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter|Read this edition in full]] &bull; [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/April 2025/Single|Single-page]] |- | valign="top" colspan="2" style="padding:0.5em; font-family:Times New Roman;text-align:center; font-size:85%;" | To assist with preparing the newsletter, please visit the [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/Newsroom|newsroom]]. Past editions may be viewed [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/Archives|here]]. |- |} |} <div style="margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;">[[m:GLAM/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in GLAM'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/GLAM|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · [[:m:User:Romaine|Romaine]] 20:53, 11 May 2025 (UTC)</div> <!-- Message sent by User:Romaine@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/GLAM&oldid=28668932 --> == ''This Month in GLAM'': May 2025 == {| style="width:100%;" | valign="top" align="center" style="border:1px gray solid; padding:1em;" | {| align="center" |- | style="text-align: center;" | [[File:This Month in GLAM logo 2018.png|350px|center|link=outreach:GLAM/Newsletter]]<br /> <hr /> <div style="font-size:12pt; font-family:Times New Roman; text-align:center;">[[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/May 2025|<span style="color:darkslategray;">This Month in GLAM – Volume XV, Issue V, May 2025</span>]]</div> <hr /><br /> |- style="text-align: center;" | <span style="font-size:12pt; font-family:Times New Roman;"> '''<u>Headlines</u>'''</span> |- style="font-size:10pt; font-family:Times New Roman; text-align:center;" | <div style="text-align:left; column-count:2; column-width:28em; vertical-align:top;"> * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/May 2025/Contents/Albania report|Albania report]]: Enhancing the LGBTQ+ content in Albanian Wikipedia * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/May 2025/Contents/Belgium report|Belgium report]]: Belgium Public Domain Day and Dance Heritage * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/May 2025/Contents/Brazil report|Brazil report]]: Video resource on Wikimedia Brasil and Casa de Oswaldo Cruz Partnership Released * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/May 2025/Contents/Croatia report|Croatia report]]: SPRINGing back activities * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/May 2025/Contents/Czech Republic report|Czech Republic report]]: National Library of the CR events and important guests * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/May 2025/Contents/Europe report|Europe report]]: DARIAH DHwiki WG coming activity * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/May 2025/Contents/India report|India report]]: GLAM project starts with Nanda Talukdar Foundation at Jorhat, Assam * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/May 2025/Contents/Indonesia report|Indonesia report]]: GLAM Wiki Month 2025 in Indonesia * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/May 2025/Contents/Italy report|Italy report]]: From charts to concrete * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/May 2025/Contents/Kosovo report|Kosovo report]]: Traditional Albanian Food Photography Competition 2025 * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/May 2025/Contents/New Zealand report|New Zealand report]]: Update from Auckland Museum; Let the Wikifying Commence; Listful Thinking * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/May 2025/Contents/Nigeria report|Nigeria report]]: Architectural Folklore Campaign Series * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/May 2025/Contents/Poland report|Poland report]]: What's up in GLAM in Poland * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/May 2025/Contents/Serbia report|Serbia report]]: Celebrating Museums and strengthening #1Lib1Ref connections * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/May 2025/Contents/Spain report|Spain report]]: Some news from Spain * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/May 2025/Contents/Switzerland report|Switzerland report]]: International Museum Day 2025; CoCreation PTT-Archive; Scoring Girls * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/May 2025/Contents/UK report|UK report]]: The 18th language * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/May 2025/Contents/Ukraine report|Ukraine report]]: Spring GLAM news from Ukraine – first major survey for GLAM institutions & yet another successful #1Lib1Ref * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/May 2025/Contents/USA report|USA report]]: May meetings * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/May 2025/Contents/Biodiversity Heritage Library report|Biodiversity Heritage Library report]]: BHL-Wiki Working Group May monthly highlights * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/May 2025/Contents/Memory of the World report|Memory of the World report]]: Preparing the data upload * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/May 2025/Contents/Events|Calendar]]: June's GLAM events </div> |- | style="font-family:Times New Roman; text-align:center; font-size:85%;" | [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter|Read this edition in full]] &bull; [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/May 2025/Single|Single-page]] |- | valign="top" colspan="2" style="padding:0.5em; font-family:Times New Roman;text-align:center; font-size:85%;" | To assist with preparing the newsletter, please visit the [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/Newsroom|newsroom]]. Past editions may be viewed [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/Archives|here]]. |- |} |} <div style="margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;">[[m:GLAM/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in GLAM'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/GLAM|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · [[:m:User:Romaine|Romaine]] 06:00, 10 June 2025 (UTC)</div> <!-- Message sent by User:Romaine@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/GLAM&oldid=28809506 --> == ''This Month in GLAM'': June 2025 == {| style="width:100%;" | valign="top" align="center" style="border:1px gray solid; padding:1em;" | {| align="center" |- | style="text-align: center;" | [[File:This Month in GLAM logo 2018.png|350px|center|link=outreach:GLAM/Newsletter]]<br /> <hr /> <div style="font-size:12pt; font-family:Times New Roman; text-align:center;">[[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/June 2025|<span style="color:darkslategray;">This Month in GLAM – Volume XV, Issue VI, June 2025</span>]]</div> <hr /><br /> |- style="text-align: center;" | <span style="font-size:12pt; font-family:Times New Roman;"> '''<u>Headlines</u>'''</span> |- style="font-size:10pt; font-family:Times New Roman; text-align:center;" | <div style="text-align:left; column-count:2; column-width:28em; vertical-align:top;"> * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/June 2025/Contents/Australia report|Australia report]]: Celebrating Communication History and Women Artists through Wikipedia * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/June 2025/Contents/Belgium report|Belgium report]]: Public Domain Day in Europe 2026 * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/June 2025/Contents/Brazil report|Brazil report]]: Expanding Data on Maranhão's Heritage * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/June 2025/Contents/Czech Republic report|Czech Republic report]]: First call of Science Month at Wikipedia in the Czech Republic wrapped-up * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/June 2025/Contents/France report|France report]]: WiR and science&GLAM tour in France * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/June 2025/Contents/Indonesia report|Indonesia report]]: Another publication from Grant for GLAM Indonesia program & Minangkabau Wikisource Competition upadates * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/June 2025/Contents/Italy report|Italy report]]: Isoseismals & Icons * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/June 2025/Contents/Kosovo report|Kosovo report]]: Celebrating Albanian Cuisine Through Photography: Winners of the 2025 Contest Announced! * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/June 2025/Contents/Mexico report|Mexico report]]: Open Cultural Data Hackathon in Puebla * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/June 2025/Contents/New Zealand report|New Zealand report]]: Wikifying the International Congress of History of Science and Technology; Librarians and Wikipedia; NZ species edit-a-thons * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/June 2025/Contents/Nigeria report|Nigeria report]]: Mapping Heritage Buildings on Wikidata and Wiki Heritage Fellowship * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/June 2025/Contents/Macedonia report|North Macedonia report]]: Wikimedia MKD Strengthens Ties with Academic Institutions: A Wikimedian-in-Residence at the Institute of Macedonian Literature * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/June 2025/Contents/Poland report|Poland report]]: What's up in GLAM in Poland * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/June 2025/Contents/Portugal report|Portugal report]]: Registration is now open for GLAM WikiCon 2025! * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/June 2025/Contents/Serbia report|Serbia report]]: June highlights from Wikimedia Serbia and beginning of new accredited seminar * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/June 2025/Contents/Switzerland report|Switzerland report]]: International Archives Week 2025; SAPA Performing Arts; GLAM Meeting Biel/Bienne * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/June 2025/Contents/UK report|UK report]]: New Featured Pictures * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/June 2025/Contents/USA report|USA report]]: June meetings * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/June 2025/Contents/Biodiversity Heritage Library report|Biodiversity Heritage Library report]]: BHL Transition update, LivingData2025 and Women Genera paper * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/June 2025/Contents/Memory of the World report|Memory of the World report]]: Data upload achieved * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/June 2025/Contents/Wiki Knowledge Park report|Wiki Loves Ramadan 2025 report]]: Celebrating Heritage and Faith: Wiki Loves Ramadan 2025 * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/June 2025/Contents/Events|Calendar]]: July's GLAM events </div> |- | style="font-family:Times New Roman; text-align:center; font-size:85%;" | [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter|Read this edition in full]] &bull; [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/June 2025/Single|Single-page]] |- | valign="top" colspan="2" style="padding:0.5em; font-family:Times New Roman;text-align:center; font-size:85%;" | To assist with preparing the newsletter, please visit the [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/Newsroom|newsroom]]. Past editions may be viewed [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/Archives|here]]. |- |} |} <div style="margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;">[[m:GLAM/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in GLAM'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/GLAM|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · [[:m:User:Romaine|Romaine]] 15:34, 12 July 2025 (UTC)</div> <!-- Message sent by User:Romaine@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/GLAM&oldid=28966332 --> == ''This Month in GLAM'': July 2025 == {| style="width:100%;" | valign="top" align="center" style="border:1px gray solid; padding:1em;" | {| align="center" |- | style="text-align: center;" | [[File:This Month in GLAM logo 2018.png|350px|center|link=outreach:GLAM/Newsletter]]<br /> <hr /> <div style="font-size:12pt; font-family:Times New Roman; text-align:center;">[[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/July 2025|<span style="color:darkslategray;">This Month in GLAM – Volume XV, Issue VII, July 2025</span>]]</div> <hr /><br /> |- style="text-align: center;" | <span style="font-size:12pt; font-family:Times New Roman;"> '''<u>Headlines</u>'''</span> |- style="font-size:10pt; font-family:Times New Roman; text-align:center;" | <div style="text-align:left; column-count:2; column-width:28em; vertical-align:top;"> * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/July 2025/Contents/Albania report|Albania report]]: 10 years of Wikimedians of Albanian Language User Group * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/July 2025/Contents/Aruba report|Aruba report]]: Wikipedia on Aruba – From Island to Archive: Aruba’s Journey on Wikimedia * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/July 2025/Contents/Belgium report|Belgium report]]: De Standaard Solidarity Prize and How to Upload Artwork * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/July 2025/Contents/New Zealand report|New Zealand report]]: Women in Wartime * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/July 2025/Contents/Nigeria report|Nigeria report]]: Expanding Access to Heritage Knowledge * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/July 2025/Contents/Portugal report|Portugal report]]: GLAM Wiki 2025: Program Highlights & Volunteer Call * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/July 2025/Contents/Serbia report|Serbia report]]: July in Wikimedia Serbia * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/July 2025/Contents/Switzerland report|Switzerland report]]: Poster Exhibition, Screening Public Viewing, Women Memorials * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/July 2025/Contents/UK report|UK report]]: Japanese art in Arabic * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/July 2025/Contents/USA report|USA report]]: Wikinics & Edit-a-thons * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/July 2025/Contents/Biodiversity Heritage Library report|Biodiversity Heritage Library report]]: BHL blog by Tiago Lubiana, BHL Wikimedian in Residence, and news on the BHL transition * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/July 2025/Contents/AvoinGLAM report|AvoinGLAM report]]: Introducing Oulu Löyly – we want to hear your thoughts! * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/July 2025/Contents/Memory of the World report|Memory of the World report]]: Getting the message out * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/July 2025/Contents/WMF GLAM report|WMF GLAM report]]: Culture & Heritage team transitioning to broader Content Enablement team * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/July 2025/Contents/Events|Calendar]]: August's GLAM events </div> |- | style="font-family:Times New Roman; text-align:center; font-size:85%;" | [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter|Read this edition in full]] &bull; [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/July 2025/Single|Single-page]] |- | valign="top" colspan="2" style="padding:0.5em; font-family:Times New Roman;text-align:center; font-size:85%;" | To assist with preparing the newsletter, please visit the [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/Newsroom|newsroom]]. Past editions may be viewed [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/Archives|here]]. |- |} |} <div style="margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;">[[m:GLAM/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in GLAM'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/GLAM|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · [[:m:User:Romaine|Romaine]] 19:58, 11 August 2025 (UTC)</div> <!-- Message sent by User:Romaine@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/GLAM&oldid=29083949 --> == ''This Month in GLAM'': August 2025 == {| style="width:100%;" | valign="top" align="center" style="border:1px gray solid; padding:1em;" | {| align="center" |- | style="text-align: center;" | [[File:This Month in GLAM logo 2018.png|350px|center|link=outreach:GLAM/Newsletter]]<br /> <hr /> <div style="font-size:12pt; font-family:Times New Roman; text-align:center;">[[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/August 2025|<span style="color:darkslategray;">This Month in GLAM – Volume XV, Issue VIII, August 2025</span>]]</div> <hr /><br /> |- style="text-align: center;" | <span style="font-size:12pt; font-family:Times New Roman;"> '''<u>Headlines</u>'''</span> |- style="font-size:10pt; font-family:Times New Roman; text-align:center;" | <div style="text-align:left; column-count:2; column-width:28em; vertical-align:top;"> * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/August 2025/Contents/Albania report|Albania report]]: Wikipedia Pages Wanting Photos campaign 2025 in Albania and Kosovo * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/August 2025/Contents/Brazil report|Brazil report]]: Expanding Cultural Heritage in Brazil: School communities, Wikisource course, GLAM-Wiki Impact and Wiki Takes Alcântara * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/August 2025/Contents/India report|India report]]: Digitization starts at two more libraries in West Bengal * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/August 2025/Contents/Indonesia report|Indonesia report]]: Grant for GLAM Indonesia is open! * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/August 2025/Contents/Italy report|Italy report]]: From food festivals to PhD courses: Wikimedia in Italian academia * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/August 2025/Contents/New Zealand report|New Zealand report]]: NZ species edit-a-thons, a scholarly article, a course, and Auckland Museum editors at Wikimania * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/August 2025/Contents/Nigeria report|Nigeria report]]: Highlights from Wiki Heritage Fellowship and Policy Advocacy in Nigeria * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/August 2025/Contents/Macedonia report|North Macedonia report]]: Wiki Loves Film – Collaboration with MakeDox Film Festival * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/August 2025/Contents/Poland report|Poland report]]: WikiChełmoński: When Wikipedia Becomes a Guide in the Museum * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/August 2025/Contents/Switzerland report|Switzerland report]]: BAM Hackathon, 3D for Cultural Heritage, Wiki Cite * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/August 2025/Contents/UK report|UK report]]: Working towards more image sharing * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/August 2025/Contents/USA report|USA report]]: Wiknics * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/August 2025/Contents/Biodiversity Heritage Library report|Biodiversity Heritage Library report]]: News on BHL transition and updates on work by BHLWiki Working Group members * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/August 2025/Contents/AvoinGLAM report|AvoinGLAM report]]: Steps towards a sustainable cultural commons * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/August 2025/Contents/Memory of the World report|Memory of the World report]]: A pivotal month * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/August 2025/Contents/Wikisource report|Wikisource report]]: Wikisource Reader app released on Google Play Store * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/August 2025/Contents/Events|Calendar]]: September's GLAM events </div> |- | style="font-family:Times New Roman; text-align:center; font-size:85%;" | [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter|Read this edition in full]] &bull; [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/August 2025/Single|Single-page]] |- | valign="top" colspan="2" style="padding:0.5em; font-family:Times New Roman;text-align:center; font-size:85%;" | To assist with preparing the newsletter, please visit the [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/Newsroom|newsroom]]. Past editions may be viewed [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/Archives|here]]. |- |} |} <div style="margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;">[[m:GLAM/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in GLAM'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/GLAM|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · [[:m:User:Romaine|Romaine]] 18:24, 11 September 2025 (UTC)</div> <!-- Message sent by User:Romaine@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/GLAM&oldid=29253474 --> == ''This Month in GLAM'': September 2025 == {| style="width:100%;" | valign="top" align="center" style="border:1px gray solid; padding:1em;" | {| align="center" |- | style="text-align: center;" | [[File:This Month in GLAM logo 2018.png|350px|center|link=outreach:GLAM/Newsletter]]<br /> <hr /> <div style="font-size:12pt; font-family:Times New Roman; text-align:center;">[[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/September 2025|<span style="color:darkslategray;">This Month in GLAM – Volume XV, Issue IX, September 2025</span>]]</div> <hr /><br /> |- style="text-align: center;" | <span style="font-size:12pt; font-family:Times New Roman;"> '''<u>Headlines</u>'''</span> |- style="font-size:10pt; font-family:Times New Roman; text-align:center;" | <div style="text-align:left; column-count:2; column-width:28em; vertical-align:top;"> * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/September 2025/Contents/Albania report|Albania report]]: Wikipedia edit-a-thon at the Skampa Theater in Elbasan, Albania * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/September 2025/Contents/Aruba report|Aruba report]]: Wikipedia on Aruba Initiative: Building Knowledge and Visibility * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/September 2025/Contents/Australia report|Australia report]]: State Library Victoria WikiFest * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/September 2025/Contents/Belgium report|Belgium report]]: Make cultural heritage freely accessible, Hasselt's collections shine online & Let's give women a voice on Wikipedia! * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/September 2025/Contents/Italy report|Italy report]]: Hidden heritage unveiled: science, history and nature on Wikimedia * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/September 2025/Contents/Netherlands report|Netherlands report]]: Wikimedia Commons birthday content donation * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/September 2025/Contents/New Zealand report|New Zealand report]]: Wikimedian in Residence at the Bioeconomy Science Institute & Wikiproject NZ Women in Architecture * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/September 2025/Contents/Macedonia report|North Macedonia report]]: Expanding Access to Culture and Knowledge through Key Partnerships * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/September 2025/Contents/Poland report|Poland report]]: WikiChełmoński: the Special Guided Tour at the National Museum in Krakow * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/September 2025/Contents/Portugal report|Portugal report]]: GLAM Wiki 2025: Join the Conference Online and Explore Lisbon’s Culture * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/September 2025/Contents/Switzerland report|Switzerland report]]: LibreABC, Feminist Voices, Grade Conference * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/September 2025/Contents/UK report|UK report]]: Awards season * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/September 2025/Contents/USA report|USA report]]: September edit-a-thons & meetings * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/September 2025/Contents/Biodiversity Heritage Library report|Biodiversity Heritage Library report]]: Updates on work by BHLWiki Working Group members * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/September 2025/Contents/Memory of the World report|Memory of the World report]]: The Memory of the World wiki challenge * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/September 2025/Contents/Events|Calendar]]: October's GLAM events </div> |- | style="font-family:Times New Roman; text-align:center; font-size:85%;" | [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter|Read this edition in full]] &bull; [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/September 2025/Single|Single-page]] |- | valign="top" colspan="2" style="padding:0.5em; font-family:Times New Roman;text-align:center; font-size:85%;" | To assist with preparing the newsletter, please visit the [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/Newsroom|newsroom]]. Past editions may be viewed [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/Archives|here]]. |- |} |} <div style="margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;">[[m:GLAM/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in GLAM'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/GLAM|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · [[:m:User:Romaine|Romaine]] 12:45, 9 October 2025 (UTC)</div> <!-- Message sent by User:Romaine@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/GLAM&oldid=29409147 --> == ''This Month in GLAM'': October 2025 == {| style="width:100%;" | valign="top" align="center" style="border:1px gray solid; padding:1em;" | {| align="center" |- | style="text-align: center;" | [[File:This Month in GLAM logo 2018.png|350px|center|link=outreach:GLAM/Newsletter]]<br /> <hr /> <div style="font-size:12pt; font-family:Times New Roman; text-align:center;">[[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/October 2025|<span style="color:darkslategray;">This Month in GLAM – Volume XV, Issue X, October 2025</span>]]</div> <hr /><br /> |- style="text-align: center;" | <span style="font-size:12pt; font-family:Times New Roman;"> '''<u>Headlines</u>'''</span> |- style="font-size:10pt; font-family:Times New Roman; text-align:center;" | <div style="text-align:left; column-count:2; column-width:28em; vertical-align:top;"> * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/October 2025/Contents/Belgium report|Belgium report]]: From a small language to Wikipedia's Biggest, Share Your Story with the Industry Museum and War Diaries * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/October 2025/Contents/Croatia report|Croatia report]]: Autumn activities * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/October 2025/Contents/Indonesia report|Indonesia report]]: WikiCommon community meet-ups, Wikisource trainings, and the announcement of Grant for GLAM Indonesia * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/October 2025/Contents/Italy report|Italy report]]: Open culture on stage * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/October 2025/Contents/Mexico report|Mexico report]]: How Wikimedia México is training cultural and government institutions as wikimedians. * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/October 2025/Contents/Netherlands report|Netherlands report]]: Open Topstukken project concludes; Network Archives Design and Digital Culture * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/October 2025/Contents/New Zealand report|New Zealand report]]: Granny's Wonderful Chair, Preparing for Auckland Museum Wiki Summer Students and an the ASBS Introductory Wiki Webinar * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/October 2025/Contents/Nigeria report|Nigeria report]]: Report on Participation at the 12th International Youth Conference * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/October 2025/Contents/Poland report|Poland report]]: Promoting Open Data and Digital Commons in Culture and Research * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/October 2025/Contents/Portugal report|Portugal report]]: GLAM Wiki Conference 2025 Wrap-Up * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/October 2025/Contents/Serbia report|Serbia report]]: October in Wikimedia Serbia * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/October 2025/Contents/Switzerland report|Switzerland report]]: DaSCHcon, 3D, Wiki GLAM conference * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/October 2025/Contents/UK report|UK report]]: A look at Grokipedia * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/October 2025/Contents/USA report|USA report]]: October edit-a-thons & meetings * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/October 2025/Contents/Biodiversity Heritage Library report|Biodiversity Heritage Library report]]: LivingData 2025, GLAMWiki and a "collector" Wikidata property proposal * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/October 2025/Contents/Memory of the World report|Memory of the World report]]: International outreach * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/October 2025/Contents/Sustainable CultureConnect Project report|Sustainable CultureConnect Project report]]: Sustainable CultureConnect: Empowering Youth and Preserving Heritage through Open Knowledge and Leadership * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/October 2025/Contents/Events|Calendar]]: November's GLAM events </div> |- | style="font-family:Times New Roman; text-align:center; font-size:85%;" | [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter|Read this edition in full]] &bull; [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/October 2025/Single|Single-page]] |- | valign="top" colspan="2" style="padding:0.5em; font-family:Times New Roman;text-align:center; font-size:85%;" | To assist with preparing the newsletter, please visit the [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/Newsroom|newsroom]]. Past editions may be viewed [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/Archives|here]]. |- |} |} <div style="margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;">[[m:GLAM/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in GLAM'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/GLAM|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · [[:m:User:Romaine|Romaine]] 11:28, 10 November 2025 (UTC)</div> <!-- Message sent by User:Romaine@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/GLAM&oldid=29516862 --> == ''This Month in GLAM'': November 2025 == {| style="width:100%;" | valign="top" align="center" style="border:1px gray solid; padding:1em;" | {| align="center" |- | style="text-align: center;" | [[File:This Month in GLAM logo 2018.png|350px|center|link=outreach:GLAM/Newsletter]]<br /> <hr /> <div style="font-size:12pt; font-family:Times New Roman; text-align:center;">[[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/November 2025|<span style="color:darkslategray;">This Month in GLAM – Volume XV, Issue XI, November 2025</span>]]</div> <hr /><br /> |- style="text-align: center;" | <span style="font-size:12pt; font-family:Times New Roman;"> '''<u>Headlines</u>'''</span> |- style="font-size:10pt; font-family:Times New Roman; text-align:center;" | <div style="text-align:left; column-count:2; column-width:28em; vertical-align:top;"> * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/November 2025/Contents/Belgium report|Belgium report]]: Call for volunteers, Computer's Day and upcoming events * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/November 2025/Contents/Czech Republic report|Czech Republic report]]: Czech Radio and Wikimedia CZ launched cooperation * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/November 2025/Contents/Indonesia report|Indonesia report]]: Our Activities in November * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/November 2025/Contents/Italy report|Italy report]]: Wrap up of the 2025 GLAM call * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/November 2025/Contents/New Zealand report|New Zealand report]]: ASBS 2025 Conference, a NZBSI Wikimedian in Residence update & Auckland Museum Summer Students * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/November 2025/Contents/Macedonia report|North Macedonia report]]: Wikimedia MKD and Cultural Institutions: A Year of Growth, Content, and Collaboration * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/November 2025/Contents/Poland report|Poland report]]: GLAM Wiki 2025 conference, WiR Meeting and the First National Institute of Museums Training on GLAM–Wiki * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/November 2025/Contents/Switzerland report|Switzerland report]]: IT Wikicon, Faces and Masks, Matrimoine @ Genève * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/November 2025/Contents/UK report|UK report]]: Awards season- again! * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/November 2025/Contents/USA report|USA report]]: November edit-a-thons & meetings * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/November 2025/Contents/Biodiversity Heritage Library report|Biodiversity Heritage Library report]]: Updates on work by BHLWiki Working Group members * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/November 2025/Contents/Content Partnerships Hub report|Content Partnerships Hub report]]: Here to Help: The Next Stage of the Content Partnerships Hub * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/November 2025/Contents/Memory of the World report|Memory of the World report]]: Enriching the data set * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/November 2025/Contents/Events|Calendar]]: December's GLAM events </div> |- | style="font-family:Times New Roman; text-align:center; font-size:85%;" | [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter|Read this edition in full]] &bull; [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/November 2025/Single|Single-page]] |- | valign="top" colspan="2" style="padding:0.5em; font-family:Times New Roman;text-align:center; font-size:85%;" | To assist with preparing the newsletter, please visit the [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/Newsroom|newsroom]]. Past editions may be viewed [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/Archives|here]]. |- |} |} <div style="margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;">[[m:GLAM/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in GLAM'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/GLAM|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · [[:m:User:Romaine|Romaine]] 04:21, 11 December 2025 (UTC)</div> <!-- Message sent by User:Romaine@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/GLAM&oldid=29692345 --> == ''This Month in GLAM'': December 2025 == {| style="width:100%;" | valign="top" align="center" style="border:1px gray solid; padding:1em;" | {| align="center" |- | style="text-align: center;" | [[File:This Month in GLAM logo 2018.png|350px|center|link=outreach:GLAM/Newsletter]]<br /> <hr /> <div style="font-size:12pt; font-family:Times New Roman; text-align:center;">[[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/December 2025|<span style="color:darkslategray;">This Month in GLAM – Volume XV, Issue XII, December 2025</span>]]</div> <hr /><br /> |- style="text-align: center;" | <span style="font-size:12pt; font-family:Times New Roman;"> '''<u>Headlines</u>'''</span> |- style="font-size:10pt; font-family:Times New Roman; text-align:center;" | <div style="text-align:left; column-count:2; column-width:28em; vertical-align:top;"> * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/December 2025/Contents/From the team|From the team]]: Global GLAM Calls Continue in 2026 * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/December 2025/Contents/Albania report|Albania report]]: Wikimedian in Residence, 2025, in Elbasan Albania * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/December 2025/Contents/Argentina report|Argentina report]]: Resume of the year * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/December 2025/Contents/Australia report|Australia report]]: AMaGA partnership, signing the Open Heritage Statement and South Australian Museum Partner Project * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/December 2025/Contents/Belgium report|Belgium report]]: Public Domain Day 2026, Circus Heritage and Fosdem * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/December 2025/Contents/Colombia report|Colombia report]]: Preparándonos para celebrar el día del dominio público - Getting ready for the Public Domain Day celebration * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/December 2025/Contents/Italy report|Italy report]]: Exploring Italy and Unlocking Its Heritage: Touring Club Italiano and GLAM Call 2026–2028 * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/December 2025/Contents/New Zealand report|New Zealand report]]: ASBS 2025 Conference follow-up Wiki webinar & Auckland Museum student update * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/December 2025/Contents/Poland report|Poland report]]: Public Domain, Conferences, and Conversations on Open Culture * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/December 2025/Contents/Switzerland report|Switzerland report]]: GLAM on Tour Bellinzona, Xmas Event, GLAM Wiki Group * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/December 2025/Contents/UK report|UK report]]: 2025 in review * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/December 2025/Contents/USA report|USA report]]: December meetings * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/December 2025/Contents/Public Domain Day report|Public Domain Day report]]: Public Domain Day 2026 * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/December 2025/Contents/Biodiversity Heritage Library report|Biodiversity Heritage Library report]]: Updates on work by BHLWiki Working Group members * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/December 2025/Contents/Memory of the World report|Memory of the World report]]: 2025 in review * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/December 2025/Contents/Events|Calendar]]: January's GLAM events </div> |- | style="font-family:Times New Roman; text-align:center; font-size:85%;" | [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter|Read this edition in full]] &bull; [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/December 2025/Single|Single-page]] |- | valign="top" colspan="2" style="padding:0.5em; font-family:Times New Roman;text-align:center; font-size:85%;" | To assist with preparing the newsletter, please visit the [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/Newsroom|newsroom]]. Past editions may be viewed [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/Archives|here]]. |- |} |} <div style="margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;">[[m:GLAM/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in GLAM'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/GLAM|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · [[:m:User:Romaine|Romaine]] 12:57, 12 January 2026 (UTC)</div> <!-- Message sent by User:Romaine@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/GLAM&oldid=29895284 --> == ''This Month in GLAM'': January 2026 == {| style="width:100%;" | valign="top" align="center" style="border:1px gray solid; padding:1em;" | {| align="center" |- | style="text-align: center;" | [[File:This Month in GLAM logo 2018.png|350px|center|link=outreach:GLAM/Newsletter]]<br /> <hr /> <div style="font-size:12pt; font-family:Times New Roman; text-align:center;">[[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/January 2026|<span style="color:darkslategray;">This Month in GLAM – Volume XVI, Issue I, January 2026</span>]]</div> <hr /><br /> |- style="text-align: center;" | <span style="font-size:12pt; font-family:Times New Roman;"> '''<u>Headlines</u>'''</span> |- style="font-size:10pt; font-family:Times New Roman; text-align:center;" | <div style="text-align:left; column-count:2; column-width:28em; vertical-align:top;"> * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/January 2026/Contents/From the team|From the team]]: Wikipedia at 25 * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/January 2026/Contents/Aruba report|Aruba report]]: Pap-Wikipedia Turns 20: A Milestone for Papiamento/u Knowledge * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/January 2026/Contents/Colombia report|Colombia report]]: Celebrando el día del dominio público 2026/Celebrating the public domain day 2026 * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/January 2026/Contents/France report|France report]]: Wikipedia's Birthday in France * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/January 2026/Contents/Germany report|Germany report]]: Gifted by our friends: Loads of presents for Wikipedia25 by German and Austrian GLAMs * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/January 2026/Contents/Indonesia report|Indonesia report]]: Activities in December-January * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/January 2026/Contents/Italy report|Italy report]]: Knowledge in action: Barindelli collection and Wikipedia 25 * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/January 2026/Contents/Netherlands report|Netherlands report]]: Image donation Dutch Book History * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/January 2026/Contents/New Zealand report|New Zealand report]]: Auckland Museum Student Edit-a-thon, the NZBSI Wikimedian in Residence project, and other residencies * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/January 2026/Contents/Macedonia report|North Macedonia report]]: GLAM Program of Wikimedia MKD – 2026 Overview * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/January 2026/Contents/Poland report|Poland report]]: Explore Historic Portraits from the Museum of Photography in Kraków * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/January 2026/Contents/Serbia report|Serbia report]]: January in Wikimedia Serbia * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/January 2026/Contents/Switzerland report|Switzerland report]]: Museum in Chiasso, Alpine Museum, Women Monuments * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/January 2026/Contents/UK report|UK report]]: Sharing more of the Enamels of the World * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/January 2026/Contents/Biodiversity Heritage Library report|Biodiversity Heritage Library report]]: Updates on work by BHLWiki Working Group members * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/January 2026/Contents/Map the GLAM report|Map the GLAM report]]: Wiki and GLAM: Harnessing Knowledge to Foster Gender Equality * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/January 2026/Contents/Memory of the World report|Memory of the World report]]: Manuscripts on Arabic Wikipedia * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/January 2026/Contents/Wikidata report|Wikidata report]]: Two key Wikidata Requests for Comments, relevant for future GLAM-Wiki work * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/January 2026/Contents/Events|Calendar]]: February's GLAM events </div> |- | style="font-family:Times New Roman; text-align:center; font-size:85%;" | [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter|Read this edition in full]] &bull; [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/January 2026/Single|Single-page]] |- | valign="top" colspan="2" style="padding:0.5em; font-family:Times New Roman;text-align:center; font-size:85%;" | To assist with preparing the newsletter, please visit the [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/Newsroom|newsroom]]. Past editions may be viewed [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/Archives|here]]. |- |} |} <div style="margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;">[[m:GLAM/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in GLAM'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/GLAM|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · [[:m:User:Romaine|Romaine]] 08:34, 11 February 2026 (UTC)</div> <!-- Message sent by User:Romaine@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/GLAM&oldid=30055818 --> == ''This Month in GLAM'': February 2026 == {| style="width:100%;" | valign="top" align="center" style="border:1px gray solid; padding:1em;" | {| align="center" |- | style="text-align: center;" | [[File:This Month in GLAM logo 2018.png|350px|center|link=outreach:GLAM/Newsletter]]<br /> <hr /> <div style="font-size:12pt; font-family:Times New Roman; text-align:center;">[[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/February 2026|<span style="color:darkslategray;">This Month in GLAM – Volume XVI, Issue II, February 2026</span>]]</div> <hr /><br /> |- style="text-align: center;" | <span style="font-size:12pt; font-family:Times New Roman;"> '''<u>Headlines</u>'''</span> |- style="font-size:10pt; font-family:Times New Roman; text-align:center;" | <div style="text-align:left; column-count:2; column-width:28em; vertical-align:top;"> * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/February 2026/Contents/From the team|From the team]]: GLAM in 2026 is calling to action! * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/February 2026/Contents/Belgium report|Belgium report]]: A photo safari through Wiki Loves Fashion & a rescue mission with Mission Gourmande! * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/February 2026/Contents/Czech Republic report|Czech Republic report]]: National Library overview of 2025 * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/February 2026/Contents/Italy report|Italy report]]: Cultural Heritage and Memory: 2026 GLAM Call and Executed Renaissance Edit-a-thon * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/February 2026/Contents/New Zealand report|New Zealand report]]: Farewelling the Auckland Museum Summer Students and an update on the NZBSI WiR * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/February 2026/Contents/Poland report|Poland report]]: Wikipedia in Cultural Marketing at Crash Mondays Warsaw * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/February 2026/Contents/Serbia report|Serbia report]]: February in Wikimedia Serbia * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/February 2026/Contents/Spain report|Spain report]]: Wikidata in the GLAM context II * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/February 2026/Contents/Switzerland report|Switzerland report]]: Neocomensia, SAPA, Atelier Winterthur, GLAM-on-Tour Disentis * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/February 2026/Contents/UK report|UK report]]: New content in African and Asian languages * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/February 2026/Contents/Biodiversity Heritage Library report|Biodiversity Heritage Library report]]: Updates on work by BHLWiki Working Group members * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/February 2026/Contents/Memory of the World report|Memory of the World report]]: Focus on Indigenous issues * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/February 2026/Contents/Events|Calendar]]: March's GLAM events </div> |- | style="font-family:Times New Roman; text-align:center; font-size:85%;" | [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter|Read this edition in full]] &bull; [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/February 2026/Single|Single-page]] |- | valign="top" colspan="2" style="padding:0.5em; font-family:Times New Roman;text-align:center; font-size:85%;" | To assist with preparing the newsletter, please visit the [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/Newsroom|newsroom]]. Past editions may be viewed [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/Archives|here]]. |- |} |} <div style="margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;">[[m:GLAM/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in GLAM'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/GLAM|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · [[:m:User:Romaine|Romaine]] 00:52, 12 March 2026 (UTC)</div> <!-- Message sent by User:Romaine@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/GLAM&oldid=30232291 --> == ''This Month in GLAM'': March 2026 == {| style="width:100%;" | valign="top" align="center" style="border:1px gray solid; padding:1em;" | {| align="center" |- | style="text-align: center;" | [[File:This Month in GLAM logo 2018.png|350px|center|link=outreach:GLAM/Newsletter]]<br /> <hr /> <div style="font-size:12pt; font-family:Times New Roman; text-align:center;">[[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/March 2026|<span style="color:darkslategray;">This Month in GLAM – Volume XVI, Issue III, March 2026</span>]]</div> <hr /><br /> |- style="text-align: center;" | <span style="font-size:12pt; font-family:Times New Roman;"> '''<u>Headlines</u>'''</span> |- style="font-size:10pt; font-family:Times New Roman; text-align:center;" | <div style="text-align:left; column-count:2; column-width:28em; vertical-align:top;"> * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/March 2026/Contents/From the team|From the team]]: GLAM in Equinox * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/March 2026/Contents/Albania report|Albania report]]: Wikigap 2026 in Tirana, Albania * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/March 2026/Contents/Aruba report|Aruba report]]: Celebrating 20 Years of Papiamentu/o Wikipedia * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/March 2026/Contents/Bolivia report|Bolivia report]]: The Family Treasures Project Returns, with New GLAM Partners * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/March 2026/Contents/Brazil report|Brazil report]]: Wiki Loves Folklore Brazil defines six categories to represent Brazilian culture on Commons * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/March 2026/Contents/Colombia report|Colombia report]]: Architecture in the public domain in libraries in Nariño/Arquitectura en dominio público en bibliotecas nariñenses * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/March 2026/Contents/Czech Republic report|Czech Republic report]]: Main Wikimedian in Residence report for 2025 is here * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/March 2026/Contents/Germany report|Germany report]]: Art History Loves Wiki 2026 – digital/local. collection loves wiki * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/March 2026/Contents/India report|India report]]: Collaboration resumes with the British Library for Bangla Wikisource * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/March 2026/Contents/Italy report|Italy report]]: 2026 winners projects * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/March 2026/Contents/New Zealand report|New Zealand report]]: New Zealand Bioeconomy Science Institute Wikimedian in Residence update, a letter published in Nature & Architecture + Women NZ * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/March 2026/Contents/Macedonia report|North Macedonia report]]: Wikimedia MKD's GLAM Highlights: Botany and Beyond * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/March 2026/Contents/Portugal report|Portugal report]]: March in Portugal * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/March 2026/Contents/Serbia report|Serbia report]]: March in Wikimedia Serbia * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/March 2026/Contents/Sweden report|Sweden report]]: Looking for similar images * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/March 2026/Contents/Switzerland report|Switzerland report]]: GLAM Wiki Group, Donna, CoCreation PTT-Archive * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/March 2026/Contents/UK report|UK report]]: CILIP MDG 2026 Conference, Library meetups and the World's Enamels * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/March 2026/Contents/Ukraine report|Ukraine report]]: Spring 2026 news from Ukraine – Wiki Loves Folklore & more #1Lib1Ref * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/March 2026/Contents/USA report|USA report]]: MoMA's International Traveling Exhibitions and Wikidata on the LD4 Arts Affinity Group April Community Call * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/March 2026/Contents/Biodiversity Heritage Library report|Biodiversity Heritage Library report]]: Updates on work by BHL-Wiki Working Group members * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/March 2026/Contents/AvoinGLAM report|AvoinGLAM report]]: Oulu Löyly * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/March 2026/Contents/Memory of the World report|Memory of the World report]]: Indigenous languages on the Main Page * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/March 2026/Contents/Events|Calendar]]: April's GLAM events </div> |- | style="font-family:Times New Roman; text-align:center; font-size:85%;" | [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter|Read this edition in full]] &bull; [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/March 2026/Single|Single-page]] |- | valign="top" colspan="2" style="padding:0.5em; font-family:Times New Roman;text-align:center; font-size:85%;" | To assist with preparing the newsletter, please visit the [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/Newsroom|newsroom]]. Past editions may be viewed [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/Archives|here]]. |- |} |} <div style="margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;">[[m:GLAM/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in GLAM'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/GLAM|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · [[:m:User:Romaine|Romaine]] 18:19, 9 April 2026 (UTC)</div> <!-- Message sent by User:Romaine@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/GLAM&oldid=30344683 --> == ''This Month in GLAM'': April 2026 == {| style="width:100%;" | valign="top" align="center" style="border:1px gray solid; padding:1em;" | {| align="center" |- | style="text-align: center;" | [[File:This Month in GLAM logo 2018.png|350px|center|link=outreach:GLAM/Newsletter]]<br /> <hr /> <div style="font-size:12pt; font-family:Times New Roman; text-align:center;">[[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/April 2026|<span style="color:darkslategray;">This Month in GLAM – Volume XVI, Issue IV, April 2026</span>]]</div> <hr /><br /> |- style="text-align: center;" | <span style="font-size:12pt; font-family:Times New Roman;"> '''<u>Headlines</u>'''</span> |- style="font-size:10pt; font-family:Times New Roman; text-align:center;" | <div style="text-align:left; column-count:2; column-width:28em; vertical-align:top;"> * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/April 2026/Contents/From the team|From the team]]: How the GLAM Community Can Shine in the 2026–27 Annual Plan * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/April 2026/Contents/Albania report|Albania report]]: International Roma Day 2026 in Tirana, Albania * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/April 2026/Contents/Argentina report|Argentina report]]: WikiConf Argentina and GLAM projects * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/April 2026/Contents/Asia report|Asia report]]: Documenting and citing oral knowledge in audio and video * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/April 2026/Contents/Australia report|Australia report]]: WikiCon Australia, ICIP, Orphan works and Trans-Tasman partnerships * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/April 2026/Contents/Brazil report|Brazil report]]: Wikimedia Brasil publishes book on the power and challenges of free knowledge * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/April 2026/Contents/Colombia report|Colombia report]]: We celebrate Public Domain Day with an expert panel / Celebramos el día del dominio público con un Panel de expertas * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/April 2026/Contents/Italy report|Italy report]]: Ongoing and New GLAM-Wiki Projects * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/April 2026/Contents/New Zealand report|New Zealand report]]: Women in Wartime event at Auckland Museum & an update for WiR NZBSI * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/April 2026/Contents/Nigeria report|Nigeria report]]: Wikimedia Commons Upload Campaign * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/April 2026/Contents/Macedonia report|North Macedonia report]]: Wikimedia MKD in Action: Digitization, Wikisource and Educational Workshops * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/April 2026/Contents/Poland report|Poland report]]: GLAM-Wiki Developments: Residencies, Partnerships and Audiovisual Heritage * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/April 2026/Contents/Serbia report|Serbia report]]: April in Wikimedia Serbia * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/April 2026/Contents/Switzerland report|Switzerland report]]: Le Donne di Villa Massimo * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/April 2026/Contents/UK report|UK report]]: A tenth-century Quran and Islamic Art in Urdu * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/April 2026/Contents/USA report|USA report]]: Wiki MIT launches and US meetups * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/April 2026/Contents/Biodiversity Heritage Library report|Biodiversity Heritage Library report]]: Update on the BHL Annual Meeting 27 April - 1 May & BHL Day * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/April 2026/Contents/Memory of the World report|Memory of the World report]]: Eight new articles on MoW inscriptions * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/April 2026/Contents/Events|Calendar]]: May's GLAM events </div> |- | style="font-family:Times New Roman; text-align:center; font-size:85%;" | [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter|Read this edition in full]] &bull; [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/April 2026/Single|Single-page]] |- | valign="top" colspan="2" style="padding:0.5em; font-family:Times New Roman;text-align:center; font-size:85%;" | To assist with preparing the newsletter, please visit the [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/Newsroom|newsroom]]. Past editions may be viewed [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/Archives|here]]. |- |} |} <div style="margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;">[[m:GLAM/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in GLAM'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/GLAM|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · [[:m:User:Romaine|Romaine]] 13:50, 11 May 2026 (UTC)</div> <!-- Message sent by User:Romaine@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/GLAM&oldid=30513880 --> == ''This Month in GLAM'': May 2026 == {| style="width:100%;" | valign="top" align="center" style="border:1px gray solid; padding:1em;" | {| align="center" |- | style="text-align: center;" | [[File:This Month in GLAM logo 2018.png|350px|center|link=outreach:GLAM/Newsletter]]<br /> <hr /> <div style="font-size:12pt; font-family:Times New Roman; text-align:center;">[[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/May 2026|<span style="color:darkslategray;">This Month in GLAM – Volume XVI, Issue V, May 2026</span>]]</div> <hr /><br /> |- style="text-align: center;" | <span style="font-size:12pt; font-family:Times New Roman;"> '''<u>Headlines</u>'''</span> |- style="font-size:10pt; font-family:Times New Roman; text-align:center;" | <div style="text-align:left; column-count:2; column-width:28em; vertical-align:top;"> * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/May 2026/Contents/From the team|From the team]]: May Global GLAM Call Recording and June Call Announcement * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/May 2026/Contents/Australia report|Australia report]]: Celebrating #1Lib1Ref Australasia * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/May 2026/Contents/Brazil report|Brazil report]]: GLAM Connection: Fashion, History, and Biodiversity in May * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/May 2026/Contents/France report|France report]]: New Wikimedian in Residence * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/May 2026/Contents/Italy report|Italy report]]: Connecting the Arctic and Sicily through Wikimedia Projects * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/May 2026/Contents/Mexico report|Mexico report]]: How the cultural, governmental, educational, and museum sectors contributed in unison to Wikimedia projects * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/May 2026/Contents/Netherlands report|Netherlands report]]: Setting up your own platform (part 1): from wish to the creation of a wiki * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/May 2026/Contents/New Zealand report|New Zealand report]]: ESEAP Conference 2026 and the NZBSI WiR update * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/May 2026/Contents/Macedonia report|North Macedonia report]]: Wikimedia MKD Shares GLAM Experience at International Conferences * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/May 2026/Contents/Poland report|Poland report]]: Partnerships, Participation, and Open Knowledge * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/May 2026/Contents/Serbia report|Serbia report]]: May in Wikimedia Serbia * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/May 2026/Contents/Spain report|Spain report]]: El Prado en femenino III * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/May 2026/Contents/Switzerland report|Switzerland report]]: Museum for Communication, Panel IMD, Wikipedia Day * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/May 2026/Contents/UK report|UK report]]: Early Qurans on the front page of Wikipedia * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/May 2026/Contents/Biodiversity Heritage Library report|Biodiversity Heritage Library report]]: Updates on work by BHLWiki Working Group members * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/May 2026/Contents/Special story|Special story]]: New tools for multilingual audio, video and metadata * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/May 2026/Contents/Memory of the World report|Memory of the World report]]: New articles in Urdu * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/May 2026/Contents/Events|Calendar]]: June's GLAM events </div> |- | style="font-family:Times New Roman; text-align:center; font-size:85%;" | [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter|Read this edition in full]] &bull; [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/May 2026/Single|Single-page]] |- | valign="top" colspan="2" style="padding:0.5em; font-family:Times New Roman;text-align:center; font-size:85%;" | To assist with preparing the newsletter, please visit the [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/Newsroom|newsroom]]. Past editions may be viewed [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/Archives|here]]. |- |} |} <div style="margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;">[[m:GLAM/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in GLAM'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/GLAM|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · [[:m:User:Romaine|Romaine]] 21:21, 12 June 2026 (UTC)</div> <!-- Message sent by User:Romaine@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/GLAM&oldid=30636889 --> == ''This Month in GLAM'': June 2026 == {| style="width:100%;" | valign="top" align="center" style="border:1px gray solid; padding:1em;" | {| align="center" |- | style="text-align: center;" | [[File:This Month in GLAM logo 2018.png|350px|center|link=outreach:GLAM/Newsletter]]<br /> <hr /> <div style="font-size:12pt; font-family:Times New Roman; text-align:center;">[[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/June 2026|<span style="color:darkslategray;">This Month in GLAM – Volume XVI, Issue VI, June 2026</span>]]</div> <hr /><br /> |- style="text-align: center;" | <span style="font-size:12pt; font-family:Times New Roman;"> '''<u>Headlines</u>'''</span> |- style="font-size:10pt; font-family:Times New Roman; text-align:center;" | <div style="text-align:left; column-count:2; column-width:28em; vertical-align:top;"> * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/June 2026/Contents/From the team|From the team]]: Tools, tech, and Wikimania * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/June 2026/Contents/Argentina report|Argentina report]]: New digitization partner * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/June 2026/Contents/Bangladesh report|Bangladesh report]]: International Museum Day Edit-a-thon and Workshop held in Dinajpur, Bangladesh * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/June 2026/Contents/Belgium report|Belgium report]]: Postal Mission on Wikimedia * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/June 2026/Contents/Brazil report|Brazil report]]: Empowering Institutions through Wikisource Education and GLAM Capacity Building * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/June 2026/Contents/Czech Republic report|Czech Republic report]]: Bridging the gap between labs and Wikipedia: continuing cooperation with FZU * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/June 2026/Contents/Egypt report|Egypt report]]: From Museum Celebrations to Archival Documentation * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/June 2026/Contents/Finland report|Finland report]]: Northern Wikimedist meetup in Oulu * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/June 2026/Contents/France report|France report]]: #1lib1ref Recap and International Archives Week * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/June 2026/Contents/Italy report|Italy report]]: Heritage and Community Action * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/June 2026/Contents/Mexico report|Mexico report]]: Open GLAM in Puebla * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/June 2026/Contents/Netherlands report|Netherlands report]]: Interview with Olaf Janssen, Wikimedia coordinator of the KB, National library of the Netherlands * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/June 2026/Contents/New Zealand report|New Zealand report]]: BAU at Auckland Museum, Otago Uni Library Life and the NZBSI WiR is complete * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/June 2026/Contents/Macedonia report|North Macedonia report]]: Collaboration with the Botanical garden at the Faculty of Natural Sciences and Mathematics in Skopje * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/June 2026/Contents/Poland report|Poland report]]: Poland Report: New Partnerships, Conferences, and Wikimedians in Residence * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/June 2026/Contents/Serbia report|Serbia report]]: Opening the Doors of Serbian Heritage: Wikimedia Serbia’s Recent GLAM and Wikidata Successes * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/June 2026/Contents/Spain report|Spain report]]: GLAM Labs Futures 2026 * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/June 2026/Contents/Sweden report|Sweden report]]: Finnish-Swedish cooperation * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/June 2026/Contents/Switzerland report|Switzerland report]]: Exhibition, International Archives Week Panel * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/June 2026/Contents/UK report|UK report]]: Ninth Good Article from Khalili partnership * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/June 2026/Contents/USA report|USA report]]: Philadelphia WikiSalon * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/June 2026/Contents/Biodiversity Heritage Library report|Biodiversity Heritage Library report]]: Updates on work by BHLWiki Working Group members * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/June 2026/Contents/AvoinGLAM report|AvoinGLAM report]]: Is the sauna still hot? * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/June 2026/Contents/Memory of the World report|Memory of the World report]]: New articles * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/June 2026/Contents/Events|Calendar]]: July's GLAM events </div> |- | style="font-family:Times New Roman; text-align:center; font-size:85%;" | [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter|Read this edition in full]] &bull; [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/June 2026/Single|Single-page]] |- | valign="top" colspan="2" style="padding:0.5em; font-family:Times New Roman;text-align:center; font-size:85%;" | To assist with preparing the newsletter, please visit the [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/Newsroom|newsroom]]. Past editions may be viewed [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/Archives|here]]. |- |} |} <div style="margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;">[[m:GLAM/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in GLAM'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/GLAM|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · [[:m:User:Romaine|Romaine]] 22:34, 11 July 2026 (UTC)</div> <!-- Message sent by User:Romaine@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/GLAM&oldid=30773577 --> == ''This Month in GLAM'': July 2026 == {| style="width:100%;" | valign="top" align="center" style="border:1px gray solid; padding:1em;" | {| align="center" |- | style="text-align: center;" | [[File:This Month in GLAM logo 2018.png|350px|center|link=outreach:GLAM/Newsletter]]<br /> <hr /> <div style="font-size:12pt; font-family:Times New Roman; text-align:center;">[[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/July 2026|<span style="color:darkslategray;">This Month in GLAM – Volume XVI, Issue VII, July 2026</span>]]</div> <hr /><br /> |- style="text-align: center;" | <span style="font-size:12pt; font-family:Times New Roman;"> '''<u>Headlines</u>'''</span> |- style="font-size:10pt; font-family:Times New Roman; text-align:center;" | <div style="text-align:left; column-count:2; column-width:28em; vertical-align:top;"> * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/July 2026/Contents/From the team|From the team]]: July and Wikimania Have Come and Gone * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/July 2026/Contents/Brazil report|Brazil report]]: Strategic Workshops, Academic Publications, and Bidding Farewell to NeuroMat * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/July 2026/Contents/Colombia report|Colombia report]]: Colombia at Wikimania 2026: panel on how the far-right affects open knowledge institutions * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/July 2026/Contents/Egypt report|Egypt report]]: From Al-Ahram to Zamalek: Exploring Archives and Art Galleries * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/July 2026/Contents/France report|France report]]: GLAM Presentations at Wikimania 2026 + Wiki Fashion Show * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/July 2026/Contents/New Zealand report|New Zealand report]]: Launch of Wikifying a Conference handbook; Wikipedia Workshop at Te Toi Uku * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/July 2026/Contents/Poland report|Poland report]]: GLAM-Wiki partnerships continue opening collections * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/July 2026/Contents/Sweden report|Sweden report]]: At Wikimania and copyright process * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/July 2026/Contents/Switzerland report|Switzerland report]]: Faces and Masks - the interwoven relation, Wikimania Paris * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/July 2026/Contents/UK report|UK report]]: Wikimania report + New articles in Hindi * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/July 2026/Contents/USA report|USA report]]: GLAM USA Report (Past & Upcoming) * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/July 2026/Contents/Biodiversity Heritage Library report|Biodiversity Heritage Library report]]: Updates on work by BHLWiki Working Group members * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/July 2026/Contents/Memory of the World report|Memory of the World report]]: Academic paper in preparation * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/July 2026/Contents/Wiki Knowledge Park report|Wiki Knowledge Park report]]: Preserving Islamic Cultural Heritage: The GLAM and Metadata Impact of Wiki Loves Ramadan 2026 * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/July 2026/Contents/Events|Calendar]]: August's GLAM events </div> |- | style="font-family:Times New Roman; text-align:center; font-size:85%;" | [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter|Read this edition in full]] &bull; [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/July 2026/Single|Single-page]] |- | valign="top" colspan="2" style="padding:0.5em; font-family:Times New Roman;text-align:center; font-size:85%;" | To assist with preparing the newsletter, please visit the [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/Newsroom|newsroom]]. Past editions may be viewed [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/Archives|here]]. |- |} |} <div style="margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;">[[m:GLAM/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in GLAM'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/GLAM|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · [[:m:User:Romaine|Romaine]] 00:03, 12 August 2026 (UTC)</div> <!-- Message sent by User:Romaine@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/GLAM&oldid=30901934 --> == ''This Month in GLAM'': August 2026 == {| style="width:100%;" | valign="top" align="center" style="border:1px gray solid; padding:1em;" | {| align="center" |- | style="text-align: center;" | [[File:This Month in GLAM logo 2018.png|350px|center|link=outreach:GLAM/Newsletter]]<br /> <hr /> <div style="font-size:12pt; font-family:Times New Roman; text-align:center;">[[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/August 2026|<span style="color:darkslategray;">This Month in GLAM – Volume XVI, Issue VIII, August 2026</span>]]</div> <hr /><br /> |- style="text-align: center;" | <span style="font-size:12pt; font-family:Times New Roman;"> '''<u>Headlines</u>'''</span> |- style="font-size:10pt; font-family:Times New Roman; text-align:center;" | <div style="text-align:left; column-count:2; column-width:28em; vertical-align:top;"> * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/August 2026/Contents/From the team|From the team]]: Hot August/Cold August * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/August 2026/Contents/Brazil report|Brazil report]]: Wiki Love Monuments and new phase of Museu Paulista collaboration * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/August 2026/Contents/Catalan areas report|Catalan areas report]]: The Catalan public domain: An application to identify Catalan works in public domain * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/August 2026/Contents/Colombia report|Colombia report]]: Explore the Colombian public domain app: Browse works an authors in the public domain * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/August 2026/Contents/Czech Republic report|Czech Republic report]]: Wikimedia CR introduces new members of GLAM/partnership team * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/August 2026/Contents/Egypt report|Egypt report]]: Egypt’s GLAM Team Brings Egyptian Postal History and Public Libraries to Wikimedia * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/August 2026/Contents/Italy report|Italy report]]: The Musical Heritage of the Santa Cecilia Conservatory * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/August 2026/Contents/New Zealand report|New Zealand report]]: New Zealand Thesis Project Update and the upcoming TDWG 2026 conference * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/August 2026/Contents/Macedonia report|North Macedonia report]]: Connecting Culture and Free Knowledge - Wikimedia MKD’s GLAM Partnerships * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/August 2026/Contents/Serbia report|Serbia report]]: August in Wikimedia Serbia * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/August 2026/Contents/Switzerland report|Switzerland report]]: Summer, Follow-up in Aarau, CoCreation * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/August 2026/Contents/UK report|UK report]]: Wikimedia gets Gazetted + Islamic Calligraphy on English Wikipedia * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/August 2026/Contents/Ukraine report|Ukraine report]]: OpenGLAM Summer 2026 in Ukraine * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/August 2026/Contents/USA report|USA report]]: GLAM USA Report (Past & Upcoming) * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/August 2026/Contents/Biodiversity Heritage Library report|Biodiversity Heritage Library report]]: Updates on work by BHL-Wiki working Group members * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/August 2026/Contents/Memory of the World report|Memory of the World report]]: Ghana national register * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/August 2026/Contents/Wikimedia Commons report|Wikimedia Commons report]]: Media loading change affects Commons Impact Metrics and GLAM analytics * [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/August 2026/Contents/Events|Calendar]]: September's GLAM events </div> |- | style="font-family:Times New Roman; text-align:center; font-size:85%;" | [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter|Read this edition in full]] &bull; [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/August 2026/Single|Single-page]] |- | valign="top" colspan="2" style="padding:0.5em; font-family:Times New Roman;text-align:center; font-size:85%;" | To assist with preparing the newsletter, please visit the [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/Newsroom|newsroom]]. Past editions may be viewed [[outreach:GLAM/Newsletter/Archives|here]]. |- |} |} <div style="margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;">[[m:GLAM/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in GLAM'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/GLAM|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · [[:m:User:Romaine|Romaine]] 08:37, 11 September 2026 (UTC)</div> <!-- Message sent by User:Romaine@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/GLAM&oldid=31028447 --> ppyxaaxgnnmru4szk2yu4j44nicz78g 1 159077 2832669 2814831 2026-09-10T19:22:40Z Mikael Häggström 12130 Admin officer position 2832669 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Category:WikiJournal]] {{WikiJournal_discussions}} {{Archive box| [[/Archive 2014–2016|2014–2016]] <br>[[/Archive 2016 naming vote|2016 naming vote]] <br>[[/Archive 2017|2017]] <br>[[/Archive 2018|2018]] <br>[[/Archive 2019|2019]] <br>[[/Archive 2020|2020]] <br>[[/Archive 2021|2021]] <br>[[/Archive 2022|2022]] Discussions may also take place at the <br>'''[https://lists.wikimedia.org/pipermail/wikijournal-en/ public mailing list]'' ([https://lists.wikimedia.org/mailman/listinfo/wikijournal-en Join]) }} {{TOClimit|limit=3}} == Banner links must be accessible on smartphones == On smartphones, the banners are hard to tap/click on, especially the Preprint one. I have difficulty changing the banners' format. [[User:George Ho|George Ho]] ([[User talk:George Ho|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/George Ho|contribs]]) 12:31, 29 January 2022 (UTC) :@[[User:George Ho|George Ho]]: Sorry for mising this earlier! Do you know if you were using the 'mobile view' or 'desktop view' on your smartphone? I've tried to make the tabs re-flow into a grid when on a mobie device, bit I think it only works in 'mobile view'. [[User:Evolution and evolvability|T.Shafee(Evo&#65120;Evo)]]^{[[User talk:Evolution and evolvability|talk]]} 02:06, 21 July 2022 (UTC) :: @[[User:Evolution and evolvability|Shafee]]: Using 'mobile view' on Android, the Preprint banner is hard to tap, yet I can access that journal via tapping the icon on the left of the banner. Others are still clickable, yet larger text is annoying on mobile view. --[[User:George Ho|George Ho]] ([[User talk:George Ho|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/George Ho|contribs]]) 06:27, 21 July 2022 (UTC) :::@[[User:George Ho|George Ho]]: Aha, now I see it. Thanks. I was looking at the top banner in grey rather than the list of journals. I'm also getting some of the text overlapping too. I'll aim to fix it up next week. [[User:Evolution and evolvability|T.Shafee(Evo&#65120;Evo)]]^{[[User talk:Evolution and evolvability|talk]]} 23:13, 21 July 2022 (UTC) ::::Three months have passed; have you fixed the issue yet? [[User:George Ho|George Ho]] ([[User talk:George Ho|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/George Ho|contribs]]) 08:39, 8 October 2022 (UTC) :::::@[[User:George Ho|George Ho]] Our recent redesign of the banners, courtesy of {{u|Infogiraffic}}, should have fixed this issue. Can you confirm if this works on your end? [[User:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: #0000FF;">OhanaUnited</span></b>]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: green;">^{Talk page}</span></b>]] 19:37, 22 May 2025 (UTC) ::::::The newer layout works on an iphone. [[User:George Ho|George Ho]] ([[User talk:George Ho|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/George Ho|contribs]]) 15:57, 23 May 2025 (UTC) == Reference deposits == Hi all! I was taking a look at the [https://www.crossref.org/members/prep/6026 WikiJournal User Group participation report] over on Crossref's site. This is a useful tool for exploring how rich the metadata that WJUG submits to Crossref along with its DOIs is. It looks like there's lots of room for improvement, some of which would be fairly straightforward to accomplish: the License URLs category, for instance, measures how many articles' metadata include a link to the license under which the papers are distributed (either CC-BY 4.0 or CC-BY-SA 4.0 typically, right?). What I wanted to look at right now was the References category, in which WJUG is currently scoring 0%. What this means is that none of the 87 articles registered for DOIs by WJUG with Crossref include the references as part of their metadata. This matters for a few reasons. First, reference linking (i.e., including DOIs in references) is required by Crossref's terms of service, and reference depositing (i.e., submitting metadata with references) is strongly encouraged. Second, the inclusion of references in metadata is how Crossref tracks citations. When you see a journal article's "What Cites This" page, you'll often see a few numbers, frequently a Crossref citation count, a Web of Science citation count, and a Google Scholar citation count. On these pages, you are often able to view which articles are specifically citing the article in question too, and in some cases, publishers may preemptively set up modules that autodisplay the citing articles alongside the article itself. This brings up the third reason to begin depositing references: not only is it good practice for good metadata management's sake itself, but it also has the capability to improve visibility for WikiJournal articles. Consider the ''WJS'' article "[[WikiJournal of Science/Beak and feather disease virus: biology and resultant disease|Beak and feather disease virus: biology and resultant disease]]"; its first reference is the 1907 article "Parrakeets Moulting". If you visit the Taylor & Francis [https://doi.org/10.1071/MU906192f page for "Parrakeets Moulting"], however, you can see in the righthand "Related research" module in the "Cited by" tab that no articles cite this paper. Because references for WJUG articles haven't yet been deposited with Crossref, there's no way to link "Beak and feather disease virus" and "Parrakeets Moulting"; if references ''were'' deposited for this paper, then the ''WJS'' article would eventually appear as a citing article on the "Parrakeets Moulting" page. Thus, reference linking offers readers of the cited article another connection to the citing WikiJournal article, increasing the visibility of WJUG outputs. One final reason to consider depositing references is that doing so will grant WJUG eligibility for Crossref's [https://www.crossref.org/documentation/cited-by/ Cited-by service], which is essentially the tool that allows WJUG the ability to see what research is citing WikiJournal articles. Right now, WJUG can access the ''number'' of citations for each of its journals' articles through Crossref (''[http://data.crossref.org/depositorreport?pubid=J243966 WJM]'', ''[http://data.crossref.org/depositorreport?pubid=J310521 WJS]'', and ''[http://data.crossref.org/depositorreport?pubid=J310522 WJH]'') but can't actually see what those citing articles are. Depositing references will grant eligibility for Cited-by which WJUG can opt to enroll in (free!) and access said lists of citing materials for WikiJournal articles. If depositing references is of interest, the good news is that Crossref has made it pretty easy! References can be deposited manually via the [https://apps.crossref.org/SimpleTextQuery Simple Text Query] tool on Crossref's site. All one needs to do is copy the list of references from a WikiJournal article and paste it into the tool. (Note that for some articles, this will be easy; "[[WikiJournal of Science/Beak and feather disease virus: biology and resultant disease|Beak and feather disease virus: biology and resultant disease]]" has a unified reference list, but other articles like "[[WikiJournal of Humanities/Themes in Maya Angelou's autobiographies|Themes in Maya Angelou's autobiographies]]" have references split between a footnotes and a cited by list and may need to be manually trimmed to remove the repeated "[Author], [date], p. XX" footnotes when submitting.) Simple Text Query then parses the list and connects materials based on their DOIs. Once this is done, the depositor clicks ''Deposit'', enters their email, the Parent DOI (i.e., the DOI of the article for which references are being deposited), and their Crossref depositor credentials. I have been manually going through all articles in all three journals to make sure that all of them have relevant DOIs included in their references. I have completed ''WJS'', am almost done with ''WJH'', and will then start on ''WJM''. Once this is done, I would be happy to either guide someone interested through beginning to deposit references or take over the project myself, at least to work through the 87-article backlog of existing papers. (If someone with depositor access wants to try making a reference deposit, "Beak and feather disease virus" is in good shape and its reflist is ready to be deposited.) In either case, please let me know if this is something WJUG would be interested in pursuing and how I can help. Please let me know if you have any questions. Kindly —[[User:Bobamnertiopsis|Collin]] (Bobamnertiopsis)^{[[User talk:Bobamnertiopsis|t]] [[Special:Contributions/Bobamnertiopsis|c]]} 01:02, 19 June 2022 (UTC) : Okay, all ''WJH'' articles now include all available DOIs. ''WJM'' is left to do. —[[User:Bobamnertiopsis|Collin]] (Bobamnertiopsis)^{[[User talk:Bobamnertiopsis|t]] [[Special:Contributions/Bobamnertiopsis|c]]} 20:23, 19 June 2022 (UTC) ::Thanks Colin for the very informative post and your great work on adding DOIs. I will bring this up at our next monthly meeting. [[User:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: #0000FF;">OhanaUnited</span></b>]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: green;">^{Talk page}</span></b>]] 19:31, 20 June 2022 (UTC) :::Great points raised! I've added a step-wise summary process [[WikiJournal User Group/Editorial guidelines#Submitting reference metadata|here]] and we're looking at organising going through and uploading the back-catalogue. [[User:Evolution and evolvability|T.Shafee(Evo&#65120;Evo)]]^{[[User talk:Evolution and evolvability|talk]]} 01:50, 21 July 2022 (UTC) ::::Thanks {{u|Evolution and evolvability}}! I'm glad to hear it's of interest. I'm still working through adding DOIs to all references in ''WJM'' but I'll try to finish that by the end of the month so all articles in all three journals are ready to be deposited. Let me know if you have any other questions! —[[User:Bobamnertiopsis|Collin]] (Bobamnertiopsis)^{[[User talk:Bobamnertiopsis|t]] [[Special:Contributions/Bobamnertiopsis|c]]} 05:18, 21 July 2022 (UTC) :::::''WJM'' is now complete, so all existing articles are ready to have their references uploaded should you choose to do so. Thanks! —[[User:Bobamnertiopsis|Collin]] (Bobamnertiopsis)^{[[User talk:Bobamnertiopsis|t]] [[Special:Contributions/Bobamnertiopsis|c]]} 00:44, 26 July 2022 (UTC) ::::::Oh neat, I see references have already been deposited for "[https://doi.org/10.15347/WJM/2022.003 Parenting stress]" and it's already showing up in the cited articles' Cited By lists (e.g., [https://citations.springernature.com/item?doi=10.1007/s10826-017-0963-6 here]). Thanks for doing this! —[[User:Bobamnertiopsis|Collin]] (Bobamnertiopsis)^{[[User talk:Bobamnertiopsis|t]] [[Special:Contributions/Bobamnertiopsis|c]]} 01:44, 26 July 2022 (UTC) :::::::{{re|Bobamnertiopsis}} Yes, I did [[WikiJournal of Medicine/Parenting stress|Parenting stress]] and another one (can't remember if it was [[WikiJournal of Medicine/The Kivu Ebola Epidemic|Kivu Ebola Epidemic]] or the [[WikiJournal of Medicine/Leptospirosis|Leptospirosis]]) as a trial to see how easy/difficult the process was. Is there a way to check back which one I did? [[User:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: #0000FF;">OhanaUnited</span></b>]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: green;">^{Talk page}</span></b>]] 19:27, 19 August 2022 (UTC) ::::::::{{re|OhanaUnited}}, good question. Looking at the [http://data.crossref.org/depositorreport?pubid=J243966 dates the DOIs were most recently updated], I'd guess that it was "[https://doi.org/10.15347/WJM/2022.002 Leptospirosis]", updated 18 July just like "Parenting stress". However, looking at [https://api.crossref.org/v1/works/10.15347/wjm/2022.002 the metadata itself], it looks like only a single reference was actually deposited ("Hussain, A. (2021). Society and culture. International Journal of Scientific Research. 12 (1). 40608-40613.") and it doesn't even seem to be a reference actually cited in the article, so it may be worth it to try depositing refs for that one again. (Compare to the [https://api.crossref.org/v1/works/10.15347/wjm/2022.003 "Parenting stress" metadata] where you can see all the references properly located within the metadata itself.) I hope this is useful! —[[User:Bobamnertiopsis|Collin]] (Bobamnertiopsis)^{[[User talk:Bobamnertiopsis|t]] [[Special:Contributions/Bobamnertiopsis|c]]} 20:52, 19 August 2022 (UTC) :::::::::That was indeed strange. Thanks for the detective work. I'll try Leptospirosis again this weekend and let the rest to be tackled by our technical editors. [[User:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: #0000FF;">OhanaUnited</span></b>]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: green;">^{Talk page}</span></b>]] 22:10, 19 August 2022 (UTC) == Rabeprazole? == I was just taking a look at the [[WikiJournal User Group/Potential upcoming articles|potential upcoming articles]] and noticed the 2018 preprint "[[WikiJournal Preprints/Rabeprazole|Rabeprazole]]" which does not seem to be included on the tracking list despite having received two peer reviews. It also doesn't seem to have a Wikidata item, but I couldn't see anywhere that it had been declined. Just flagging it here to make sure it hasn't slipped through the cracks. Thanks! —[[User:Bobamnertiopsis|Collin]] (Bobamnertiopsis)^{[[User talk:Bobamnertiopsis|t]] [[Special:Contributions/Bobamnertiopsis|c]]} 20:45, 16 August 2022 (UTC) :Good catch. I'm contacting the WJM board to find out. [[User:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: #0000FF;">OhanaUnited</span></b>]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: green;">^{Talk page}</span></b>]] 19:31, 19 August 2022 (UTC) {{re|Bobamnertiopsis}} Thanks for catching this. It was indeed an approved article that didn't get published because it fell through the crack. It will be published shortly. [[User:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: #0000FF;">OhanaUnited</span></b>]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: green;">^{Talk page}</span></b>]] 15:28, 20 August 2022 (UTC) == Wikipedia as a bibliographic tool for researchers? == Wikijournals give incentives for researchers to write in Wikipedia, by allowing Wikipedia articles to be peer-reviewed and officially counted as academic publications. What if in some cases, researchers did not need incentives because writing in Wikipedia would be directly useful to their own work? The idea is that they would not write on their own results or subject, but on some related subject which they would need to learn. (See [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Sylvain_Ribault/WP_biblio_essay this short essay] for details.) Does anyone know examples of this modus operandi? If you are a researcher, does it seem applicable in your own field of research? [[User:Sylvain Ribault|Sylvain Ribault]] ([[User talk:Sylvain Ribault|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Sylvain Ribault|contribs]]) 21:44, 17 August 2022 (UTC) == Capitalized titles? == Hello all, There's currently an inconsistency whether article titles are written with upper-case or lower-case first letter in its words. I think it's reasonable to have them lower-case, and Wikipedia as well as high impact scholarly journals (such as Nature and The Lancet) do the same. I think this should be added to the [[WikiJournal_User_Group/Publishing|Author guidelines]]. [[User:Mikael Häggström|Mikael Häggström]] ([[User talk:Mikael Häggström|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mikael Häggström|contribs]]) 20:35, 21 August 2022 (UTC) : There was some discussion of this [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:WikiJournal_User_Group&oldid=2342516 last year] as well. —[[User:Bobamnertiopsis|Collin]] (Bobamnertiopsis)^{[[User talk:Bobamnertiopsis|t]] [[Special:Contributions/Bobamnertiopsis|c]]} 16:45, 22 August 2022 (UTC) ::Thanks. I've added sentence case to the Author guidelines: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=WikiJournal_User_Group%2FPublishing&type=revision&diff=2424728&oldid=2423560]. [[User:Mikael Häggström|Mikael Häggström]] ([[User talk:Mikael Häggström|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mikael Häggström|contribs]]) 23:32, 17 October 2022 (UTC) == Proposal to introduce "Inactivity removal policy" to the [[WikiJournal User Group/Individual WikiJournal bylaws|bylaws]] == {|class=wikitable | '''Outcome: Approved''' (see section bottom) As per September's WikiJournal meetings on September 7 and September 9, I am proposing amendments to the bylaw to introduce an inactivity removal policy in "ARTICLE VII - END OF TERM" to all WikiJournals. The reason for this proposal is to ensure that current editorial board members (editors and associated editors) are active in the activities that support the journal. At the meetings, we identified this issue when we attempted to find peer review coordinators to handle our submission backlogs across the journals. The proposal seeks to ensure that the activities that support the journal are spread out to many individuals and not place a burden on a few active volunteers. The proposed wording can be found at [[WikiJournal User Group/Individual WikiJournal bylaws/Proposed changes]] (the inactive policy words being added are in '''bold'''). Inactive members will be automatically removed if they do not participate in any WikiJournal activities for past 12 months. They will be given an opportunity to become active again before being removed from the editorial board. Meeting attendees representing all 3 WikiJournals unanimously agreed to proposed amendment. Our proposed inactive removal policy and its approach are [[meta:Admin activity review|similar to other WMF communities over how to handle inactive senior staff]]. I also included an exemption clause to the inactive removal due to extenuating circumstances if advance notice was given. The voting will be conducted according to [[WikiJournal User Group/Individual WikiJournal bylaws#ARTICLE III - VOTING|ARTICLE III - VOTING]] with regards to eligibility, quorum and outcome. [[User:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: #0000FF;">OhanaUnited</span></b>]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: green;">^{Talk page}</span></b>]] 03:13, 12 September 2022 (UTC) ===Support=== # Support as nom. [[User:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: #0000FF;">OhanaUnited</span></b>]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: green;">^{Talk page}</span></b>]] 03:13, 12 September 2022 (UTC) # {{support}} [[User:Physikerwelt|Physikerwelt]] ([[User talk:Physikerwelt|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Physikerwelt|contribs]]) 04:57, 12 September 2022 (UTC) # {{support}} - makes sense. Don't know many academic journals that will continue to support inactive Editors. --[[User:Stevenfruitsmaak|Steven Fruitsmaak]] <small>([[User_talk:Stevenfruitsmaak|Reply]])</small> 07:00, 12 September 2022 (UTC) # {{support}} [[User:rwatson1955|rwatson1955]] # {{support}} [[User:Eystein Thanisch|Eystein Thanisch]] This sadly does seem necessary. I've been inactive for some time and have been making inquiries about how to tidily resign from the board, but presumably those who are still active are too busy with other things to assist with that. An automated procedure thus seems best. # {{support}} [[User:Rosieredfield|Rosieredfield]] ([[User talk:Rosieredfield|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Rosieredfield|contribs]]) 15:22, 12 September 2022 (UTC) # {{support}} --[[User:AmyFou|AmyFou]] ([[User talk:AmyFou|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/AmyFou|contribs]]) 15:35, 12 September 2022 (UTC) # {{support}} I do support these types of clauses for a variety of reasons. I have been involved in the drafting and proposing of similar policy on several wikis as {{re|OhanaUnited}} is aware. There are good reasons for this. For administrative roles its security, as pointed out above here its backlogs. For myself I have spent the last two years serving as chair of the Ombuds Commission which takes considerable time for me. As such if people wish to remove me from the editorial board here I can understand that and will not object to it. I am still currently working on the OC and have plans to do a third term next year. Cheers [[User:Faendalimas|<span style="color: #004730">Scott Thomson</span>]] (<small class="nickname">Faendalimas</small>) ^{[[User talk:Faendalimas|<span style="color: maroon">talk</span>]]} 16:39, 12 September 2022 (UTC) # {{support}} [[User:Rachel Helps (BYU)|Rachel Helps (BYU)]] ([[User talk:Rachel Helps (BYU)|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Rachel Helps (BYU)|contribs]]) 17:00, 12 September 2022 (UTC) # {{support}} [[User:Mstefan|Mstefan]] ([[User talk:Mstefan|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mstefan|contribs]]) 12:36, 14 September 2022 (UTC) # {{support}} [[User:Oertherdb|Oertherdb]] ([[User talk:Oertherdb|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Oertherdb|contribs]]) 12:56, 14 September 2022 (UTC) # {{support}} I think it's reasonable. I'd originally envisaged that we could just let people who's activity dropped off simply not renew at the end of a [[WikiJournal User Group/Individual WikiJournal bylaws#ARTICLE VII - END OF TERM|4-year term]], but I can see how that's probably insufficient for cases of complete inactivity over a year or more (so long as it doesn't add in too much admin overhead). It it were to be implemented, a reasonable process might be an email with the options: A) remain on the board; B) drop down to assoc editor to be contacted only for articles on their key subject area; or C) be removed from the board (default if no response). It'd also be an opportunity for them to give feedback if they have any. [[User:Evolution and evolvability|T.Shafee(Evo&#65120;Evo)]]^{[[User talk:Evolution and evolvability|talk]]} 04:33, 19 September 2022 (UTC) # {{support}} As an inactive member, I approuve. [[User:Marcrr|MarcRR]] ===Oppose=== # Perhaps we can find better incentives to stay active rather than to punish inactivity, in light of us having fixed terms renewable as per the existing by-laws. If feasible, we can perhaps create another category for officials to be deemed "inactive" by new definition, and maintain them as pool of experts ("fleet in being" analogy) who can choose to reactivate their editorship at any time, since we believe in their expertise the first time. This may help us project an image of a welcoming board that provides better recognition and promotion of active members. [[User:Arius1998|Arius1998]] ([[User talk:Arius1998|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Arius1998|contribs]]) 03:39, 12 September 2022 (UTC) #:I find the conceptualisation of it as "punishment" questionable. Nothing bad happens. It's just that people who aren't doing any editing (and haven't done any in a long time) are no longer listed as editors. I think the discrepancy is with how different people in this discussion understand the "title" of "editor": some see it as some sort of badge of recognition for a person's expertise, while others (including myself) see is as a description of an activity. If it's just a descriptor of an activity, when the activity ceases (for a long amount of time), then the descriptor is no longer accurate. The proposed definition of "activity" makes the bar for further participation extremely low, so I do think that continued listing as editor is accessible to those who want it. [[User:Mstefan|Mstefan]] ([[User talk:Mstefan|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mstefan|contribs]]) 12:44, 14 September 2022 (UTC) # I second Arius1998. Definitions of active and inactive along with exceptions need to be put forward before jumping to conclusions. Being an innovative journal with non-conventional format, we need to be careful in executing hasty decisions. [[User:G10sinha|G10sinha]] ([[User talk:G10sinha|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/G10sinha|contribs]]) 09:15, 12 September 2022 (UTC) #:{{re|G10sinha}} The definitions of active (and vice versa for being inactive) along with exceptions have already been specified in [[WikiJournal User Group/Individual WikiJournal bylaws/Proposed changes]]. [[User:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: #0000FF;">OhanaUnited</span></b>]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: green;">^{Talk page}</span></b>]] 13:08, 12 September 2022 (UTC) # Oppose per my comments below regarding "The definitions of active (and vice versa for being inactive)" etc. If you limit editorship to a year where no editable submissions occur you lose valuable editors! --[[User:Marshallsumter|Marshallsumter]] ([[User talk:Marshallsumter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Marshallsumter|contribs]]) 07:43, 13 September 2022 (UTC) #:Indeed we risk losing editors in the process, but I believe it is for the better overall, as we are in need of activity more than having people registered as members. I think a year gives plenty of opportunity to engage. [[User:Mikael Häggström|Mikael Häggström]] ([[User talk:Mikael Häggström|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mikael Häggström|contribs]]) 23:42, 17 October 2022 (UTC) ===Neutral=== # I have been inactive for some time for want of submissions in my particular subject. I am not actively trying to encourage submissions, but if a submission came I would be happy to work on it. People like me could be kept in some kind of purgatory as per [[User:Arius1998|Arius1998]]'s suggestion. [[User:Sylvain Ribault|Sylvain Ribault]] ([[User talk:Sylvain Ribault|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Sylvain Ribault|contribs]]) 07:12, 12 September 2022 (UTC) ===Comments=== I think it would be good to specify active. I myself was not active, as no articles were submitted and I never got a reply regarding my idea to organize a special issue. [[User:Physikerwelt|Physikerwelt]] ([[User talk:Physikerwelt|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Physikerwelt|contribs]]) 05:02, 12 September 2022 (UTC) I'd like to add a few observations: # I haven't been serving as an editor for the same reason stated above in '''Neutral'''. Lately, all of the submissions have been outside the physical, chemical, astronomical, geological or mathematical. I update [[WikiJournal of Science/Contribute]] occasionally and have asked Wikipedia contributors to submit articles to the WikiJournal of Science but so far no submittals. I am interested in genetics and do consider serving as an editor in this area but my expertise is limited and expanding. --[[User:Marshallsumter|Marshallsumter]] ([[User talk:Marshallsumter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Marshallsumter|contribs]]) 16:41, 13 September 2022 (UTC) # if you look at the current submissions on [[WikiJournal of Science/Potential upcoming articles]] you'll see that almost all current submittals are biological. I hope that the WikiJournal of Science is not being reduced to the WikiJournal of Biology. # on [[WikiJournal of Science/Contribute]] we have the following: "Are you proud of any science article you've written on Wikiversity, Wikipedia or any other Wikimedia wiki? Then your article may be eligible for publication at the WikiJournal of Science!" Many of my lectures and resources that are part of my open educational resource called [[Radiation astronomy/Courses/Principles|Principles of radiation astronomy]] are attempts to review in a course context fields within astronomy. Any that others believe might make a good contribution to the WikiJournal of Science could be submitted, and open to peer review. This of course also applies to other contributors here at Wikiversity. --[[User:Marshallsumter|Marshallsumter]] ([[User talk:Marshallsumter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Marshallsumter|contribs]]) 02:18, 13 September 2022 (UTC) # usually the WikiJournal of Science only accepts open access submissions. ''Nature'' is the foremost science journal in the world and with a few exceptions its articles are for educational use only. This suggests that occasionally perhaps the WikiJournal of Science could publish educational issues or articles where figures could be fairuse. --[[User:Marshallsumter|Marshallsumter]] ([[User talk:Marshallsumter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Marshallsumter|contribs]]) 04:26, 13 September 2022 (UTC) # "Active is defined as at least one productive engagement in an email or on-wiki discussion, participating in a virtual WikiJournal meeting, participating, attending or presenting as a WikiJournal representative at a local, national or international event, or finding peer reviewers for a submission." No! The purpose of an editor is to help prepare submissions for publication such as but not limited to finding peer reviewers for a submission where professionally likely. Discussions, meetings, and attending or presenting are optional and voluntary and do not constitute activeness as an editor. These instead help the success of the journal by encouraging submissions and are a user group function but are voluntary and encouraged but never mandatory. To make them mandatory is not needed for any editor or editor-in-chief but a manager only. Anyone who manages but does not perform editorship can be considered active but not as an editor. No editor should be considered inactive for lack of submissions upon which to perform editorship. --[[User:Marshallsumter|Marshallsumter]] ([[User talk:Marshallsumter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Marshallsumter|contribs]]) 07:38, 13 September 2022 (UTC) #:But Editorial Board meetings are meetings for members of the editorial board. Who else would be attending? I get that there may be a year where no article within one's area of expertise is submitted and where therefore one cannot edit an article. But at least showing up to meetings where the general editorial policy of WikiJournals is discussed (or getting active in some other way that furthers the WikiJ mission) at least once in a year - I don't think that's asking too much. [[User:Mstefan|Mstefan]] ([[User talk:Mstefan|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mstefan|contribs]]) 12:36, 14 September 2022 (UTC) #::Actually it may be too much to ask. Looking at the history of submissions, the last one outside biology was just more than two years ago. Supplemental participation to a meeting here may widen participation where schedule conflicts occur. Usually, anything I have to add or discuss is easier here. The matters discussed are important and I'm happy with the general outcome. I have listed some suggestions here for widening submittals to the WikiJournal of Science which can be discussed at such meetings as well as here. But, the number and variety of submissions has dwindled suggesting that the meetings are failing somewhere or that the ended pandemic has caused some withdrawal that will soon change. On my talk page I'm putting together a table of "Recent contributions from WikiJournal of Science Editorial Board" which suggests that we may have to remove some inactive members for no activity for two or more years. While I'm not familiar with the success of "getting active in some other way that furthers the WikiJ mission", the number of scientists I've contacted for peer review has greatly widened their general awareness of our journal's existence. --[[User:Marshallsumter|Marshallsumter]] ([[User talk:Marshallsumter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Marshallsumter|contribs]]) 20:28, 14 September 2022 (UTC) #:::Regarding the "Recent contributions from WikiJournal of Science Editorial Board" an arbitrary cutoff after one year seems to be a bit of a problem. A better solution would be to contact some of those I've listed as "Inactive" to see if they wish to continue on our board. --[[User:Marshallsumter|Marshallsumter]] ([[User talk:Marshallsumter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Marshallsumter|contribs]]) 03:43, 15 September 2022 (UTC) # Looking at our WikiJournal User Group, there are about 73 members. Perhaps half of these would be considered inactive. To have a reasonable vote of the 37 active members would require some 19 votes as a quorum. --[[User:Marshallsumter|Marshallsumter]] ([[User talk:Marshallsumter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Marshallsumter|contribs]]) 04:24, 15 September 2022 (UTC) #:Incorrect. The [[WikiJournal_User_Group/Individual_WikiJournal_bylaws#Section_3._Quorum|Quorum]] is the lesser of "10 votes from eligible voting members" or "20% of the total number of Editorial Board members". Using your number (73), 20% of 73 is 15 members. Both metrics have already been met at the current stage, with 10 days to go. [[User:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: #0000FF;">OhanaUnited</span></b>]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: green;">^{Talk page}</span></b>]] 16:50, 16 September 2022 (UTC) #::Thanks for your comment! What we have done in the past, e.g., with G. Brian Whalley, was attempt contact during 2018, both by myself and with the Editor-in-chief. Whalley did not respond to emails but I was able to contact him at his university through a third party regarding his participation on finding reviewers for the [[WikiJournal of Science/Ice drilling methods|Ice drilling methods]] submission. He indicated he had inquired of colleagues to review but none responded. This effort to contact took several days. Simply dropping an editor for no activity after one year may not be good. As you've noted above an attempt to contact each is needed but is time consuming. Expecting them to respond with email (that may no longer be active) may not be effective. On established journals, members of an editorial board are responsible for contacting the Editor-in-chief if they no longer wish to be considered for finding reviewers or as some have done with the WikiJournal of Science, they've just withdrawn from the board. Usually, a member is kept for obtaining reviewers for about five years, assuming submissions have occurred in their area of expertise and response has occurred in the past. --[[User:Marshallsumter|Marshallsumter]] ([[User talk:Marshallsumter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Marshallsumter|contribs]]) 17:56, 16 September 2022 (UTC) #:::While I realize we have agreed to what we consider a quorum, according to Wiktionary, somewhat modified, '''Def.''' the "number of people [members]<ref name=QuorumWikt1>{{ cite book |author=[[wikt:User:63.86.210.252|63.86.210.252]] |title=quorum |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=1 February 2005 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/quorum |accessdate=7 September 2022 }}</ref> required for a governing body or organization to actually vote or [group to officially]<ref name=QuorumWikt1/> conduct business<ref name=QuorumWikt>{{ cite book |author=[[wikt:User:Alia H|Alia H]] |title=quorum |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=1 February 2005 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/quorum |accessdate=7 September 2022 }}</ref> [and to cast votes, often but not necessarily a majority or supermajority]"<ref name=QuorumWikt1/>is called a '''quorum'''. A majority of 73 is 37 which if half the boards are inactive is perhaps unrealistic though perhaps not required, but to contact 37 editors to see if they wish to be kept on our boards is a heavily time consuming task. --[[User:Marshallsumter|Marshallsumter]] ([[User talk:Marshallsumter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Marshallsumter|contribs]]) 18:48, 16 September 2022 (UTC) '''Outcome: Approved'''. Valid points have been raised about the consequences of introducing a minimal activity requirement, but overall there is strong support for it, so I hereby mark it as approved. [[User:Mikael Häggström|Mikael Häggström]] ([[User talk:Mikael Häggström|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mikael Häggström|contribs]]) 02:23, 18 October 2022 (UTC) ==References== {{reflist|2}} |} == How should unsubmitted preprints be handled? == I've noticed that there are a number of old, incomplete articles under the WikiJournal Preprints namespace, many of which are unlikely to be suitable for publication even if they were finished and submitted. A couple of examples are: * [[WikiJournal Preprints/COVID-19 ELIMINATION AND CELLDIFFERENTIATION]] * [[WikiJournal Preprints/Cultural Computational Publishing: A Sprint]] * [[WikiJournal Preprints/Medical gallery of Aria Rad]] * [[WikiJournal Preprints/Parts of a Book]] * [[WikiJournal Preprints/Zoosemiotics]] Does the WikiJournal project have any standing policies to reject these drafts automatically after some point, or do they just stay in the "unpublished pre-print" state indefinitely? (Is it possible that some of these pages have slipped under the radar, e.g. by not being in the appropriate categories?) Do all of them (especially the ones that never got beyond writing an abstract) need to be preserved for posterity, or can they be deleted after some period of time? [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 22:13, 12 December 2022 (UTC) :Ping? I'm also curious about the status of the following two articles: :* [[WikiJournal Preprints/Cryometeors]] :* [[WikiJournal Preprints/Sunflower Trypsin Inhibitor]] :These two display a message claiming that they are "an editorial article and [are] published without peer review", which I don't think is intended. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 03:26, 10 July 2023 (UTC) == Question regarding WikiJournal and duplicate content == Hi! I have two questions. I searched around a bit and didn't find anything. # When a stable WikiJournal article is the basis of a separate living page, say on Wikipedia or Wikiversity, do you know if it's possible to use a [[w:canonical link element]] to indicate the canonical version of the article for search engines? # If so, do you know if the WikiJournal User Group has a policy regarding which version is canonical? Thank you so much! [[User:Greg at Higher Math Help|Greg at Higher Math Help]] ([[User talk:Greg at Higher Math Help|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Greg at Higher Math Help|contribs]]) 22:34, 13 February 2023 (UTC) :@[[User:Greg at Higher Math Help|Greg at Higher Math Help]] I don't think canonical link element is supported by MediaWiki. It's limited by the software itself. The canonical version of the page is the WikiJournal PDF, which is linked on the wiki page and on Wikidata. [[User:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: #0000FF;">OhanaUnited</span></b>]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: green;">^{Talk page}</span></b>]] 04:24, 11 March 2023 (UTC) ::Thank you! [[User:Greg at Higher Math Help|Greg at Higher Math Help]] ([[User talk:Greg at Higher Math Help|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Greg at Higher Math Help|contribs]]) 02:24, 1 April 2023 (UTC) == Preprint Quality == I recently had an article accepted at the WIkiJournal of Medicine and was very disappointed with the PDF preprint quality/process (with no insult towards the editors). I know very little about how things work behind the scenes, but my understanding is that the PDF preprints are manually produced using MS Word. Though WikiJournal requires svgs, there is (to my knowledge) no way to retain the vector-ness of the svg files in Word and it generally results in poor quality rasterization. This can even be seen in the header images. I've made a little process to produce a preprint from the wikipedia page that relies on [https://mediawiki2latex.wmflabs.org/ mediawiki2latex], and the editors have [https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiversity/en/2/24/Alternative_androgen_pathways.pdf uploaded] my preprint. You can see I tried to mimic the existing preprint as best as I could given my fairly shallow latex knowledge and the constraints associated with trying to make this as automatic as possible. I don't have any stats on how much people use preprint PDFs, but I suspect many people rely on them. It is essential that the print quality is up to par any other academic journal. The existing method, I think, it probably too manual and results in an obviously poor quality print that will limit author interest. I've put my basic process here: https://github.com/mittimithai/wjlatexpreprint and suggest it that it be used as a basis for coming up with a standard, essentially automated process across all WikiJournals for high quality pdf preprints. WikiJournals should provide a baseline preprint and authors can then be responsible for custom typesetting. Using latex in this context is a bit different than writing one's own papers, mediawiki2latex output has to be transformed as reliably into PDF as possible. I tried to apply as much appropriate substitution as I could in the perl script but I am sure there can be some improvements made. [[User:Maneesh|Maneesh]] ([[User talk:Maneesh|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Maneesh|contribs]]) 18:48, 30 April 2023 (UTC) :Please consider using the Century Schoolbook font as a "serif" for the paragraph regular text, and Franklin Gothic font as a "sans-serif" font for the headers (titles). Or use any appropriate font set for the text and headers that the journal adopted, but the fonts have to fit each other. [[User:Maxim Masiutin|Maxim Masiutin]] ([[User talk:Maxim Masiutin|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Maxim Masiutin|contribs]]) 20:05, 1 May 2023 (UTC) ::I am not terribly partial to any font, wikimedia2latex makes use of KOMA which does things in certain ways that are partial to the author's views. There does seem to be a lot of "religion" in typesetting with very little of it empirically justified. Feel free to add in a free font to the github repo, I think all one needs to do is change the two lines in maininc.tex. The current lines I think implicitly depend on font locations in an ubntu install. [[User:Maneesh|Maneesh]] ([[User talk:Maneesh|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Maneesh|contribs]]) 20:55, 1 May 2023 (UTC) == Recent articles without reference deposits == Hello! I just wanted to flag that a few recent articles have not yet [[WikiJournal User Group/Editorial guidelines#Submitting reference metadata|had their references deposited into Crossref]]: * "[[WikiJournal of Science/Multiple object tracking|Multiple object tracking]]" (''WJS'') * "[[WikiJournal of Science/Non-canonical base pairing|Non-canonical base pairing]]" (''WJS'') * <s>"[[WikiJournal of Medicine/Alternative androgens pathways|Alternative androgens pathways]]" (''WJM'')</s> * "[[WikiJournal Preprints/Impact of xenogenic mesenchimal stem cells secretome on a humoral component of the immune system|Impact of xenogenic mesenchimal stem cells secretome on a humoral component of the immune system]]" (''WJM'') * "[[WikiJournal of Humanities/Loveday, 1458|Loveday, 1458]]" (''WJH'') Thanks! Kindly —[[User:Bobamnertiopsis|Collin]] (Bobamnertiopsis)^{[[User talk:Bobamnertiopsis|t]] [[Special:Contributions/Bobamnertiopsis|c]]} 22:07, 18 July 2023 (UTC) :Thanks {{u|Bobamnertiopsis}}. I'm tagging {{u|Silver Dovelet}} who's responsible for this task. [[User:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: #0000FF;">OhanaUnited</span></b>]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: green;">^{Talk page}</span></b>]] 14:17, 1 August 2023 (UTC) ::{{re|Bobamnertiopsis}} Can you check if the references for these publications have been deposited? [[User:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: #0000FF;">OhanaUnited</span></b>]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: green;">^{Talk page}</span></b>]] 03:36, 10 December 2023 (UTC) :::{{re|OhanaUnited}} yes, thanks for pinging me about this! It looks like "[[WikiJournal of Medicine/Alternative androgens pathways|Alternative androgens pathways]]"'s refs have been deposited (see https://api.crossref.org/works/10.15347/WJM/2023.003) but the other four have not yet been deposited (compare with https://api.crossref.org/works/10.15347/WJH/2023.001 e.g.; you can always swap out the DOI at the back of this link to see the metadata registered for a particular article). Thanks! —[[User:Bobamnertiopsis|Collin]] (Bobamnertiopsis)^{[[User talk:Bobamnertiopsis|t]] [[Special:Contributions/Bobamnertiopsis|c]]} 15:24, 10 December 2023 (UTC) ::::The remaining 4 should be deposited now. Thank you. [[User:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: #0000FF;">OhanaUnited</span></b>]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: green;">^{Talk page}</span></b>]] 04:47, 15 December 2023 (UTC) == Rejection rates == What are the rejection rates of WikiJournals? [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 13:19, 5 September 2023 (UTC) :@[[User:Juandev|Juandev]] Very good questions. We have not tallied the overall rejection rate (or individual rejection rate within each journal). Using 2023's data, my estimation is about 60-75% rejection rate in the medicine and science journals. But the overall % does not reflect the amount of work performed behind the scenes. Just over half of the rejected articles are "desk reject" or author filled out the submission form but never submitted the text. The rest are due to author abandoning submission partway (stale submission), rejection after peer review or author no longer has time to complete revision. [[User:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: #0000FF;">OhanaUnited</span></b>]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: green;">^{Talk page}</span></b>]] 03:06, 19 September 2023 (UTC) ::OK. I see. Thx. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 10:17, 22 September 2023 (UTC) == Peer Reviews == As per my understanding off [[WikiJournal of Humanities/Peer reviewers]] only qualified external professionals are allowed to formally peer-review articles. Which seems a bit unnecessary considering anyone can write articles, also Nupedia vibes, this seriously hurts the journal's growth due to lack of volunteers. I believe that editors on wikipedia who've written extensively on related topics, should also be invited to peer-review articles, this would add a lot more volunteers (thus making the whole process faster and smoother), and get qualified people from wikipedia over to wikiversity. [[User:Crainsaw|Crainsaw]] ([[User talk:Crainsaw|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Crainsaw|contribs]]) 11:55, 17 December 2023 (UTC) == Current status of WikiJournals == I hate to say this, but so far, I've yet to see WikiJournal revolutionize academic journals in the way that Wikipedia affected encyclopedias severely. Furthermore, WikiJournals have been kinda slow to publish articles. Also, there have been many other open-access journals, especially ones using CC-BY-NC-ND. Also, many published articles happen to be adapted from Wikipedia articles and then copied (if not adapted) into Wikipedia articles, especially same ones. Maybe these are reasons for WMF to be reluctant to approve further development of WikiJournals. I did have high hopes for this project, yet my interests in the semi-project has.... waned. [[User:George Ho|George Ho]] ([[User talk:George Ho|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/George Ho|contribs]]) 23:54, 3 January 2024 (UTC) :I appreciate all the work that went into the publication of an article I worked on last year, without insulting the editors, I was overall disappointed (though they editorial team was able to get outstanding reviewers that were very patient with a very deficient initial draft). I proposed a mostly automated pdf workflow (see above) with no uptake/feedback. Good quality PDFs, I think, are a very very high priority. The current quality is very low and suffers from (what seems to be) a fairly manual process and immediately obvious rasterization artifacts which look unprofessional. Automation to bring the journal to a professional standard is essential before greater aspirations. [[User:Maneesh|Maneesh]] ([[User talk:Maneesh|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Maneesh|contribs]]) 18:35, 4 January 2024 (UTC) ::I should also add that WIkiJournal of Medicine articles don't appear properly indexed by Google Scholar, they don't look like proper journal articles. When I search for the title of my article: ::[PDF] [https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiversity/en/a/a7/Alternative_androgens_pathways.pdf Alternative androgen pathways] ::[https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=9gJaSxcAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=sra MG Masiutin], MK Yadav - upload.wikimedia.org ::Steroidogenic routes to androgens have been discovered and characterized over the last two ::decades that fall outside the Δ4 and Δ5" classical androgen pathways" to testosterone and … ::Save Cite [[scholar:related:x2717efivtkJ:scholar.google.com/&scioq="alternative+androgen+pathways"&hl=en&as_sdt=0,5|Related articles]] [https://scholar.google.com/scholar?cluster=15690227637562994375&hl=en&as_sdt=0,5 All 2 versions] ::[[WikiJournal of Medicine/Alternative androgens pathways|'''[HTML]''' wikiversity.org]] ::[HTML] [[WikiJournal of Medicine/Alternative androgens pathways]] ::[https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=9gJaSxcAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=sra MG Masiutin], MK Yadav - History - en.wikiversity.org ::… This expository review uses "'''alternative''' '''androgen''' '''pathways'''" to include what has been … ::lack of clear and consistent knowledge of '''alternative''' '''androgen''' '''pathways'''; the authors hope this … ::Save Cite [[scholar:related:J-L2yz0dY10J:scholar.google.com/&scioq="alternative+androgen+pathways"&hl=en&as_sdt=0,5|Related articles]] ::[https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiversity/en/archive/2/24/20230503121130%21Alternative_androgen_pathways.pdf '''<nowiki>[PDF]</nowiki>''' wikimedia.org] ::[PDF] [https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiversity/en/archive/2/24/20230503121130%21Alternative_androgen_pathways.pdf WikiJournal Preprints/Alternative Androgen Pathways] ::MG Masiutin, MK Yadav - upload.wikimedia.org ::… This expository review uses "'''alternative''' '''androgen''' '''pathways'''" to include what has been … ::lack of clear and consistent knowledge of '''alternative''' '''androgen''' '''pathways'''; the authors hope this … ::Save Cite [[scholar:related:wfMK5FH57gsJ:scholar.google.com/&scioq="alternative+androgen+pathways"&hl=en&as_sdt=0,5|Related articles]] [https://scholar.google.com/scholar?cluster=859898708987933633&hl=en&as_sdt=0,5 All 2 versions] ::Ensuring that the wikijournal articles don't look like some sort of second rate article in google scholar is very important. ::[[User:Maneesh|Maneesh]] ([[User talk:Maneesh|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Maneesh|contribs]]) 07:30, 5 January 2024 (UTC) :::I think the ''quality of the journals'' is fine ...IMO, what I have noticed is that the process[https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/WikiJournal_of_Medicine/Potential_upcoming_articles] is a little slow--[[User:Ozzie10aaaa|Ozzie10aaaa]] ([[User talk:Ozzie10aaaa|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ozzie10aaaa|contribs]]) 13:50, 14 January 2024 (UTC) == Notice about proposed deletion == It has been proposed to delete some unused files at [[Wikiversity:Requests_for_Deletion#Unused_files_uploaded_by_PCano]]. Someone suggested that WikiJournal might be interessted in the discussion so I made this notice. Feel free to join the discussion. --[[User:MGA73|MGA73]] ([[User talk:MGA73|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MGA73|contribs]]) 17:21, 27 February 2024 (UTC) :It might help if I put forth two questions. There is no need for answers to both, since an answer to one of them would allow us to delete a large number of image files: #Are the files at [[:Category:Files uploaded by PCano - unused]] of any use to the WikiJournals? #I vaguely remember an issue with Wikiversity image files that involved the WikiJournals and files that are imbedded in WikiJournal pdf files, but don't remember the details. The question is this: If a file is not used by any WikiJournal page, is it OK to delete it? --[[User:Guy vandegrift|Guy vandegrift]] ([[User talk:Guy vandegrift|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Guy vandegrift|contribs]]) 19:13, 27 February 2024 (UTC) == [[Wikipedia:WikiJournal article nominations]] is dead == Hello, I wanted to get in touch with you about a part of this process. The submissions board at [[en:Wikipedia:WP:WikiJournal article nominations|WikiJournal article nominations]] is no longer being maintained. [[User:Evolution and evolvability|Evolution and evolvability]] has been inactive since November 2023 and has not responded to multiple attempts of mine to get in touch with him. I submitted an article there more than 4 months ago and have not even received confirmation of its submission. I notice the previous section on the status of the WikiJournals, and I must say that I am also disheartened by my attempt to contribute. I hope that someone on this end of the process will come over to English Wikipedia and fill in this gap so that the article pipeline is no longer so flawed. [[User:Fritzmann2002|Fritzmann2002]] ([[User talk:Fritzmann2002|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Fritzmann2002|contribs]]) 16:12, 29 March 2024 (UTC) :Hi [[User:Fritzmann2002|Fritzmann2002]], thanks for pointing it out, I'm actually in the same situation (article submitted in April 2025). :I saw however that your submitted article has now a preprint page, and, according to the history, it was created by yourself. Did you obtain a permission from the editors for doing so, or can actually any user create directly a preprint page for their submissions? I didn't even tried myself, because it was never clear to me who is actually responsible for converting nominated Wikipedia articles into Wikijournal preprints. I have also explicitly asked the editors, but I have not obtained any reply so far... [[User:Francesco Cattafi|Francesco Cattafi]] ([[User talk:Francesco Cattafi|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Francesco Cattafi|contribs]]) 16:53, 2 September 2025 (UTC) :As long as everything is subordinated to Wikipedia, projects of this type cannot be a trustworthy partner. Yes, WikiJournal would be a great project that could exist on its own, but unfortunately it is not. You want to publish, you find WikiJournal, you write an article and hey, they don't accept articles of this type because it doesn't suit Wikipedia. So at the moment if it is publishable on Wikipedia, publish it directly on Wikipedia, if you need to publish in an article you are out of luck. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 06:42, 3 September 2025 (UTC) ::Sorry, I think we are talking about different problems. The page [[wikipedia:WikiJournal_article_nominations|WikiJournal article nominations]] deals precisely with articles already present on Wikipedia, so this is not the issue. The articles that we were mentioning above have been already written on Wikipedia first, so it's not a matter of not being accepted because they don't suit Wikipedia, but simply of not being converted (yet) into a WikiJournal preprint, which in turn (after passing the peer-review phase) would to a publication in a WikiJournal. ::I had already published an article with this procedure a couple of years ago and everything went smoothly, so I don't see an intrinsic problem in the system, just in this first stage, which requires some manual conversion from Wikipedia to Wikiversity (as I said, I would be willing to do it myself, but I'm not sure if it is allowed). [[User:Francesco Cattafi|Francesco Cattafi]] ([[User talk:Francesco Cattafi|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Francesco Cattafi|contribs]]) 15:40, 3 September 2025 (UTC) :::I see. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 04:42, 4 September 2025 (UTC) :::Yes, this is the issue. The point-man for that part of the process has gone inactive, and now it just isn't done. There needs to be some redundancy in this journal, so that if a volunteer (understandably) can't fulfill their role for an extended period of time there is someone else to step in. As of right now it seems there are several points in the process where a submitted article can just run out steam, through no fault of the author. Nobody wants to be ushering a written piece of work through review for years on end. [[User:Fritzmann2002|Fritzmann2002]] ([[User talk:Fritzmann2002|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Fritzmann2002|contribs]]) 23:36, 17 September 2025 (UTC) ::::Yes, I agree. But then, just to be clear, how was the issue solved for your article [[WikiJournal Preprints/Hypericum sechmenii|Hypericum sechmenii]]? From the history page it seems that you did create the preprint yourself. Is it allowed? Did an editor give you permission to do it? [[User:Francesco Cattafi|Francesco Cattafi]] ([[User talk:Francesco Cattafi|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Francesco Cattafi|contribs]]) 10:11, 18 September 2025 (UTC) :::::Hello everyone, :::::I'm submitting an article that I entirely revamped on Wikipedia ([[w:Pentagram map]]). I filled the form [https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSf-Nu7hjiTeJ5uQ5ozMOIivWZjeyJCPLwAUOuNDP1MVKUbCSQ/viewform WikiJournal submission form]. What should I do now ? @[[User:Francesco Cattafi|Francesco Cattafi]], I see that for [[WikiJournal Preprints/Diffeology]], you created it yourself. Should I do the same ? Did you get any reply ? :::::It's quite saddening to see that a nice project like the WikiJournal seems to be going down... At least from what I can read here. [[User:Regliste|Regliste]] ([[User talk:Regliste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Regliste|contribs]]) 15:13, 8 December 2025 (UTC) ::::::Hi @[[User:Regliste|Regliste]], I was in doubt what to do, but eventually I got the explicit permission from @[[User:Marshallsumter|Marshallsumter]] to create the preprint page myself (see also the related discussion on [[w:User_talk:Marshallsumter#Importing_Wikipedia_articles_to_Wikipreprints]]). However, since then I haven't received any further reply (see also my question at [[User_talk:OhanaUnited#WikiJournal_article_nominations]]) and the review process hasn't started at all. ::::::I guess therefore that you could probably do the same and create manually the preprint page - at worst it will be modified later by an editor. ::::::As you say, it is indeed quite sad that the WikiJournal project seems to have slowed down/stopped; I still hope that the trend will revert at a certain point... [[User:Francesco Cattafi|Francesco Cattafi]] ([[User talk:Francesco Cattafi|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Francesco Cattafi|contribs]]) 16:04, 11 December 2025 (UTC) :::::::Thanks a lot for your answer... I dearly hope that it will get back on its feet. I'll try to send some mails too, if anything comes up I'll notice it here. [[User:Regliste|Regliste]] ([[User talk:Regliste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Regliste|contribs]]) 21:03, 13 December 2025 (UTC) == Reporting and affiliate expiration == Please see: [[meta:Talk:Proposal:_WikiJournal_as_a_sister_project#(Second_Reminder)_Notification_of_Affiliate_Expiration_-_Renewal_pending_submission_of_reporting_2]]. [[User:Mu301|mikeu]] ^{[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]} 04:15, 4 April 2024 (UTC) == Requested move == I propose we move this page / rename this page to WikiJournal (not to be confused with [[Wiki Journal]]), since [[m:WikiJournal User Group|WikiJournal User Group]] already has its own page. Can we gather enough votes to agree on this? [[User:Infogiraffic|Infogiraffic]] ([[User talk:Infogiraffic|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Infogiraffic|contribs]]) 18:51, 15 April 2025 (UTC) :I've made up my mind. I think we should rebrand WikiJournal. '''Wikiversity Press''' would become the new name. I recently created this [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Talk:Proposal:_WikiJournal_as_a_sister_project#Rebranding_WikiJournal_into_Wikiversity_Press logo], so people can start to distinguish between Wikiversity Press and the [[m:WikiJournal User Group|WikiJournal User Group]] and its [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:WikiJournal_logo.svg logo] more easily. [[User:Infogiraffic|Infogiraffic]] ([[User talk:Infogiraffic|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Infogiraffic|contribs]]) 14:19, 18 April 2025 (UTC) ::@[[User:Infogiraffic|Infogiraffic]] Respectfully, the change was unilaterally proposed by you. The 3 journal names were also changed by you without discussion. Your [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=WikiJournal_User_Group&diff=2713504&oldid=2705342 changes] to the main page also made it more difficult to access the journals because the journal titles are no longer clickable. Did someone from user group asked you to make these changes? [[User:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: #0000FF;">OhanaUnited</span></b>]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: green;">^{Talk page}</span></b>]] 20:24, 18 April 2025 (UTC) :::Hi, @[[User:OhanaUnited|OhanaUnited]]. Great feedback. The visitor message has now been edited to include the conditional status of the proposal. This is just me believing in the potential of WikiJournal and trying to gather support for a rebrand and revamp. I work independently from the WikiJournal User Group to improve things that I like to see thriving. I've listened to your advise regarding the titles; they are clickable now:) If you got more, feel free to share. [[User:Infogiraffic|Infogiraffic]] ([[User talk:Infogiraffic|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Infogiraffic|contribs]]) 07:05, 19 April 2025 (UTC) ::::Oh, and no journal names were changed. I simply copy pasted the existing ones. If you prefer so, we can opt to display the shorter variants instead of the longer ones. [[User:Infogiraffic|Infogiraffic]] ([[User talk:Infogiraffic|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Infogiraffic|contribs]]) 07:17, 19 April 2025 (UTC) :::::Thanks for responding to my question. Please note that the WikiJournal User Group has not discussed any rebranding initiatives and any changes to the name (such as changing to Wikiversity Press) risk diluting the brand recognition that we made and built up over the last 10 years with the Wikimedia movement, open access community, WikiJournal editorial board members, and external reviewers. I appreciate your approach to be bold in the redesign for the main page, which has display issues on mobile. I made some changes to the display title to clarify any confusion around the journal titles. I have reached out to the editorial boards and at this point nobody knew about your rebranding proposal. Some also raised questions why revamping would require a name change without any consultation (especially when it was brought up during the final exam period and week of Easter holiday). At this point I am '''opposing''' the requested move and politely ask you seek adequate consensus from the community before making more references to Wikiversity Press or rebranding. [[User:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: #0000FF;">OhanaUnited</span></b>]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: green;">^{Talk page}</span></b>]] 23:26, 19 April 2025 (UTC) ::::::Thank you greatly for your effort(s) in representing the board, providing context, and defending the integrity of the WikiJournal community. I understand your perspective and hesitancy toward my boldness. However, as an outsider, WikiJournal seems to have fared quite under the radar with almost no publicity among notable news channels. So to me, there does not seem to be much dilutable brand recognition to begin with as of now. Furthermore, it is out in the open that the community has ignored offers to buy / rent the eerily eponymous domain name [https://en.wikijournal.org/wiki/Main_Page wikijournal.org], as can be read [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Talk:WikiJournal_User_Group/Archive_2019#Selling_wikijournal.org here] and [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Talk:Proposal:_WikiJournal_as_a_sister_project#Wikijournal.org here]. Not the ideal vantage point from which to brand a broadly appealing publishing house without confusing at least some unfamiliar people about its connection, if you ask me. Wikiversity Press aims to alleviate this imbroglio, by starting anew while conforming to the conventional naming procedure that is used at a variety of prestigious universities. Also, the logo conveys stature instead of playful lambency, which is, in my eyes, exactly what we would need to try and close the "Academia-Wikipedia gap" that is so elegantly expressed on the WikiJournal homepage. I am not here to take credit for anything. Take the name or renounce it; no strings attached. If no consensus is gathered, I will rest my case. But otherwise, I would happily assist in further developing the platform by introducing new UI and UX related improvements, as well as streamlining pagination, submissions, and peer-review. Sincerely, [[User:Infogiraffic|Infogiraffic]] ([[User talk:Infogiraffic|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Infogiraffic|contribs]]) 18:16, 20 April 2025 (UTC) :::::::Hello [[User:Infogiraffic|Infogiraffic]]. First of all, I'd like to give you a big thank you for your improvements to the wiki page! Also, I appreciate the effort in coming up with an alternative name and logo. However, I'd also like to point out several factors that led us to having the brand and logo as we have. The project actually started out in 2014 as "Wikiversity Journal", which is somewhat more similar to "Wikiversity Press", but then had a big discussion with multiple alternative names, of which WikiJournal came out as the winner - [[Talk:WikiJournal_User_Group/Archive_2016_naming_vote#Name_election]]. Reasons for changing from Wikiversity Press to WikiJournal included making it shorter. Also, we do not necessarily want to associate with Wikiversity, and are hoping to have a separate wiki as a Sister Project in the future, and if we for some reason went back to a "Wikiversity"-containing name then we would likely need to change it again if we became a separate wiki. While "Wikiversity Press" was not among the choices in the past election, and I agree it has some good points as you mentioned, I think it is less specific than "journal", and may be mistaken as a news, books or magazine publisher. Similarly for the logo, if you see the upload history of the WikiJournal logo [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:WikiJournal_logo.svg] it actually started out as something more Wikiversity-like, but then we've strived to make it something more unique. So thanks again for the proposal, but with everything taken together I have to say '''oppose''' to this newly suggested project name and logo. [[User:Mikael Häggström|Mikael Häggström]] ([[User talk:Mikael Häggström|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mikael Häggström|contribs]]) 21:49, 7 May 2025 (UTC) ==Deletion of preprint on Commons== See *[[Commons:Commons:Deletion_requests/File:Dravidian_Arc_-_Reframing_Ancient_India’s_Civilisational_Origins.pdf]] Wikimedia Commons reviewers deleted someone's preprint submission because 1) preprints out of scope for Commons and 2) someone thought it seemed like AI. The author there insists that the work is their original creation without AI. My question for WikiJournal: how welcome are preprints here? Is this the kind of case that I can generally invite for submission here? [[User:Bluerasberry|<span style="background:#cedff2;color:#11e">''' Blue Rasberry '''</span>]][[User talk:Bluerasberry|<span style="cursor:help"><span style="background:#cedff2;color:#11e">(talk)</span></span>]] 15:52, 11 November 2025 (UTC) :Hey Lane. As I [https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Commons_talk:Project_scope&diff=prev&oldid=1114944379 responded on Commons], we welcome preprints but it needs to follow the specific instructions on [[WikiJournal Preprints]] to store their content as a wiki page. Since the file is already deleted, it is difficult for me to assess the contents or the merits of the PDF. In theory, a standalone PDF preprint can be uploaded locally in Wikiversity but subject to Wikiversity's local policies around project scope on files. This is another example why it's importantly to have WikiJournal as a standalone sister project because we can develop our local rules and policies that are not restricted by Wikiversity or Commons. [[User:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: #0000FF;">OhanaUnited</span></b>]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: green;">^{Talk page}</span></b>]] 04:32, 25 November 2025 (UTC) ==Proposal - offer optional presubmission review== I do not want to make an additional workload for WikiJournal editors, but I want to share a story, and I have an idea that I want to workshop with others. The idea is presubmission review. Optionally but recommended, for people who are new to WikiJournal and who want to save themselves time and save our reviewers time, they pre-submit their work. In the presubmission, they do this: #Submit work citation metadata, including title, author names, institutional affiliation #Does the work contain any of the following: ##AI-generated text or images ##Any ideas which university and scholarly consensus view as pseudoscience ##Text or images which do not have open access, Wikimedia-compatible, Creative Commons licensing #Please provide a citation to any existing, published, peer reviewed work which explores a similar topic as this submission, and which this paper will cite I have talked with some other wiki editors and it seems there is the idea that the Wikimedia platform attracts submissions which are 1) authorless or a person's first published work 2) AI/pseudoscience/non compatible content 3) essays or other writing formats which do not build onto or cite existing scholarship. By having a presubmissiom process, I think we could improve sentiment about WikiJournal in these ways - #Wikimedia Commons and others would be more confident that we have a screening process for incompatible content #Authors could minimize their time and labor submitting if their content is not a fit #Authors also demonstrate that they can navigate the Wikimedia platform, including making an account, posting some content, and becoming oriented before trying to make a full submission #WikiJournal Reviewers have another way to connect with people early in the process, and a place to tell people to begin I am hoping that a pre-submission process should take 5 minutes for a beginner Wikipedian and not more than 15 minutes for someone totally new to the Wikimedia platform. Thoughts? [[User:Bluerasberry|<span style="background:#cedff2;color:#11e">''' Blue Rasberry '''</span>]][[User talk:Bluerasberry|<span style="cursor:help"><span style="background:#cedff2;color:#11e">(talk)</span></span>]] 16:13, 15 December 2025 (UTC) == Discover CapX: New Design, Features, and Ways to Connect == Hello {{PAGENAME}}! My name is [[User:AJurno (WMB)|Amanda Jurno]] and I’m writing to you on behalf of the [[m:Capacity Exchange|Capacity Exchange (CapX) team]]. We would like to invite you and your community to start using the [[toolforge:capx|CapX tool]]. [[File:GIF of CapX features - November 2025 - Let's Connect.gif|right|thumb|300px]] CapX is a platform designed for Wikimedians around the world to connect through skills and collaboration. It offers a simple and user-friendly way to find and engage with people who can offer specific expertise, helping make collaboration across the movement more efficient and accessible. If you’d like a clearer sense of where we’re headed, you can read more about our ''Vision and Purpose [[:File:Capacity Exchange's Vision & Purpose.pdf|here]]'''. We’ve also prepared a simple visualisation of [[:File:What is the Capacity Exchange 01.pdf|how CapX works]]. Additional documentation, FAQs, tutorials, and how-to videos are available on our [[m:Capacity Exchange|Meta-Wiki page]]. The more your community joins CapX, the clearer your view becomes of how capacity-building is growing across your region via the [[toolforge:capx/data_analytics_dashboard|CapX's Data Analytics dashboard]]. If you experience any difficulties using the tool, you can consult our [[m:Capacity Exchange/User Guide|User Guide]], which includes step-by-step tutorials and short videos explaining each feature. To get in touch with the CapX team, share feedback, or suggest improvements, feel free to email us at capx@wmnobrasil.org. For quick questions and updates, you can also join our [https://t.me/CapacityExchange Telegram channel]. '''We would be delighted to have {{PAGENAME}} join CapX’s growing network'''. Creating your organization profile only takes a few minutes and helps other affiliates discover your expertise, initiatives, and potential areas for collaboration. [[:File:CapX - Create an Organizational profile.png|Here is what we need from you before you can start]]. Finally, we invite you to subscribe to our newsletter channel to receive regular updates about CapX and the Capacity Exchange project - [[m:Capacity Exchange/Newsletter|click here to subscribe]]. We hope to see you exchanging soon! Sincerely, [[User:AJurno (WMB)|AJurno (WMB)]] ([[User talk:AJurno (WMB)|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/AJurno (WMB)|contribs]]) 01:37, 31 March 2026 (UTC) :I am setting up an individual profile. I noticed that "Wikiversity" is not a Capacity that can be listed (but "Wikipedia" is a capacity). Could Wikiversity be added? :https://capx.toolforge.org/profile/Jtneill -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 11:27, 31 March 2026 (UTC) : ping [[User:AJurno (WMB)|AJurno (WMB)]] -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 10:34, 24 May 2026 (UTC) ::Hello @[[User|Jtneill]], thank you for pinging me! I hadn’t seen your reply. Thank you so much for letting me know that — I was sure Wikiversity was already listed as a skill, but it actually wasn’t. I’m adding it now. Please feel free to contact me again anytime, despite my long absence hehehehe [[User:AJurno (WMB)|AJurno (WMB)]] ([[User talk:AJurno (WMB)|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/AJurno (WMB)|contribs]]) 17:27, 26 May 2026 (UTC) == Towards Wikiversity's Ethics policy == I think you might be interested [[Wikiversity:Colloquium#Towards an Ethics policy|in this]] and you could also add interesting perspectives from ethics of scientifical research. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 08:02, 9 June 2026 (UTC) == Call for interest: Administrative Officer == WikiJournal is seeking expressions of interest in a new part-time, paid '''Administrative Officer''' position. We are initially sharing this opportunity within the WikiJournal community because familiarity with WikiJournal, Wikimedia, open licensing or academic publishing would be particularly valuable. The Administrative Officer would support WikiJournal's day-to-day organizational work, including: * Setting up and administering a system for tracking contractor hours and issuing payments. * Coordinating the contracting, onboarding, timekeeping and payment of technical editors and other contractors. * Maintaining financial, contractor and administrative records. * Assisting with grant administration, budget tracking and reporting. * Following up on board action items, deadlines and recurring obligations. * Supporting recruitment and other operational tasks as needed. The position is a remote, flexibly scheduled contractor role averaging approximately '''6 hours per week'''. Compensation is proposed at '''US$25 per hour''', with up to approximately '''320 hours (US$8,000) available over the year'''. Workload may vary depending on contracting, reporting and grant-related deadlines. Applicants may be based internationally, although appointment will depend on WikiJournal being able to establish a practical and legally appropriate contracting and payment arrangement in the applicant's country of residence. The complete responsibilities, administrative arrangements and desirable experience are described on the [[WikiJournal User Group/Administrative officer|Administrative Officer role page]]. Useful experience may include administrative organization, bookkeeping or financial administration, contractor or personnel coordination, nonprofit or grant administration, Wikimedia participation, academic publishing, and open-access work. Applicants are not expected to have experience in every listed area. === Expressions of interest === If you're interested, please make an entry below by '''30 September 2026''' with: * A concise description of relevant experience. * Their connection to WikiJournal or related communities, if any. * Their general availability. Expressions of interest received after this date may still be considered if the position has not yet been filled. Recommendations of other potentially suitable candidates are also welcome. Shortlisted applicants may be invited to an informal interview with several WikiJournal participants. Final selection will be made by consensus of the WikiJournal Administrative Board. [[User:Mikael Häggström|Mikael Häggström]] ([[User talk:Mikael Häggström|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mikael Häggström|contribs]]) 19:22, 10 September 2026 (UTC) ecvgexip1h6x8ajpt8c7dx1epxxxdoj 2832679 2832669 2026-09-10T19:46:42Z Mikael Häggström 12130 /* Wikipedia:WikiJournal article nominations is dead */ Reply 2832679 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Category:WikiJournal]] {{WikiJournal_discussions}} {{Archive box| [[/Archive 2014–2016|2014–2016]] <br>[[/Archive 2016 naming vote|2016 naming vote]] <br>[[/Archive 2017|2017]] <br>[[/Archive 2018|2018]] <br>[[/Archive 2019|2019]] <br>[[/Archive 2020|2020]] <br>[[/Archive 2021|2021]] <br>[[/Archive 2022|2022]] Discussions may also take place at the <br>'''[https://lists.wikimedia.org/pipermail/wikijournal-en/ public mailing list]'' ([https://lists.wikimedia.org/mailman/listinfo/wikijournal-en Join]) }} {{TOClimit|limit=3}} == Banner links must be accessible on smartphones == On smartphones, the banners are hard to tap/click on, especially the Preprint one. I have difficulty changing the banners' format. [[User:George Ho|George Ho]] ([[User talk:George Ho|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/George Ho|contribs]]) 12:31, 29 January 2022 (UTC) :@[[User:George Ho|George Ho]]: Sorry for mising this earlier! Do you know if you were using the 'mobile view' or 'desktop view' on your smartphone? I've tried to make the tabs re-flow into a grid when on a mobie device, bit I think it only works in 'mobile view'. [[User:Evolution and evolvability|T.Shafee(Evo&#65120;Evo)]]^{[[User talk:Evolution and evolvability|talk]]} 02:06, 21 July 2022 (UTC) :: @[[User:Evolution and evolvability|Shafee]]: Using 'mobile view' on Android, the Preprint banner is hard to tap, yet I can access that journal via tapping the icon on the left of the banner. Others are still clickable, yet larger text is annoying on mobile view. --[[User:George Ho|George Ho]] ([[User talk:George Ho|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/George Ho|contribs]]) 06:27, 21 July 2022 (UTC) :::@[[User:George Ho|George Ho]]: Aha, now I see it. Thanks. I was looking at the top banner in grey rather than the list of journals. I'm also getting some of the text overlapping too. I'll aim to fix it up next week. [[User:Evolution and evolvability|T.Shafee(Evo&#65120;Evo)]]^{[[User talk:Evolution and evolvability|talk]]} 23:13, 21 July 2022 (UTC) ::::Three months have passed; have you fixed the issue yet? [[User:George Ho|George Ho]] ([[User talk:George Ho|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/George Ho|contribs]]) 08:39, 8 October 2022 (UTC) :::::@[[User:George Ho|George Ho]] Our recent redesign of the banners, courtesy of {{u|Infogiraffic}}, should have fixed this issue. Can you confirm if this works on your end? [[User:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: #0000FF;">OhanaUnited</span></b>]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: green;">^{Talk page}</span></b>]] 19:37, 22 May 2025 (UTC) ::::::The newer layout works on an iphone. [[User:George Ho|George Ho]] ([[User talk:George Ho|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/George Ho|contribs]]) 15:57, 23 May 2025 (UTC) == Reference deposits == Hi all! I was taking a look at the [https://www.crossref.org/members/prep/6026 WikiJournal User Group participation report] over on Crossref's site. This is a useful tool for exploring how rich the metadata that WJUG submits to Crossref along with its DOIs is. It looks like there's lots of room for improvement, some of which would be fairly straightforward to accomplish: the License URLs category, for instance, measures how many articles' metadata include a link to the license under which the papers are distributed (either CC-BY 4.0 or CC-BY-SA 4.0 typically, right?). What I wanted to look at right now was the References category, in which WJUG is currently scoring 0%. What this means is that none of the 87 articles registered for DOIs by WJUG with Crossref include the references as part of their metadata. This matters for a few reasons. First, reference linking (i.e., including DOIs in references) is required by Crossref's terms of service, and reference depositing (i.e., submitting metadata with references) is strongly encouraged. Second, the inclusion of references in metadata is how Crossref tracks citations. When you see a journal article's "What Cites This" page, you'll often see a few numbers, frequently a Crossref citation count, a Web of Science citation count, and a Google Scholar citation count. On these pages, you are often able to view which articles are specifically citing the article in question too, and in some cases, publishers may preemptively set up modules that autodisplay the citing articles alongside the article itself. This brings up the third reason to begin depositing references: not only is it good practice for good metadata management's sake itself, but it also has the capability to improve visibility for WikiJournal articles. Consider the ''WJS'' article "[[WikiJournal of Science/Beak and feather disease virus: biology and resultant disease|Beak and feather disease virus: biology and resultant disease]]"; its first reference is the 1907 article "Parrakeets Moulting". If you visit the Taylor & Francis [https://doi.org/10.1071/MU906192f page for "Parrakeets Moulting"], however, you can see in the righthand "Related research" module in the "Cited by" tab that no articles cite this paper. Because references for WJUG articles haven't yet been deposited with Crossref, there's no way to link "Beak and feather disease virus" and "Parrakeets Moulting"; if references ''were'' deposited for this paper, then the ''WJS'' article would eventually appear as a citing article on the "Parrakeets Moulting" page. Thus, reference linking offers readers of the cited article another connection to the citing WikiJournal article, increasing the visibility of WJUG outputs. One final reason to consider depositing references is that doing so will grant WJUG eligibility for Crossref's [https://www.crossref.org/documentation/cited-by/ Cited-by service], which is essentially the tool that allows WJUG the ability to see what research is citing WikiJournal articles. Right now, WJUG can access the ''number'' of citations for each of its journals' articles through Crossref (''[http://data.crossref.org/depositorreport?pubid=J243966 WJM]'', ''[http://data.crossref.org/depositorreport?pubid=J310521 WJS]'', and ''[http://data.crossref.org/depositorreport?pubid=J310522 WJH]'') but can't actually see what those citing articles are. Depositing references will grant eligibility for Cited-by which WJUG can opt to enroll in (free!) and access said lists of citing materials for WikiJournal articles. If depositing references is of interest, the good news is that Crossref has made it pretty easy! References can be deposited manually via the [https://apps.crossref.org/SimpleTextQuery Simple Text Query] tool on Crossref's site. All one needs to do is copy the list of references from a WikiJournal article and paste it into the tool. (Note that for some articles, this will be easy; "[[WikiJournal of Science/Beak and feather disease virus: biology and resultant disease|Beak and feather disease virus: biology and resultant disease]]" has a unified reference list, but other articles like "[[WikiJournal of Humanities/Themes in Maya Angelou's autobiographies|Themes in Maya Angelou's autobiographies]]" have references split between a footnotes and a cited by list and may need to be manually trimmed to remove the repeated "[Author], [date], p. XX" footnotes when submitting.) Simple Text Query then parses the list and connects materials based on their DOIs. Once this is done, the depositor clicks ''Deposit'', enters their email, the Parent DOI (i.e., the DOI of the article for which references are being deposited), and their Crossref depositor credentials. I have been manually going through all articles in all three journals to make sure that all of them have relevant DOIs included in their references. I have completed ''WJS'', am almost done with ''WJH'', and will then start on ''WJM''. Once this is done, I would be happy to either guide someone interested through beginning to deposit references or take over the project myself, at least to work through the 87-article backlog of existing papers. (If someone with depositor access wants to try making a reference deposit, "Beak and feather disease virus" is in good shape and its reflist is ready to be deposited.) In either case, please let me know if this is something WJUG would be interested in pursuing and how I can help. Please let me know if you have any questions. Kindly —[[User:Bobamnertiopsis|Collin]] (Bobamnertiopsis)^{[[User talk:Bobamnertiopsis|t]] [[Special:Contributions/Bobamnertiopsis|c]]} 01:02, 19 June 2022 (UTC) : Okay, all ''WJH'' articles now include all available DOIs. ''WJM'' is left to do. —[[User:Bobamnertiopsis|Collin]] (Bobamnertiopsis)^{[[User talk:Bobamnertiopsis|t]] [[Special:Contributions/Bobamnertiopsis|c]]} 20:23, 19 June 2022 (UTC) ::Thanks Colin for the very informative post and your great work on adding DOIs. I will bring this up at our next monthly meeting. [[User:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: #0000FF;">OhanaUnited</span></b>]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: green;">^{Talk page}</span></b>]] 19:31, 20 June 2022 (UTC) :::Great points raised! I've added a step-wise summary process [[WikiJournal User Group/Editorial guidelines#Submitting reference metadata|here]] and we're looking at organising going through and uploading the back-catalogue. [[User:Evolution and evolvability|T.Shafee(Evo&#65120;Evo)]]^{[[User talk:Evolution and evolvability|talk]]} 01:50, 21 July 2022 (UTC) ::::Thanks {{u|Evolution and evolvability}}! I'm glad to hear it's of interest. I'm still working through adding DOIs to all references in ''WJM'' but I'll try to finish that by the end of the month so all articles in all three journals are ready to be deposited. Let me know if you have any other questions! —[[User:Bobamnertiopsis|Collin]] (Bobamnertiopsis)^{[[User talk:Bobamnertiopsis|t]] [[Special:Contributions/Bobamnertiopsis|c]]} 05:18, 21 July 2022 (UTC) :::::''WJM'' is now complete, so all existing articles are ready to have their references uploaded should you choose to do so. Thanks! —[[User:Bobamnertiopsis|Collin]] (Bobamnertiopsis)^{[[User talk:Bobamnertiopsis|t]] [[Special:Contributions/Bobamnertiopsis|c]]} 00:44, 26 July 2022 (UTC) ::::::Oh neat, I see references have already been deposited for "[https://doi.org/10.15347/WJM/2022.003 Parenting stress]" and it's already showing up in the cited articles' Cited By lists (e.g., [https://citations.springernature.com/item?doi=10.1007/s10826-017-0963-6 here]). Thanks for doing this! —[[User:Bobamnertiopsis|Collin]] (Bobamnertiopsis)^{[[User talk:Bobamnertiopsis|t]] [[Special:Contributions/Bobamnertiopsis|c]]} 01:44, 26 July 2022 (UTC) :::::::{{re|Bobamnertiopsis}} Yes, I did [[WikiJournal of Medicine/Parenting stress|Parenting stress]] and another one (can't remember if it was [[WikiJournal of Medicine/The Kivu Ebola Epidemic|Kivu Ebola Epidemic]] or the [[WikiJournal of Medicine/Leptospirosis|Leptospirosis]]) as a trial to see how easy/difficult the process was. Is there a way to check back which one I did? [[User:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: #0000FF;">OhanaUnited</span></b>]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: green;">^{Talk page}</span></b>]] 19:27, 19 August 2022 (UTC) ::::::::{{re|OhanaUnited}}, good question. Looking at the [http://data.crossref.org/depositorreport?pubid=J243966 dates the DOIs were most recently updated], I'd guess that it was "[https://doi.org/10.15347/WJM/2022.002 Leptospirosis]", updated 18 July just like "Parenting stress". However, looking at [https://api.crossref.org/v1/works/10.15347/wjm/2022.002 the metadata itself], it looks like only a single reference was actually deposited ("Hussain, A. (2021). Society and culture. International Journal of Scientific Research. 12 (1). 40608-40613.") and it doesn't even seem to be a reference actually cited in the article, so it may be worth it to try depositing refs for that one again. (Compare to the [https://api.crossref.org/v1/works/10.15347/wjm/2022.003 "Parenting stress" metadata] where you can see all the references properly located within the metadata itself.) I hope this is useful! —[[User:Bobamnertiopsis|Collin]] (Bobamnertiopsis)^{[[User talk:Bobamnertiopsis|t]] [[Special:Contributions/Bobamnertiopsis|c]]} 20:52, 19 August 2022 (UTC) :::::::::That was indeed strange. Thanks for the detective work. I'll try Leptospirosis again this weekend and let the rest to be tackled by our technical editors. [[User:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: #0000FF;">OhanaUnited</span></b>]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: green;">^{Talk page}</span></b>]] 22:10, 19 August 2022 (UTC) == Rabeprazole? == I was just taking a look at the [[WikiJournal User Group/Potential upcoming articles|potential upcoming articles]] and noticed the 2018 preprint "[[WikiJournal Preprints/Rabeprazole|Rabeprazole]]" which does not seem to be included on the tracking list despite having received two peer reviews. It also doesn't seem to have a Wikidata item, but I couldn't see anywhere that it had been declined. Just flagging it here to make sure it hasn't slipped through the cracks. Thanks! —[[User:Bobamnertiopsis|Collin]] (Bobamnertiopsis)^{[[User talk:Bobamnertiopsis|t]] [[Special:Contributions/Bobamnertiopsis|c]]} 20:45, 16 August 2022 (UTC) :Good catch. I'm contacting the WJM board to find out. [[User:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: #0000FF;">OhanaUnited</span></b>]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: green;">^{Talk page}</span></b>]] 19:31, 19 August 2022 (UTC) {{re|Bobamnertiopsis}} Thanks for catching this. It was indeed an approved article that didn't get published because it fell through the crack. It will be published shortly. [[User:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: #0000FF;">OhanaUnited</span></b>]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: green;">^{Talk page}</span></b>]] 15:28, 20 August 2022 (UTC) == Wikipedia as a bibliographic tool for researchers? == Wikijournals give incentives for researchers to write in Wikipedia, by allowing Wikipedia articles to be peer-reviewed and officially counted as academic publications. What if in some cases, researchers did not need incentives because writing in Wikipedia would be directly useful to their own work? The idea is that they would not write on their own results or subject, but on some related subject which they would need to learn. (See [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Sylvain_Ribault/WP_biblio_essay this short essay] for details.) Does anyone know examples of this modus operandi? If you are a researcher, does it seem applicable in your own field of research? [[User:Sylvain Ribault|Sylvain Ribault]] ([[User talk:Sylvain Ribault|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Sylvain Ribault|contribs]]) 21:44, 17 August 2022 (UTC) == Capitalized titles? == Hello all, There's currently an inconsistency whether article titles are written with upper-case or lower-case first letter in its words. I think it's reasonable to have them lower-case, and Wikipedia as well as high impact scholarly journals (such as Nature and The Lancet) do the same. I think this should be added to the [[WikiJournal_User_Group/Publishing|Author guidelines]]. [[User:Mikael Häggström|Mikael Häggström]] ([[User talk:Mikael Häggström|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mikael Häggström|contribs]]) 20:35, 21 August 2022 (UTC) : There was some discussion of this [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:WikiJournal_User_Group&oldid=2342516 last year] as well. —[[User:Bobamnertiopsis|Collin]] (Bobamnertiopsis)^{[[User talk:Bobamnertiopsis|t]] [[Special:Contributions/Bobamnertiopsis|c]]} 16:45, 22 August 2022 (UTC) ::Thanks. I've added sentence case to the Author guidelines: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=WikiJournal_User_Group%2FPublishing&type=revision&diff=2424728&oldid=2423560]. [[User:Mikael Häggström|Mikael Häggström]] ([[User talk:Mikael Häggström|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mikael Häggström|contribs]]) 23:32, 17 October 2022 (UTC) == Proposal to introduce "Inactivity removal policy" to the [[WikiJournal User Group/Individual WikiJournal bylaws|bylaws]] == {|class=wikitable | '''Outcome: Approved''' (see section bottom) As per September's WikiJournal meetings on September 7 and September 9, I am proposing amendments to the bylaw to introduce an inactivity removal policy in "ARTICLE VII - END OF TERM" to all WikiJournals. The reason for this proposal is to ensure that current editorial board members (editors and associated editors) are active in the activities that support the journal. At the meetings, we identified this issue when we attempted to find peer review coordinators to handle our submission backlogs across the journals. The proposal seeks to ensure that the activities that support the journal are spread out to many individuals and not place a burden on a few active volunteers. The proposed wording can be found at [[WikiJournal User Group/Individual WikiJournal bylaws/Proposed changes]] (the inactive policy words being added are in '''bold'''). Inactive members will be automatically removed if they do not participate in any WikiJournal activities for past 12 months. They will be given an opportunity to become active again before being removed from the editorial board. Meeting attendees representing all 3 WikiJournals unanimously agreed to proposed amendment. Our proposed inactive removal policy and its approach are [[meta:Admin activity review|similar to other WMF communities over how to handle inactive senior staff]]. I also included an exemption clause to the inactive removal due to extenuating circumstances if advance notice was given. The voting will be conducted according to [[WikiJournal User Group/Individual WikiJournal bylaws#ARTICLE III - VOTING|ARTICLE III - VOTING]] with regards to eligibility, quorum and outcome. [[User:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: #0000FF;">OhanaUnited</span></b>]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: green;">^{Talk page}</span></b>]] 03:13, 12 September 2022 (UTC) ===Support=== # Support as nom. [[User:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: #0000FF;">OhanaUnited</span></b>]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: green;">^{Talk page}</span></b>]] 03:13, 12 September 2022 (UTC) # {{support}} [[User:Physikerwelt|Physikerwelt]] ([[User talk:Physikerwelt|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Physikerwelt|contribs]]) 04:57, 12 September 2022 (UTC) # {{support}} - makes sense. Don't know many academic journals that will continue to support inactive Editors. --[[User:Stevenfruitsmaak|Steven Fruitsmaak]] <small>([[User_talk:Stevenfruitsmaak|Reply]])</small> 07:00, 12 September 2022 (UTC) # {{support}} [[User:rwatson1955|rwatson1955]] # {{support}} [[User:Eystein Thanisch|Eystein Thanisch]] This sadly does seem necessary. I've been inactive for some time and have been making inquiries about how to tidily resign from the board, but presumably those who are still active are too busy with other things to assist with that. An automated procedure thus seems best. # {{support}} [[User:Rosieredfield|Rosieredfield]] ([[User talk:Rosieredfield|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Rosieredfield|contribs]]) 15:22, 12 September 2022 (UTC) # {{support}} --[[User:AmyFou|AmyFou]] ([[User talk:AmyFou|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/AmyFou|contribs]]) 15:35, 12 September 2022 (UTC) # {{support}} I do support these types of clauses for a variety of reasons. I have been involved in the drafting and proposing of similar policy on several wikis as {{re|OhanaUnited}} is aware. There are good reasons for this. For administrative roles its security, as pointed out above here its backlogs. For myself I have spent the last two years serving as chair of the Ombuds Commission which takes considerable time for me. As such if people wish to remove me from the editorial board here I can understand that and will not object to it. I am still currently working on the OC and have plans to do a third term next year. Cheers [[User:Faendalimas|<span style="color: #004730">Scott Thomson</span>]] (<small class="nickname">Faendalimas</small>) ^{[[User talk:Faendalimas|<span style="color: maroon">talk</span>]]} 16:39, 12 September 2022 (UTC) # {{support}} [[User:Rachel Helps (BYU)|Rachel Helps (BYU)]] ([[User talk:Rachel Helps (BYU)|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Rachel Helps (BYU)|contribs]]) 17:00, 12 September 2022 (UTC) # {{support}} [[User:Mstefan|Mstefan]] ([[User talk:Mstefan|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mstefan|contribs]]) 12:36, 14 September 2022 (UTC) # {{support}} [[User:Oertherdb|Oertherdb]] ([[User talk:Oertherdb|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Oertherdb|contribs]]) 12:56, 14 September 2022 (UTC) # {{support}} I think it's reasonable. I'd originally envisaged that we could just let people who's activity dropped off simply not renew at the end of a [[WikiJournal User Group/Individual WikiJournal bylaws#ARTICLE VII - END OF TERM|4-year term]], but I can see how that's probably insufficient for cases of complete inactivity over a year or more (so long as it doesn't add in too much admin overhead). It it were to be implemented, a reasonable process might be an email with the options: A) remain on the board; B) drop down to assoc editor to be contacted only for articles on their key subject area; or C) be removed from the board (default if no response). It'd also be an opportunity for them to give feedback if they have any. [[User:Evolution and evolvability|T.Shafee(Evo&#65120;Evo)]]^{[[User talk:Evolution and evolvability|talk]]} 04:33, 19 September 2022 (UTC) # {{support}} As an inactive member, I approuve. [[User:Marcrr|MarcRR]] ===Oppose=== # Perhaps we can find better incentives to stay active rather than to punish inactivity, in light of us having fixed terms renewable as per the existing by-laws. If feasible, we can perhaps create another category for officials to be deemed "inactive" by new definition, and maintain them as pool of experts ("fleet in being" analogy) who can choose to reactivate their editorship at any time, since we believe in their expertise the first time. This may help us project an image of a welcoming board that provides better recognition and promotion of active members. [[User:Arius1998|Arius1998]] ([[User talk:Arius1998|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Arius1998|contribs]]) 03:39, 12 September 2022 (UTC) #:I find the conceptualisation of it as "punishment" questionable. Nothing bad happens. It's just that people who aren't doing any editing (and haven't done any in a long time) are no longer listed as editors. I think the discrepancy is with how different people in this discussion understand the "title" of "editor": some see it as some sort of badge of recognition for a person's expertise, while others (including myself) see is as a description of an activity. If it's just a descriptor of an activity, when the activity ceases (for a long amount of time), then the descriptor is no longer accurate. The proposed definition of "activity" makes the bar for further participation extremely low, so I do think that continued listing as editor is accessible to those who want it. [[User:Mstefan|Mstefan]] ([[User talk:Mstefan|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mstefan|contribs]]) 12:44, 14 September 2022 (UTC) # I second Arius1998. Definitions of active and inactive along with exceptions need to be put forward before jumping to conclusions. Being an innovative journal with non-conventional format, we need to be careful in executing hasty decisions. [[User:G10sinha|G10sinha]] ([[User talk:G10sinha|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/G10sinha|contribs]]) 09:15, 12 September 2022 (UTC) #:{{re|G10sinha}} The definitions of active (and vice versa for being inactive) along with exceptions have already been specified in [[WikiJournal User Group/Individual WikiJournal bylaws/Proposed changes]]. [[User:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: #0000FF;">OhanaUnited</span></b>]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: green;">^{Talk page}</span></b>]] 13:08, 12 September 2022 (UTC) # Oppose per my comments below regarding "The definitions of active (and vice versa for being inactive)" etc. If you limit editorship to a year where no editable submissions occur you lose valuable editors! --[[User:Marshallsumter|Marshallsumter]] ([[User talk:Marshallsumter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Marshallsumter|contribs]]) 07:43, 13 September 2022 (UTC) #:Indeed we risk losing editors in the process, but I believe it is for the better overall, as we are in need of activity more than having people registered as members. I think a year gives plenty of opportunity to engage. [[User:Mikael Häggström|Mikael Häggström]] ([[User talk:Mikael Häggström|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mikael Häggström|contribs]]) 23:42, 17 October 2022 (UTC) ===Neutral=== # I have been inactive for some time for want of submissions in my particular subject. I am not actively trying to encourage submissions, but if a submission came I would be happy to work on it. People like me could be kept in some kind of purgatory as per [[User:Arius1998|Arius1998]]'s suggestion. [[User:Sylvain Ribault|Sylvain Ribault]] ([[User talk:Sylvain Ribault|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Sylvain Ribault|contribs]]) 07:12, 12 September 2022 (UTC) ===Comments=== I think it would be good to specify active. I myself was not active, as no articles were submitted and I never got a reply regarding my idea to organize a special issue. [[User:Physikerwelt|Physikerwelt]] ([[User talk:Physikerwelt|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Physikerwelt|contribs]]) 05:02, 12 September 2022 (UTC) I'd like to add a few observations: # I haven't been serving as an editor for the same reason stated above in '''Neutral'''. Lately, all of the submissions have been outside the physical, chemical, astronomical, geological or mathematical. I update [[WikiJournal of Science/Contribute]] occasionally and have asked Wikipedia contributors to submit articles to the WikiJournal of Science but so far no submittals. I am interested in genetics and do consider serving as an editor in this area but my expertise is limited and expanding. --[[User:Marshallsumter|Marshallsumter]] ([[User talk:Marshallsumter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Marshallsumter|contribs]]) 16:41, 13 September 2022 (UTC) # if you look at the current submissions on [[WikiJournal of Science/Potential upcoming articles]] you'll see that almost all current submittals are biological. I hope that the WikiJournal of Science is not being reduced to the WikiJournal of Biology. # on [[WikiJournal of Science/Contribute]] we have the following: "Are you proud of any science article you've written on Wikiversity, Wikipedia or any other Wikimedia wiki? Then your article may be eligible for publication at the WikiJournal of Science!" Many of my lectures and resources that are part of my open educational resource called [[Radiation astronomy/Courses/Principles|Principles of radiation astronomy]] are attempts to review in a course context fields within astronomy. Any that others believe might make a good contribution to the WikiJournal of Science could be submitted, and open to peer review. This of course also applies to other contributors here at Wikiversity. --[[User:Marshallsumter|Marshallsumter]] ([[User talk:Marshallsumter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Marshallsumter|contribs]]) 02:18, 13 September 2022 (UTC) # usually the WikiJournal of Science only accepts open access submissions. ''Nature'' is the foremost science journal in the world and with a few exceptions its articles are for educational use only. This suggests that occasionally perhaps the WikiJournal of Science could publish educational issues or articles where figures could be fairuse. --[[User:Marshallsumter|Marshallsumter]] ([[User talk:Marshallsumter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Marshallsumter|contribs]]) 04:26, 13 September 2022 (UTC) # "Active is defined as at least one productive engagement in an email or on-wiki discussion, participating in a virtual WikiJournal meeting, participating, attending or presenting as a WikiJournal representative at a local, national or international event, or finding peer reviewers for a submission." No! The purpose of an editor is to help prepare submissions for publication such as but not limited to finding peer reviewers for a submission where professionally likely. Discussions, meetings, and attending or presenting are optional and voluntary and do not constitute activeness as an editor. These instead help the success of the journal by encouraging submissions and are a user group function but are voluntary and encouraged but never mandatory. To make them mandatory is not needed for any editor or editor-in-chief but a manager only. Anyone who manages but does not perform editorship can be considered active but not as an editor. No editor should be considered inactive for lack of submissions upon which to perform editorship. --[[User:Marshallsumter|Marshallsumter]] ([[User talk:Marshallsumter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Marshallsumter|contribs]]) 07:38, 13 September 2022 (UTC) #:But Editorial Board meetings are meetings for members of the editorial board. Who else would be attending? I get that there may be a year where no article within one's area of expertise is submitted and where therefore one cannot edit an article. But at least showing up to meetings where the general editorial policy of WikiJournals is discussed (or getting active in some other way that furthers the WikiJ mission) at least once in a year - I don't think that's asking too much. [[User:Mstefan|Mstefan]] ([[User talk:Mstefan|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mstefan|contribs]]) 12:36, 14 September 2022 (UTC) #::Actually it may be too much to ask. Looking at the history of submissions, the last one outside biology was just more than two years ago. Supplemental participation to a meeting here may widen participation where schedule conflicts occur. Usually, anything I have to add or discuss is easier here. The matters discussed are important and I'm happy with the general outcome. I have listed some suggestions here for widening submittals to the WikiJournal of Science which can be discussed at such meetings as well as here. But, the number and variety of submissions has dwindled suggesting that the meetings are failing somewhere or that the ended pandemic has caused some withdrawal that will soon change. On my talk page I'm putting together a table of "Recent contributions from WikiJournal of Science Editorial Board" which suggests that we may have to remove some inactive members for no activity for two or more years. While I'm not familiar with the success of "getting active in some other way that furthers the WikiJ mission", the number of scientists I've contacted for peer review has greatly widened their general awareness of our journal's existence. --[[User:Marshallsumter|Marshallsumter]] ([[User talk:Marshallsumter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Marshallsumter|contribs]]) 20:28, 14 September 2022 (UTC) #:::Regarding the "Recent contributions from WikiJournal of Science Editorial Board" an arbitrary cutoff after one year seems to be a bit of a problem. A better solution would be to contact some of those I've listed as "Inactive" to see if they wish to continue on our board. --[[User:Marshallsumter|Marshallsumter]] ([[User talk:Marshallsumter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Marshallsumter|contribs]]) 03:43, 15 September 2022 (UTC) # Looking at our WikiJournal User Group, there are about 73 members. Perhaps half of these would be considered inactive. To have a reasonable vote of the 37 active members would require some 19 votes as a quorum. --[[User:Marshallsumter|Marshallsumter]] ([[User talk:Marshallsumter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Marshallsumter|contribs]]) 04:24, 15 September 2022 (UTC) #:Incorrect. The [[WikiJournal_User_Group/Individual_WikiJournal_bylaws#Section_3._Quorum|Quorum]] is the lesser of "10 votes from eligible voting members" or "20% of the total number of Editorial Board members". Using your number (73), 20% of 73 is 15 members. Both metrics have already been met at the current stage, with 10 days to go. [[User:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: #0000FF;">OhanaUnited</span></b>]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: green;">^{Talk page}</span></b>]] 16:50, 16 September 2022 (UTC) #::Thanks for your comment! What we have done in the past, e.g., with G. Brian Whalley, was attempt contact during 2018, both by myself and with the Editor-in-chief. Whalley did not respond to emails but I was able to contact him at his university through a third party regarding his participation on finding reviewers for the [[WikiJournal of Science/Ice drilling methods|Ice drilling methods]] submission. He indicated he had inquired of colleagues to review but none responded. This effort to contact took several days. Simply dropping an editor for no activity after one year may not be good. As you've noted above an attempt to contact each is needed but is time consuming. Expecting them to respond with email (that may no longer be active) may not be effective. On established journals, members of an editorial board are responsible for contacting the Editor-in-chief if they no longer wish to be considered for finding reviewers or as some have done with the WikiJournal of Science, they've just withdrawn from the board. Usually, a member is kept for obtaining reviewers for about five years, assuming submissions have occurred in their area of expertise and response has occurred in the past. --[[User:Marshallsumter|Marshallsumter]] ([[User talk:Marshallsumter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Marshallsumter|contribs]]) 17:56, 16 September 2022 (UTC) #:::While I realize we have agreed to what we consider a quorum, according to Wiktionary, somewhat modified, '''Def.''' the "number of people [members]<ref name=QuorumWikt1>{{ cite book |author=[[wikt:User:63.86.210.252|63.86.210.252]] |title=quorum |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=1 February 2005 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/quorum |accessdate=7 September 2022 }}</ref> required for a governing body or organization to actually vote or [group to officially]<ref name=QuorumWikt1/> conduct business<ref name=QuorumWikt>{{ cite book |author=[[wikt:User:Alia H|Alia H]] |title=quorum |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=1 February 2005 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/quorum |accessdate=7 September 2022 }}</ref> [and to cast votes, often but not necessarily a majority or supermajority]"<ref name=QuorumWikt1/>is called a '''quorum'''. A majority of 73 is 37 which if half the boards are inactive is perhaps unrealistic though perhaps not required, but to contact 37 editors to see if they wish to be kept on our boards is a heavily time consuming task. --[[User:Marshallsumter|Marshallsumter]] ([[User talk:Marshallsumter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Marshallsumter|contribs]]) 18:48, 16 September 2022 (UTC) '''Outcome: Approved'''. Valid points have been raised about the consequences of introducing a minimal activity requirement, but overall there is strong support for it, so I hereby mark it as approved. [[User:Mikael Häggström|Mikael Häggström]] ([[User talk:Mikael Häggström|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mikael Häggström|contribs]]) 02:23, 18 October 2022 (UTC) ==References== {{reflist|2}} |} == How should unsubmitted preprints be handled? == I've noticed that there are a number of old, incomplete articles under the WikiJournal Preprints namespace, many of which are unlikely to be suitable for publication even if they were finished and submitted. A couple of examples are: * [[WikiJournal Preprints/COVID-19 ELIMINATION AND CELLDIFFERENTIATION]] * [[WikiJournal Preprints/Cultural Computational Publishing: A Sprint]] * [[WikiJournal Preprints/Medical gallery of Aria Rad]] * [[WikiJournal Preprints/Parts of a Book]] * [[WikiJournal Preprints/Zoosemiotics]] Does the WikiJournal project have any standing policies to reject these drafts automatically after some point, or do they just stay in the "unpublished pre-print" state indefinitely? (Is it possible that some of these pages have slipped under the radar, e.g. by not being in the appropriate categories?) Do all of them (especially the ones that never got beyond writing an abstract) need to be preserved for posterity, or can they be deleted after some period of time? [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 22:13, 12 December 2022 (UTC) :Ping? I'm also curious about the status of the following two articles: :* [[WikiJournal Preprints/Cryometeors]] :* [[WikiJournal Preprints/Sunflower Trypsin Inhibitor]] :These two display a message claiming that they are "an editorial article and [are] published without peer review", which I don't think is intended. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 03:26, 10 July 2023 (UTC) == Question regarding WikiJournal and duplicate content == Hi! I have two questions. I searched around a bit and didn't find anything. # When a stable WikiJournal article is the basis of a separate living page, say on Wikipedia or Wikiversity, do you know if it's possible to use a [[w:canonical link element]] to indicate the canonical version of the article for search engines? # If so, do you know if the WikiJournal User Group has a policy regarding which version is canonical? Thank you so much! [[User:Greg at Higher Math Help|Greg at Higher Math Help]] ([[User talk:Greg at Higher Math Help|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Greg at Higher Math Help|contribs]]) 22:34, 13 February 2023 (UTC) :@[[User:Greg at Higher Math Help|Greg at Higher Math Help]] I don't think canonical link element is supported by MediaWiki. It's limited by the software itself. The canonical version of the page is the WikiJournal PDF, which is linked on the wiki page and on Wikidata. [[User:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: #0000FF;">OhanaUnited</span></b>]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: green;">^{Talk page}</span></b>]] 04:24, 11 March 2023 (UTC) ::Thank you! [[User:Greg at Higher Math Help|Greg at Higher Math Help]] ([[User talk:Greg at Higher Math Help|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Greg at Higher Math Help|contribs]]) 02:24, 1 April 2023 (UTC) == Preprint Quality == I recently had an article accepted at the WIkiJournal of Medicine and was very disappointed with the PDF preprint quality/process (with no insult towards the editors). I know very little about how things work behind the scenes, but my understanding is that the PDF preprints are manually produced using MS Word. Though WikiJournal requires svgs, there is (to my knowledge) no way to retain the vector-ness of the svg files in Word and it generally results in poor quality rasterization. This can even be seen in the header images. I've made a little process to produce a preprint from the wikipedia page that relies on [https://mediawiki2latex.wmflabs.org/ mediawiki2latex], and the editors have [https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiversity/en/2/24/Alternative_androgen_pathways.pdf uploaded] my preprint. You can see I tried to mimic the existing preprint as best as I could given my fairly shallow latex knowledge and the constraints associated with trying to make this as automatic as possible. I don't have any stats on how much people use preprint PDFs, but I suspect many people rely on them. It is essential that the print quality is up to par any other academic journal. The existing method, I think, it probably too manual and results in an obviously poor quality print that will limit author interest. I've put my basic process here: https://github.com/mittimithai/wjlatexpreprint and suggest it that it be used as a basis for coming up with a standard, essentially automated process across all WikiJournals for high quality pdf preprints. WikiJournals should provide a baseline preprint and authors can then be responsible for custom typesetting. Using latex in this context is a bit different than writing one's own papers, mediawiki2latex output has to be transformed as reliably into PDF as possible. I tried to apply as much appropriate substitution as I could in the perl script but I am sure there can be some improvements made. [[User:Maneesh|Maneesh]] ([[User talk:Maneesh|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Maneesh|contribs]]) 18:48, 30 April 2023 (UTC) :Please consider using the Century Schoolbook font as a "serif" for the paragraph regular text, and Franklin Gothic font as a "sans-serif" font for the headers (titles). Or use any appropriate font set for the text and headers that the journal adopted, but the fonts have to fit each other. [[User:Maxim Masiutin|Maxim Masiutin]] ([[User talk:Maxim Masiutin|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Maxim Masiutin|contribs]]) 20:05, 1 May 2023 (UTC) ::I am not terribly partial to any font, wikimedia2latex makes use of KOMA which does things in certain ways that are partial to the author's views. There does seem to be a lot of "religion" in typesetting with very little of it empirically justified. Feel free to add in a free font to the github repo, I think all one needs to do is change the two lines in maininc.tex. The current lines I think implicitly depend on font locations in an ubntu install. [[User:Maneesh|Maneesh]] ([[User talk:Maneesh|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Maneesh|contribs]]) 20:55, 1 May 2023 (UTC) == Recent articles without reference deposits == Hello! I just wanted to flag that a few recent articles have not yet [[WikiJournal User Group/Editorial guidelines#Submitting reference metadata|had their references deposited into Crossref]]: * "[[WikiJournal of Science/Multiple object tracking|Multiple object tracking]]" (''WJS'') * "[[WikiJournal of Science/Non-canonical base pairing|Non-canonical base pairing]]" (''WJS'') * <s>"[[WikiJournal of Medicine/Alternative androgens pathways|Alternative androgens pathways]]" (''WJM'')</s> * "[[WikiJournal Preprints/Impact of xenogenic mesenchimal stem cells secretome on a humoral component of the immune system|Impact of xenogenic mesenchimal stem cells secretome on a humoral component of the immune system]]" (''WJM'') * "[[WikiJournal of Humanities/Loveday, 1458|Loveday, 1458]]" (''WJH'') Thanks! Kindly —[[User:Bobamnertiopsis|Collin]] (Bobamnertiopsis)^{[[User talk:Bobamnertiopsis|t]] [[Special:Contributions/Bobamnertiopsis|c]]} 22:07, 18 July 2023 (UTC) :Thanks {{u|Bobamnertiopsis}}. I'm tagging {{u|Silver Dovelet}} who's responsible for this task. [[User:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: #0000FF;">OhanaUnited</span></b>]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: green;">^{Talk page}</span></b>]] 14:17, 1 August 2023 (UTC) ::{{re|Bobamnertiopsis}} Can you check if the references for these publications have been deposited? [[User:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: #0000FF;">OhanaUnited</span></b>]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: green;">^{Talk page}</span></b>]] 03:36, 10 December 2023 (UTC) :::{{re|OhanaUnited}} yes, thanks for pinging me about this! It looks like "[[WikiJournal of Medicine/Alternative androgens pathways|Alternative androgens pathways]]"'s refs have been deposited (see https://api.crossref.org/works/10.15347/WJM/2023.003) but the other four have not yet been deposited (compare with https://api.crossref.org/works/10.15347/WJH/2023.001 e.g.; you can always swap out the DOI at the back of this link to see the metadata registered for a particular article). Thanks! —[[User:Bobamnertiopsis|Collin]] (Bobamnertiopsis)^{[[User talk:Bobamnertiopsis|t]] [[Special:Contributions/Bobamnertiopsis|c]]} 15:24, 10 December 2023 (UTC) ::::The remaining 4 should be deposited now. Thank you. [[User:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: #0000FF;">OhanaUnited</span></b>]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: green;">^{Talk page}</span></b>]] 04:47, 15 December 2023 (UTC) == Rejection rates == What are the rejection rates of WikiJournals? [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 13:19, 5 September 2023 (UTC) :@[[User:Juandev|Juandev]] Very good questions. We have not tallied the overall rejection rate (or individual rejection rate within each journal). Using 2023's data, my estimation is about 60-75% rejection rate in the medicine and science journals. But the overall % does not reflect the amount of work performed behind the scenes. Just over half of the rejected articles are "desk reject" or author filled out the submission form but never submitted the text. The rest are due to author abandoning submission partway (stale submission), rejection after peer review or author no longer has time to complete revision. [[User:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: #0000FF;">OhanaUnited</span></b>]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: green;">^{Talk page}</span></b>]] 03:06, 19 September 2023 (UTC) ::OK. I see. Thx. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 10:17, 22 September 2023 (UTC) == Peer Reviews == As per my understanding off [[WikiJournal of Humanities/Peer reviewers]] only qualified external professionals are allowed to formally peer-review articles. Which seems a bit unnecessary considering anyone can write articles, also Nupedia vibes, this seriously hurts the journal's growth due to lack of volunteers. I believe that editors on wikipedia who've written extensively on related topics, should also be invited to peer-review articles, this would add a lot more volunteers (thus making the whole process faster and smoother), and get qualified people from wikipedia over to wikiversity. [[User:Crainsaw|Crainsaw]] ([[User talk:Crainsaw|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Crainsaw|contribs]]) 11:55, 17 December 2023 (UTC) == Current status of WikiJournals == I hate to say this, but so far, I've yet to see WikiJournal revolutionize academic journals in the way that Wikipedia affected encyclopedias severely. Furthermore, WikiJournals have been kinda slow to publish articles. Also, there have been many other open-access journals, especially ones using CC-BY-NC-ND. Also, many published articles happen to be adapted from Wikipedia articles and then copied (if not adapted) into Wikipedia articles, especially same ones. Maybe these are reasons for WMF to be reluctant to approve further development of WikiJournals. I did have high hopes for this project, yet my interests in the semi-project has.... waned. [[User:George Ho|George Ho]] ([[User talk:George Ho|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/George Ho|contribs]]) 23:54, 3 January 2024 (UTC) :I appreciate all the work that went into the publication of an article I worked on last year, without insulting the editors, I was overall disappointed (though they editorial team was able to get outstanding reviewers that were very patient with a very deficient initial draft). I proposed a mostly automated pdf workflow (see above) with no uptake/feedback. Good quality PDFs, I think, are a very very high priority. The current quality is very low and suffers from (what seems to be) a fairly manual process and immediately obvious rasterization artifacts which look unprofessional. Automation to bring the journal to a professional standard is essential before greater aspirations. [[User:Maneesh|Maneesh]] ([[User talk:Maneesh|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Maneesh|contribs]]) 18:35, 4 January 2024 (UTC) ::I should also add that WIkiJournal of Medicine articles don't appear properly indexed by Google Scholar, they don't look like proper journal articles. When I search for the title of my article: ::[PDF] [https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiversity/en/a/a7/Alternative_androgens_pathways.pdf Alternative androgen pathways] ::[https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=9gJaSxcAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=sra MG Masiutin], MK Yadav - upload.wikimedia.org ::Steroidogenic routes to androgens have been discovered and characterized over the last two ::decades that fall outside the Δ4 and Δ5" classical androgen pathways" to testosterone and … ::Save Cite [[scholar:related:x2717efivtkJ:scholar.google.com/&scioq="alternative+androgen+pathways"&hl=en&as_sdt=0,5|Related articles]] [https://scholar.google.com/scholar?cluster=15690227637562994375&hl=en&as_sdt=0,5 All 2 versions] ::[[WikiJournal of Medicine/Alternative androgens pathways|'''[HTML]''' wikiversity.org]] ::[HTML] [[WikiJournal of Medicine/Alternative androgens pathways]] ::[https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=9gJaSxcAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=sra MG Masiutin], MK Yadav - History - en.wikiversity.org ::… This expository review uses "'''alternative''' '''androgen''' '''pathways'''" to include what has been … ::lack of clear and consistent knowledge of '''alternative''' '''androgen''' '''pathways'''; the authors hope this … ::Save Cite [[scholar:related:J-L2yz0dY10J:scholar.google.com/&scioq="alternative+androgen+pathways"&hl=en&as_sdt=0,5|Related articles]] ::[https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiversity/en/archive/2/24/20230503121130%21Alternative_androgen_pathways.pdf '''<nowiki>[PDF]</nowiki>''' wikimedia.org] ::[PDF] [https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiversity/en/archive/2/24/20230503121130%21Alternative_androgen_pathways.pdf WikiJournal Preprints/Alternative Androgen Pathways] ::MG Masiutin, MK Yadav - upload.wikimedia.org ::… This expository review uses "'''alternative''' '''androgen''' '''pathways'''" to include what has been … ::lack of clear and consistent knowledge of '''alternative''' '''androgen''' '''pathways'''; the authors hope this … ::Save Cite [[scholar:related:wfMK5FH57gsJ:scholar.google.com/&scioq="alternative+androgen+pathways"&hl=en&as_sdt=0,5|Related articles]] [https://scholar.google.com/scholar?cluster=859898708987933633&hl=en&as_sdt=0,5 All 2 versions] ::Ensuring that the wikijournal articles don't look like some sort of second rate article in google scholar is very important. ::[[User:Maneesh|Maneesh]] ([[User talk:Maneesh|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Maneesh|contribs]]) 07:30, 5 January 2024 (UTC) :::I think the ''quality of the journals'' is fine ...IMO, what I have noticed is that the process[https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/WikiJournal_of_Medicine/Potential_upcoming_articles] is a little slow--[[User:Ozzie10aaaa|Ozzie10aaaa]] ([[User talk:Ozzie10aaaa|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ozzie10aaaa|contribs]]) 13:50, 14 January 2024 (UTC) == Notice about proposed deletion == It has been proposed to delete some unused files at [[Wikiversity:Requests_for_Deletion#Unused_files_uploaded_by_PCano]]. Someone suggested that WikiJournal might be interessted in the discussion so I made this notice. Feel free to join the discussion. --[[User:MGA73|MGA73]] ([[User talk:MGA73|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MGA73|contribs]]) 17:21, 27 February 2024 (UTC) :It might help if I put forth two questions. There is no need for answers to both, since an answer to one of them would allow us to delete a large number of image files: #Are the files at [[:Category:Files uploaded by PCano - unused]] of any use to the WikiJournals? #I vaguely remember an issue with Wikiversity image files that involved the WikiJournals and files that are imbedded in WikiJournal pdf files, but don't remember the details. The question is this: If a file is not used by any WikiJournal page, is it OK to delete it? --[[User:Guy vandegrift|Guy vandegrift]] ([[User talk:Guy vandegrift|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Guy vandegrift|contribs]]) 19:13, 27 February 2024 (UTC) == [[Wikipedia:WikiJournal article nominations]] is dead == Hello, I wanted to get in touch with you about a part of this process. The submissions board at [[en:Wikipedia:WP:WikiJournal article nominations|WikiJournal article nominations]] is no longer being maintained. [[User:Evolution and evolvability|Evolution and evolvability]] has been inactive since November 2023 and has not responded to multiple attempts of mine to get in touch with him. I submitted an article there more than 4 months ago and have not even received confirmation of its submission. I notice the previous section on the status of the WikiJournals, and I must say that I am also disheartened by my attempt to contribute. I hope that someone on this end of the process will come over to English Wikipedia and fill in this gap so that the article pipeline is no longer so flawed. [[User:Fritzmann2002|Fritzmann2002]] ([[User talk:Fritzmann2002|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Fritzmann2002|contribs]]) 16:12, 29 March 2024 (UTC) :Hi [[User:Fritzmann2002|Fritzmann2002]], thanks for pointing it out, I'm actually in the same situation (article submitted in April 2025). :I saw however that your submitted article has now a preprint page, and, according to the history, it was created by yourself. Did you obtain a permission from the editors for doing so, or can actually any user create directly a preprint page for their submissions? I didn't even tried myself, because it was never clear to me who is actually responsible for converting nominated Wikipedia articles into Wikijournal preprints. I have also explicitly asked the editors, but I have not obtained any reply so far... [[User:Francesco Cattafi|Francesco Cattafi]] ([[User talk:Francesco Cattafi|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Francesco Cattafi|contribs]]) 16:53, 2 September 2025 (UTC) :As long as everything is subordinated to Wikipedia, projects of this type cannot be a trustworthy partner. Yes, WikiJournal would be a great project that could exist on its own, but unfortunately it is not. You want to publish, you find WikiJournal, you write an article and hey, they don't accept articles of this type because it doesn't suit Wikipedia. So at the moment if it is publishable on Wikipedia, publish it directly on Wikipedia, if you need to publish in an article you are out of luck. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 06:42, 3 September 2025 (UTC) ::Sorry, I think we are talking about different problems. The page [[wikipedia:WikiJournal_article_nominations|WikiJournal article nominations]] deals precisely with articles already present on Wikipedia, so this is not the issue. The articles that we were mentioning above have been already written on Wikipedia first, so it's not a matter of not being accepted because they don't suit Wikipedia, but simply of not being converted (yet) into a WikiJournal preprint, which in turn (after passing the peer-review phase) would to a publication in a WikiJournal. ::I had already published an article with this procedure a couple of years ago and everything went smoothly, so I don't see an intrinsic problem in the system, just in this first stage, which requires some manual conversion from Wikipedia to Wikiversity (as I said, I would be willing to do it myself, but I'm not sure if it is allowed). [[User:Francesco Cattafi|Francesco Cattafi]] ([[User talk:Francesco Cattafi|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Francesco Cattafi|contribs]]) 15:40, 3 September 2025 (UTC) :::I see. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 04:42, 4 September 2025 (UTC) :::Yes, this is the issue. The point-man for that part of the process has gone inactive, and now it just isn't done. There needs to be some redundancy in this journal, so that if a volunteer (understandably) can't fulfill their role for an extended period of time there is someone else to step in. As of right now it seems there are several points in the process where a submitted article can just run out steam, through no fault of the author. Nobody wants to be ushering a written piece of work through review for years on end. [[User:Fritzmann2002|Fritzmann2002]] ([[User talk:Fritzmann2002|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Fritzmann2002|contribs]]) 23:36, 17 September 2025 (UTC) ::::Yes, I agree. But then, just to be clear, how was the issue solved for your article [[WikiJournal Preprints/Hypericum sechmenii|Hypericum sechmenii]]? From the history page it seems that you did create the preprint yourself. Is it allowed? Did an editor give you permission to do it? [[User:Francesco Cattafi|Francesco Cattafi]] ([[User talk:Francesco Cattafi|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Francesco Cattafi|contribs]]) 10:11, 18 September 2025 (UTC) :::::Hello everyone, :::::I'm submitting an article that I entirely revamped on Wikipedia ([[w:Pentagram map]]). I filled the form [https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSf-Nu7hjiTeJ5uQ5ozMOIivWZjeyJCPLwAUOuNDP1MVKUbCSQ/viewform WikiJournal submission form]. What should I do now ? @[[User:Francesco Cattafi|Francesco Cattafi]], I see that for [[WikiJournal Preprints/Diffeology]], you created it yourself. Should I do the same ? Did you get any reply ? :::::It's quite saddening to see that a nice project like the WikiJournal seems to be going down... At least from what I can read here. [[User:Regliste|Regliste]] ([[User talk:Regliste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Regliste|contribs]]) 15:13, 8 December 2025 (UTC) ::::::Hi @[[User:Regliste|Regliste]], I was in doubt what to do, but eventually I got the explicit permission from @[[User:Marshallsumter|Marshallsumter]] to create the preprint page myself (see also the related discussion on [[w:User_talk:Marshallsumter#Importing_Wikipedia_articles_to_Wikipreprints]]). However, since then I haven't received any further reply (see also my question at [[User_talk:OhanaUnited#WikiJournal_article_nominations]]) and the review process hasn't started at all. ::::::I guess therefore that you could probably do the same and create manually the preprint page - at worst it will be modified later by an editor. ::::::As you say, it is indeed quite sad that the WikiJournal project seems to have slowed down/stopped; I still hope that the trend will revert at a certain point... [[User:Francesco Cattafi|Francesco Cattafi]] ([[User talk:Francesco Cattafi|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Francesco Cattafi|contribs]]) 16:04, 11 December 2025 (UTC) :::::::Thanks a lot for your answer... I dearly hope that it will get back on its feet. I'll try to send some mails too, if anything comes up I'll notice it here. [[User:Regliste|Regliste]] ([[User talk:Regliste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Regliste|contribs]]) 21:03, 13 December 2025 (UTC) ::::::::Indeed, there's a long backlog in this process. I added to the top of the nomination page in Wikipedia ''"There is currently a '''long backlog''' of articles in WikiJournal. Please consider contributing as associate editor in order to help coordinate peer reviews for current submissions. See [[WikiJournal User Group/Editorial guidelines|WikiJournal editorial guidelines]]''". [[User:Mikael Häggström|Mikael Häggström]] ([[User talk:Mikael Häggström|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mikael Häggström|contribs]]) 19:46, 10 September 2026 (UTC) == Reporting and affiliate expiration == Please see: [[meta:Talk:Proposal:_WikiJournal_as_a_sister_project#(Second_Reminder)_Notification_of_Affiliate_Expiration_-_Renewal_pending_submission_of_reporting_2]]. [[User:Mu301|mikeu]] ^{[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]} 04:15, 4 April 2024 (UTC) == Requested move == I propose we move this page / rename this page to WikiJournal (not to be confused with [[Wiki Journal]]), since [[m:WikiJournal User Group|WikiJournal User Group]] already has its own page. Can we gather enough votes to agree on this? [[User:Infogiraffic|Infogiraffic]] ([[User talk:Infogiraffic|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Infogiraffic|contribs]]) 18:51, 15 April 2025 (UTC) :I've made up my mind. I think we should rebrand WikiJournal. '''Wikiversity Press''' would become the new name. I recently created this [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Talk:Proposal:_WikiJournal_as_a_sister_project#Rebranding_WikiJournal_into_Wikiversity_Press logo], so people can start to distinguish between Wikiversity Press and the [[m:WikiJournal User Group|WikiJournal User Group]] and its [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:WikiJournal_logo.svg logo] more easily. [[User:Infogiraffic|Infogiraffic]] ([[User talk:Infogiraffic|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Infogiraffic|contribs]]) 14:19, 18 April 2025 (UTC) ::@[[User:Infogiraffic|Infogiraffic]] Respectfully, the change was unilaterally proposed by you. The 3 journal names were also changed by you without discussion. Your [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=WikiJournal_User_Group&diff=2713504&oldid=2705342 changes] to the main page also made it more difficult to access the journals because the journal titles are no longer clickable. Did someone from user group asked you to make these changes? [[User:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: #0000FF;">OhanaUnited</span></b>]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: green;">^{Talk page}</span></b>]] 20:24, 18 April 2025 (UTC) :::Hi, @[[User:OhanaUnited|OhanaUnited]]. Great feedback. The visitor message has now been edited to include the conditional status of the proposal. This is just me believing in the potential of WikiJournal and trying to gather support for a rebrand and revamp. I work independently from the WikiJournal User Group to improve things that I like to see thriving. I've listened to your advise regarding the titles; they are clickable now:) If you got more, feel free to share. [[User:Infogiraffic|Infogiraffic]] ([[User talk:Infogiraffic|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Infogiraffic|contribs]]) 07:05, 19 April 2025 (UTC) ::::Oh, and no journal names were changed. I simply copy pasted the existing ones. If you prefer so, we can opt to display the shorter variants instead of the longer ones. [[User:Infogiraffic|Infogiraffic]] ([[User talk:Infogiraffic|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Infogiraffic|contribs]]) 07:17, 19 April 2025 (UTC) :::::Thanks for responding to my question. Please note that the WikiJournal User Group has not discussed any rebranding initiatives and any changes to the name (such as changing to Wikiversity Press) risk diluting the brand recognition that we made and built up over the last 10 years with the Wikimedia movement, open access community, WikiJournal editorial board members, and external reviewers. I appreciate your approach to be bold in the redesign for the main page, which has display issues on mobile. I made some changes to the display title to clarify any confusion around the journal titles. I have reached out to the editorial boards and at this point nobody knew about your rebranding proposal. Some also raised questions why revamping would require a name change without any consultation (especially when it was brought up during the final exam period and week of Easter holiday). At this point I am '''opposing''' the requested move and politely ask you seek adequate consensus from the community before making more references to Wikiversity Press or rebranding. [[User:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: #0000FF;">OhanaUnited</span></b>]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: green;">^{Talk page}</span></b>]] 23:26, 19 April 2025 (UTC) ::::::Thank you greatly for your effort(s) in representing the board, providing context, and defending the integrity of the WikiJournal community. I understand your perspective and hesitancy toward my boldness. However, as an outsider, WikiJournal seems to have fared quite under the radar with almost no publicity among notable news channels. So to me, there does not seem to be much dilutable brand recognition to begin with as of now. Furthermore, it is out in the open that the community has ignored offers to buy / rent the eerily eponymous domain name [https://en.wikijournal.org/wiki/Main_Page wikijournal.org], as can be read [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Talk:WikiJournal_User_Group/Archive_2019#Selling_wikijournal.org here] and [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Talk:Proposal:_WikiJournal_as_a_sister_project#Wikijournal.org here]. Not the ideal vantage point from which to brand a broadly appealing publishing house without confusing at least some unfamiliar people about its connection, if you ask me. Wikiversity Press aims to alleviate this imbroglio, by starting anew while conforming to the conventional naming procedure that is used at a variety of prestigious universities. Also, the logo conveys stature instead of playful lambency, which is, in my eyes, exactly what we would need to try and close the "Academia-Wikipedia gap" that is so elegantly expressed on the WikiJournal homepage. I am not here to take credit for anything. Take the name or renounce it; no strings attached. If no consensus is gathered, I will rest my case. But otherwise, I would happily assist in further developing the platform by introducing new UI and UX related improvements, as well as streamlining pagination, submissions, and peer-review. Sincerely, [[User:Infogiraffic|Infogiraffic]] ([[User talk:Infogiraffic|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Infogiraffic|contribs]]) 18:16, 20 April 2025 (UTC) :::::::Hello [[User:Infogiraffic|Infogiraffic]]. First of all, I'd like to give you a big thank you for your improvements to the wiki page! Also, I appreciate the effort in coming up with an alternative name and logo. However, I'd also like to point out several factors that led us to having the brand and logo as we have. The project actually started out in 2014 as "Wikiversity Journal", which is somewhat more similar to "Wikiversity Press", but then had a big discussion with multiple alternative names, of which WikiJournal came out as the winner - [[Talk:WikiJournal_User_Group/Archive_2016_naming_vote#Name_election]]. Reasons for changing from Wikiversity Press to WikiJournal included making it shorter. Also, we do not necessarily want to associate with Wikiversity, and are hoping to have a separate wiki as a Sister Project in the future, and if we for some reason went back to a "Wikiversity"-containing name then we would likely need to change it again if we became a separate wiki. While "Wikiversity Press" was not among the choices in the past election, and I agree it has some good points as you mentioned, I think it is less specific than "journal", and may be mistaken as a news, books or magazine publisher. Similarly for the logo, if you see the upload history of the WikiJournal logo [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:WikiJournal_logo.svg] it actually started out as something more Wikiversity-like, but then we've strived to make it something more unique. So thanks again for the proposal, but with everything taken together I have to say '''oppose''' to this newly suggested project name and logo. [[User:Mikael Häggström|Mikael Häggström]] ([[User talk:Mikael Häggström|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mikael Häggström|contribs]]) 21:49, 7 May 2025 (UTC) ==Deletion of preprint on Commons== See *[[Commons:Commons:Deletion_requests/File:Dravidian_Arc_-_Reframing_Ancient_India’s_Civilisational_Origins.pdf]] Wikimedia Commons reviewers deleted someone's preprint submission because 1) preprints out of scope for Commons and 2) someone thought it seemed like AI. The author there insists that the work is their original creation without AI. My question for WikiJournal: how welcome are preprints here? Is this the kind of case that I can generally invite for submission here? [[User:Bluerasberry|<span style="background:#cedff2;color:#11e">''' Blue Rasberry '''</span>]][[User talk:Bluerasberry|<span style="cursor:help"><span style="background:#cedff2;color:#11e">(talk)</span></span>]] 15:52, 11 November 2025 (UTC) :Hey Lane. As I [https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Commons_talk:Project_scope&diff=prev&oldid=1114944379 responded on Commons], we welcome preprints but it needs to follow the specific instructions on [[WikiJournal Preprints]] to store their content as a wiki page. Since the file is already deleted, it is difficult for me to assess the contents or the merits of the PDF. In theory, a standalone PDF preprint can be uploaded locally in Wikiversity but subject to Wikiversity's local policies around project scope on files. This is another example why it's importantly to have WikiJournal as a standalone sister project because we can develop our local rules and policies that are not restricted by Wikiversity or Commons. [[User:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: #0000FF;">OhanaUnited</span></b>]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: green;">^{Talk page}</span></b>]] 04:32, 25 November 2025 (UTC) ==Proposal - offer optional presubmission review== I do not want to make an additional workload for WikiJournal editors, but I want to share a story, and I have an idea that I want to workshop with others. The idea is presubmission review. Optionally but recommended, for people who are new to WikiJournal and who want to save themselves time and save our reviewers time, they pre-submit their work. In the presubmission, they do this: #Submit work citation metadata, including title, author names, institutional affiliation #Does the work contain any of the following: ##AI-generated text or images ##Any ideas which university and scholarly consensus view as pseudoscience ##Text or images which do not have open access, Wikimedia-compatible, Creative Commons licensing #Please provide a citation to any existing, published, peer reviewed work which explores a similar topic as this submission, and which this paper will cite I have talked with some other wiki editors and it seems there is the idea that the Wikimedia platform attracts submissions which are 1) authorless or a person's first published work 2) AI/pseudoscience/non compatible content 3) essays or other writing formats which do not build onto or cite existing scholarship. By having a presubmissiom process, I think we could improve sentiment about WikiJournal in these ways - #Wikimedia Commons and others would be more confident that we have a screening process for incompatible content #Authors could minimize their time and labor submitting if their content is not a fit #Authors also demonstrate that they can navigate the Wikimedia platform, including making an account, posting some content, and becoming oriented before trying to make a full submission #WikiJournal Reviewers have another way to connect with people early in the process, and a place to tell people to begin I am hoping that a pre-submission process should take 5 minutes for a beginner Wikipedian and not more than 15 minutes for someone totally new to the Wikimedia platform. Thoughts? [[User:Bluerasberry|<span style="background:#cedff2;color:#11e">''' Blue Rasberry '''</span>]][[User talk:Bluerasberry|<span style="cursor:help"><span style="background:#cedff2;color:#11e">(talk)</span></span>]] 16:13, 15 December 2025 (UTC) == Discover CapX: New Design, Features, and Ways to Connect == Hello {{PAGENAME}}! My name is [[User:AJurno (WMB)|Amanda Jurno]] and I’m writing to you on behalf of the [[m:Capacity Exchange|Capacity Exchange (CapX) team]]. We would like to invite you and your community to start using the [[toolforge:capx|CapX tool]]. [[File:GIF of CapX features - November 2025 - Let's Connect.gif|right|thumb|300px]] CapX is a platform designed for Wikimedians around the world to connect through skills and collaboration. It offers a simple and user-friendly way to find and engage with people who can offer specific expertise, helping make collaboration across the movement more efficient and accessible. If you’d like a clearer sense of where we’re headed, you can read more about our ''Vision and Purpose [[:File:Capacity Exchange's Vision & Purpose.pdf|here]]'''. We’ve also prepared a simple visualisation of [[:File:What is the Capacity Exchange 01.pdf|how CapX works]]. Additional documentation, FAQs, tutorials, and how-to videos are available on our [[m:Capacity Exchange|Meta-Wiki page]]. The more your community joins CapX, the clearer your view becomes of how capacity-building is growing across your region via the [[toolforge:capx/data_analytics_dashboard|CapX's Data Analytics dashboard]]. If you experience any difficulties using the tool, you can consult our [[m:Capacity Exchange/User Guide|User Guide]], which includes step-by-step tutorials and short videos explaining each feature. To get in touch with the CapX team, share feedback, or suggest improvements, feel free to email us at capx@wmnobrasil.org. For quick questions and updates, you can also join our [https://t.me/CapacityExchange Telegram channel]. '''We would be delighted to have {{PAGENAME}} join CapX’s growing network'''. Creating your organization profile only takes a few minutes and helps other affiliates discover your expertise, initiatives, and potential areas for collaboration. [[:File:CapX - Create an Organizational profile.png|Here is what we need from you before you can start]]. Finally, we invite you to subscribe to our newsletter channel to receive regular updates about CapX and the Capacity Exchange project - [[m:Capacity Exchange/Newsletter|click here to subscribe]]. We hope to see you exchanging soon! Sincerely, [[User:AJurno (WMB)|AJurno (WMB)]] ([[User talk:AJurno (WMB)|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/AJurno (WMB)|contribs]]) 01:37, 31 March 2026 (UTC) :I am setting up an individual profile. I noticed that "Wikiversity" is not a Capacity that can be listed (but "Wikipedia" is a capacity). Could Wikiversity be added? :https://capx.toolforge.org/profile/Jtneill -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 11:27, 31 March 2026 (UTC) : ping [[User:AJurno (WMB)|AJurno (WMB)]] -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 10:34, 24 May 2026 (UTC) ::Hello @[[User|Jtneill]], thank you for pinging me! I hadn’t seen your reply. Thank you so much for letting me know that — I was sure Wikiversity was already listed as a skill, but it actually wasn’t. I’m adding it now. Please feel free to contact me again anytime, despite my long absence hehehehe [[User:AJurno (WMB)|AJurno (WMB)]] ([[User talk:AJurno (WMB)|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/AJurno (WMB)|contribs]]) 17:27, 26 May 2026 (UTC) == Towards Wikiversity's Ethics policy == I think you might be interested [[Wikiversity:Colloquium#Towards an Ethics policy|in this]] and you could also add interesting perspectives from ethics of scientifical research. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 08:02, 9 June 2026 (UTC) == Call for interest: Administrative Officer == WikiJournal is seeking expressions of interest in a new part-time, paid '''Administrative Officer''' position. We are initially sharing this opportunity within the WikiJournal community because familiarity with WikiJournal, Wikimedia, open licensing or academic publishing would be particularly valuable. The Administrative Officer would support WikiJournal's day-to-day organizational work, including: * Setting up and administering a system for tracking contractor hours and issuing payments. * Coordinating the contracting, onboarding, timekeeping and payment of technical editors and other contractors. * Maintaining financial, contractor and administrative records. * Assisting with grant administration, budget tracking and reporting. * Following up on board action items, deadlines and recurring obligations. * Supporting recruitment and other operational tasks as needed. The position is a remote, flexibly scheduled contractor role averaging approximately '''6 hours per week'''. Compensation is proposed at '''US$25 per hour''', with up to approximately '''320 hours (US$8,000) available over the year'''. Workload may vary depending on contracting, reporting and grant-related deadlines. Applicants may be based internationally, although appointment will depend on WikiJournal being able to establish a practical and legally appropriate contracting and payment arrangement in the applicant's country of residence. The complete responsibilities, administrative arrangements and desirable experience are described on the [[WikiJournal User Group/Administrative officer|Administrative Officer role page]]. Useful experience may include administrative organization, bookkeeping or financial administration, contractor or personnel coordination, nonprofit or grant administration, Wikimedia participation, academic publishing, and open-access work. Applicants are not expected to have experience in every listed area. === Expressions of interest === If you're interested, please make an entry below by '''30 September 2026''' with: * A concise description of relevant experience. * Their connection to WikiJournal or related communities, if any. * Their general availability. Expressions of interest received after this date may still be considered if the position has not yet been filled. Recommendations of other potentially suitable candidates are also welcome. Shortlisted applicants may be invited to an informal interview with several WikiJournal participants. Final selection will be made by consensus of the WikiJournal Administrative Board. [[User:Mikael Häggström|Mikael Häggström]] ([[User talk:Mikael Häggström|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mikael Häggström|contribs]]) 19:22, 10 September 2026 (UTC) go7l31jkmhes442q0kmlniipdsg80e1 2832682 2832679 2026-09-10T19:54:24Z Mikael Häggström 12130 Archived 2832682 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Category:WikiJournal]] {{WikiJournal_discussions}} {{Archive box| [[/Archive 2014–2016|2014–2016]] <br>[[/Archive 2016 naming vote|2016 naming vote]] <br>[[/Archive 2017|2017]] <br>[[/Archive 2018|2018]] <br>[[/Archive 2019|2019]] <br>[[/Archive 2020|2020]] <br>[[/Archive 2021|2021]] <br>[[/Archive 2022|2022]] <br>[[/Archive 2023-2025|2022-2025]] Discussions may also take place at the <br>'''[https://lists.wikimedia.org/pipermail/wikijournal-en/ public mailing list]'' ([https://lists.wikimedia.org/mailman/listinfo/wikijournal-en Join]) }} {{TOClimit|limit=3}} == Banner links must be accessible on smartphones == On smartphones, the banners are hard to tap/click on, especially the Preprint one. I have difficulty changing the banners' format. [[User:George Ho|George Ho]] ([[User talk:George Ho|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/George Ho|contribs]]) 12:31, 29 January 2022 (UTC) :@[[User:George Ho|George Ho]]: Sorry for mising this earlier! Do you know if you were using the 'mobile view' or 'desktop view' on your smartphone? I've tried to make the tabs re-flow into a grid when on a mobie device, bit I think it only works in 'mobile view'. [[User:Evolution and evolvability|T.Shafee(Evo&#65120;Evo)]]^{[[User talk:Evolution and evolvability|talk]]} 02:06, 21 July 2022 (UTC) :: @[[User:Evolution and evolvability|Shafee]]: Using 'mobile view' on Android, the Preprint banner is hard to tap, yet I can access that journal via tapping the icon on the left of the banner. Others are still clickable, yet larger text is annoying on mobile view. --[[User:George Ho|George Ho]] ([[User talk:George Ho|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/George Ho|contribs]]) 06:27, 21 July 2022 (UTC) :::@[[User:George Ho|George Ho]]: Aha, now I see it. Thanks. I was looking at the top banner in grey rather than the list of journals. I'm also getting some of the text overlapping too. I'll aim to fix it up next week. [[User:Evolution and evolvability|T.Shafee(Evo&#65120;Evo)]]^{[[User talk:Evolution and evolvability|talk]]} 23:13, 21 July 2022 (UTC) ::::Three months have passed; have you fixed the issue yet? [[User:George Ho|George Ho]] ([[User talk:George Ho|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/George Ho|contribs]]) 08:39, 8 October 2022 (UTC) :::::@[[User:George Ho|George Ho]] Our recent redesign of the banners, courtesy of {{u|Infogiraffic}}, should have fixed this issue. Can you confirm if this works on your end? [[User:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: #0000FF;">OhanaUnited</span></b>]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: green;">^{Talk page}</span></b>]] 19:37, 22 May 2025 (UTC) ::::::The newer layout works on an iphone. [[User:George Ho|George Ho]] ([[User talk:George Ho|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/George Ho|contribs]]) 15:57, 23 May 2025 (UTC) ==References== {{reflist|2}} |} == How should unsubmitted preprints be handled? == I've noticed that there are a number of old, incomplete articles under the WikiJournal Preprints namespace, many of which are unlikely to be suitable for publication even if they were finished and submitted. A couple of examples are: * [[WikiJournal Preprints/COVID-19 ELIMINATION AND CELLDIFFERENTIATION]] * [[WikiJournal Preprints/Cultural Computational Publishing: A Sprint]] * [[WikiJournal Preprints/Medical gallery of Aria Rad]] * [[WikiJournal Preprints/Parts of a Book]] * [[WikiJournal Preprints/Zoosemiotics]] Does the WikiJournal project have any standing policies to reject these drafts automatically after some point, or do they just stay in the "unpublished pre-print" state indefinitely? (Is it possible that some of these pages have slipped under the radar, e.g. by not being in the appropriate categories?) Do all of them (especially the ones that never got beyond writing an abstract) need to be preserved for posterity, or can they be deleted after some period of time? [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 22:13, 12 December 2022 (UTC) :Ping? I'm also curious about the status of the following two articles: :* [[WikiJournal Preprints/Cryometeors]] :* [[WikiJournal Preprints/Sunflower Trypsin Inhibitor]] :These two display a message claiming that they are "an editorial article and [are] published without peer review", which I don't think is intended. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 03:26, 10 July 2023 (UTC) == Question regarding WikiJournal and duplicate content == Hi! I have two questions. I searched around a bit and didn't find anything. # When a stable WikiJournal article is the basis of a separate living page, say on Wikipedia or Wikiversity, do you know if it's possible to use a [[w:canonical link element]] to indicate the canonical version of the article for search engines? # If so, do you know if the WikiJournal User Group has a policy regarding which version is canonical? Thank you so much! [[User:Greg at Higher Math Help|Greg at Higher Math Help]] ([[User talk:Greg at Higher Math Help|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Greg at Higher Math Help|contribs]]) 22:34, 13 February 2023 (UTC) :@[[User:Greg at Higher Math Help|Greg at Higher Math Help]] I don't think canonical link element is supported by MediaWiki. It's limited by the software itself. The canonical version of the page is the WikiJournal PDF, which is linked on the wiki page and on Wikidata. [[User:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: #0000FF;">OhanaUnited</span></b>]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: green;">^{Talk page}</span></b>]] 04:24, 11 March 2023 (UTC) ::Thank you! [[User:Greg at Higher Math Help|Greg at Higher Math Help]] ([[User talk:Greg at Higher Math Help|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Greg at Higher Math Help|contribs]]) 02:24, 1 April 2023 (UTC) == Preprint Quality == I recently had an article accepted at the WIkiJournal of Medicine and was very disappointed with the PDF preprint quality/process (with no insult towards the editors). I know very little about how things work behind the scenes, but my understanding is that the PDF preprints are manually produced using MS Word. Though WikiJournal requires svgs, there is (to my knowledge) no way to retain the vector-ness of the svg files in Word and it generally results in poor quality rasterization. This can even be seen in the header images. I've made a little process to produce a preprint from the wikipedia page that relies on [https://mediawiki2latex.wmflabs.org/ mediawiki2latex], and the editors have [https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiversity/en/2/24/Alternative_androgen_pathways.pdf uploaded] my preprint. You can see I tried to mimic the existing preprint as best as I could given my fairly shallow latex knowledge and the constraints associated with trying to make this as automatic as possible. I don't have any stats on how much people use preprint PDFs, but I suspect many people rely on them. It is essential that the print quality is up to par any other academic journal. The existing method, I think, it probably too manual and results in an obviously poor quality print that will limit author interest. I've put my basic process here: https://github.com/mittimithai/wjlatexpreprint and suggest it that it be used as a basis for coming up with a standard, essentially automated process across all WikiJournals for high quality pdf preprints. WikiJournals should provide a baseline preprint and authors can then be responsible for custom typesetting. Using latex in this context is a bit different than writing one's own papers, mediawiki2latex output has to be transformed as reliably into PDF as possible. I tried to apply as much appropriate substitution as I could in the perl script but I am sure there can be some improvements made. [[User:Maneesh|Maneesh]] ([[User talk:Maneesh|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Maneesh|contribs]]) 18:48, 30 April 2023 (UTC) :Please consider using the Century Schoolbook font as a "serif" for the paragraph regular text, and Franklin Gothic font as a "sans-serif" font for the headers (titles). Or use any appropriate font set for the text and headers that the journal adopted, but the fonts have to fit each other. [[User:Maxim Masiutin|Maxim Masiutin]] ([[User talk:Maxim Masiutin|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Maxim Masiutin|contribs]]) 20:05, 1 May 2023 (UTC) ::I am not terribly partial to any font, wikimedia2latex makes use of KOMA which does things in certain ways that are partial to the author's views. There does seem to be a lot of "religion" in typesetting with very little of it empirically justified. Feel free to add in a free font to the github repo, I think all one needs to do is change the two lines in maininc.tex. The current lines I think implicitly depend on font locations in an ubntu install. [[User:Maneesh|Maneesh]] ([[User talk:Maneesh|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Maneesh|contribs]]) 20:55, 1 May 2023 (UTC) == Recent articles without reference deposits == Hello! I just wanted to flag that a few recent articles have not yet [[WikiJournal User Group/Editorial guidelines#Submitting reference metadata|had their references deposited into Crossref]]: * "[[WikiJournal of Science/Multiple object tracking|Multiple object tracking]]" (''WJS'') * "[[WikiJournal of Science/Non-canonical base pairing|Non-canonical base pairing]]" (''WJS'') * <s>"[[WikiJournal of Medicine/Alternative androgens pathways|Alternative androgens pathways]]" (''WJM'')</s> * "[[WikiJournal Preprints/Impact of xenogenic mesenchimal stem cells secretome on a humoral component of the immune system|Impact of xenogenic mesenchimal stem cells secretome on a humoral component of the immune system]]" (''WJM'') * "[[WikiJournal of Humanities/Loveday, 1458|Loveday, 1458]]" (''WJH'') Thanks! Kindly —[[User:Bobamnertiopsis|Collin]] (Bobamnertiopsis)^{[[User talk:Bobamnertiopsis|t]] [[Special:Contributions/Bobamnertiopsis|c]]} 22:07, 18 July 2023 (UTC) :Thanks {{u|Bobamnertiopsis}}. I'm tagging {{u|Silver Dovelet}} who's responsible for this task. [[User:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: #0000FF;">OhanaUnited</span></b>]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: green;">^{Talk page}</span></b>]] 14:17, 1 August 2023 (UTC) ::{{re|Bobamnertiopsis}} Can you check if the references for these publications have been deposited? [[User:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: #0000FF;">OhanaUnited</span></b>]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: green;">^{Talk page}</span></b>]] 03:36, 10 December 2023 (UTC) :::{{re|OhanaUnited}} yes, thanks for pinging me about this! It looks like "[[WikiJournal of Medicine/Alternative androgens pathways|Alternative androgens pathways]]"'s refs have been deposited (see https://api.crossref.org/works/10.15347/WJM/2023.003) but the other four have not yet been deposited (compare with https://api.crossref.org/works/10.15347/WJH/2023.001 e.g.; you can always swap out the DOI at the back of this link to see the metadata registered for a particular article). Thanks! —[[User:Bobamnertiopsis|Collin]] (Bobamnertiopsis)^{[[User talk:Bobamnertiopsis|t]] [[Special:Contributions/Bobamnertiopsis|c]]} 15:24, 10 December 2023 (UTC) ::::The remaining 4 should be deposited now. Thank you. [[User:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: #0000FF;">OhanaUnited</span></b>]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: green;">^{Talk page}</span></b>]] 04:47, 15 December 2023 (UTC) == Rejection rates == What are the rejection rates of WikiJournals? [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 13:19, 5 September 2023 (UTC) :@[[User:Juandev|Juandev]] Very good questions. We have not tallied the overall rejection rate (or individual rejection rate within each journal). Using 2023's data, my estimation is about 60-75% rejection rate in the medicine and science journals. But the overall % does not reflect the amount of work performed behind the scenes. Just over half of the rejected articles are "desk reject" or author filled out the submission form but never submitted the text. The rest are due to author abandoning submission partway (stale submission), rejection after peer review or author no longer has time to complete revision. [[User:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: #0000FF;">OhanaUnited</span></b>]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: green;">^{Talk page}</span></b>]] 03:06, 19 September 2023 (UTC) ::OK. I see. Thx. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 10:17, 22 September 2023 (UTC) == Peer Reviews == As per my understanding off [[WikiJournal of Humanities/Peer reviewers]] only qualified external professionals are allowed to formally peer-review articles. Which seems a bit unnecessary considering anyone can write articles, also Nupedia vibes, this seriously hurts the journal's growth due to lack of volunteers. I believe that editors on wikipedia who've written extensively on related topics, should also be invited to peer-review articles, this would add a lot more volunteers (thus making the whole process faster and smoother), and get qualified people from wikipedia over to wikiversity. [[User:Crainsaw|Crainsaw]] ([[User talk:Crainsaw|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Crainsaw|contribs]]) 11:55, 17 December 2023 (UTC) == Current status of WikiJournals == I hate to say this, but so far, I've yet to see WikiJournal revolutionize academic journals in the way that Wikipedia affected encyclopedias severely. Furthermore, WikiJournals have been kinda slow to publish articles. Also, there have been many other open-access journals, especially ones using CC-BY-NC-ND. Also, many published articles happen to be adapted from Wikipedia articles and then copied (if not adapted) into Wikipedia articles, especially same ones. Maybe these are reasons for WMF to be reluctant to approve further development of WikiJournals. I did have high hopes for this project, yet my interests in the semi-project has.... waned. [[User:George Ho|George Ho]] ([[User talk:George Ho|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/George Ho|contribs]]) 23:54, 3 January 2024 (UTC) :I appreciate all the work that went into the publication of an article I worked on last year, without insulting the editors, I was overall disappointed (though they editorial team was able to get outstanding reviewers that were very patient with a very deficient initial draft). I proposed a mostly automated pdf workflow (see above) with no uptake/feedback. Good quality PDFs, I think, are a very very high priority. The current quality is very low and suffers from (what seems to be) a fairly manual process and immediately obvious rasterization artifacts which look unprofessional. Automation to bring the journal to a professional standard is essential before greater aspirations. [[User:Maneesh|Maneesh]] ([[User talk:Maneesh|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Maneesh|contribs]]) 18:35, 4 January 2024 (UTC) ::I should also add that WIkiJournal of Medicine articles don't appear properly indexed by Google Scholar, they don't look like proper journal articles. When I search for the title of my article: ::[PDF] [https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiversity/en/a/a7/Alternative_androgens_pathways.pdf Alternative androgen pathways] ::[https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=9gJaSxcAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=sra MG Masiutin], MK Yadav - upload.wikimedia.org ::Steroidogenic routes to androgens have been discovered and characterized over the last two ::decades that fall outside the Δ4 and Δ5" classical androgen pathways" to testosterone and … ::Save Cite [[scholar:related:x2717efivtkJ:scholar.google.com/&scioq="alternative+androgen+pathways"&hl=en&as_sdt=0,5|Related articles]] [https://scholar.google.com/scholar?cluster=15690227637562994375&hl=en&as_sdt=0,5 All 2 versions] ::[[WikiJournal of Medicine/Alternative androgens pathways|'''[HTML]''' wikiversity.org]] ::[HTML] [[WikiJournal of Medicine/Alternative androgens pathways]] ::[https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=9gJaSxcAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=sra MG Masiutin], MK Yadav - History - en.wikiversity.org ::… This expository review uses "'''alternative''' '''androgen''' '''pathways'''" to include what has been … ::lack of clear and consistent knowledge of '''alternative''' '''androgen''' '''pathways'''; the authors hope this … ::Save Cite [[scholar:related:J-L2yz0dY10J:scholar.google.com/&scioq="alternative+androgen+pathways"&hl=en&as_sdt=0,5|Related articles]] ::[https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiversity/en/archive/2/24/20230503121130%21Alternative_androgen_pathways.pdf '''<nowiki>[PDF]</nowiki>''' wikimedia.org] ::[PDF] [https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiversity/en/archive/2/24/20230503121130%21Alternative_androgen_pathways.pdf WikiJournal Preprints/Alternative Androgen Pathways] ::MG Masiutin, MK Yadav - upload.wikimedia.org ::… This expository review uses "'''alternative''' '''androgen''' '''pathways'''" to include what has been … ::lack of clear and consistent knowledge of '''alternative''' '''androgen''' '''pathways'''; the authors hope this … ::Save Cite [[scholar:related:wfMK5FH57gsJ:scholar.google.com/&scioq="alternative+androgen+pathways"&hl=en&as_sdt=0,5|Related articles]] [https://scholar.google.com/scholar?cluster=859898708987933633&hl=en&as_sdt=0,5 All 2 versions] ::Ensuring that the wikijournal articles don't look like some sort of second rate article in google scholar is very important. ::[[User:Maneesh|Maneesh]] ([[User talk:Maneesh|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Maneesh|contribs]]) 07:30, 5 January 2024 (UTC) :::I think the ''quality of the journals'' is fine ...IMO, what I have noticed is that the process[https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/WikiJournal_of_Medicine/Potential_upcoming_articles] is a little slow--[[User:Ozzie10aaaa|Ozzie10aaaa]] ([[User talk:Ozzie10aaaa|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ozzie10aaaa|contribs]]) 13:50, 14 January 2024 (UTC) == Notice about proposed deletion == It has been proposed to delete some unused files at [[Wikiversity:Requests_for_Deletion#Unused_files_uploaded_by_PCano]]. Someone suggested that WikiJournal might be interessted in the discussion so I made this notice. Feel free to join the discussion. --[[User:MGA73|MGA73]] ([[User talk:MGA73|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MGA73|contribs]]) 17:21, 27 February 2024 (UTC) :It might help if I put forth two questions. There is no need for answers to both, since an answer to one of them would allow us to delete a large number of image files: #Are the files at [[:Category:Files uploaded by PCano - unused]] of any use to the WikiJournals? #I vaguely remember an issue with Wikiversity image files that involved the WikiJournals and files that are imbedded in WikiJournal pdf files, but don't remember the details. The question is this: If a file is not used by any WikiJournal page, is it OK to delete it? --[[User:Guy vandegrift|Guy vandegrift]] ([[User talk:Guy vandegrift|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Guy vandegrift|contribs]]) 19:13, 27 February 2024 (UTC) == [[Wikipedia:WikiJournal article nominations]] is dead == Hello, I wanted to get in touch with you about a part of this process. The submissions board at [[en:Wikipedia:WP:WikiJournal article nominations|WikiJournal article nominations]] is no longer being maintained. [[User:Evolution and evolvability|Evolution and evolvability]] has been inactive since November 2023 and has not responded to multiple attempts of mine to get in touch with him. I submitted an article there more than 4 months ago and have not even received confirmation of its submission. I notice the previous section on the status of the WikiJournals, and I must say that I am also disheartened by my attempt to contribute. I hope that someone on this end of the process will come over to English Wikipedia and fill in this gap so that the article pipeline is no longer so flawed. [[User:Fritzmann2002|Fritzmann2002]] ([[User talk:Fritzmann2002|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Fritzmann2002|contribs]]) 16:12, 29 March 2024 (UTC) :Hi [[User:Fritzmann2002|Fritzmann2002]], thanks for pointing it out, I'm actually in the same situation (article submitted in April 2025). :I saw however that your submitted article has now a preprint page, and, according to the history, it was created by yourself. Did you obtain a permission from the editors for doing so, or can actually any user create directly a preprint page for their submissions? I didn't even tried myself, because it was never clear to me who is actually responsible for converting nominated Wikipedia articles into Wikijournal preprints. I have also explicitly asked the editors, but I have not obtained any reply so far... [[User:Francesco Cattafi|Francesco Cattafi]] ([[User talk:Francesco Cattafi|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Francesco Cattafi|contribs]]) 16:53, 2 September 2025 (UTC) :As long as everything is subordinated to Wikipedia, projects of this type cannot be a trustworthy partner. Yes, WikiJournal would be a great project that could exist on its own, but unfortunately it is not. You want to publish, you find WikiJournal, you write an article and hey, they don't accept articles of this type because it doesn't suit Wikipedia. So at the moment if it is publishable on Wikipedia, publish it directly on Wikipedia, if you need to publish in an article you are out of luck. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 06:42, 3 September 2025 (UTC) ::Sorry, I think we are talking about different problems. The page [[wikipedia:WikiJournal_article_nominations|WikiJournal article nominations]] deals precisely with articles already present on Wikipedia, so this is not the issue. The articles that we were mentioning above have been already written on Wikipedia first, so it's not a matter of not being accepted because they don't suit Wikipedia, but simply of not being converted (yet) into a WikiJournal preprint, which in turn (after passing the peer-review phase) would to a publication in a WikiJournal. ::I had already published an article with this procedure a couple of years ago and everything went smoothly, so I don't see an intrinsic problem in the system, just in this first stage, which requires some manual conversion from Wikipedia to Wikiversity (as I said, I would be willing to do it myself, but I'm not sure if it is allowed). [[User:Francesco Cattafi|Francesco Cattafi]] ([[User talk:Francesco Cattafi|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Francesco Cattafi|contribs]]) 15:40, 3 September 2025 (UTC) :::I see. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 04:42, 4 September 2025 (UTC) :::Yes, this is the issue. The point-man for that part of the process has gone inactive, and now it just isn't done. There needs to be some redundancy in this journal, so that if a volunteer (understandably) can't fulfill their role for an extended period of time there is someone else to step in. As of right now it seems there are several points in the process where a submitted article can just run out steam, through no fault of the author. Nobody wants to be ushering a written piece of work through review for years on end. [[User:Fritzmann2002|Fritzmann2002]] ([[User talk:Fritzmann2002|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Fritzmann2002|contribs]]) 23:36, 17 September 2025 (UTC) ::::Yes, I agree. But then, just to be clear, how was the issue solved for your article [[WikiJournal Preprints/Hypericum sechmenii|Hypericum sechmenii]]? From the history page it seems that you did create the preprint yourself. Is it allowed? Did an editor give you permission to do it? [[User:Francesco Cattafi|Francesco Cattafi]] ([[User talk:Francesco Cattafi|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Francesco Cattafi|contribs]]) 10:11, 18 September 2025 (UTC) :::::Hello everyone, :::::I'm submitting an article that I entirely revamped on Wikipedia ([[w:Pentagram map]]). I filled the form [https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSf-Nu7hjiTeJ5uQ5ozMOIivWZjeyJCPLwAUOuNDP1MVKUbCSQ/viewform WikiJournal submission form]. What should I do now ? @[[User:Francesco Cattafi|Francesco Cattafi]], I see that for [[WikiJournal Preprints/Diffeology]], you created it yourself. Should I do the same ? Did you get any reply ? :::::It's quite saddening to see that a nice project like the WikiJournal seems to be going down... At least from what I can read here. [[User:Regliste|Regliste]] ([[User talk:Regliste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Regliste|contribs]]) 15:13, 8 December 2025 (UTC) ::::::Hi @[[User:Regliste|Regliste]], I was in doubt what to do, but eventually I got the explicit permission from @[[User:Marshallsumter|Marshallsumter]] to create the preprint page myself (see also the related discussion on [[w:User_talk:Marshallsumter#Importing_Wikipedia_articles_to_Wikipreprints]]). However, since then I haven't received any further reply (see also my question at [[User_talk:OhanaUnited#WikiJournal_article_nominations]]) and the review process hasn't started at all. ::::::I guess therefore that you could probably do the same and create manually the preprint page - at worst it will be modified later by an editor. ::::::As you say, it is indeed quite sad that the WikiJournal project seems to have slowed down/stopped; I still hope that the trend will revert at a certain point... [[User:Francesco Cattafi|Francesco Cattafi]] ([[User talk:Francesco Cattafi|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Francesco Cattafi|contribs]]) 16:04, 11 December 2025 (UTC) :::::::Thanks a lot for your answer... I dearly hope that it will get back on its feet. I'll try to send some mails too, if anything comes up I'll notice it here. [[User:Regliste|Regliste]] ([[User talk:Regliste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Regliste|contribs]]) 21:03, 13 December 2025 (UTC) ::::::::Indeed, there's a long backlog in this process. I added to the top of the nomination page in Wikipedia ''"There is currently a '''long backlog''' of articles in WikiJournal. Please consider contributing as associate editor in order to help coordinate peer reviews for current submissions. See [[WikiJournal User Group/Editorial guidelines|WikiJournal editorial guidelines]]''". [[User:Mikael Häggström|Mikael Häggström]] ([[User talk:Mikael Häggström|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mikael Häggström|contribs]]) 19:46, 10 September 2026 (UTC) == Reporting and affiliate expiration == Please see: [[meta:Talk:Proposal:_WikiJournal_as_a_sister_project#(Second_Reminder)_Notification_of_Affiliate_Expiration_-_Renewal_pending_submission_of_reporting_2]]. [[User:Mu301|mikeu]] ^{[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]} 04:15, 4 April 2024 (UTC) == Requested move == I propose we move this page / rename this page to WikiJournal (not to be confused with [[Wiki Journal]]), since [[m:WikiJournal User Group|WikiJournal User Group]] already has its own page. Can we gather enough votes to agree on this? [[User:Infogiraffic|Infogiraffic]] ([[User talk:Infogiraffic|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Infogiraffic|contribs]]) 18:51, 15 April 2025 (UTC) :I've made up my mind. I think we should rebrand WikiJournal. '''Wikiversity Press''' would become the new name. I recently created this [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Talk:Proposal:_WikiJournal_as_a_sister_project#Rebranding_WikiJournal_into_Wikiversity_Press logo], so people can start to distinguish between Wikiversity Press and the [[m:WikiJournal User Group|WikiJournal User Group]] and its [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:WikiJournal_logo.svg logo] more easily. [[User:Infogiraffic|Infogiraffic]] ([[User talk:Infogiraffic|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Infogiraffic|contribs]]) 14:19, 18 April 2025 (UTC) ::@[[User:Infogiraffic|Infogiraffic]] Respectfully, the change was unilaterally proposed by you. The 3 journal names were also changed by you without discussion. Your [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=WikiJournal_User_Group&diff=2713504&oldid=2705342 changes] to the main page also made it more difficult to access the journals because the journal titles are no longer clickable. Did someone from user group asked you to make these changes? [[User:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: #0000FF;">OhanaUnited</span></b>]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: green;">^{Talk page}</span></b>]] 20:24, 18 April 2025 (UTC) :::Hi, @[[User:OhanaUnited|OhanaUnited]]. Great feedback. The visitor message has now been edited to include the conditional status of the proposal. This is just me believing in the potential of WikiJournal and trying to gather support for a rebrand and revamp. I work independently from the WikiJournal User Group to improve things that I like to see thriving. I've listened to your advise regarding the titles; they are clickable now:) If you got more, feel free to share. [[User:Infogiraffic|Infogiraffic]] ([[User talk:Infogiraffic|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Infogiraffic|contribs]]) 07:05, 19 April 2025 (UTC) ::::Oh, and no journal names were changed. I simply copy pasted the existing ones. If you prefer so, we can opt to display the shorter variants instead of the longer ones. [[User:Infogiraffic|Infogiraffic]] ([[User talk:Infogiraffic|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Infogiraffic|contribs]]) 07:17, 19 April 2025 (UTC) :::::Thanks for responding to my question. Please note that the WikiJournal User Group has not discussed any rebranding initiatives and any changes to the name (such as changing to Wikiversity Press) risk diluting the brand recognition that we made and built up over the last 10 years with the Wikimedia movement, open access community, WikiJournal editorial board members, and external reviewers. I appreciate your approach to be bold in the redesign for the main page, which has display issues on mobile. I made some changes to the display title to clarify any confusion around the journal titles. I have reached out to the editorial boards and at this point nobody knew about your rebranding proposal. Some also raised questions why revamping would require a name change without any consultation (especially when it was brought up during the final exam period and week of Easter holiday). At this point I am '''opposing''' the requested move and politely ask you seek adequate consensus from the community before making more references to Wikiversity Press or rebranding. [[User:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: #0000FF;">OhanaUnited</span></b>]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: green;">^{Talk page}</span></b>]] 23:26, 19 April 2025 (UTC) ::::::Thank you greatly for your effort(s) in representing the board, providing context, and defending the integrity of the WikiJournal community. I understand your perspective and hesitancy toward my boldness. However, as an outsider, WikiJournal seems to have fared quite under the radar with almost no publicity among notable news channels. So to me, there does not seem to be much dilutable brand recognition to begin with as of now. Furthermore, it is out in the open that the community has ignored offers to buy / rent the eerily eponymous domain name [https://en.wikijournal.org/wiki/Main_Page wikijournal.org], as can be read [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Talk:WikiJournal_User_Group/Archive_2019#Selling_wikijournal.org here] and [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Talk:Proposal:_WikiJournal_as_a_sister_project#Wikijournal.org here]. Not the ideal vantage point from which to brand a broadly appealing publishing house without confusing at least some unfamiliar people about its connection, if you ask me. Wikiversity Press aims to alleviate this imbroglio, by starting anew while conforming to the conventional naming procedure that is used at a variety of prestigious universities. Also, the logo conveys stature instead of playful lambency, which is, in my eyes, exactly what we would need to try and close the "Academia-Wikipedia gap" that is so elegantly expressed on the WikiJournal homepage. I am not here to take credit for anything. Take the name or renounce it; no strings attached. If no consensus is gathered, I will rest my case. But otherwise, I would happily assist in further developing the platform by introducing new UI and UX related improvements, as well as streamlining pagination, submissions, and peer-review. Sincerely, [[User:Infogiraffic|Infogiraffic]] ([[User talk:Infogiraffic|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Infogiraffic|contribs]]) 18:16, 20 April 2025 (UTC) :::::::Hello [[User:Infogiraffic|Infogiraffic]]. First of all, I'd like to give you a big thank you for your improvements to the wiki page! Also, I appreciate the effort in coming up with an alternative name and logo. However, I'd also like to point out several factors that led us to having the brand and logo as we have. The project actually started out in 2014 as "Wikiversity Journal", which is somewhat more similar to "Wikiversity Press", but then had a big discussion with multiple alternative names, of which WikiJournal came out as the winner - [[Talk:WikiJournal_User_Group/Archive_2016_naming_vote#Name_election]]. Reasons for changing from Wikiversity Press to WikiJournal included making it shorter. Also, we do not necessarily want to associate with Wikiversity, and are hoping to have a separate wiki as a Sister Project in the future, and if we for some reason went back to a "Wikiversity"-containing name then we would likely need to change it again if we became a separate wiki. While "Wikiversity Press" was not among the choices in the past election, and I agree it has some good points as you mentioned, I think it is less specific than "journal", and may be mistaken as a news, books or magazine publisher. Similarly for the logo, if you see the upload history of the WikiJournal logo [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:WikiJournal_logo.svg] it actually started out as something more Wikiversity-like, but then we've strived to make it something more unique. So thanks again for the proposal, but with everything taken together I have to say '''oppose''' to this newly suggested project name and logo. [[User:Mikael Häggström|Mikael Häggström]] ([[User talk:Mikael Häggström|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mikael Häggström|contribs]]) 21:49, 7 May 2025 (UTC) ==Deletion of preprint on Commons== See *[[Commons:Commons:Deletion_requests/File:Dravidian_Arc_-_Reframing_Ancient_India’s_Civilisational_Origins.pdf]] Wikimedia Commons reviewers deleted someone's preprint submission because 1) preprints out of scope for Commons and 2) someone thought it seemed like AI. The author there insists that the work is their original creation without AI. My question for WikiJournal: how welcome are preprints here? Is this the kind of case that I can generally invite for submission here? [[User:Bluerasberry|<span style="background:#cedff2;color:#11e">''' Blue Rasberry '''</span>]][[User talk:Bluerasberry|<span style="cursor:help"><span style="background:#cedff2;color:#11e">(talk)</span></span>]] 15:52, 11 November 2025 (UTC) :Hey Lane. As I [https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Commons_talk:Project_scope&diff=prev&oldid=1114944379 responded on Commons], we welcome preprints but it needs to follow the specific instructions on [[WikiJournal Preprints]] to store their content as a wiki page. Since the file is already deleted, it is difficult for me to assess the contents or the merits of the PDF. In theory, a standalone PDF preprint can be uploaded locally in Wikiversity but subject to Wikiversity's local policies around project scope on files. This is another example why it's importantly to have WikiJournal as a standalone sister project because we can develop our local rules and policies that are not restricted by Wikiversity or Commons. [[User:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: #0000FF;">OhanaUnited</span></b>]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: green;">^{Talk page}</span></b>]] 04:32, 25 November 2025 (UTC) ==Proposal - offer optional presubmission review== I do not want to make an additional workload for WikiJournal editors, but I want to share a story, and I have an idea that I want to workshop with others. The idea is presubmission review. Optionally but recommended, for people who are new to WikiJournal and who want to save themselves time and save our reviewers time, they pre-submit their work. In the presubmission, they do this: #Submit work citation metadata, including title, author names, institutional affiliation #Does the work contain any of the following: ##AI-generated text or images ##Any ideas which university and scholarly consensus view as pseudoscience ##Text or images which do not have open access, Wikimedia-compatible, Creative Commons licensing #Please provide a citation to any existing, published, peer reviewed work which explores a similar topic as this submission, and which this paper will cite I have talked with some other wiki editors and it seems there is the idea that the Wikimedia platform attracts submissions which are 1) authorless or a person's first published work 2) AI/pseudoscience/non compatible content 3) essays or other writing formats which do not build onto or cite existing scholarship. By having a presubmissiom process, I think we could improve sentiment about WikiJournal in these ways - #Wikimedia Commons and others would be more confident that we have a screening process for incompatible content #Authors could minimize their time and labor submitting if their content is not a fit #Authors also demonstrate that they can navigate the Wikimedia platform, including making an account, posting some content, and becoming oriented before trying to make a full submission #WikiJournal Reviewers have another way to connect with people early in the process, and a place to tell people to begin I am hoping that a pre-submission process should take 5 minutes for a beginner Wikipedian and not more than 15 minutes for someone totally new to the Wikimedia platform. Thoughts? [[User:Bluerasberry|<span style="background:#cedff2;color:#11e">''' Blue Rasberry '''</span>]][[User talk:Bluerasberry|<span style="cursor:help"><span style="background:#cedff2;color:#11e">(talk)</span></span>]] 16:13, 15 December 2025 (UTC) == Discover CapX: New Design, Features, and Ways to Connect == Hello {{PAGENAME}}! My name is [[User:AJurno (WMB)|Amanda Jurno]] and I’m writing to you on behalf of the [[m:Capacity Exchange|Capacity Exchange (CapX) team]]. We would like to invite you and your community to start using the [[toolforge:capx|CapX tool]]. [[File:GIF of CapX features - November 2025 - Let's Connect.gif|right|thumb|300px]] CapX is a platform designed for Wikimedians around the world to connect through skills and collaboration. It offers a simple and user-friendly way to find and engage with people who can offer specific expertise, helping make collaboration across the movement more efficient and accessible. If you’d like a clearer sense of where we’re headed, you can read more about our ''Vision and Purpose [[:File:Capacity Exchange's Vision & Purpose.pdf|here]]'''. We’ve also prepared a simple visualisation of [[:File:What is the Capacity Exchange 01.pdf|how CapX works]]. Additional documentation, FAQs, tutorials, and how-to videos are available on our [[m:Capacity Exchange|Meta-Wiki page]]. The more your community joins CapX, the clearer your view becomes of how capacity-building is growing across your region via the [[toolforge:capx/data_analytics_dashboard|CapX's Data Analytics dashboard]]. If you experience any difficulties using the tool, you can consult our [[m:Capacity Exchange/User Guide|User Guide]], which includes step-by-step tutorials and short videos explaining each feature. To get in touch with the CapX team, share feedback, or suggest improvements, feel free to email us at capx@wmnobrasil.org. For quick questions and updates, you can also join our [https://t.me/CapacityExchange Telegram channel]. '''We would be delighted to have {{PAGENAME}} join CapX’s growing network'''. Creating your organization profile only takes a few minutes and helps other affiliates discover your expertise, initiatives, and potential areas for collaboration. [[:File:CapX - Create an Organizational profile.png|Here is what we need from you before you can start]]. Finally, we invite you to subscribe to our newsletter channel to receive regular updates about CapX and the Capacity Exchange project - [[m:Capacity Exchange/Newsletter|click here to subscribe]]. We hope to see you exchanging soon! Sincerely, [[User:AJurno (WMB)|AJurno (WMB)]] ([[User talk:AJurno (WMB)|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/AJurno (WMB)|contribs]]) 01:37, 31 March 2026 (UTC) :I am setting up an individual profile. I noticed that "Wikiversity" is not a Capacity that can be listed (but "Wikipedia" is a capacity). Could Wikiversity be added? :https://capx.toolforge.org/profile/Jtneill -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 11:27, 31 March 2026 (UTC) : ping [[User:AJurno (WMB)|AJurno (WMB)]] -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 10:34, 24 May 2026 (UTC) ::Hello @[[User|Jtneill]], thank you for pinging me! I hadn’t seen your reply. Thank you so much for letting me know that — I was sure Wikiversity was already listed as a skill, but it actually wasn’t. I’m adding it now. Please feel free to contact me again anytime, despite my long absence hehehehe [[User:AJurno (WMB)|AJurno (WMB)]] ([[User talk:AJurno (WMB)|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/AJurno (WMB)|contribs]]) 17:27, 26 May 2026 (UTC) == Towards Wikiversity's Ethics policy == I think you might be interested [[Wikiversity:Colloquium#Towards an Ethics policy|in this]] and you could also add interesting perspectives from ethics of scientifical research. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 08:02, 9 June 2026 (UTC) == Call for interest: Administrative Officer == WikiJournal is seeking expressions of interest in a new part-time, paid '''Administrative Officer''' position. We are initially sharing this opportunity within the WikiJournal community because familiarity with WikiJournal, Wikimedia, open licensing or academic publishing would be particularly valuable. The Administrative Officer would support WikiJournal's day-to-day organizational work, including: * Setting up and administering a system for tracking contractor hours and issuing payments. * Coordinating the contracting, onboarding, timekeeping and payment of technical editors and other contractors. * Maintaining financial, contractor and administrative records. * Assisting with grant administration, budget tracking and reporting. * Following up on board action items, deadlines and recurring obligations. * Supporting recruitment and other operational tasks as needed. The position is a remote, flexibly scheduled contractor role averaging approximately '''6 hours per week'''. Compensation is proposed at '''US$25 per hour''', with up to approximately '''320 hours (US$8,000) available over the year'''. Workload may vary depending on contracting, reporting and grant-related deadlines. Applicants may be based internationally, although appointment will depend on WikiJournal being able to establish a practical and legally appropriate contracting and payment arrangement in the applicant's country of residence. The complete responsibilities, administrative arrangements and desirable experience are described on the [[WikiJournal User Group/Administrative officer|Administrative Officer role page]]. Useful experience may include administrative organization, bookkeeping or financial administration, contractor or personnel coordination, nonprofit or grant administration, Wikimedia participation, academic publishing, and open-access work. Applicants are not expected to have experience in every listed area. === Expressions of interest === If you're interested, please make an entry below by '''30 September 2026''' with: * A concise description of relevant experience. * Their connection to WikiJournal or related communities, if any. * Their general availability. Expressions of interest received after this date may still be considered if the position has not yet been filled. Recommendations of other potentially suitable candidates are also welcome. Shortlisted applicants may be invited to an informal interview with several WikiJournal participants. Final selection will be made by consensus of the WikiJournal Administrative Board. [[User:Mikael Häggström|Mikael Häggström]] ([[User talk:Mikael Häggström|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mikael Häggström|contribs]]) 19:22, 10 September 2026 (UTC) ixq2ptspmer1cuakxqf59i3xqjerhw9 2832685 2832682 2026-09-10T19:55:59Z Mikael Häggström 12130 Archived 2832685 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Category:WikiJournal]] {{WikiJournal_discussions}} {{Archive box| [[/Archive 2014–2016|2014–2016]] <br>[[/Archive 2016 naming vote|2016 naming vote]] <br>[[/Archive 2017|2017]] <br>[[/Archive 2018|2018]] <br>[[/Archive 2019|2019]] <br>[[/Archive 2020|2020]] <br>[[/Archive 2021|2021]] <br>[[/Archive 2022|2022]] <br>[[/Archive 2023-2025|2022-2025]] Discussions may also take place at the <br>'''[https://lists.wikimedia.org/pipermail/wikijournal-en/ public mailing list]'' ([https://lists.wikimedia.org/mailman/listinfo/wikijournal-en Join]) }} {{TOClimit|limit=3}} == [[Wikipedia:WikiJournal article nominations]] is dead == Hello, I wanted to get in touch with you about a part of this process. The submissions board at [[en:Wikipedia:WP:WikiJournal article nominations|WikiJournal article nominations]] is no longer being maintained. [[User:Evolution and evolvability|Evolution and evolvability]] has been inactive since November 2023 and has not responded to multiple attempts of mine to get in touch with him. I submitted an article there more than 4 months ago and have not even received confirmation of its submission. I notice the previous section on the status of the WikiJournals, and I must say that I am also disheartened by my attempt to contribute. I hope that someone on this end of the process will come over to English Wikipedia and fill in this gap so that the article pipeline is no longer so flawed. [[User:Fritzmann2002|Fritzmann2002]] ([[User talk:Fritzmann2002|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Fritzmann2002|contribs]]) 16:12, 29 March 2024 (UTC) :Hi [[User:Fritzmann2002|Fritzmann2002]], thanks for pointing it out, I'm actually in the same situation (article submitted in April 2025). :I saw however that your submitted article has now a preprint page, and, according to the history, it was created by yourself. Did you obtain a permission from the editors for doing so, or can actually any user create directly a preprint page for their submissions? I didn't even tried myself, because it was never clear to me who is actually responsible for converting nominated Wikipedia articles into Wikijournal preprints. I have also explicitly asked the editors, but I have not obtained any reply so far... [[User:Francesco Cattafi|Francesco Cattafi]] ([[User talk:Francesco Cattafi|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Francesco Cattafi|contribs]]) 16:53, 2 September 2025 (UTC) :As long as everything is subordinated to Wikipedia, projects of this type cannot be a trustworthy partner. Yes, WikiJournal would be a great project that could exist on its own, but unfortunately it is not. You want to publish, you find WikiJournal, you write an article and hey, they don't accept articles of this type because it doesn't suit Wikipedia. So at the moment if it is publishable on Wikipedia, publish it directly on Wikipedia, if you need to publish in an article you are out of luck. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 06:42, 3 September 2025 (UTC) ::Sorry, I think we are talking about different problems. The page [[wikipedia:WikiJournal_article_nominations|WikiJournal article nominations]] deals precisely with articles already present on Wikipedia, so this is not the issue. The articles that we were mentioning above have been already written on Wikipedia first, so it's not a matter of not being accepted because they don't suit Wikipedia, but simply of not being converted (yet) into a WikiJournal preprint, which in turn (after passing the peer-review phase) would to a publication in a WikiJournal. ::I had already published an article with this procedure a couple of years ago and everything went smoothly, so I don't see an intrinsic problem in the system, just in this first stage, which requires some manual conversion from Wikipedia to Wikiversity (as I said, I would be willing to do it myself, but I'm not sure if it is allowed). [[User:Francesco Cattafi|Francesco Cattafi]] ([[User talk:Francesco Cattafi|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Francesco Cattafi|contribs]]) 15:40, 3 September 2025 (UTC) :::I see. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 04:42, 4 September 2025 (UTC) :::Yes, this is the issue. The point-man for that part of the process has gone inactive, and now it just isn't done. There needs to be some redundancy in this journal, so that if a volunteer (understandably) can't fulfill their role for an extended period of time there is someone else to step in. As of right now it seems there are several points in the process where a submitted article can just run out steam, through no fault of the author. Nobody wants to be ushering a written piece of work through review for years on end. [[User:Fritzmann2002|Fritzmann2002]] ([[User talk:Fritzmann2002|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Fritzmann2002|contribs]]) 23:36, 17 September 2025 (UTC) ::::Yes, I agree. But then, just to be clear, how was the issue solved for your article [[WikiJournal Preprints/Hypericum sechmenii|Hypericum sechmenii]]? From the history page it seems that you did create the preprint yourself. Is it allowed? Did an editor give you permission to do it? [[User:Francesco Cattafi|Francesco Cattafi]] ([[User talk:Francesco Cattafi|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Francesco Cattafi|contribs]]) 10:11, 18 September 2025 (UTC) :::::Hello everyone, :::::I'm submitting an article that I entirely revamped on Wikipedia ([[w:Pentagram map]]). I filled the form [https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSf-Nu7hjiTeJ5uQ5ozMOIivWZjeyJCPLwAUOuNDP1MVKUbCSQ/viewform WikiJournal submission form]. What should I do now ? @[[User:Francesco Cattafi|Francesco Cattafi]], I see that for [[WikiJournal Preprints/Diffeology]], you created it yourself. Should I do the same ? Did you get any reply ? :::::It's quite saddening to see that a nice project like the WikiJournal seems to be going down... At least from what I can read here. [[User:Regliste|Regliste]] ([[User talk:Regliste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Regliste|contribs]]) 15:13, 8 December 2025 (UTC) ::::::Hi @[[User:Regliste|Regliste]], I was in doubt what to do, but eventually I got the explicit permission from @[[User:Marshallsumter|Marshallsumter]] to create the preprint page myself (see also the related discussion on [[w:User_talk:Marshallsumter#Importing_Wikipedia_articles_to_Wikipreprints]]). However, since then I haven't received any further reply (see also my question at [[User_talk:OhanaUnited#WikiJournal_article_nominations]]) and the review process hasn't started at all. ::::::I guess therefore that you could probably do the same and create manually the preprint page - at worst it will be modified later by an editor. ::::::As you say, it is indeed quite sad that the WikiJournal project seems to have slowed down/stopped; I still hope that the trend will revert at a certain point... [[User:Francesco Cattafi|Francesco Cattafi]] ([[User talk:Francesco Cattafi|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Francesco Cattafi|contribs]]) 16:04, 11 December 2025 (UTC) :::::::Thanks a lot for your answer... I dearly hope that it will get back on its feet. I'll try to send some mails too, if anything comes up I'll notice it here. [[User:Regliste|Regliste]] ([[User talk:Regliste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Regliste|contribs]]) 21:03, 13 December 2025 (UTC) ::::::::Indeed, there's a long backlog in this process. I added to the top of the nomination page in Wikipedia ''"There is currently a '''long backlog''' of articles in WikiJournal. Please consider contributing as associate editor in order to help coordinate peer reviews for current submissions. See [[WikiJournal User Group/Editorial guidelines|WikiJournal editorial guidelines]]''". [[User:Mikael Häggström|Mikael Häggström]] ([[User talk:Mikael Häggström|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mikael Häggström|contribs]]) 19:46, 10 September 2026 (UTC) == Discover CapX: New Design, Features, and Ways to Connect == Hello {{PAGENAME}}! My name is [[User:AJurno (WMB)|Amanda Jurno]] and I’m writing to you on behalf of the [[m:Capacity Exchange|Capacity Exchange (CapX) team]]. We would like to invite you and your community to start using the [[toolforge:capx|CapX tool]]. [[File:GIF of CapX features - November 2025 - Let's Connect.gif|right|thumb|300px]] CapX is a platform designed for Wikimedians around the world to connect through skills and collaboration. It offers a simple and user-friendly way to find and engage with people who can offer specific expertise, helping make collaboration across the movement more efficient and accessible. If you’d like a clearer sense of where we’re headed, you can read more about our ''Vision and Purpose [[:File:Capacity Exchange's Vision & Purpose.pdf|here]]'''. We’ve also prepared a simple visualisation of [[:File:What is the Capacity Exchange 01.pdf|how CapX works]]. Additional documentation, FAQs, tutorials, and how-to videos are available on our [[m:Capacity Exchange|Meta-Wiki page]]. The more your community joins CapX, the clearer your view becomes of how capacity-building is growing across your region via the [[toolforge:capx/data_analytics_dashboard|CapX's Data Analytics dashboard]]. If you experience any difficulties using the tool, you can consult our [[m:Capacity Exchange/User Guide|User Guide]], which includes step-by-step tutorials and short videos explaining each feature. To get in touch with the CapX team, share feedback, or suggest improvements, feel free to email us at capx@wmnobrasil.org. For quick questions and updates, you can also join our [https://t.me/CapacityExchange Telegram channel]. '''We would be delighted to have {{PAGENAME}} join CapX’s growing network'''. Creating your organization profile only takes a few minutes and helps other affiliates discover your expertise, initiatives, and potential areas for collaboration. [[:File:CapX - Create an Organizational profile.png|Here is what we need from you before you can start]]. Finally, we invite you to subscribe to our newsletter channel to receive regular updates about CapX and the Capacity Exchange project - [[m:Capacity Exchange/Newsletter|click here to subscribe]]. We hope to see you exchanging soon! Sincerely, [[User:AJurno (WMB)|AJurno (WMB)]] ([[User talk:AJurno (WMB)|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/AJurno (WMB)|contribs]]) 01:37, 31 March 2026 (UTC) :I am setting up an individual profile. I noticed that "Wikiversity" is not a Capacity that can be listed (but "Wikipedia" is a capacity). Could Wikiversity be added? :https://capx.toolforge.org/profile/Jtneill -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 11:27, 31 March 2026 (UTC) : ping [[User:AJurno (WMB)|AJurno (WMB)]] -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 10:34, 24 May 2026 (UTC) ::Hello @[[User|Jtneill]], thank you for pinging me! I hadn’t seen your reply. Thank you so much for letting me know that — I was sure Wikiversity was already listed as a skill, but it actually wasn’t. I’m adding it now. Please feel free to contact me again anytime, despite my long absence hehehehe [[User:AJurno (WMB)|AJurno (WMB)]] ([[User talk:AJurno (WMB)|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/AJurno (WMB)|contribs]]) 17:27, 26 May 2026 (UTC) == Towards Wikiversity's Ethics policy == I think you might be interested [[Wikiversity:Colloquium#Towards an Ethics policy|in this]] and you could also add interesting perspectives from ethics of scientifical research. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 08:02, 9 June 2026 (UTC) == Call for interest: Administrative Officer == WikiJournal is seeking expressions of interest in a new part-time, paid '''Administrative Officer''' position. We are initially sharing this opportunity within the WikiJournal community because familiarity with WikiJournal, Wikimedia, open licensing or academic publishing would be particularly valuable. The Administrative Officer would support WikiJournal's day-to-day organizational work, including: * Setting up and administering a system for tracking contractor hours and issuing payments. * Coordinating the contracting, onboarding, timekeeping and payment of technical editors and other contractors. * Maintaining financial, contractor and administrative records. * Assisting with grant administration, budget tracking and reporting. * Following up on board action items, deadlines and recurring obligations. * Supporting recruitment and other operational tasks as needed. The position is a remote, flexibly scheduled contractor role averaging approximately '''6 hours per week'''. Compensation is proposed at '''US$25 per hour''', with up to approximately '''320 hours (US$8,000) available over the year'''. Workload may vary depending on contracting, reporting and grant-related deadlines. Applicants may be based internationally, although appointment will depend on WikiJournal being able to establish a practical and legally appropriate contracting and payment arrangement in the applicant's country of residence. The complete responsibilities, administrative arrangements and desirable experience are described on the [[WikiJournal User Group/Administrative officer|Administrative Officer role page]]. Useful experience may include administrative organization, bookkeeping or financial administration, contractor or personnel coordination, nonprofit or grant administration, Wikimedia participation, academic publishing, and open-access work. Applicants are not expected to have experience in every listed area. === Expressions of interest === If you're interested, please make an entry below by '''30 September 2026''' with: * A concise description of relevant experience. * Their connection to WikiJournal or related communities, if any. * Their general availability. Expressions of interest received after this date may still be considered if the position has not yet been filled. Recommendations of other potentially suitable candidates are also welcome. Shortlisted applicants may be invited to an informal interview with several WikiJournal participants. Final selection will be made by consensus of the WikiJournal Administrative Board. [[User:Mikael Häggström|Mikael Häggström]] ([[User talk:Mikael Häggström|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mikael Häggström|contribs]]) 19:22, 10 September 2026 (UTC) jviycti55edgcenuc61ncn3d3xazvwu 0 171005 2832610 2832353 2026-09-10T14:29:57Z Young1lim 21186 /* Geometric Series Examples */ 2832610 wikitext text/x-wiki Many of the functions that arise naturally in mathematics and real world applications can be extended to and regarded as complex functions, meaning the input, as well as the output, can be complex numbers <math>x+iy</math>, where <math>i=\sqrt{-1}</math>, in such a way that it is a more natural object to study. '''Complex analysis''', which used to be known as '''function theory''' or '''theory of functions of a single complex variable''', is a sub-field of analysis that studies such functions (more specifically, '''holomorphic''' functions) on the complex plane, or part (domain) or extension (Riemann surface) thereof. It notably has great importance in number theory, e.g. the [[Riemann zeta function]] (for the distribution of primes) and other <math>L</math>-functions, modular forms, elliptic functions, etc. <blockquote>The shortest path between two truths in the real domain passes through the complex domain. — [[wikipedia:Jacques_Hadamard|Jacques Hadamard]]</blockquote>In a certain sense, the essence of complex functions is captured by the principle of [[analytic continuation]].{{mathematics}} ==''' Complex Functions '''== * Complex Functions ([[Media:CAnal.1.A.CFunction.20140222.Basic.pdf|1.A.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.1.B.CFunction.20140111.Octave.pdf|1.B.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.1.C.CFunction.20140111.Extend.pdf|1.C.pdf]]) * Complex Exponential and Logarithm ([[Media:CAnal.5.A.CLog.20131017.pdf|5.A.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.5.A.Octave.pdf|5.B.pdf]]) * Complex Trigonometric and Hyperbolic ([[Media:CAnal.7.A.CTrigHyper..pdf|7.A.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.7.A.Octave..pdf|7.B.pdf]]) '''Complex Function Note''' : 1. Exp and Log Function Note ([[Media:ComplexExp.29160721.pdf|H1.pdf]]) : 2. Trig and TrigH Function Note ([[Media:CAnal.Trig-H.29160901.pdf|H1.pdf]]) : 3. Inverse Trig and TrigH Functions Note ([[Media:CAnal.Hyper.29160829.pdf|H1.pdf]]) ==''' Complex Integrals '''== * Complex Integrals ([[Media:CAnal.2.A.CIntegral.20140224.Basic.pdf|2.A.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.2.B.CIntegral.20140117.Octave.pdf|2.B.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.2.C.CIntegral.20140117.Extend.pdf|2.C.pdf]]) ==''' Complex Series '''== * Complex Series ([[Media:CPX.Series.20150226.2.Basic.pdf|3.A.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.3.B.CSeries.20140121.Octave.pdf|3.B.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.3.C.CSeries.20140303.Extend.pdf|3.C.pdf]]) ==''' Residue Integrals '''== * Residue Integrals ([[Media:CAnal.4.A.Residue.20140227.Basic.pdf|4.A.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.4.B.pdf|4.B.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.4.C.Residue.20140423.Extend.pdf|4.C.pdf]]) ==='''Residue Integrals Note'''=== * Laurent Series with the Residue Theorem Note ([[Media:Laurent.1.Residue.20170713.pdf|H1.pdf]]) * Laurent Series with Applications Note ([[Media:Laurent.2.Applications.20170327.pdf|H1.pdf]]) * Laurent Series and the z-Transform Note ([[Media:Laurent.3.z-Trans.20170831.pdf|H1.pdf]]) * Laurent Series as a Geometric Series Note ([[Media:Laurent.4.GSeries.20170802.pdf|H1.pdf]]) === Laurent Series and the z-Transform Example Note === * Overview ([[Media:Laurent.4.z-Example.20170926.pdf|H1.pdf]]) ====Geometric Series Examples==== * Causality ([[Media:Laurent.5.Causality.1.A.20191026n.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.Causality.1.B.20191026.pdf|B.pdf]]) * Time Shift ([[Media:Laurent.5.TimeShift.2.A.20191028.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.TimeShift.2.B.20191029.pdf|B.pdf]]) * Reciprocity ([[Media:Laurent.5.Reciprocity.3A.20191030.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.Reciprocity.3B.20191031.pdf|B.pdf]]) * Combinations ([[Media:Laurent.5.Combination.4A.20200702.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.Combination.4B.20201002.pdf|B.pdf]]) * Properties ([[Media:Laurent.5.Property.5A.20220105.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.Property.5B.20220126.pdf|B.pdf]]) * Permutations ([[Media:Laurent.6.Permutation.6A.20230711.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.Permutation.6B.20251225.pdf|B.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.Permutation.6C.20260910.pdf|C.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.Permutation.6C.20240528.pdf|D.pdf]]) * Applications ([[Media:Laurent.5.Application.6B.20220723.pdf|A.pdf]]) * Double Pole Case :- Examples ([[Media:Laurent.5.DPoleEx.7A.20220722.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.DPoleEx.7B.20220720.pdf|B.pdf]]) :- Properties ([[Media:Laurent.5.DPoleProp.5A.20190226.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.DPoleProp.5B.20190228.pdf|B.pdf]]) ====The Case Examples==== * Example Overview : ([[Media:Laurent.4.Example.0.A.20171208.pdf|0A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.6.CaseExample.0.B.20180205.pdf|0B.pdf]]) * Example Case 1 : ([[Media:Laurent.4.Example.1.A.20171107.pdf|1A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.4.Example.1.B.20171227.pdf|1B.pdf]]) * Example Case 2 : ([[Media:Laurent.4.Example.2.A.20171107.pdf|2A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.4.Example.2.B.20171227.pdf|2B.pdf]]) * Example Case 3 : ([[Media:Laurent.4.Example.3.A.20171017.pdf|3A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.4.Example.3.B.20171226.pdf|3B.pdf]]) * Example Case 4 : ([[Media:Laurent.4.Example.4.A.20171017.pdf|4A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.4.Example.4.B.20171228.pdf|4B.pdf]]) * Example Summary : ([[Media:Laurent.4.Example.5.A.20171212.pdf|5A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.4.Example.5.B.20171230.pdf|5B.pdf]]) ==''' Conformal Mapping '''== * Conformal Mapping ([[Media:CAnal.6.A.Conformal.20131224.pdf|6.A.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.6.A.Octave..pdf|6.B.pdf]]) go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ] [[Category:Complex analysis]] 43tmzri5o8ylwtf8shwoj79xgqt8wzx 0 203942 2832620 2832441 2026-09-10T17:15:34Z Young1lim 21186 /* Lambda Calculus */ 2832620 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Introduction== * Overview I ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.1.A.20160806.pdf |pdf]]) * Overview II ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.2.A.20160926.pdf |pdf]]) * Overview III ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.3.A.20161011.pdf |pdf]]) * Overview IV ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.4.A.20161104.pdf |pdf]]) * Overview V ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.5.A.20161108.pdf |pdf]]) </br> ==Applications== * Sudoku Background ([[Media:Sudoku.Background.0.A.20161108.pdf |pdf]]) * Bird's Implementation :- Specification ([[Media:Sudoku.1Bird.1.A.Spec.20170425.pdf |pdf]]) :- Rules ([[Media:Sudoku.1Bird.2.A.Rule.20170201.pdf |pdf]]) :- Pruning ([[Media:Sudoku.1Bird.3.A.Pruning.20170211.pdf |pdf]]) :- Expanding ([[Media:Sudoku.1Bird.4.A.Expand.20170506.pdf |pdf]]) </br> ==Using GHCi== * Getting started ([[Media:GHCi.Start.1.A.20170605.pdf |pdf]]) </br> ==Using Libraries== * Library ([[Media:Library.1.A.20170605.pdf |pdf]]) </br> </br> ==Types== * Constructors ([[Media:Background.1.A.Constructor.20180904.pdf |pdf]]) * TypeClasses ([[Media:Background.1.B.TypeClass.20180904.pdf |pdf]]) * Types ([[Media:MP3.1A.Mut.Type.20200721.pdf |pdf]]) * Primitive Types ([[Media:MP3.1B.Mut.PrimType.20200611.pdf |pdf]]) * Polymorphic Types ([[Media:MP3.1C.Mut.Polymorphic.20201212.pdf |pdf]]) ==Functions== * Functions ([[Media:Background.1.C.Function.20180712.pdf |pdf]]) * Operators ([[Media:Background.1.E.Operator.20180707.pdf |pdf]]) * Continuation Passing Style ([[Media:MP3.1D.Mut.Continuation.20220110.pdf |pdf]]) ==Expressions== * Expressions I ([[Media:Background.1.D.Expression.20180707.pdf |pdf]]) * Expressions II ([[Media:MP3.1E.Mut.Expression.20220628.pdf |pdf]]) * Non-terminating Expressions ([[Media:MP3.1F.Mut.Non-terminating.20220616.pdf |pdf]]) </br> </br> ==Lambda Calculus== * Lambda Calculus - informal description ([[Media:LCal.1A.informal.20220831.pdf |pdf]]) * Lambda Calculus - Formal definition ([[Media:LCal.2A.formal.20221015.pdf |pdf]]) * Expression Reduction ([[Media:LCal.3A.reduction.20220920.pdf |pdf]]) * Normal Forms ([[Media:LCal.4A.Normal.20220903.pdf |pdf]]) * Encoding Datatypes :- Church Numerals ([[Media:LCal.5A.Numeral.20230627.pdf |pdf]]) :- Church Booleans ([[Media:LCal.6A.Boolean.20230815.pdf |pdf]]) :- Functions ([[Media:LCal.7A.Function.20231230.pdf |pdf]]) :- Combinators ([[Media:LCal.8A.Combinator.20241202.pdf |pdf]]) :- Recursions ([[Media:LCal.9A.Recursion.20260910.pdf |A]], [[Media:LCal.9B.Recursion.20260330.pdf |B]]) </br> </br> ==Function Oriented Typeclasses== === Functors === * Functor Overview ([[Media:Functor.1.A.Overview.20180802.pdf |pdf]]) * Function Functor ([[Media:Functor.2.A.Function.20180804.pdf |pdf]]) * Functor Lifting ([[Media:Functor.2.B.Lifting.20180721.pdf |pdf]]) === Applicatives === * Applicatives Overview ([[Media:Applicative.3.A.Overview.20180606.pdf |pdf]]) * Applicatives Methods ([[Media:Applicative.3.B.Method.20180519.pdf |pdf]]) * Function Applicative ([[Media:Applicative.3.A.Function.20180804.pdf |pdf]]) * Applicatives Sequencing ([[Media:Applicative.3.C.Sequencing.20180606.pdf |pdf]]) === Monads I : Background === * Side Effects ([[Media:Monad.P1.1A.SideEffect.20190316.pdf |pdf]]) * Monad Overview ([[Media:Monad.P1.2A.Overview.20190308.pdf |pdf]]) * Monadic Operations ([[Media:Monad.P1.3A.Operations.20190308.pdf |pdf]]) * Maybe Monad ([[Media:Monad.P1.4A.Maybe.201900606.pdf |pdf]]) * IO Actions ([[Media:Monad.P1.5A.IOAction.20190606.pdf |pdf]]) * Several Monad Types ([[Media:Monad.P1.6A.Types.20191016.pdf |pdf]]) === Monads II : State Transformer Monads === * State Transformer : - State Transformer Basics ([[Media:MP2.1A.STrans.Basic.20191002.pdf |pdf]]) : - State Transformer Generic Monad ([[Media:MP2.1B.STrans.Generic.20191002.pdf |pdf]]) : - State Transformer Monads ([[Media:MP2.1C.STrans.Monad.20191022.pdf |pdf]]) * State Monad : - State Monad Basics ([[Media:MP2.2A.State.Basic.20190706.pdf |pdf]]) : - State Monad Methods ([[Media:MP2.2B.State.Method.20190706.pdf |pdf]]) : - State Monad Examples ([[Media:MP2.2C.State.Example.20190706.pdf |pdf]]) === Monads III : Mutable State Monads === * Mutability Background : - Inhabitedness ([[Media:MP3.1F.Mut.Inhabited.20220319.pdf |pdf]]) : - Existential Types ([[Media:MP3.1E.Mut.Existential.20220128.pdf |pdf]]) : - forall Keyword ([[Media:MP3.1E.Mut.forall.20210316.pdf |pdf]]) : - Mutability and Strictness ([[Media:MP3.1C.Mut.Strictness.20200613.pdf |pdf]]) : - Strict and Lazy Packages ([[Media:MP3.1D.Mut.Package.20200620.pdf |pdf]]) * Mutable Objects : - Mutable Variables ([[Media:MP3.1B.Mut.Variable.20200224.pdf |pdf]]) : - Mutable Data Structures ([[Media:MP3.1D.Mut.DataStruct.20191226.pdf |pdf]]) * IO Monad : - IO Monad Basics ([[Media:MP3.2A.IO.Basic.20191019.pdf |pdf]]) : - IO Monad Methods ([[Media:MP3.2B.IO.Method.20191022.pdf |pdf]]) : - IORef Mutable Variable ([[Media:MP3.2C.IO.IORef.20191019.pdf |pdf]]) * ST Monad : - ST Monad Basics ([[Media:MP3.3A.ST.Basic.20191031.pdf |pdf]]) : - ST Monad Methods ([[Media:MP3.3B.ST.Method.20191023.pdf |pdf]]) : - STRef Mutable Variable ([[Media:MP3.3C.ST.STRef.20191023.pdf |pdf]]) === Monads IV : Reader and Writer Monads === * Function Monad ([[Media:Monad.10.A.Function.20180806.pdf |pdf]]) * Monad Transformer ([[Media:Monad.3.I.Transformer.20180727.pdf |pdf]]) * MonadState Class :: - State & StateT Monads ([[Media:Monad.9.A.MonadState.Monad.20180920.pdf |pdf]]) :: - MonadReader Class ([[Media:Monad.9.B.MonadState.Class.20180920.pdf |pdf]]) * MonadReader Class :: - Reader & ReaderT Monads ([[Media:Monad.11.A.Reader.20180821.pdf |pdf]]) :: - MonadReader Class ([[Media:Monad.12.A.MonadReader.20180821.pdf |pdf]]) * Control Monad ([[Media:Monad.9.A.Control.20180908.pdf |pdf]]) === Monoid === * Monoids ([[Media:Monoid.4.A.20180508.pdf |pdf]]) === Arrow === * Arrows ([[Media:Arrow.1.A.20190504.pdf |pdf]]) </br> ==Polymorphism== * Polymorphism Overview ([[Media:Poly.1.A.20180220.pdf |pdf]]) </br> ==Concurrent Haskell == </br> go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ] ==External links== * [http://learnyouahaskell.com/introduction Learn you Haskell] * [http://book.realworldhaskell.org/read/ Real World Haskell] * [http://www.scs.stanford.edu/14sp-cs240h/slides/ Standford Class Material] [[Category:Haskell|programming in plain view]] oz5eop7qjao08rh0s69urkjyqoogab7 0 212733 2832799 2832250 2026-09-11T11:21:30Z Young1lim 21186 /* Using Libraries */ 2832799 wikitext text/x-wiki ==''' Part I '''== <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> === Introduction === * Overview * Memory * Number <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> === Python for C programmers === * Hello, World! ([[Media:CProg.Hello.1A.20230406.pdf |pdf]]) * Statement Level ([[Media:CProg.Statement.1A.20230509.pdf |pdf]]) * Output with print * Formatted output * File IO <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> === Using Libraries === * Scripts ([[Media:Python.Work2.Script.1A.20231129.pdf |pdf]]) * Modules ([[Media:Python.Work2.Module.1A.20231216.pdf |pdf]]) * Packages ([[Media:Python.Work2.Package.1A.20241207.pdf |pdf]]) * Libraries ([[Media:Python.Work2.Library.1A.20260909.pdf |A]], [[Media:Python.Work2.Library.1B.20260720.pdf |B]]) * Namespaces ([[Media:Python.Work2.Scope.1A.20231021.pdf |pdf]]) <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> === Handling Repetition === * Control ([[Media:Python.Repeat1.Control.1.A.20230314.pdf |pdf]]) * Loop ([[Media:Repeat2.Loop.1A.20230401.pdf |pdf]]) <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> === Handling a Big Work === * Functions ([[Media:Python.Work1.Function.1A.20230529.pdf |pdf]]) * Lambda ([[Media:Python.Work2.Lambda.1A.20230705.pdf |pdf]]) * Type Annotations ([[Media:Python.Work2.AtypeAnnot.1A.20230817.pdf |pdf]]) <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> === Handling Series of Data === * Arrays ([[Media:Python.Series1.Array.1A.pdf |pdf]]) * Tuples ([[Media:Python.Series2.Tuple.1A.pdf |pdf]]) * Lists ([[Media:Python.Series3.List.1A.pdf |pdf]]) * Tuples ([[Media:Python.Series4.Tuple.1A.pdf |pdf]]) * Sets ([[Media:Python.Series5.Set.1A.pdf |pdf]]) * Dictionary ([[Media:Python.Series6.Dictionary.1A.pdf |pdf]]) <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> === Handling Various Kinds of Data === * Types * Operators ([[Media:Python.Data3.Operators.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Files ([[Media:Python.Data4.File.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> === Class and Objects === * Classes & Objects ([[Media:Python.Work2.Class.1A.20230906.pdf |pdf]]) * Inheritance <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> </br> == Python in Numerical Analysis == </br> </br> go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ] ==External links== * [http://www.southampton.ac.uk/~fangohr/training/python/pdfs/Python-for-Computational-Science-and-Engineering.pdf Python and Computational Science and Engineering] d7gti9peaqyu59w9p8gyc4ezmtrufoj 2832801 2832799 2026-09-11T11:29:58Z Young1lim 21186 /* Using Libraries */ 2832801 wikitext text/x-wiki ==''' Part I '''== <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> === Introduction === * Overview * Memory * Number <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> === Python for C programmers === * Hello, World! ([[Media:CProg.Hello.1A.20230406.pdf |pdf]]) * Statement Level ([[Media:CProg.Statement.1A.20230509.pdf |pdf]]) * Output with print * Formatted output * File IO <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> === Using Libraries === * Scripts ([[Media:Python.Work2.Script.1A.20231129.pdf |pdf]]) * Modules ([[Media:Python.Work2.Module.1A.20231216.pdf |pdf]]) * Packages ([[Media:Python.Work2.Package.1A.20241207.pdf |pdf]]) * Libraries ([[Media:Python.Work2.Library.1A.20260910.pdf |A]], [[Media:Python.Work2.Library.1B.20260720.pdf |B]]) * Namespaces ([[Media:Python.Work2.Scope.1A.20231021.pdf |pdf]]) <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> === Handling Repetition === * Control ([[Media:Python.Repeat1.Control.1.A.20230314.pdf |pdf]]) * Loop ([[Media:Repeat2.Loop.1A.20230401.pdf |pdf]]) <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> === Handling a Big Work === * Functions ([[Media:Python.Work1.Function.1A.20230529.pdf |pdf]]) * Lambda ([[Media:Python.Work2.Lambda.1A.20230705.pdf |pdf]]) * Type Annotations ([[Media:Python.Work2.AtypeAnnot.1A.20230817.pdf |pdf]]) <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> === Handling Series of Data === * Arrays ([[Media:Python.Series1.Array.1A.pdf |pdf]]) * Tuples ([[Media:Python.Series2.Tuple.1A.pdf |pdf]]) * Lists ([[Media:Python.Series3.List.1A.pdf |pdf]]) * Tuples ([[Media:Python.Series4.Tuple.1A.pdf |pdf]]) * Sets ([[Media:Python.Series5.Set.1A.pdf |pdf]]) * Dictionary ([[Media:Python.Series6.Dictionary.1A.pdf |pdf]]) <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> === Handling Various Kinds of Data === * Types * Operators ([[Media:Python.Data3.Operators.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Files ([[Media:Python.Data4.File.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> === Class and Objects === * Classes & Objects ([[Media:Python.Work2.Class.1A.20230906.pdf |pdf]]) * Inheritance <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> </br> == Python in Numerical Analysis == </br> </br> go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ] ==External links== * [http://www.southampton.ac.uk/~fangohr/training/python/pdfs/Python-for-Computational-Science-and-Engineering.pdf Python and Computational Science and Engineering] dm6u0hwnv15wvlfkb723na1m9kskxly 2832803 2832801 2026-09-11T11:30:48Z Young1lim 21186 /* Using Libraries */ 2832803 wikitext text/x-wiki ==''' Part I '''== <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> === Introduction === * Overview * Memory * Number <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> === Python for C programmers === * Hello, World! ([[Media:CProg.Hello.1A.20230406.pdf |pdf]]) * Statement Level ([[Media:CProg.Statement.1A.20230509.pdf |pdf]]) * Output with print * Formatted output * File IO <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> === Using Libraries === * Scripts ([[Media:Python.Work2.Script.1A.20231129.pdf |pdf]]) * Modules ([[Media:Python.Work2.Module.1A.20231216.pdf |pdf]]) * Packages ([[Media:Python.Work2.Package.1A.20241207.pdf |pdf]]) * Libraries ([[Media:Python.Work2.Library.1A.20260911.pdf |A]], [[Media:Python.Work2.Library.1B.20260720.pdf |B]]) * Namespaces ([[Media:Python.Work2.Scope.1A.20231021.pdf |pdf]]) <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> === Handling Repetition === * Control ([[Media:Python.Repeat1.Control.1.A.20230314.pdf |pdf]]) * Loop ([[Media:Repeat2.Loop.1A.20230401.pdf |pdf]]) <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> === Handling a Big Work === * Functions ([[Media:Python.Work1.Function.1A.20230529.pdf |pdf]]) * Lambda ([[Media:Python.Work2.Lambda.1A.20230705.pdf |pdf]]) * Type Annotations ([[Media:Python.Work2.AtypeAnnot.1A.20230817.pdf |pdf]]) <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> === Handling Series of Data === * Arrays ([[Media:Python.Series1.Array.1A.pdf |pdf]]) * Tuples ([[Media:Python.Series2.Tuple.1A.pdf |pdf]]) * Lists ([[Media:Python.Series3.List.1A.pdf |pdf]]) * Tuples ([[Media:Python.Series4.Tuple.1A.pdf |pdf]]) * Sets ([[Media:Python.Series5.Set.1A.pdf |pdf]]) * Dictionary ([[Media:Python.Series6.Dictionary.1A.pdf |pdf]]) <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> === Handling Various Kinds of Data === * Types * Operators ([[Media:Python.Data3.Operators.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Files ([[Media:Python.Data4.File.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> === Class and Objects === * Classes & Objects ([[Media:Python.Work2.Class.1A.20230906.pdf |pdf]]) * Inheritance <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> </br> == Python in Numerical Analysis == </br> </br> go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ] ==External links== * [http://www.southampton.ac.uk/~fangohr/training/python/pdfs/Python-for-Computational-Science-and-Engineering.pdf Python and Computational Science and Engineering] cftnqh8fup13wbtputh0u8cqi9egmr2 10 212836 2832675 2806899 2026-09-10T19:36:29Z Mikael Häggström 12130 internal 2832675 wikitext text/x-wiki <div class="plainlinks" style="float: right; padding: 10px; margin-left: 10px; width: 230px; background: var(--background-color-neutral,#eaecf0); color:var(--color-neutral,#404244); "> [[File:WikiJournal of Medicine logo.svg|80px|center|link=WikiJournal of Medicine]] <div style="font-size: 13pt; text-align: center;"> WikiJournal of Medicine</div> <div style="text-align: center;"> An [[Wikipedia:Open access journal|open access journal]] with<br> no publication costs – [[WikiJournal of Medicine/About|About]]</div> <br> -------- [http://www.wikijmed.org www.WikiJMed.org]<br> ISSN: 2002-4436<br> Frequency: Continuous<br> Since: March 2014<br> Funding: [[W:Wikimedia Foundation|Wikimedia Foundation]]<br> Publisher: [[WikiJournal User Group]] -------- '''On social media''' {{Category news feed|cat=Articles included in WikiJournal of Medicine}}<br> [[File:2023 Facebook icon.svg|16px|link=]] [https://www.facebook.com/pages/WikiJMed Facebook]<br> [[File:X logo 2023.svg|16px|class=skin-invert|link=]] [https://twitter.com/WikiJMed Twitter]<br> [[File:YouTube social white square (2017).svg|16px|link=]] [https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCcy1F3VGeIE5mP9SBwZSnBQ YouTube]<br> [[File:Aiga mail.svg|16px|class=skin-invert|link=]] [https://groups.google.com/forum/#!forum/{{WikiJXyz}}/join Mailing list] -------- {{WikiJMed right menu/Member of}} -------- {{WikiJMed right menu/In the news}} -------- [[WikiJournal of Medicine/Contact|Contact]] & [[WikiJournal_of_Medicine/Editorial_guidelines#How_to_contribute|Contribute]] </div><div style="color:transparent;font-size:0;"><references group="lower-alpha"/>{{reflist}}{{notelist}}</div> <noinclude>[[Category:WikiJournal of Medicine formatting templates]] [[Category:WikiJournal headers, banners and infoboxes]]</noinclude> g59248oaiq03qrukdfqtmrkvtteis74 10 228152 2832674 2808651 2026-09-10T19:36:08Z Mikael Häggström 12130 internal 2832674 wikitext text/x-wiki <div class="plainlinks" style="float: right; padding: 10px; margin-left: 10px; width: 230px; background: var(--background-color-neutral,#eaecf0);color:var(--color-base,#202122);"> [[File:WikiJournal of Science logo.svg|80px|center|link=WikiJournal of Science]] <div style="font-size: 13pt; text-align: center;"> WikiJournal of Science</div> <div style="text-align: center;"> An [[Wikipedia:Open access journal|open access journal]] with<br> no publication costs – [[WikiJournal of Science/About|About]]</div> <br> -------- [http://www.wikijsci.org www.WikiJSci.org]<br> ISSN: 2470-6345<br> Frequency: Continuous<br> Since: December 2017<br> Funding: [[W:Wikimedia Foundation|Wikimedia Foundation]]<br> Publisher: [[WikiJournal User Group|WikiJournal User Group]] -------- '''On social media''' {{Category news feed|cat=Articles included in WikiJournal of Science}}<br> [[File:Facebook f logo (2019).svg|17px|link=]] [https://www.facebook.com/WikiJSci Facebook]<br> [[File:Logo of Twitter.svg|16px|link=]] [https://twitter.com/WikiJSci Twitter]<br> [[File:Aiga mail.svg|16px|link=|class=skin-invert-image]] [https://groups.google.com/forum/#!forum/WikiJSci/join Mailing list] -------- {{WikiJSci right menu/Member of}} -------- [[WikiJournal of Science/Contact|Contact]] & [[WikiJournal of Science/Editorial_guidelines#How_to_contribute|Contribute]] </div><div style="color:transparent;font-size:0;"><references group="lower-alpha"/>{{reflist}}{{notelist}}</div> <noinclude>[[Category:WikiJournal of Science formatting templates]] [[Category:WikiJournal headers, banners and infoboxes]]</noinclude> hlnadeu5d7wtp5j441l3w70mdunx3wg 10 228796 2832676 2808567 2026-09-10T19:36:49Z Mikael Häggström 12130 Internal 2832676 wikitext text/x-wiki <div class="plainlinks" style="float: right; padding: 10px; margin-left: 10px; width: 230px; background: var(--background-color-neutral,#eaecf0); color:var(--color-base,#202122);"> [[File:WikiJournal of Humanities logo.svg|80px|center|link=WikiJournal of Humanities]] <div style="font-size: 13pt; text-align: center;"> WikiJournal of Humanities</div> <div style="text-align: center;"> An [[Wikipedia:Open access journal|open access journal]] with<br> no publication costs – [[WikiJournal of Humanities/About|About]]</div> <br> ------- [http://www.WikiJHum.org www.WikiJHum.org]<br> ISSN: 2639-5347<br> Frequency: Continuous<br> Since: December 2017<br> Funding: [[W:Wikimedia Foundation|Wikimedia Foundation]]<br> Publisher: [[WikiJournal User Group]] --------- '''On social media''' {{Category news feed|cat=Articles included in WikiJournal of Humanities}}<br> [[File:Facebook f_logo (2019).svg|17px|link=]] [https://www.facebook.com/WikiJHum Facebook]<br> [[File:Logo of Twitter.svg|16px|link=]] [https://twitter.com/WikiJHum Twitter]<br> [[File:Aiga mail.svg|16px|link=|class=skin-invert-image]] [https://groups.google.com/forum/#!forum/WikiJHum/join Mailing list] -------- {{WikiJHum right menu/Member of}} -------- [[WikiJournal of Humanities/Contact|Contact]] & [[WikiJournal of Humanities/Editorial_guidelines#How_to_contribute|Contribute]] </div> <div style="color:transparent;font-size:0;"><references group="lower-alpha"/>{{reflist}}{{notelist}}</div> <noinclude>[[Category:WikiJournal of Humanities formatting templates]] [[Category:WikiJournal headers, banners and infoboxes]]</noinclude> nkh1uhabuc81tg3eumoqvr59ou2wlhc 0 231874 2832680 2832584 2026-09-10T19:47:43Z ~2026-48890-90 3110836 2832680 wikitext text/x-wiki "'''The Itsy Bitsy Spider'''" (also known as "'''The Incey Wincey Spider'''" in Australia or "'''Incy Wincy Spider'''" in the United Kingdom, and other anglophone countries) is a popular [[nursery rhyme]], [[folksong]], and [[fingerplay]] that describes the adventures of a [[spider]] as it ascends, descends, and re-ascends the downspout or "waterspout" of a [[Rain gutter|gutter]] system or, alternatively, the spout of a [[teapot]], or open-air reservoir. It is usually accompanied by a sequence of gestures that mimic the words of the song. One claim says that the rhyme is based on a song called “Tipsy Dipsy Hobo” and was a reference to the [[Safety|dangers]] of a [[person]] getting [[drunk]] and trying to climb on board of [[trains]], risking a fatal [[injury]]. But it doesn’t appear to be any credible source for this interpretation. ==Lyrics== A commonly used version uses these words and gestures: {| !Words!!Fingerplay |- |<poem>The itsy bitsy spider climbed up the waterspout. Down came the rain And washed the spider out. Out came the sun And dried up all the rain And the itsy bitsy spider climbed up the spout again.</poem> |style="padding-left:2em;"|<poem>Alternately touch the thumb of one hand to the index finger of the other. Hold both hands up and wiggle the fingers as the hands are lowered. Sweep the hands from side to side. Raise both hands and sweep to the sides to form a semicircle as the sun. Wiggle fingers upwards. (As in the first line)</poem> |} ===British variant=== <poem> The incy wincy spider climbed up the water spout, ''(Touch left thumb to right forefinger, then left forefinger to right thumb, whilst moving hands upwards)'' Down came the rain and washed the spider out. ''(Wiggle fingers of both hands, palm out, whilst moving hands down; then make sweeping motion with both hands, center outwards)'' Out came the sun and dried up all the rain, ''(Lifting motion with both hands)'' And the incy wincy spider climbed up the spout again. ''(Touch left thumb to right forefinger, then left forefinger to right thumb, whilst moving hands upwards)'' </poem> Other versions exist. == Origin == The origin for the song is unknown. It was first published in musical publications, such as the earliest known recorded version in the book ''Camp and Camino in Lower California, A Record of The Adventures of The Author While Exploring [[Baja California peninsula|Peninsular California, Mexico]]'' (1910), by Arthur Walbridge North (1874–1943), page 279-280, where it is referred to as (the classic) "The Spider Song". It appears to be a more adult version of this song using "blooming, bloody" instead of "itsy bitsy". Another printed versions appeared in ''Camp and Trail'' (1911), and ''Journal of [[American Folklore]]'' (1920). It was later published in one of its song's several modern versions in [[Western Folklore]], by the ''California Folklore Society'' (1947), [[Mike Seeger|Mike]], [[Peggy Seeger|Peggy]], and [[Ruth Crawford Seeger]]'s ''American Folk Songs for Children'' (1948), and in ''The Growing Family : A Guide for Parents'' by [[Maxwell Slutz Stewart]] (1955). Lyrics as described the version in 1910 as they were originally found in a book, which was as the 'classic' "The Spider Song": <poem style="margin-left: 2em;">Oh, the blooming, bloody spider went up the spider web, The blooming, bloody rain came down and washed the spider out, The blooming, bloody sun came out and dried up all the rain, And the blooming, bloody spider came up the spout again.</poem> A similar ribald version featuring a bloody [[sparrow]] instead of a spider was recorded on December 15, 1879 issue in a [[London]] magazine ''The Pearl'' which goes like this: <poem style="margin-left:2em;"> He was a bloody sparrow Lived up a bloody spout There came a bloody [[thunderstorm]] And washed the bugger out! But in a bloody minute, They stopped the bloody rain; So the bloody little sparrow Went up the spout again.</poem> The song later appeared in publications such as ''The Purple and White at Millsaps College'' (1909) ''Proceedings of the ... Convention of the Indiana Sanitary and Water Supply Association'' (1912), ''Howard University Program'' (1912), ''Camp Fire Girls'' (1912), ''The Oregon Teachers Monthly'' (1912), ''The Chautauquan'' (1912), ''The Shadow'' (1913), ''Baltimore and Ohio Employees Railroad Company Magazine'' (1913) and ''Variety (August 1926)''. A version appeared in ''[[Collier's]]'' magazine in December 1913 was describes as a "deathless Cockney lyric", while it printed a version in the ''Virginian-Pilot and the Norfolk Landmark'' - Volume 49 (November 3, 1913). A reference to the bloody sparrow in this book called ''Reminiscences: Volume One'', by John Orlando Hodge (1828-1912), published in 1902 attributing the poem to a MA is a Harry L. Veil, in Cleveland, Ohio. Also, it was printed in a 1945 book called ''Apples of Eden: A Private Collection of American Folk-Lore''. In ''[[Symphony No. 4 (Mahler)|Mahler's Symphony No. 4]]'' (1901), Floros divides the movement into five main parts (A – B – A{{sup|1}} – B{{sup|1}} – A{{sup|2}}) followed by a coda. The first theme in G major is played in the beginning of part A by the cellos, a version from 1901 goes like this: <poem style="margin-left: 2em;">Oh! the blooming blasted sparrow went up the oak tree, The blooming, blasted rain came down and washed the sparrow out, The blooming, blasted sun came out and dried up all the rain, And the blooming, blasted sparrow came up the tree again!</poem> Some historians think the rhyme may date back to a 1908 magazine ''The Children's Friend'': <poem style="margin-left: 2em;">There was a bloody spider Went up a bloody spout There came the rain And washed the spider out The bloody sun And dried up all the rain But that bloody blooming son of a gun Went up that spout again. </poem> Later, versions of the spider-sparrow where printed in newspapers, journals, include ''The True Citizen'' (August 25, 1882), ''Brownstown Banner'' (August 10, 1882), ''The Puget Sound Mail'' (August 12, 1882), ''Hickman courier'' (August 11, 1882) ''The Judge'' (July 26, 1884), ''The National Police Gazette'' (November 1, 1884), ''The New York Mirror'' (July 28, 1888), ''The Stamp World: Vol. V-VI'' (July 1889) ''The Atlanta Constitution'' (July 20, 1889), ''Columbus, Enquirer-Sun'' (July 21, 1889), ''Monroe Daily Independent'' (July 22, 1889), ''The Theatre'' - Volume 5 (1888-1889), ''The Griffin Daily News and Sun'' (August 18, 1889), ''Morris Tribune'' (October 2, 1889), ''Alleghany Tribune'' - Volume 4 (September 1, 1882), ''The Evening World'' (June 9, 1894), ''The American Slang Dictionary'' (1891), ''The Papyrus'' - Volume 1 (1907), ''Chance Hits'' (1915), ''National Floodmarks'' (1915), ''The Inside Track'' - Volumes 8-9 (1929), ''American Cattle Producer'' - Volume 5 (1924), ''Commerce and Finance'' - Volume 16 (1927), ''The Producer'' - Volumes 5-6 (1923), ''The Axe-thrower of the Tittabawassee'' (1935), ''The Merrill Studies in The Bridge'' (1970), ''The Autocar'' (1912),'' Odds and Ends of Prose and Verse'' (1902), ''Mekeel's Weekly Stamp News'' - Volume 28 (1914), ''The Santa Fe Magazine'' - Volume 34 (1939), ''California poems and selections'' (1916), ''University of Ottawa review'' (1902), ''The Gallovidian Annual'' (1932), ''The McGill Daily Vol. 04 No. 116: (March 6, 1915)'', ''Archon'' (1914), ''My Colonial Service in British Guiana, St. Lucia, Trinidad, Fiji, Australia, Newfoundland, and Hong Kong, with Interludes'' - Volume 2 (1903), ''Current Politics, Literature, Science and Art'' - Volume 2 (1884), ''Republic of Dreams Greenwich Village: The American Bohemia'' (2007), ''America's war for humanity related in story and picture'' (1898), ''Birds of Lakeside and Prairie'' (1901), ''Birds and Nature'' (1914), ''Specimens of Type, Borders, Ornaments'' (1892), ''Demorest's Monthly Magazine'' - Volume 31 (1894), ''The Robert W. Gordon "Inferno" Collection'' (1928), ''The Anatomy of Swearing'' (1967), ''Navy & Army Illustrated'' - Volume 9 (1899), ''Winged Wonders: A Celebration of Birds in Human History'' (2007), ''The Letters of Thomasina Atkins'' (1918), ''Songs for Lions'' (1929), ''Verse and Verse'' (1930), ''Camp Management: A Manual for Camp Directors'' (1923), ''Billy Whiskers and the Radio'' (1927), ''Record of Proceedings of the Annual Meeting'' (1935), ''Pantaloons and Antics; Or, Doodling with a Hermes'' (1964), ''Foxes and Physic'' (1962), ''Against the Wall'' (1929), ''Midland Schools Official Organ of the Iowa State Education Association'' - Volume 25 (1910), ''Fuel Magazine: The Coal Operators National Weekly'' - Volume 17 (1911), ''Dixon Evening Telegraph'' (April 3, 1911), ''The Duluth Herald'' (December 8, 1913), ''Norwich Bulletin (July 31, 1902), ''Dartmouth Alumni Magazine'' (December 1964), and ''Meayrs (May 1971) as "The bleedin' sparrer": {{Poem quote|We ‘ad a bleedin’ sparrer wot Lived up a bleedin’ spaht One day the bleedin’ rain came dahn An’ washed the bleeder aht. An’ as 'e layed ‘arf drahnded Dahn in the bleedin’ street ‘E begged that bleedin’ rainstorm To bave ‘is bleedin’ feet. But then the bleedin’ sun came aht Dried up the bleedin’ rain So that bleedin’ little sparrer ‘E climbs up ‘is spaht again. But, Oh! - the cruel sparrer ‘awk ‘E spies ‘im in ‘is snuggery ‘E sharpens up ‘is bleedin’ claws An’ rips ‘im aht by thuggery. Jist then a bleedin’ sportin’ type Wot ‘ad a bleedin’ gun ‘E spots that bleedin’ sparrer ‘awk An’ blasts ‘is bleedin’ fun. The moral of the story Is plain to everyone... That them wot’s up the bleedin’ spaht Don’t get no bleedin’ fun. }} The bloody sparrow version can be found in aircraft books and magazines such as ''Fighter Pilots Songbook Black Widow Squadron'' (1963), ''354th Tactical Fighter Squadron Training Manual'' (1967), ''46th Tactical Fighter Squadron Songbook'' (1970), and ''Flight magazine'' (January 19, 1922). It also appeared in films such as ''[[The Hill (1965 film)|The Hill]]'' (1965), and ''[[White Pongo]]'' (1945). One of the bloody-rooting spider references was founded in newspapers and books such as ''Cornell Countryman'' - Volumes 41-44 (1945), ''National Sportsman'' - Volume 77 (1937), and ''Blow the Candle Out'' (1955). The Finland spider named, ''Hämä-hämä-häkki'' can be found in A.S. Packard, Jr.'s 1873 book ''Our Common Insects''. The term "itsy-bitsy" originated in the late 19th century as a reduplicated baby-talk alteration of "little bit". The components "itty" (a variant of little) and "bitsy" (a variant of bit) first appeared in print independently in 1798, 1850, 1875, and 1883, respectively, eventually merging into the popular phrase by 1882. The creaky sparrow version have founded in a 1780 book ''The Charles ''. A version of a [[halloween]] sparrow was founded in an 1882 opera called ''The House of the Pumpkin Tree'' that premiered at the [[Niblo's Garden]]. The opera was particularly successfull, the halloween song survived and flourished, and versions can be heard in later ballad operas and musical theaters, including ''The Perfect Girl'' (1889), ''The Rage of the Mansion'' (1892), ''The Playhouse'' (1895), ''The Emergency'' (1897) and ''The Dancing Majors'' (1904). A creeky sparrow version was published in 1972 in Missouri reported said a guest suffered injuries when falling out of a ride vehicle in a [[Silver Dollar City]] ride [[Fire in the Hole (1972 roller coaster)|Fire in the Hole]] reuses the version: <poem style="margin-left: 2em;">There was a creeky sparrow Went up a creeky spout The heavy rain came down Washed the sparrow out The sun came out Dried up all the rain The creeky sparrow Went up that spout again. </poem> The famous collector J. J. Carty's create a version in 1922 in ''The Bell System technical journal'' and the lyrics began with the following verse: <poem style="margin-left: 2em;">The bloody spider, Went up a spout, The bleeding rain came down, Washed the spider out, Out came the sun, Dried up all the rain, The bloody spider, Went up that spout again. </poem> A reference to the bloody sparrow in this ''Universal Weekly'' magazine published in 1925 attributing the poem to a Hollywood: <poem style="margin-left:2em;"> He was a bloody sparrow Came up a bloody spout There came a rain Washed the buggy out In a bloody sun, They stopped the bloody rain; The bloody little sparrow Went up the spout again.</poem> Perhaps, the recorded version of the song, when guest suffered injuries when falling out of a ride vehicle, in a 1978 ride, [[Blazing Fury]]: <poem style="margin-left: 2em;">There was a bloody sparrow Went up a blooming spout The heavy rain came down Washed the sparrow out The sun came out Dried up all the rain The bloody sparrow Went up that spout again. </poem> {{listen | type = music | image = none | help = no | filename = Four Ruffles and Flourishes and Hail Columbia.ogg | title = Hail, Columbia | filename2 = Chopin, Nocturne in C-sharp minor, Op. Posth.ogg | title2 = Nocturne in C-sharp minor, Op. posth. (Chopin) | filename3 = Alouette.mid | title3 = Alouette | filename4 = Spannenlanger Hansel.mid | tile4 = Spannenlanger Hansel | description4 = These songs uses the same tune of "Itsy Bitsy Spider". }} The song is sung by and for children in countless languages and cultures. It is similar to the melodies ([[metric line]]) of the songs, "[[Hail, Columbia]]", "[[Chopin, Nocturne in C-sharp minor, Op. Posth]]", "[[Alouette (song)|Alouette]]", "[[Down by the Station]]", "Climbing Up the Golden Stairs", "Sweetly Sings the Donkey" in the United States, and "{{ill|Auf der Mauer, auf der Lauer|de}}" (1890), "Ich bin ein kleiner Esel" ("I'm a little donkey", the German-language version of "Sweetly Sings the Donkey") and "{{ill|Spannenlanger Hansel|de}}" (1838) (see: [[Hansel and Gretel]]) in German-speaking countries. == Score == <score sound raw> \header { tagline = ##f } \layout { indent = 0\cm \context { \Score \remove "Bar_number_engraver" } } global = { \key g \major \time 6/8 \partial 8 } right = \relative g' { \global d8 | g4 g8 g4 a8 | b4. b4 b8 | a4 g8 a4 b8 | g2. | b4. b4 c8 | d4. d | c4 b8 c4 d8 b2. | g4. g4 a8 | b4. b | a4 g8 a4 b8 | g4. fis4 fis8 | g4 g8 g4 a8 | b4. b4 b8 | a4 g8 a4 b8 | g4. ~g4 \bar "|." } left = \relative g { \global d'8 | g,4 r8 <b d>4 r8 | g4 r8 <b d>4 r8 | fis4 r8 <c' d>4 r8 | g4 r8 <b d>4 r8 | g4 r8 d'4 c8 | b4 a8 g4. | fis4 r8 <c' d>4 r8 | g4 r8 <b d>4 r8 | g4 r8 <b d>4 r8 | g4 r8 <b d>4 r8 | fis4 r8 <c' d>4 r8 | g4 r8 d'4 d8 | g,4 r8 b4 a8 | g8 b c d4 r8 | fis,4 r8 <c' d>4 r8 | <g b>4. ~<g b>4 \bar "|." } verse = \lyricmode { The it -- sy bit -- sy spi -- der crawled up the wa -- ter spout. Down came the rain and washed the spi -- der out! Up came the sun and dried up all the rain. And the it -- sy bit -- sy spi -- der went up the spout a -- gain. } kords = \chordmode { \set ChordNames.midiInstrument = "acoustic guitar (steel)" \set chordChanges = ##t d,8 | g,2. | g,2. | d,2.:7 | g,2. | \set chordChanges = ##f g,2. | d,2.:7 | \set chordChanges = ##t d,2.:7 | g,2. | \set chordChanges = ##f g,2. | e,2.:m | \set chordChanges = ##t e,2.:m | g,2. | g,2. | g,2. | d,2.:7 | g,4. ~g,4 \bar "|." } \score { \new PianoStaff << \new ChordNames { \kords } \new Staff = "right" \with { midiInstrument = "clarinet" } \right \addlyrics { \verse } \new Staff = "left" \with { midiInstrument = "acoustic grand" } { \clef bass \left } >> \layout { } \midi { \context { \ChordNames midiMaximumVolume = #0.8 } \tempo 4.=112 } } </score> ==Videos== <gallery widths="400" heights="300" showfilename="yes"> File:Itsy Bitsy Spider - La Araña Pequeñita.webm|American variant with American accent, followed by Spanish language version. File:Insey winsey spider song video.webm|British variant, American accent </gallery> == References == # https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/97265265 # https://www.bbc.co.uk/teach/school-radio/nursery-rhymes-incy-wincy-spider/zr4yt39 # https://www.ladbible.com/community/incy-wincy-spider-dark-meaning-543924-20230113 # http://www.datsplat.com/words-to-the-itsy-bitsy-spider/ {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260215052014/https://www.datsplat.com/words-to-the-itsy-bitsy-spider/ |date=2026-02-15 }} # https://archive.org/details/campcaminoinlowe00nort_0#page/n338/mode/2up # https://archive.org/details/camptrail01whit#page/n203/mode/2up # https://archive.org/details/journalofamefolk32ameruoft#page/n445/mode/2up # https://www.jstor.org/stable/1496690 # https://archive.org/details/americanfolksong0000seeg/page/126/mode/2up # https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/000977986 # https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wZMq75G7MpQ # https://archive.org/details/pearl_1-6/page/n178/mode/2up # https://archive.org/details/millsapscollegepurpleandwhite19081909_201509#page/n54/mode/2up # https://books.google.com/books?id=0e0TAAAAIAAJ&pg=RA2-PA105 # https://www.in.gov/history/files/publichealth.pdf # https://dh.howard.edu/hugradpro/59/ # https://books.google.com/books?id=FvqDbf4az0IC&pg=PA24&source=gbs_toc_r&cad=2 # https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.a0004602793 # https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=iau.31858055201887 # https://en.wikisource.org/w/index.php?title=The_Shadow_(Stringer)/Chapter_13&oldid=16264521 # https://archive.org/details/baltimoreohioemp01balt#page/n584mode # https://archive.org/details/variety84-1926-08#page/n110mode # https://books.google.com/books?id=Fl8wAQAAMAAJ&pg=RA12-PA35&dq=There+Was+a+Bloomin+Sparra&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwisl86H-qiFAxWWj4kEHfpJAi0Q6AF6BAgEEAI#v=onepage&q=There%20Was%20a%20Bloomin%20Sparra&f=false # https://www.virginiachronicle.com/?a=d&d=VPTNL19131103.1.6&e=-------en-20--61--txt-txIN-bloody+sparrow-------- # https://archive.org/details/reminiscences02hodg#page/n382/mode/2up # https://archive.org/details/1945applesofeden/page/n11/mode/2up # https://archive.org/details/gustavmahlersymp0000flor # https://www.google.com/books/edition/_/q9kRAAAAYAAJ?hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjshtWy3rSUAxUpmokEHY_AKhwQre8FegQIAxABpg=RA2-PA29 # https://gahistoricnewspapers.galileo.usg.edu/lccn/sn89053289/1882-08-25/ed-1/seq-6/ # https://newspaperarchive.com/brownstown-banner-aug-10-1882-p-1/ # https://washingtondigitalnewspapers.org/?a=d&d=PUGSNDML18820812.1.4& # https://archive.org/details/xt786688k30x/page/n0/mode/2up # https://archive.org/details/sim_judge_1884-07-26_6_145/page/n5/mode/2up # https://archive.org/details/sim_national-police-gazette_1884-11-01_45_371/page/n1/mode/2up # # https://archive.org/details/per_new-york-dramatic-mirror_the-new-york-mirror_1888-07-28_20_500/page/n2/mode/2up # https://archive.org/details/1889thestampworld1/page/n33/mode/2up # https://archive.org/details/per_atlanta-constitution_1889-07-20_21/page/n3/mode/2up # https://gahistoricnewspapers.galileo.usg.edu/lccn/sn84024799/1889-07-21/ed-1/seq-2/ # https://newspaperarchive.com/monroe-daily-independent-jul-22-1889-p-1/ # https://books.google.com/books?id=QuYRAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA418&dq=bloody+sparrow+went+up+the+bloody+spout&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj27r_fiLuVAxX3D1kFHRp2PY0Q6AF6BAgKEAM # https://gahistoricnewspapers.galileo.usg.edu/lccn/sn89053183/1889-08-18/ed-1/seq-4/#words=bloody+sparrow # https://www.google.com/goto?url=CAESnwEB7keqTcxDew0Sv9UZTOu-pDaP4rQbjGhOXSX7zVsIr7NdOGQAj0RrTbxI9xG4ZacFo5eXc6qr4hx5XJ3n9j-BkHaKk7FWwjxC7YkVAN2fUSFkHRYHyUt-nhm_G4vejgfE6eDdOwIdCr8L2ghvwwVAg1UeSNjXEE2U8-tcJyUXxrz1LQBrdzlSQ8RdQUK0ySQC618j3URiwvY-qsHcJoM= # https://www.virginiachronicle.com/?a=d&d=ATB18820901.1.4&e=-------en-20--21--txt-txIN-bloody+sparrow-------- # https://www.nyshistoricnewspapers.org/?a=d&d=tew18940609-03.1.4&e=-------en-20--1--txt-txIN-bloody+sparrow+went+the+spout--------- # https://books.google.com/books?id=uLNZAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA36&dq=bloody+sparrow+went+up+the+bloody+spout&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwibhvjUibuVAxXQFVkFHfWxCho4ChDoAXoECAgQAw # https://books.google.com/books?id=n7znAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA7&dq=bloody+sparrow+went+up+the+bloody+spout&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj27r_fiLuVAxX3D1kFHRp2PY0Q6AF6BAgJEAM # https://books.google.com/books?id=4CcgAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA95&dq=bloody+sparrow+went+up+the+bloody+spout&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj27r_fiLuVAxX3D1kFHRp2PY0Q6AF6BAgQEAM # https://books.google.com/books?id=iL00AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA101&dq=bloody+sparrow+went+up+the+bloody+spout&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj27r_fiLuVAxX3D1kFHRp2PY0Q6AF6BAgMEAM # https://books.google.com/books?id=evk8AAAAIAAJ&q=bloody+sparrow+went+up+the+bloody+spout&dq=bloody+sparrow+went+up+the+bloody+spout&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&printsec=frontcover&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj27r_fiLuVAxX3D1kFHRp2PY0Q6AF6BAgPEAM # https://books.google.com/books?id=S8qVjIE-trwC&pg=RA8-PA15&dq=bloody+sparrow+went+up+the+bloody+spout&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjE-tSairuVAxXRFVkFHdKKN4s4ChDoAXoECA4QAw # https://books.google.com/books?id=GAtli-kuoggC&pg=PA1750&dq=bloody+sparrow+went+up+the+bloody+spout&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjE-tSairuVAxXRFVkFHdKKN4s4ChDoAXoECAsQAw # https://books.google.com/books?id=_DZmYt6D-i4C&pg=RA15-PA15&dq=bloody+sparrow+went+up+the+bloody+spout&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjE-tSairuVAxXRFVkFHdKKN4s4ChDoAXoECAwQAw # https://books.google.com/books?id=4Fg1AAAAMAAJ&q=bloody+sparrow+went+up+the+bloody+spout&dq=bloody+sparrow+went+up+the+bloody+spout&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&printsec=frontcover&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjE-tSairuVAxXRFVkFHdKKN4s4ChDoAXoECAkQAw # https://books.google.com/books?id=r4daAAAAMAAJ&q=bloody+sparrow+went+up+the+bloody+spout&dq=bloody+sparrow+went+up+the+bloody+spout&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&printsec=frontcover&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjE-tSairuVAxXRFVkFHdKKN4s4ChDoAXoECBAQAw # https://books.google.com/books?id=RoPmAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA300-IA1&dq=blooming+sparrow&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwigmMHviLuVAxW1M1kFHbp-PaUQ6AF6BAgMEAM # https://books.google.com/books?id=lTEZAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA46&dq=blooming+sparrow&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwigmMHviLuVAxW1M1kFHbp-PaUQ6AF6BAgKEAM # https://books.google.com/books?id=ouUnAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA235&dq=blooming+sparrow&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwigmMHviLuVAxW1M1kFHbp-PaUQ6AF6BAgIEAM # https://archive.org/details/californiapoemss00haag/page/n61/mode/2up # https://archive.org/details/v5universityofot1902univ/page/n155/mode/2up # https://archive.org/details/gallovidianannua0000doro/page/87/mode/2up # https://archive.org/details/McGillLibrary-mcgill-daily-v04-n116-march-06-1915-5927/page/n1/mode/2up # https://archive.org/details/archonmar1914dumm/page/125/mode/2up/ # https://books.google.com/books?id=hsPTzwM6p9QC&pg=PA177&dq=blooming+sparrow&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiU5J3s8smVAxW7EFkFHXTRE0MQ6AF6BAgOEAM # https://books.google.com/books?id=0xDnAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA270&dq=bloody+sparrow+went+up+a+blooming+spout&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj2qYaX9MmVAxVglIkEHVybOpYQ6AF6BAgJEAM # https://books.google.com/books?id=ADqRn3ucaBQC&pg=PA479&dq=bloody+sparrow+went+up+a+bloody+spout&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjAiNnR9MmVAxXTrokEHRTuJ_MQ6AF6BAgHEAM # https://archive.org/stream/americaswarforhu00newy/americaswarforhu00newy#page/n255/mode/1up # https://books.google.com/books?id=izcIAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA100&dq=bloomin+sparrow&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiS2OrIzeWVAxWYj4kEHQXqJwg4ChDoAXoECAwQAw # https://books.google.com/books?id=hzJEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA446&dq=bloomin+sparrow&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiS2OrIzeWVAxWYj4kEHQXqJwg4ChDoAXoECAcQAw # https://books.google.com/books?id=alNBAQAAMAAJ&q=sparrow+spout+wind+and+rain&dq=sparrow+spout+wind+and+rain&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&printsec=frontcover&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwigirjyou-VAxVarYkEHQ1iNYQ4ChDoAXoECAcQAw # https://books.google.com/books?id=xphPAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA222&dq=sparrer+went+up+the+spout&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwic29Lvn--VAxV2D1kFHVhmGvUQ6AF6BAgNEAM # https://books.google.com/books?id=qOdw7iaMDIkC&pg=PT148&dq=sparrer+went+up+the+spout&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwic29Lvn--VAxV2D1kFHVhmGvUQ6AF6BAgJEAM # https://books.google.com/books?id=QERsPn0nN-YC&pg=PA272&dq=sparrer+went+up+the+spout&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwic29Lvn--VAxV2D1kFHVhmGvUQ6AF6BAgKEAM # https://books.google.com/books?id=k1hvhzk5QgcC&pg=PA87&dq=sparrer+went+up+the+spout&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwic29Lvn--VAxV2D1kFHVhmGvUQ6AF6BAgMEAM # https://books.google.com/books?id=G0ZHAAAAYAAJ&q=sparrer+went+up+the+spout&dq=sparrer+went+up+the+spout&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&printsec=frontcover&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiFpJL1oe-VAxUilYkEHbAPGvk4ChDoAXoECAcQAw # https://books.google.com/books?id=zgrPAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA118&dq=sparrow+built+up+a+spout&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjKvvKnou-VAxWvk4kEHQTtCIIQ6AF6BAgJEAM # https://books.google.com/books?id=nbud7Dw4STgC&pg=PA102&dq=the+spider+and+the+spout&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjb9p7Go--VAxXA5ckDHfz1HfoQ6AF6BAgIEAM # https://books.google.com/books?id=SedOAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA32&dq=spider+and+the+spout&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiX5-Ts5YSWAxWsjIkEHT1HHy44ChDoAXoECAsQAw # https://books.google.com/books?id=SRPOAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA196&dq=spider+and+the+spout&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiX5-Ts5YSWAxWsjIkEHT1HHy44ChDoAXoECA0QAw # https://books.google.com/books?id=NLPxaOceu2sC&pg=PA139&dq=spider+and+the+spout&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj47qGC5oSWAxX1m4kEHcGAHzY4HhDoAXoECAwQAw # https://books.google.com/books?id=BDdUM-1YpAsC&q=there+was+a+sparrow+went+up+a+spout&dq=there+was+a+sparrow+went+up+a+spout&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&printsec=frontcover&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjko6yG6JKWAxXbF2IAHXv6JHs4WhDoAXoECAsQAw # https://books.google.com/books?id=ODBMAAAAIAAJ&q=there+was+a+sparrow+went+up+a+spout&dq=there+was+a+sparrow+went+up+a+spout&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&printsec=frontcover&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiv6P-A6JKWAxXbKlkFHVudK_E4UBDoAXoECAwQAw # https://books.google.com/books?id=uuk6AAAAMAAJ&q=There+was+a+bloomin+sparra&dq=There+was+a+bloomin+sparra&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&printsec=frontcover&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwil-K3Kw-OWAxXlLlkFHRqBLCE4FBDoAXoECBIQAw # https://books.google.com/books?id=vA8xAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA149&dq=spider+and+the+went+up+the+spout+again&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiGjpvc55KWAxWkLFkFHapeKDc4KBDoAXoECBAQAw # https://books.google.com/books?id=pUFIAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA236&dq=there+was+a+sparrow+went+up+a+spout&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwil1eqc6JKWAxWkGVkFHXi_Dxw4MhDoAXoECBAQAw # https://books.google.com/books?id=Y7IcAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA277&dq=bloomin+sparrow+blasted+spout&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwi-5M_W6JKWAxUUGlkFHYcUFhk4ChDoAXoECAkQAw # https://archive.org/details/dixon-evening-telegraph-1911-04-03/page/n5/mode/2up #https://archive.org/details/dec2191302dulu/page/n79/mode/2up # https://archive.org/details/norwichbulletinj00bull_2/page/n234/mode/2up # https://archive.dartmouthalumnimagazine.com/article/1964/12/1/1911 # https://www.blipfoto.com/entry/2182029548168679413 # https://archive.org/details/1963fighterpilotssongbookblackwidowsquadron#page/n138/mode/2up #https://archive.org/details/1967354thtacticalfightersdrntrainingmanual/page/n131/mode/2up # https://archive.org/details/1970s-46thtacticalfightersquadronsongbookfromreeves/page/n135/mode/2up # https://archive.org/details/Flight_International_Magazine_1922-01-19-pdf/page/n7/mode/2up # https://ok.ru/video/7961626544846?st._aid=VideoState_open_search # https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1R6jSub-f8g&t=488s # https://books.google.com/books?id=FMbweex1qNEC&q=bloody+spider+went+up+the+bloody+spout&dq=bloody+spider+went+up+the+bloody+spout&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&printsec=frontcover&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiy4NP1h7uVAxU5FVkFHd0VFVMQ6AF6BAgLEAM # https://books.google.com/books?id=adAcAQAAMAAJ&q=bloody+spider+went+up+the+bloody+spout&dq=bloody+spider+went+up+the+bloody+spout&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&printsec=frontcover&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiy4NP1h7uVAxU5FVkFHd0VFVMQ6AF6BAgQEAM # https://books.google.com/books?id=S93LdPw2KP0C&pg=PA676&dq=bloody+spider+went+up+the+bloody+spout&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiy4NP1h7uVAxU5FVkFHd0VFVMQ6AF6BAgHEAM # https://archive.org/details/ourcommoninsects00packrich#page/n17/mode/2up # https://www.google.com/goto?url=CAESTQHuR6pNypATq0YkuRkHv5LBnlE7LYWD3BYZjzGmCoRYYMGf-l6J4WaKQcECMyIY0xEyFq2rOYusTJq0N4Wp-jRSdRieAejxoyS_uVYI # https://www.google.com/goto?url=CAESUAHuR6pNhoMIuFt1JnLijLZFer9VaiY5he5xIEKwCsEVv00Cpb0oaAXZhjmf0kPctxirPRFjdwLk-Zpo49plSE9fZw6B-V5MkiaJQD70uVDC # https://archive.org/details/americanwarfrom100smit#page/n174/mode/2up # https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6wBdjLMM7Ns # https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-kansas-city-times-injured-on-silver/66919121/ # https://archive.org/details/bellsystemtechni08amerrich#page/n616mode # https://archive.org/details/universalweekly100movi_3/page/n430/mode/1up#page/n430mode # https://www.reddit.com/r/Dollywood/comments/1ltvp75/blazing_fury_during_late_70s_and_early_80s/ # https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=M8edn8lOi78&pp=0gcJCZkLAYcqIYzv # https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PHpHx0Zszn4&ab_channel=MarkusBrylka # https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L_hFw_cWg9U # https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LRV-797awEQ # https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SOKxVWqW1Fk # https://www.candomusic.ca/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/sweetly-sings-the-donkey-pdf.pdf # http://www.labbe.de/liederbaum/index.asp?themaid=23&titelid=120 # https://www.mamalisa.com/?t=es&p=3723 # https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CFcobdL8aO8 # https://makingmusicfun.net/public/assets/pdf/sheet_music/itsy-bitsy-spider-piano.pdf ==Elsewhere in the Wikiverse== * [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Itsy_Bitsy_Spider 'Itsy Bitsy Spider' on Wikipedia] [[Category:Nursery Rhymes and Songs]] 021gkybn7t6lvslo9i6e6a95zrsnqga 2832718 2832680 2026-09-10T21:05:14Z ~2026-48890-90 3110836 2832718 wikitext text/x-wiki "'''The Itsy Bitsy Spider'''" (also known as "'''The Incey Wincey Spider'''" in Australia or "'''Incy Wincy Spider'''" in the United Kingdom, and other anglophone countries) is a popular [[nursery rhyme]], [[folksong]], and [[fingerplay]] that describes the adventures of a [[spider]] as it ascends, descends, and re-ascends the downspout or "waterspout" of a [[Rain gutter|gutter]] system or, alternatively, the spout of a [[teapot]], or open-air reservoir. It is usually accompanied by a sequence of gestures that mimic the words of the song. One claim says that the rhyme is based on a song called “Tipsy Dipsy Hobo” and was a reference to the [[Safety|dangers]] of a [[person]] getting [[drunk]] and trying to climb on board of [[trains]], risking a fatal [[injury]]. But it doesn’t appear to be any credible source for this interpretation. ==Lyrics== A commonly used version uses these words and gestures: {| !Words!!Fingerplay |- |<poem>The itsy bitsy spider climbed up the waterspout. Down came the rain And washed the spider out. Out came the sun And dried up all the rain And the itsy bitsy spider climbed up the spout again.</poem> |style="padding-left:2em;"|<poem>Alternately touch the thumb of one hand to the index finger of the other. Hold both hands up and wiggle the fingers as the hands are lowered. Sweep the hands from side to side. Raise both hands and sweep to the sides to form a semicircle as the sun. Wiggle fingers upwards. (As in the first line)</poem> |} ===British variant=== <poem> The incy wincy spider climbed up the water spout, ''(Touch left thumb to right forefinger, then left forefinger to right thumb, whilst moving hands upwards)'' Down came the rain and washed the spider out. ''(Wiggle fingers of both hands, palm out, whilst moving hands down; then make sweeping motion with both hands, center outwards)'' Out came the sun and dried up all the rain, ''(Lifting motion with both hands)'' And the incy wincy spider climbed up the spout again. ''(Touch left thumb to right forefinger, then left forefinger to right thumb, whilst moving hands upwards)'' </poem> Other versions exist. == Origin == The origin for the song is unknown. It was first published in musical publications, such as the earliest known recorded version in the book ''Camp and Camino in Lower California, A Record of The Adventures of The Author While Exploring [[Baja California peninsula|Peninsular California, Mexico]]'' (1910), by Arthur Walbridge North (1874–1943), page 279-280, where it is referred to as (the classic) "The Spider Song". It appears to be a more adult version of this song using "blooming, bloody" instead of "itsy bitsy". Another printed versions appeared in ''Camp and Trail'' (1911), and ''Journal of [[American Folklore]]'' (1920). It was later published in one of its song's several modern versions in [[Western Folklore]], by the ''California Folklore Society'' (1947), [[Mike Seeger|Mike]], [[Peggy Seeger|Peggy]], and [[Ruth Crawford Seeger]]'s ''American Folk Songs for Children'' (1948), and in ''The Growing Family : A Guide for Parents'' by [[Maxwell Slutz Stewart]] (1955). Lyrics as described the version in 1910 as they were originally found in a book, which was as the 'classic' "The Spider Song": <poem style="margin-left: 2em;">Oh, the blooming, bloody spider went up the spider web, The blooming, bloody rain came down and washed the spider out, The blooming, bloody sun came out and dried up all the rain, And the blooming, bloody spider came up the spout again.</poem> A similar ribald version featuring a bloody [[sparrow]] instead of a spider was recorded on December 15, 1879 issue in a [[London]] magazine ''The Pearl'' which goes like this: <poem style="margin-left:2em;"> He was a bloody sparrow Lived up a bloody spout There came a bloody [[thunderstorm]] And washed the bugger out! But in a bloody minute, They stopped the bloody rain; So the bloody little sparrow Went up the spout again.</poem> The song later appeared in publications such as ''The Purple and White at Millsaps College'' (1909) ''Proceedings of the ... Convention of the Indiana Sanitary and Water Supply Association'' (1912), ''Howard University Program'' (1912), ''Camp Fire Girls'' (1912), ''The Oregon Teachers Monthly'' (1912), ''The Chautauquan'' (1912), ''The Shadow'' (1913), ''Baltimore and Ohio Employees Railroad Company Magazine'' (1913) and ''Variety (August 1926)''. A version appeared in ''[[Collier's]]'' magazine in December 1913 was describes as a "deathless Cockney lyric", while it printed a version in the ''Virginian-Pilot and the Norfolk Landmark'' - Volume 49 (November 3, 1913). A reference to the bloody sparrow in this book called ''Reminiscences: Volume One'', by John Orlando Hodge (1828-1912), published in 1902 attributing the poem to a MA is a Harry L. Veil, in Cleveland, Ohio. Also, it was printed in a 1945 book called ''Apples of Eden: A Private Collection of American Folk-Lore''. In ''[[Symphony No. 4 (Mahler)|Mahler's Symphony No. 4]]'' (1901), Floros divides the movement into five main parts (A – B – A{{sup|1}} – B{{sup|1}} – A{{sup|2}}) followed by a coda. The first theme in G major is played in the beginning of part A by the cellos, a version from 1901 goes like this: <poem style="margin-left: 2em;">Oh! the blooming blasted sparrow went up the oak tree, The blooming, blasted rain came down and washed the sparrow out, The blooming, blasted sun came out and dried up all the rain, And the blooming, blasted sparrow came up the tree again!</poem> Some historians think the rhyme may date back to a 1908 magazine ''The Children's Friend'': <poem style="margin-left: 2em;">There was a bloody spider Went up a bloody spout There came the rain And washed the spider out The bloody sun And dried up all the rain But that bloody blooming son of a gun Went up that spout again. </poem> Later, versions of the spider-sparrow where printed in newspapers, journals, include ''The True Citizen'' (August 25, 1882), ''Brownstown Banner'' (August 10, 1882), ''The Puget Sound Mail'' (August 12, 1882), ''Hickman courier'' (August 11, 1882) ''The Judge'' (July 26, 1884), ''The National Police Gazette'' (November 1, 1884), ''The New York Mirror'' (July 28, 1888), ''The Stamp World: Vol. V-VI'' (July 1889) ''The Atlanta Constitution'' (July 20, 1889), ''Columbus, Enquirer-Sun'' (July 21, 1889), ''Monroe Daily Independent'' (July 22, 1889), ''The Theatre'' - Volume 5 (1888-1889), ''The Griffin Daily News and Sun'' (August 18, 1889), ''Morris Tribune'' (October 2, 1889), ''Alleghany Tribune'' - Volume 4 (September 1, 1882), ''The Evening World'' (June 9, 1894), ''The American Slang Dictionary'' (1891), ''The Papyrus'' - Volume 1 (1907), ''Chance Hits'' (1915), ''National Floodmarks'' (1915), ''The Inside Track'' - Volumes 8-9 (1929), ''American Cattle Producer'' - Volume 5 (1924), ''Commerce and Finance'' - Volume 16 (1927), ''The Producer'' - Volumes 5-6 (1923), ''The Axe-thrower of the Tittabawassee'' (1935), ''The Merrill Studies in The Bridge'' (1970), ''The Autocar'' (1912),'' Odds and Ends of Prose and Verse'' (1902), ''Mekeel's Weekly Stamp News'' - Volume 28 (1914), ''The Santa Fe Magazine'' - Volume 34 (1939), ''California poems and selections'' (1916), ''University of Ottawa review'' (1902), ''The Gallovidian Annual'' (1932), ''The McGill Daily Vol. 04 No. 116: (March 6, 1915)'', ''Archon'' (1914), ''My Colonial Service in British Guiana, St. Lucia, Trinidad, Fiji, Australia, Newfoundland, and Hong Kong, with Interludes'' - Volume 2 (1903), ''Current Politics, Literature, Science and Art'' - Volume 2 (1884), ''Republic of Dreams Greenwich Village: The American Bohemia'' (2007), ''America's war for humanity related in story and picture'' (1898), ''Birds of Lakeside and Prairie'' (1901), ''Birds and Nature'' (1914), ''Specimens of Type, Borders, Ornaments'' (1892), ''Demorest's Monthly Magazine'' - Volume 31 (1894), ''The Robert W. Gordon "Inferno" Collection'' (1928), ''The Anatomy of Swearing'' (1967), ''Navy & Army Illustrated'' - Volume 9 (1899), ''Winged Wonders: A Celebration of Birds in Human History'' (2007), ''The Letters of Thomasina Atkins'' (1918), ''Songs for Lions'' (1929), ''Verse and Verse'' (1930), ''Camp Management: A Manual for Camp Directors'' (1923), ''Billy Whiskers and the Radio'' (1927), ''Record of Proceedings of the Annual Meeting'' (1935), ''Pantaloons and Antics; Or, Doodling with a Hermes'' (1964), ''Foxes and Physic'' (1962), ''Against the Wall'' (1929), ''Midland Schools Official Organ of the Iowa State Education Association'' - Volume 25 (1910), ''Fuel Magazine: The Coal Operators National Weekly'' - Volume 17 (1911), ''Dixon Evening Telegraph'' (April 3, 1911), ''The Duluth Herald'' (December 8, 1913), ''Norwich Bulletin (July 31, 1902), ''Dartmouth Alumni Magazine'' (December 1964), and ''Meayrs (May 1971) as "The bleedin' sparrer": {{Poem quote|We ‘ad a bleedin’ sparrer wot Lived up a bleedin’ spaht One day the bleedin’ rain came dahn An’ washed the bleeder aht. An’ as 'e layed ‘arf drahnded Dahn in the bleedin’ street ‘E begged that bleedin’ rainstorm To bave ‘is bleedin’ feet. But then the bleedin’ sun came aht Dried up the bleedin’ rain So that bleedin’ little sparrer ‘E climbs up ‘is spaht again. But, Oh! - the cruel sparrer ‘awk ‘E spies ‘im in ‘is snuggery ‘E sharpens up ‘is bleedin’ claws An’ rips ‘im aht by thuggery. Jist then a bleedin’ sportin’ type Wot ‘ad a bleedin’ gun ‘E spots that bleedin’ sparrer ‘awk An’ blasts ‘is bleedin’ fun. The moral of the story Is plain to everyone... That them wot’s up the bleedin’ spaht Don’t get no bleedin’ fun. }} The bloody sparrow version can be found in aircraft books and magazines such as ''Fighter Pilots Songbook Black Widow Squadron'' (1963), ''354th Tactical Fighter Squadron Training Manual'' (1967), ''46th Tactical Fighter Squadron Songbook'' (1970), and ''Flight magazine'' (January 19, 1922). It also appeared in films such as ''[[The Hill (1965 film)|The Hill]]'' (1965), and ''[[White Pongo]]'' (1945). One of the bloody-rooting spider references was founded in newspapers and books such as ''Cornell Countryman'' - Volumes 41-44 (1945), ''National Sportsman'' - Volume 77 (1937), and ''Blow the Candle Out'' (1955). The Finland spider named, ''Hämä-hämä-häkki'' can be found in A.S. Packard, Jr.'s 1873 book ''Our Common Insects''. The term "itsy-bitsy" originated in the late 19th century as a reduplicated baby-talk alteration of "little bit". The components "itty" (a variant of little) and "bitsy" (a variant of bit) first appeared in print independently in 1798, 1850, 1875, and 1883, respectively, eventually merging into the popular phrase by 1882. The creaky sparrow version have founded in a 1780 book ''The Charles ''. A version of a [[halloween]] sparrow was founded in an 1882 opera called ''The House of the Pumpkin Tree'' that premiered at the [[Niblo's Garden]]. The opera was particularly successfull, the halloween song survived and flourished, and versions can be heard in later ballad operas and musical theaters, including ''The Perfect Girl'' (1889), ''The Rage of the Mansion'' (1892), ''The Playhouse'' (1895), ''The Emergency'' (1897) and ''The Dancing Majors'' (1904). A creeky sparrow version was published in 1972 in Missouri reported said a guest suffered injuries when falling out of a ride vehicle in a [[Silver Dollar City]] ride [[Fire in the Hole (1972 roller coaster)|Fire in the Hole]] reuses the version: <poem style="margin-left: 2em;">There was a creeky sparrow Went up a creeky spout The heavy rain came down Washed the sparrow out The sun came out Dried up all the rain The creeky sparrow Went up that spout again. </poem> The famous collector J. J. Carty's create a version in 1922 in ''The Bell System technical journal'' and the lyrics began with the following verse: <poem style="margin-left: 2em;">The bloody spider, Went up a spout, The bleeding rain came down, Washed the spider out, Out came the sun, Dried up all the rain, The bloody spider, Went up that spout again. </poem> A reference to the bloody sparrow in this ''Universal Weekly'' magazine published in 1925 attributing the poem to a Hollywood: <poem style="margin-left:2em;"> He was a bloody sparrow Came up a bloody spout There came a rain Washed the buggy out In a bloody sun, They stopped the bloody rain; The bloody little sparrow Went up the spout again.</poem> Perhaps, the recorded version of the song, when guest suffered injuries when falling out of a ride vehicle, in a 1978 ride, [[Blazing Fury]]: <poem style="margin-left: 2em;">There was a bloody sparrow Went up a blooming spout The heavy rain came down Washed the sparrow out The sun came out Dried up all the rain The bloody sparrow Went up that spout again. </poem> {{listen | type = music | image = none | help = no | filename = Four Ruffles and Flourishes and Hail Columbia.ogg | title = Hail, Columbia | filename2 = Chopin, Nocturne in C-sharp minor, Op. Posth.ogg | title2 = Nocturne in C-sharp minor, Op. posth. (Chopin) | filename3 = Alouette.mid | title3 = Alouette | filename4 = Spannenlanger Hansel.mid | tile4 = Spannenlanger Hansel | description4 = These songs uses the same tune of "Itsy Bitsy Spider". }} The song is sung by and for children in countless languages and cultures. It is similar to the melodies ([[metric line]]) of the songs, "[[Hail, Columbia]]", "[[Chopin, Nocturne in C-sharp minor, Op. Posth]]", "[[Alouette (song)|Alouette]]", "[[Down by the Station]]", "Climbing Up the Golden Stairs", "Sweetly Sings the Donkey" in the United States, and "{{ill|Auf der Mauer, auf der Lauer|de}}" (1890), "Ich bin ein kleiner Esel" ("I'm a little donkey", the German-language version of "Sweetly Sings the Donkey") and "{{ill|Spannenlanger Hansel|de}}" (1838) (see: [[Hansel and Gretel]]) in German-speaking countries. == Score == <score sound raw> \header { tagline = ##f } \layout { indent = 0\cm \context { \Score \remove "Bar_number_engraver" } } global = { \key g \major \time 6/8 \partial 8 } right = \relative g' { \global d8 | g4 g8 g4 a8 | b4. b4 b8 | a4 g8 a4 b8 | g2. | b4. b4 c8 | d4. d | c4 b8 c4 d8 b2. | g4. g4 a8 | b4. b | a4 g8 a4 b8 | g4. fis4 fis8 | g4 g8 g4 a8 | b4. b4 b8 | a4 g8 a4 b8 | g4. ~g4 \bar "|." } left = \relative g { \global d'8 | g,4 r8 <b d>4 r8 | g4 r8 <b d>4 r8 | fis4 r8 <c' d>4 r8 | g4 r8 <b d>4 r8 | g4 r8 d'4 c8 | b4 a8 g4. | fis4 r8 <c' d>4 r8 | g4 r8 <b d>4 r8 | g4 r8 <b d>4 r8 | g4 r8 <b d>4 r8 | fis4 r8 <c' d>4 r8 | g4 r8 d'4 d8 | g,4 r8 b4 a8 | g8 b c d4 r8 | fis,4 r8 <c' d>4 r8 | <g b>4. ~<g b>4 \bar "|." } verse = \lyricmode { The it -- sy bit -- sy spi -- der crawled up the wa -- ter spout. Down came the rain and washed the spi -- der out! Up came the sun and dried up all the rain. And the it -- sy bit -- sy spi -- der went up the spout a -- gain. } kords = \chordmode { \set ChordNames.midiInstrument = "acoustic guitar (steel)" \set chordChanges = ##t d,8 | g,2. | g,2. | d,2.:7 | g,2. | \set chordChanges = ##f g,2. | d,2.:7 | \set chordChanges = ##t d,2.:7 | g,2. | \set chordChanges = ##f g,2. | e,2.:m | \set chordChanges = ##t e,2.:m | g,2. | g,2. | g,2. | d,2.:7 | g,4. ~g,4 \bar "|." } \score { \new PianoStaff << \new ChordNames { \kords } \new Staff = "right" \with { midiInstrument = "clarinet" } \right \addlyrics { \verse } \new Staff = "left" \with { midiInstrument = "acoustic grand" } { \clef bass \left } >> \layout { } \midi { \context { \ChordNames midiMaximumVolume = #0.8 } \tempo 4.=112 } } </score> ==Videos== <gallery widths="400" heights="300" showfilename="yes"> File:Itsy Bitsy Spider - La Araña Pequeñita.webm|American variant with American accent, followed by Spanish language version. File:Insey winsey spider song video.webm|British variant, American accent </gallery> == References == # https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/97265265 # https://www.bbc.co.uk/teach/school-radio/nursery-rhymes-incy-wincy-spider/zr4yt39 # https://www.ladbible.com/community/incy-wincy-spider-dark-meaning-543924-20230113 # http://www.datsplat.com/words-to-the-itsy-bitsy-spider/ {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260215052014/https://www.datsplat.com/words-to-the-itsy-bitsy-spider/ |date=2026-02-15 }} # https://archive.org/details/campcaminoinlowe00nort_0#page/n338/mode/2up # https://archive.org/details/camptrail01whit#page/n203/mode/2up # https://archive.org/details/journalofamefolk32ameruoft#page/n445/mode/2up # https://www.jstor.org/stable/1496690 # https://archive.org/details/americanfolksong0000seeg/page/126/mode/2up # https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/000977986 # https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wZMq75G7MpQ # https://archive.org/details/pearl_1-6/page/n178/mode/2up # https://archive.org/details/millsapscollegepurpleandwhite19081909_201509#page/n54/mode/2up # https://books.google.com/books?id=0e0TAAAAIAAJ&pg=RA2-PA105 # https://www.in.gov/history/files/publichealth.pdf # https://dh.howard.edu/hugradpro/59/ # https://books.google.com/books?id=FvqDbf4az0IC&pg=PA24&source=gbs_toc_r&cad=2 # https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.a0004602793 # https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=iau.31858055201887 # https://archive.org/details/baltimoreohioemp01balt#page/n584mode # https://archive.org/details/variety84-1926-08#page/n110mode # https://books.google.com/books?id=Fl8wAQAAMAAJ&pg=RA12-PA35&dq=There+Was+a+Bloomin+Sparra&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwisl86H-qiFAxWWj4kEHfpJAi0Q6AF6BAgEEAI#v=onepage&q=There%20Was%20a%20Bloomin%20Sparra&f=false # https://www.virginiachronicle.com/?a=d&d=VPTNL19131103.1.6&e=-------en-20--61--txt-txIN-bloody+sparrow-------- # https://archive.org/details/reminiscences02hodg#page/n382/mode/2up # https://archive.org/details/1945applesofeden/page/n11/mode/2up # https://archive.org/details/gustavmahlersymp0000flor # https://www.google.com/books/edition/_/q9kRAAAAYAAJ?hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjshtWy3rSUAxUpmokEHY_AKhwQre8FegQIAxABpg=RA2-PA29 # https://gahistoricnewspapers.galileo.usg.edu/lccn/sn89053289/1882-08-25/ed-1/seq-6/ # https://newspaperarchive.com/brownstown-banner-aug-10-1882-p-1/ # https://washingtondigitalnewspapers.org/?a=d&d=PUGSNDML18820812.1.4& # https://archive.org/details/xt786688k30x/page/n0/mode/2up # https://archive.org/details/sim_judge_1884-07-26_6_145/page/n5/mode/2up # https://archive.org/details/sim_national-police-gazette_1884-11-01_45_371/page/n1/mode/2up # # https://archive.org/details/per_new-york-dramatic-mirror_the-new-york-mirror_1888-07-28_20_500/page/n2/mode/2up # https://archive.org/details/1889thestampworld1/page/n33/mode/2up # https://archive.org/details/per_atlanta-constitution_1889-07-20_21/page/n3/mode/2up # https://gahistoricnewspapers.galileo.usg.edu/lccn/sn84024799/1889-07-21/ed-1/seq-2/ # https://newspaperarchive.com/monroe-daily-independent-jul-22-1889-p-1/ # https://books.google.com/books?id=QuYRAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA418&dq=bloody+sparrow+went+up+the+bloody+spout&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj27r_fiLuVAxX3D1kFHRp2PY0Q6AF6BAgKEAM # https://gahistoricnewspapers.galileo.usg.edu/lccn/sn89053183/1889-08-18/ed-1/seq-4/#words=bloody+sparrow # https://www.google.com/goto?url=CAESnwEB7keqTcxDew0Sv9UZTOu-pDaP4rQbjGhOXSX7zVsIr7NdOGQAj0RrTbxI9xG4ZacFo5eXc6qr4hx5XJ3n9j-BkHaKk7FWwjxC7YkVAN2fUSFkHRYHyUt-nhm_G4vejgfE6eDdOwIdCr8L2ghvwwVAg1UeSNjXEE2U8-tcJyUXxrz1LQBrdzlSQ8RdQUK0ySQC618j3URiwvY-qsHcJoM= # https://www.virginiachronicle.com/?a=d&d=ATB18820901.1.4&e=-------en-20--21--txt-txIN-bloody+sparrow-------- # https://www.nyshistoricnewspapers.org/?a=d&d=tew18940609-03.1.4&e=-------en-20--1--txt-txIN-bloody+sparrow+went+the+spout--------- # https://books.google.com/books?id=uLNZAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA36&dq=bloody+sparrow+went+up+the+bloody+spout&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwibhvjUibuVAxXQFVkFHfWxCho4ChDoAXoECAgQAw # https://books.google.com/books?id=n7znAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA7&dq=bloody+sparrow+went+up+the+bloody+spout&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj27r_fiLuVAxX3D1kFHRp2PY0Q6AF6BAgJEAM # https://books.google.com/books?id=4CcgAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA95&dq=bloody+sparrow+went+up+the+bloody+spout&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj27r_fiLuVAxX3D1kFHRp2PY0Q6AF6BAgQEAM # https://books.google.com/books?id=iL00AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA101&dq=bloody+sparrow+went+up+the+bloody+spout&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj27r_fiLuVAxX3D1kFHRp2PY0Q6AF6BAgMEAM # https://books.google.com/books?id=evk8AAAAIAAJ&q=bloody+sparrow+went+up+the+bloody+spout&dq=bloody+sparrow+went+up+the+bloody+spout&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&printsec=frontcover&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj27r_fiLuVAxX3D1kFHRp2PY0Q6AF6BAgPEAM # https://books.google.com/books?id=S8qVjIE-trwC&pg=RA8-PA15&dq=bloody+sparrow+went+up+the+bloody+spout&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjE-tSairuVAxXRFVkFHdKKN4s4ChDoAXoECA4QAw # https://books.google.com/books?id=GAtli-kuoggC&pg=PA1750&dq=bloody+sparrow+went+up+the+bloody+spout&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjE-tSairuVAxXRFVkFHdKKN4s4ChDoAXoECAsQAw # https://books.google.com/books?id=_DZmYt6D-i4C&pg=RA15-PA15&dq=bloody+sparrow+went+up+the+bloody+spout&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjE-tSairuVAxXRFVkFHdKKN4s4ChDoAXoECAwQAw # https://books.google.com/books?id=4Fg1AAAAMAAJ&q=bloody+sparrow+went+up+the+bloody+spout&dq=bloody+sparrow+went+up+the+bloody+spout&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&printsec=frontcover&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjE-tSairuVAxXRFVkFHdKKN4s4ChDoAXoECAkQAw # https://books.google.com/books?id=r4daAAAAMAAJ&q=bloody+sparrow+went+up+the+bloody+spout&dq=bloody+sparrow+went+up+the+bloody+spout&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&printsec=frontcover&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjE-tSairuVAxXRFVkFHdKKN4s4ChDoAXoECBAQAw # https://books.google.com/books?id=RoPmAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA300-IA1&dq=blooming+sparrow&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwigmMHviLuVAxW1M1kFHbp-PaUQ6AF6BAgMEAM # https://books.google.com/books?id=lTEZAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA46&dq=blooming+sparrow&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwigmMHviLuVAxW1M1kFHbp-PaUQ6AF6BAgKEAM # https://books.google.com/books?id=ouUnAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA235&dq=blooming+sparrow&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwigmMHviLuVAxW1M1kFHbp-PaUQ6AF6BAgIEAM # https://archive.org/details/californiapoemss00haag/page/n61/mode/2up # https://archive.org/details/v5universityofot1902univ/page/n155/mode/2up # https://archive.org/details/gallovidianannua0000doro/page/87/mode/2up # https://archive.org/details/McGillLibrary-mcgill-daily-v04-n116-march-06-1915-5927/page/n1/mode/2up # https://archive.org/details/archonmar1914dumm/page/125/mode/2up/ # https://books.google.com/books?id=hsPTzwM6p9QC&pg=PA177&dq=blooming+sparrow&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiU5J3s8smVAxW7EFkFHXTRE0MQ6AF6BAgOEAM # https://books.google.com/books?id=0xDnAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA270&dq=bloody+sparrow+went+up+a+blooming+spout&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj2qYaX9MmVAxVglIkEHVybOpYQ6AF6BAgJEAM # https://books.google.com/books?id=ADqRn3ucaBQC&pg=PA479&dq=bloody+sparrow+went+up+a+bloody+spout&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjAiNnR9MmVAxXTrokEHRTuJ_MQ6AF6BAgHEAM # https://archive.org/stream/americaswarforhu00newy/americaswarforhu00newy#page/n255/mode/1up # https://books.google.com/books?id=izcIAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA100&dq=bloomin+sparrow&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiS2OrIzeWVAxWYj4kEHQXqJwg4ChDoAXoECAwQAw # https://books.google.com/books?id=hzJEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA446&dq=bloomin+sparrow&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiS2OrIzeWVAxWYj4kEHQXqJwg4ChDoAXoECAcQAw # https://books.google.com/books?id=alNBAQAAMAAJ&q=sparrow+spout+wind+and+rain&dq=sparrow+spout+wind+and+rain&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&printsec=frontcover&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwigirjyou-VAxVarYkEHQ1iNYQ4ChDoAXoECAcQAw # https://books.google.com/books?id=xphPAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA222&dq=sparrer+went+up+the+spout&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwic29Lvn--VAxV2D1kFHVhmGvUQ6AF6BAgNEAM # https://books.google.com/books?id=qOdw7iaMDIkC&pg=PT148&dq=sparrer+went+up+the+spout&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwic29Lvn--VAxV2D1kFHVhmGvUQ6AF6BAgJEAM # https://books.google.com/books?id=QERsPn0nN-YC&pg=PA272&dq=sparrer+went+up+the+spout&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwic29Lvn--VAxV2D1kFHVhmGvUQ6AF6BAgKEAM # https://books.google.com/books?id=k1hvhzk5QgcC&pg=PA87&dq=sparrer+went+up+the+spout&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwic29Lvn--VAxV2D1kFHVhmGvUQ6AF6BAgMEAM # https://books.google.com/books?id=G0ZHAAAAYAAJ&q=sparrer+went+up+the+spout&dq=sparrer+went+up+the+spout&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&printsec=frontcover&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiFpJL1oe-VAxUilYkEHbAPGvk4ChDoAXoECAcQAw # https://books.google.com/books?id=zgrPAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA118&dq=sparrow+built+up+a+spout&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjKvvKnou-VAxWvk4kEHQTtCIIQ6AF6BAgJEAM # https://books.google.com/books?id=nbud7Dw4STgC&pg=PA102&dq=the+spider+and+the+spout&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjb9p7Go--VAxXA5ckDHfz1HfoQ6AF6BAgIEAM # https://books.google.com/books?id=SedOAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA32&dq=spider+and+the+spout&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiX5-Ts5YSWAxWsjIkEHT1HHy44ChDoAXoECAsQAw # https://books.google.com/books?id=SRPOAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA196&dq=spider+and+the+spout&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiX5-Ts5YSWAxWsjIkEHT1HHy44ChDoAXoECA0QAw # https://books.google.com/books?id=NLPxaOceu2sC&pg=PA139&dq=spider+and+the+spout&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj47qGC5oSWAxX1m4kEHcGAHzY4HhDoAXoECAwQAw # https://books.google.com/books?id=BDdUM-1YpAsC&q=there+was+a+sparrow+went+up+a+spout&dq=there+was+a+sparrow+went+up+a+spout&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&printsec=frontcover&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjko6yG6JKWAxXbF2IAHXv6JHs4WhDoAXoECAsQAw # https://books.google.com/books?id=ODBMAAAAIAAJ&q=there+was+a+sparrow+went+up+a+spout&dq=there+was+a+sparrow+went+up+a+spout&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&printsec=frontcover&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiv6P-A6JKWAxXbKlkFHVudK_E4UBDoAXoECAwQAw # https://books.google.com/books?id=uuk6AAAAMAAJ&q=There+was+a+bloomin+sparra&dq=There+was+a+bloomin+sparra&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&printsec=frontcover&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwil-K3Kw-OWAxXlLlkFHRqBLCE4FBDoAXoECBIQAw # https://books.google.com/books?id=vA8xAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA149&dq=spider+and+the+went+up+the+spout+again&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiGjpvc55KWAxWkLFkFHapeKDc4KBDoAXoECBAQAw # https://books.google.com/books?id=pUFIAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA236&dq=there+was+a+sparrow+went+up+a+spout&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwil1eqc6JKWAxWkGVkFHXi_Dxw4MhDoAXoECBAQAw # https://books.google.com/books?id=Y7IcAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA277&dq=bloomin+sparrow+blasted+spout&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwi-5M_W6JKWAxUUGlkFHYcUFhk4ChDoAXoECAkQAw # https://archive.org/details/dixon-evening-telegraph-1911-04-03/page/n5/mode/2up #https://archive.org/details/dec2191302dulu/page/n79/mode/2up # https://archive.org/details/norwichbulletinj00bull_2/page/n234/mode/2up # https://archive.dartmouthalumnimagazine.com/article/1964/12/1/1911 # https://www.blipfoto.com/entry/2182029548168679413 # https://archive.org/details/1963fighterpilotssongbookblackwidowsquadron#page/n138/mode/2up #https://archive.org/details/1967354thtacticalfightersdrntrainingmanual/page/n131/mode/2up # https://archive.org/details/1970s-46thtacticalfightersquadronsongbookfromreeves/page/n135/mode/2up # https://archive.org/details/Flight_International_Magazine_1922-01-19-pdf/page/n7/mode/2up # https://ok.ru/video/7961626544846?st._aid=VideoState_open_search # https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1R6jSub-f8g&t=488s # https://books.google.com/books?id=FMbweex1qNEC&q=bloody+spider+went+up+the+bloody+spout&dq=bloody+spider+went+up+the+bloody+spout&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&printsec=frontcover&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiy4NP1h7uVAxU5FVkFHd0VFVMQ6AF6BAgLEAM # https://books.google.com/books?id=adAcAQAAMAAJ&q=bloody+spider+went+up+the+bloody+spout&dq=bloody+spider+went+up+the+bloody+spout&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&printsec=frontcover&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiy4NP1h7uVAxU5FVkFHd0VFVMQ6AF6BAgQEAM # https://books.google.com/books?id=S93LdPw2KP0C&pg=PA676&dq=bloody+spider+went+up+the+bloody+spout&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiy4NP1h7uVAxU5FVkFHd0VFVMQ6AF6BAgHEAM # https://archive.org/details/ourcommoninsects00packrich#page/n17/mode/2up # https://www.google.com/goto?url=CAESTQHuR6pNypATq0YkuRkHv5LBnlE7LYWD3BYZjzGmCoRYYMGf-l6J4WaKQcECMyIY0xEyFq2rOYusTJq0N4Wp-jRSdRieAejxoyS_uVYI # https://www.google.com/goto?url=CAESUAHuR6pNhoMIuFt1JnLijLZFer9VaiY5he5xIEKwCsEVv00Cpb0oaAXZhjmf0kPctxirPRFjdwLk-Zpo49plSE9fZw6B-V5MkiaJQD70uVDC # https://archive.org/details/americanwarfrom100smit#page/n174/mode/2up # https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6wBdjLMM7Ns # https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-kansas-city-times-injured-on-silver/66919121/ # https://archive.org/details/bellsystemtechni08amerrich#page/n616mode # https://archive.org/details/universalweekly100movi_3/page/n430/mode/1up#page/n430mode # https://www.reddit.com/r/Dollywood/comments/1ltvp75/blazing_fury_during_late_70s_and_early_80s/ # https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=M8edn8lOi78&pp=0gcJCZkLAYcqIYzv # https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PHpHx0Zszn4&ab_channel=MarkusBrylka # https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L_hFw_cWg9U # https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LRV-797awEQ # https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SOKxVWqW1Fk # https://www.candomusic.ca/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/sweetly-sings-the-donkey-pdf.pdf # http://www.labbe.de/liederbaum/index.asp?themaid=23&titelid=120 # https://www.mamalisa.com/?t=es&p=3723 # https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CFcobdL8aO8 # https://makingmusicfun.net/public/assets/pdf/sheet_music/itsy-bitsy-spider-piano.pdf ==Elsewhere in the Wikiverse== * [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Itsy_Bitsy_Spider 'Itsy Bitsy Spider' on Wikipedia] [[Category:Nursery Rhymes and Songs]] p4g1s0ns1693wt1ydvmw9r3ozj9ezjc 2832719 2832718 2026-09-10T21:05:28Z ~2026-48890-90 3110836 2832719 wikitext text/x-wiki "'''The Itsy Bitsy Spider'''" (also known as "'''The Incey Wincey Spider'''" in Australia or "'''Incy Wincy Spider'''" in the United Kingdom, and other anglophone countries) is a popular [[nursery rhyme]], [[folksong]], and [[fingerplay]] that describes the adventures of a [[spider]] as it ascends, descends, and re-ascends the downspout or "waterspout" of a [[Rain gutter|gutter]] system or, alternatively, the spout of a [[teapot]], or open-air reservoir. It is usually accompanied by a sequence of gestures that mimic the words of the song. One claim says that the rhyme is based on a song called “Tipsy Dipsy Hobo” and was a reference to the [[Safety|dangers]] of a [[person]] getting [[drunk]] and trying to climb on board of [[trains]], risking a fatal [[injury]]. But it doesn’t appear to be any credible source for this interpretation. ==Lyrics== A commonly used version uses these words and gestures: {| !Words!!Fingerplay |- |<poem>The itsy bitsy spider climbed up the waterspout. Down came the rain And washed the spider out. Out came the sun And dried up all the rain And the itsy bitsy spider climbed up the spout again.</poem> |style="padding-left:2em;"|<poem>Alternately touch the thumb of one hand to the index finger of the other. Hold both hands up and wiggle the fingers as the hands are lowered. Sweep the hands from side to side. Raise both hands and sweep to the sides to form a semicircle as the sun. Wiggle fingers upwards. (As in the first line)</poem> |} ===British variant=== <poem> The incy wincy spider climbed up the water spout, ''(Touch left thumb to right forefinger, then left forefinger to right thumb, whilst moving hands upwards)'' Down came the rain and washed the spider out. ''(Wiggle fingers of both hands, palm out, whilst moving hands down; then make sweeping motion with both hands, center outwards)'' Out came the sun and dried up all the rain, ''(Lifting motion with both hands)'' And the incy wincy spider climbed up the spout again. ''(Touch left thumb to right forefinger, then left forefinger to right thumb, whilst moving hands upwards)'' </poem> Other versions exist. == Origin == The origin for the song is unknown. It was first published in musical publications, such as the earliest known recorded version in the book ''Camp and Camino in Lower California, A Record of The Adventures of The Author While Exploring [[Baja California peninsula|Peninsular California, Mexico]]'' (1910), by Arthur Walbridge North (1874–1943), page 279-280, where it is referred to as (the classic) "The Spider Song". It appears to be a more adult version of this song using "blooming, bloody" instead of "itsy bitsy". Another printed versions appeared in ''Camp and Trail'' (1911), and ''Journal of [[American Folklore]]'' (1920). It was later published in one of its song's several modern versions in [[Western Folklore]], by the ''California Folklore Society'' (1947), [[Mike Seeger|Mike]], [[Peggy Seeger|Peggy]], and [[Ruth Crawford Seeger]]'s ''American Folk Songs for Children'' (1948), and in ''The Growing Family : A Guide for Parents'' by [[Maxwell Slutz Stewart]] (1955). Lyrics as described the version in 1910 as they were originally found in a book, which was as the 'classic' "The Spider Song": <poem style="margin-left: 2em;">Oh, the blooming, bloody spider went up the spider web, The blooming, bloody rain came down and washed the spider out, The blooming, bloody sun came out and dried up all the rain, And the blooming, bloody spider came up the spout again.</poem> A similar ribald version featuring a bloody [[sparrow]] instead of a spider was recorded on December 15, 1879 issue in a [[London]] magazine ''The Pearl'' which goes like this: <poem style="margin-left:2em;"> He was a bloody sparrow Lived up a bloody spout There came a bloody [[thunderstorm]] And washed the bugger out! But in a bloody minute, They stopped the bloody rain; So the bloody little sparrow Went up the spout again.</poem> The song later appeared in publications such as ''The Purple and White at Millsaps College'' (1909) ''Proceedings of the ... Convention of the Indiana Sanitary and Water Supply Association'' (1912), ''Howard University Program'' (1912), ''Camp Fire Girls'' (1912), ''The Oregon Teachers Monthly'' (1912), ''The Chautauquan'' (1912), ''Baltimore and Ohio Employees Railroad Company Magazine'' (1913) and ''Variety (August 1926)''. A version appeared in ''[[Collier's]]'' magazine in December 1913 was describes as a "deathless Cockney lyric", while it printed a version in the ''Virginian-Pilot and the Norfolk Landmark'' - Volume 49 (November 3, 1913). A reference to the bloody sparrow in this book called ''Reminiscences: Volume One'', by John Orlando Hodge (1828-1912), published in 1902 attributing the poem to a MA is a Harry L. Veil, in Cleveland, Ohio. Also, it was printed in a 1945 book called ''Apples of Eden: A Private Collection of American Folk-Lore''. In ''[[Symphony No. 4 (Mahler)|Mahler's Symphony No. 4]]'' (1901), Floros divides the movement into five main parts (A – B – A{{sup|1}} – B{{sup|1}} – A{{sup|2}}) followed by a coda. The first theme in G major is played in the beginning of part A by the cellos, a version from 1901 goes like this: <poem style="margin-left: 2em;">Oh! the blooming blasted sparrow went up the oak tree, The blooming, blasted rain came down and washed the sparrow out, The blooming, blasted sun came out and dried up all the rain, And the blooming, blasted sparrow came up the tree again!</poem> Some historians think the rhyme may date back to a 1908 magazine ''The Children's Friend'': <poem style="margin-left: 2em;">There was a bloody spider Went up a bloody spout There came the rain And washed the spider out The bloody sun And dried up all the rain But that bloody blooming son of a gun Went up that spout again. </poem> Later, versions of the spider-sparrow where printed in newspapers, journals, include ''The True Citizen'' (August 25, 1882), ''Brownstown Banner'' (August 10, 1882), ''The Puget Sound Mail'' (August 12, 1882), ''Hickman courier'' (August 11, 1882) ''The Judge'' (July 26, 1884), ''The National Police Gazette'' (November 1, 1884), ''The New York Mirror'' (July 28, 1888), ''The Stamp World: Vol. V-VI'' (July 1889) ''The Atlanta Constitution'' (July 20, 1889), ''Columbus, Enquirer-Sun'' (July 21, 1889), ''Monroe Daily Independent'' (July 22, 1889), ''The Theatre'' - Volume 5 (1888-1889), ''The Griffin Daily News and Sun'' (August 18, 1889), ''Morris Tribune'' (October 2, 1889), ''Alleghany Tribune'' - Volume 4 (September 1, 1882), ''The Evening World'' (June 9, 1894), ''The American Slang Dictionary'' (1891), ''The Papyrus'' - Volume 1 (1907), ''Chance Hits'' (1915), ''National Floodmarks'' (1915), ''The Inside Track'' - Volumes 8-9 (1929), ''American Cattle Producer'' - Volume 5 (1924), ''Commerce and Finance'' - Volume 16 (1927), ''The Producer'' - Volumes 5-6 (1923), ''The Axe-thrower of the Tittabawassee'' (1935), ''The Merrill Studies in The Bridge'' (1970), ''The Autocar'' (1912),'' Odds and Ends of Prose and Verse'' (1902), ''Mekeel's Weekly Stamp News'' - Volume 28 (1914), ''The Santa Fe Magazine'' - Volume 34 (1939), ''California poems and selections'' (1916), ''University of Ottawa review'' (1902), ''The Gallovidian Annual'' (1932), ''The McGill Daily Vol. 04 No. 116: (March 6, 1915)'', ''Archon'' (1914), ''My Colonial Service in British Guiana, St. Lucia, Trinidad, Fiji, Australia, Newfoundland, and Hong Kong, with Interludes'' - Volume 2 (1903), ''Current Politics, Literature, Science and Art'' - Volume 2 (1884), ''Republic of Dreams Greenwich Village: The American Bohemia'' (2007), ''America's war for humanity related in story and picture'' (1898), ''Birds of Lakeside and Prairie'' (1901), ''Birds and Nature'' (1914), ''Specimens of Type, Borders, Ornaments'' (1892), ''Demorest's Monthly Magazine'' - Volume 31 (1894), ''The Robert W. Gordon "Inferno" Collection'' (1928), ''The Anatomy of Swearing'' (1967), ''Navy & Army Illustrated'' - Volume 9 (1899), ''Winged Wonders: A Celebration of Birds in Human History'' (2007), ''The Letters of Thomasina Atkins'' (1918), ''Songs for Lions'' (1929), ''Verse and Verse'' (1930), ''Camp Management: A Manual for Camp Directors'' (1923), ''Billy Whiskers and the Radio'' (1927), ''Record of Proceedings of the Annual Meeting'' (1935), ''Pantaloons and Antics; Or, Doodling with a Hermes'' (1964), ''Foxes and Physic'' (1962), ''Against the Wall'' (1929), ''Midland Schools Official Organ of the Iowa State Education Association'' - Volume 25 (1910), ''Fuel Magazine: The Coal Operators National Weekly'' - Volume 17 (1911), ''Dixon Evening Telegraph'' (April 3, 1911), ''The Duluth Herald'' (December 8, 1913), ''Norwich Bulletin (July 31, 1902), ''Dartmouth Alumni Magazine'' (December 1964), and ''Meayrs (May 1971) as "The bleedin' sparrer": {{Poem quote|We ‘ad a bleedin’ sparrer wot Lived up a bleedin’ spaht One day the bleedin’ rain came dahn An’ washed the bleeder aht. An’ as 'e layed ‘arf drahnded Dahn in the bleedin’ street ‘E begged that bleedin’ rainstorm To bave ‘is bleedin’ feet. But then the bleedin’ sun came aht Dried up the bleedin’ rain So that bleedin’ little sparrer ‘E climbs up ‘is spaht again. But, Oh! - the cruel sparrer ‘awk ‘E spies ‘im in ‘is snuggery ‘E sharpens up ‘is bleedin’ claws An’ rips ‘im aht by thuggery. Jist then a bleedin’ sportin’ type Wot ‘ad a bleedin’ gun ‘E spots that bleedin’ sparrer ‘awk An’ blasts ‘is bleedin’ fun. The moral of the story Is plain to everyone... That them wot’s up the bleedin’ spaht Don’t get no bleedin’ fun. }} The bloody sparrow version can be found in aircraft books and magazines such as ''Fighter Pilots Songbook Black Widow Squadron'' (1963), ''354th Tactical Fighter Squadron Training Manual'' (1967), ''46th Tactical Fighter Squadron Songbook'' (1970), and ''Flight magazine'' (January 19, 1922). It also appeared in films such as ''[[The Hill (1965 film)|The Hill]]'' (1965), and ''[[White Pongo]]'' (1945). One of the bloody-rooting spider references was founded in newspapers and books such as ''Cornell Countryman'' - Volumes 41-44 (1945), ''National Sportsman'' - Volume 77 (1937), and ''Blow the Candle Out'' (1955). The Finland spider named, ''Hämä-hämä-häkki'' can be found in A.S. Packard, Jr.'s 1873 book ''Our Common Insects''. The term "itsy-bitsy" originated in the late 19th century as a reduplicated baby-talk alteration of "little bit". The components "itty" (a variant of little) and "bitsy" (a variant of bit) first appeared in print independently in 1798, 1850, 1875, and 1883, respectively, eventually merging into the popular phrase by 1882. The creaky sparrow version have founded in a 1780 book ''The Charles ''. A version of a [[halloween]] sparrow was founded in an 1882 opera called ''The House of the Pumpkin Tree'' that premiered at the [[Niblo's Garden]]. The opera was particularly successfull, the halloween song survived and flourished, and versions can be heard in later ballad operas and musical theaters, including ''The Perfect Girl'' (1889), ''The Rage of the Mansion'' (1892), ''The Playhouse'' (1895), ''The Emergency'' (1897) and ''The Dancing Majors'' (1904). A creeky sparrow version was published in 1972 in Missouri reported said a guest suffered injuries when falling out of a ride vehicle in a [[Silver Dollar City]] ride [[Fire in the Hole (1972 roller coaster)|Fire in the Hole]] reuses the version: <poem style="margin-left: 2em;">There was a creeky sparrow Went up a creeky spout The heavy rain came down Washed the sparrow out The sun came out Dried up all the rain The creeky sparrow Went up that spout again. </poem> The famous collector J. J. Carty's create a version in 1922 in ''The Bell System technical journal'' and the lyrics began with the following verse: <poem style="margin-left: 2em;">The bloody spider, Went up a spout, The bleeding rain came down, Washed the spider out, Out came the sun, Dried up all the rain, The bloody spider, Went up that spout again. </poem> A reference to the bloody sparrow in this ''Universal Weekly'' magazine published in 1925 attributing the poem to a Hollywood: <poem style="margin-left:2em;"> He was a bloody sparrow Came up a bloody spout There came a rain Washed the buggy out In a bloody sun, They stopped the bloody rain; The bloody little sparrow Went up the spout again.</poem> Perhaps, the recorded version of the song, when guest suffered injuries when falling out of a ride vehicle, in a 1978 ride, [[Blazing Fury]]: <poem style="margin-left: 2em;">There was a bloody sparrow Went up a blooming spout The heavy rain came down Washed the sparrow out The sun came out Dried up all the rain The bloody sparrow Went up that spout again. </poem> {{listen | type = music | image = none | help = no | filename = Four Ruffles and Flourishes and Hail Columbia.ogg | title = Hail, Columbia | filename2 = Chopin, Nocturne in C-sharp minor, Op. Posth.ogg | title2 = Nocturne in C-sharp minor, Op. posth. (Chopin) | filename3 = Alouette.mid | title3 = Alouette | filename4 = Spannenlanger Hansel.mid | tile4 = Spannenlanger Hansel | description4 = These songs uses the same tune of "Itsy Bitsy Spider". }} The song is sung by and for children in countless languages and cultures. It is similar to the melodies ([[metric line]]) of the songs, "[[Hail, Columbia]]", "[[Chopin, Nocturne in C-sharp minor, Op. Posth]]", "[[Alouette (song)|Alouette]]", "[[Down by the Station]]", "Climbing Up the Golden Stairs", "Sweetly Sings the Donkey" in the United States, and "{{ill|Auf der Mauer, auf der Lauer|de}}" (1890), "Ich bin ein kleiner Esel" ("I'm a little donkey", the German-language version of "Sweetly Sings the Donkey") and "{{ill|Spannenlanger Hansel|de}}" (1838) (see: [[Hansel and Gretel]]) in German-speaking countries. == Score == <score sound raw> \header { tagline = ##f } \layout { indent = 0\cm \context { \Score \remove "Bar_number_engraver" } } global = { \key g \major \time 6/8 \partial 8 } right = \relative g' { \global d8 | g4 g8 g4 a8 | b4. b4 b8 | a4 g8 a4 b8 | g2. | b4. b4 c8 | d4. d | c4 b8 c4 d8 b2. | g4. g4 a8 | b4. b | a4 g8 a4 b8 | g4. fis4 fis8 | g4 g8 g4 a8 | b4. b4 b8 | a4 g8 a4 b8 | g4. ~g4 \bar "|." } left = \relative g { \global d'8 | g,4 r8 <b d>4 r8 | g4 r8 <b d>4 r8 | fis4 r8 <c' d>4 r8 | g4 r8 <b d>4 r8 | g4 r8 d'4 c8 | b4 a8 g4. | fis4 r8 <c' d>4 r8 | g4 r8 <b d>4 r8 | g4 r8 <b d>4 r8 | g4 r8 <b d>4 r8 | fis4 r8 <c' d>4 r8 | g4 r8 d'4 d8 | g,4 r8 b4 a8 | g8 b c d4 r8 | fis,4 r8 <c' d>4 r8 | <g b>4. ~<g b>4 \bar "|." } verse = \lyricmode { The it -- sy bit -- sy spi -- der crawled up the wa -- ter spout. Down came the rain and washed the spi -- der out! Up came the sun and dried up all the rain. And the it -- sy bit -- sy spi -- der went up the spout a -- gain. } kords = \chordmode { \set ChordNames.midiInstrument = "acoustic guitar (steel)" \set chordChanges = ##t d,8 | g,2. | g,2. | d,2.:7 | g,2. | \set chordChanges = ##f g,2. | d,2.:7 | \set chordChanges = ##t d,2.:7 | g,2. | \set chordChanges = ##f g,2. | e,2.:m | \set chordChanges = ##t e,2.:m | g,2. | g,2. | g,2. | d,2.:7 | g,4. ~g,4 \bar "|." } \score { \new PianoStaff << \new ChordNames { \kords } \new Staff = "right" \with { midiInstrument = "clarinet" } \right \addlyrics { \verse } \new Staff = "left" \with { midiInstrument = "acoustic grand" } { \clef bass \left } >> \layout { } \midi { \context { \ChordNames midiMaximumVolume = #0.8 } \tempo 4.=112 } } </score> ==Videos== <gallery widths="400" heights="300" showfilename="yes"> File:Itsy Bitsy Spider - La Araña Pequeñita.webm|American variant with American accent, followed by Spanish language version. File:Insey winsey spider song video.webm|British variant, American accent </gallery> == References == # https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/97265265 # https://www.bbc.co.uk/teach/school-radio/nursery-rhymes-incy-wincy-spider/zr4yt39 # https://www.ladbible.com/community/incy-wincy-spider-dark-meaning-543924-20230113 # http://www.datsplat.com/words-to-the-itsy-bitsy-spider/ {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260215052014/https://www.datsplat.com/words-to-the-itsy-bitsy-spider/ |date=2026-02-15 }} # https://archive.org/details/campcaminoinlowe00nort_0#page/n338/mode/2up # https://archive.org/details/camptrail01whit#page/n203/mode/2up # https://archive.org/details/journalofamefolk32ameruoft#page/n445/mode/2up # https://www.jstor.org/stable/1496690 # https://archive.org/details/americanfolksong0000seeg/page/126/mode/2up # https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/000977986 # https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wZMq75G7MpQ # https://archive.org/details/pearl_1-6/page/n178/mode/2up # https://archive.org/details/millsapscollegepurpleandwhite19081909_201509#page/n54/mode/2up # https://books.google.com/books?id=0e0TAAAAIAAJ&pg=RA2-PA105 # https://www.in.gov/history/files/publichealth.pdf # https://dh.howard.edu/hugradpro/59/ # https://books.google.com/books?id=FvqDbf4az0IC&pg=PA24&source=gbs_toc_r&cad=2 # https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.a0004602793 # https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=iau.31858055201887 # https://archive.org/details/baltimoreohioemp01balt#page/n584mode # https://archive.org/details/variety84-1926-08#page/n110mode # https://books.google.com/books?id=Fl8wAQAAMAAJ&pg=RA12-PA35&dq=There+Was+a+Bloomin+Sparra&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwisl86H-qiFAxWWj4kEHfpJAi0Q6AF6BAgEEAI#v=onepage&q=There%20Was%20a%20Bloomin%20Sparra&f=false # https://www.virginiachronicle.com/?a=d&d=VPTNL19131103.1.6&e=-------en-20--61--txt-txIN-bloody+sparrow-------- # https://archive.org/details/reminiscences02hodg#page/n382/mode/2up # https://archive.org/details/1945applesofeden/page/n11/mode/2up # https://archive.org/details/gustavmahlersymp0000flor # https://www.google.com/books/edition/_/q9kRAAAAYAAJ?hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjshtWy3rSUAxUpmokEHY_AKhwQre8FegQIAxABpg=RA2-PA29 # https://gahistoricnewspapers.galileo.usg.edu/lccn/sn89053289/1882-08-25/ed-1/seq-6/ # https://newspaperarchive.com/brownstown-banner-aug-10-1882-p-1/ # https://washingtondigitalnewspapers.org/?a=d&d=PUGSNDML18820812.1.4& # https://archive.org/details/xt786688k30x/page/n0/mode/2up # https://archive.org/details/sim_judge_1884-07-26_6_145/page/n5/mode/2up # https://archive.org/details/sim_national-police-gazette_1884-11-01_45_371/page/n1/mode/2up # # https://archive.org/details/per_new-york-dramatic-mirror_the-new-york-mirror_1888-07-28_20_500/page/n2/mode/2up # https://archive.org/details/1889thestampworld1/page/n33/mode/2up # https://archive.org/details/per_atlanta-constitution_1889-07-20_21/page/n3/mode/2up # https://gahistoricnewspapers.galileo.usg.edu/lccn/sn84024799/1889-07-21/ed-1/seq-2/ # https://newspaperarchive.com/monroe-daily-independent-jul-22-1889-p-1/ # https://books.google.com/books?id=QuYRAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA418&dq=bloody+sparrow+went+up+the+bloody+spout&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj27r_fiLuVAxX3D1kFHRp2PY0Q6AF6BAgKEAM # https://gahistoricnewspapers.galileo.usg.edu/lccn/sn89053183/1889-08-18/ed-1/seq-4/#words=bloody+sparrow # https://www.google.com/goto?url=CAESnwEB7keqTcxDew0Sv9UZTOu-pDaP4rQbjGhOXSX7zVsIr7NdOGQAj0RrTbxI9xG4ZacFo5eXc6qr4hx5XJ3n9j-BkHaKk7FWwjxC7YkVAN2fUSFkHRYHyUt-nhm_G4vejgfE6eDdOwIdCr8L2ghvwwVAg1UeSNjXEE2U8-tcJyUXxrz1LQBrdzlSQ8RdQUK0ySQC618j3URiwvY-qsHcJoM= # https://www.virginiachronicle.com/?a=d&d=ATB18820901.1.4&e=-------en-20--21--txt-txIN-bloody+sparrow-------- # https://www.nyshistoricnewspapers.org/?a=d&d=tew18940609-03.1.4&e=-------en-20--1--txt-txIN-bloody+sparrow+went+the+spout--------- # https://books.google.com/books?id=uLNZAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA36&dq=bloody+sparrow+went+up+the+bloody+spout&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwibhvjUibuVAxXQFVkFHfWxCho4ChDoAXoECAgQAw # https://books.google.com/books?id=n7znAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA7&dq=bloody+sparrow+went+up+the+bloody+spout&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj27r_fiLuVAxX3D1kFHRp2PY0Q6AF6BAgJEAM # https://books.google.com/books?id=4CcgAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA95&dq=bloody+sparrow+went+up+the+bloody+spout&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj27r_fiLuVAxX3D1kFHRp2PY0Q6AF6BAgQEAM # https://books.google.com/books?id=iL00AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA101&dq=bloody+sparrow+went+up+the+bloody+spout&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj27r_fiLuVAxX3D1kFHRp2PY0Q6AF6BAgMEAM # https://books.google.com/books?id=evk8AAAAIAAJ&q=bloody+sparrow+went+up+the+bloody+spout&dq=bloody+sparrow+went+up+the+bloody+spout&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&printsec=frontcover&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj27r_fiLuVAxX3D1kFHRp2PY0Q6AF6BAgPEAM # https://books.google.com/books?id=S8qVjIE-trwC&pg=RA8-PA15&dq=bloody+sparrow+went+up+the+bloody+spout&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjE-tSairuVAxXRFVkFHdKKN4s4ChDoAXoECA4QAw # https://books.google.com/books?id=GAtli-kuoggC&pg=PA1750&dq=bloody+sparrow+went+up+the+bloody+spout&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjE-tSairuVAxXRFVkFHdKKN4s4ChDoAXoECAsQAw # https://books.google.com/books?id=_DZmYt6D-i4C&pg=RA15-PA15&dq=bloody+sparrow+went+up+the+bloody+spout&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjE-tSairuVAxXRFVkFHdKKN4s4ChDoAXoECAwQAw # https://books.google.com/books?id=4Fg1AAAAMAAJ&q=bloody+sparrow+went+up+the+bloody+spout&dq=bloody+sparrow+went+up+the+bloody+spout&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&printsec=frontcover&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjE-tSairuVAxXRFVkFHdKKN4s4ChDoAXoECAkQAw # https://books.google.com/books?id=r4daAAAAMAAJ&q=bloody+sparrow+went+up+the+bloody+spout&dq=bloody+sparrow+went+up+the+bloody+spout&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&printsec=frontcover&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjE-tSairuVAxXRFVkFHdKKN4s4ChDoAXoECBAQAw # https://books.google.com/books?id=RoPmAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA300-IA1&dq=blooming+sparrow&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwigmMHviLuVAxW1M1kFHbp-PaUQ6AF6BAgMEAM # https://books.google.com/books?id=lTEZAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA46&dq=blooming+sparrow&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwigmMHviLuVAxW1M1kFHbp-PaUQ6AF6BAgKEAM # https://books.google.com/books?id=ouUnAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA235&dq=blooming+sparrow&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwigmMHviLuVAxW1M1kFHbp-PaUQ6AF6BAgIEAM # https://archive.org/details/californiapoemss00haag/page/n61/mode/2up # https://archive.org/details/v5universityofot1902univ/page/n155/mode/2up # https://archive.org/details/gallovidianannua0000doro/page/87/mode/2up # https://archive.org/details/McGillLibrary-mcgill-daily-v04-n116-march-06-1915-5927/page/n1/mode/2up # https://archive.org/details/archonmar1914dumm/page/125/mode/2up/ # https://books.google.com/books?id=hsPTzwM6p9QC&pg=PA177&dq=blooming+sparrow&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiU5J3s8smVAxW7EFkFHXTRE0MQ6AF6BAgOEAM # https://books.google.com/books?id=0xDnAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA270&dq=bloody+sparrow+went+up+a+blooming+spout&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj2qYaX9MmVAxVglIkEHVybOpYQ6AF6BAgJEAM # https://books.google.com/books?id=ADqRn3ucaBQC&pg=PA479&dq=bloody+sparrow+went+up+a+bloody+spout&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjAiNnR9MmVAxXTrokEHRTuJ_MQ6AF6BAgHEAM # https://archive.org/stream/americaswarforhu00newy/americaswarforhu00newy#page/n255/mode/1up # https://books.google.com/books?id=izcIAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA100&dq=bloomin+sparrow&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiS2OrIzeWVAxWYj4kEHQXqJwg4ChDoAXoECAwQAw # https://books.google.com/books?id=hzJEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA446&dq=bloomin+sparrow&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiS2OrIzeWVAxWYj4kEHQXqJwg4ChDoAXoECAcQAw # https://books.google.com/books?id=alNBAQAAMAAJ&q=sparrow+spout+wind+and+rain&dq=sparrow+spout+wind+and+rain&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&printsec=frontcover&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwigirjyou-VAxVarYkEHQ1iNYQ4ChDoAXoECAcQAw # https://books.google.com/books?id=xphPAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA222&dq=sparrer+went+up+the+spout&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwic29Lvn--VAxV2D1kFHVhmGvUQ6AF6BAgNEAM # https://books.google.com/books?id=qOdw7iaMDIkC&pg=PT148&dq=sparrer+went+up+the+spout&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwic29Lvn--VAxV2D1kFHVhmGvUQ6AF6BAgJEAM # https://books.google.com/books?id=QERsPn0nN-YC&pg=PA272&dq=sparrer+went+up+the+spout&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwic29Lvn--VAxV2D1kFHVhmGvUQ6AF6BAgKEAM # https://books.google.com/books?id=k1hvhzk5QgcC&pg=PA87&dq=sparrer+went+up+the+spout&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwic29Lvn--VAxV2D1kFHVhmGvUQ6AF6BAgMEAM # https://books.google.com/books?id=G0ZHAAAAYAAJ&q=sparrer+went+up+the+spout&dq=sparrer+went+up+the+spout&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&printsec=frontcover&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiFpJL1oe-VAxUilYkEHbAPGvk4ChDoAXoECAcQAw # https://books.google.com/books?id=zgrPAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA118&dq=sparrow+built+up+a+spout&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjKvvKnou-VAxWvk4kEHQTtCIIQ6AF6BAgJEAM # https://books.google.com/books?id=nbud7Dw4STgC&pg=PA102&dq=the+spider+and+the+spout&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjb9p7Go--VAxXA5ckDHfz1HfoQ6AF6BAgIEAM # https://books.google.com/books?id=SedOAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA32&dq=spider+and+the+spout&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiX5-Ts5YSWAxWsjIkEHT1HHy44ChDoAXoECAsQAw # https://books.google.com/books?id=SRPOAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA196&dq=spider+and+the+spout&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiX5-Ts5YSWAxWsjIkEHT1HHy44ChDoAXoECA0QAw # https://books.google.com/books?id=NLPxaOceu2sC&pg=PA139&dq=spider+and+the+spout&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj47qGC5oSWAxX1m4kEHcGAHzY4HhDoAXoECAwQAw # https://books.google.com/books?id=BDdUM-1YpAsC&q=there+was+a+sparrow+went+up+a+spout&dq=there+was+a+sparrow+went+up+a+spout&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&printsec=frontcover&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjko6yG6JKWAxXbF2IAHXv6JHs4WhDoAXoECAsQAw # https://books.google.com/books?id=ODBMAAAAIAAJ&q=there+was+a+sparrow+went+up+a+spout&dq=there+was+a+sparrow+went+up+a+spout&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&printsec=frontcover&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiv6P-A6JKWAxXbKlkFHVudK_E4UBDoAXoECAwQAw # https://books.google.com/books?id=uuk6AAAAMAAJ&q=There+was+a+bloomin+sparra&dq=There+was+a+bloomin+sparra&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&printsec=frontcover&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwil-K3Kw-OWAxXlLlkFHRqBLCE4FBDoAXoECBIQAw # https://books.google.com/books?id=vA8xAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA149&dq=spider+and+the+went+up+the+spout+again&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiGjpvc55KWAxWkLFkFHapeKDc4KBDoAXoECBAQAw # https://books.google.com/books?id=pUFIAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA236&dq=there+was+a+sparrow+went+up+a+spout&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwil1eqc6JKWAxWkGVkFHXi_Dxw4MhDoAXoECBAQAw # https://books.google.com/books?id=Y7IcAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA277&dq=bloomin+sparrow+blasted+spout&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwi-5M_W6JKWAxUUGlkFHYcUFhk4ChDoAXoECAkQAw # https://archive.org/details/dixon-evening-telegraph-1911-04-03/page/n5/mode/2up #https://archive.org/details/dec2191302dulu/page/n79/mode/2up # https://archive.org/details/norwichbulletinj00bull_2/page/n234/mode/2up # https://archive.dartmouthalumnimagazine.com/article/1964/12/1/1911 # https://www.blipfoto.com/entry/2182029548168679413 # https://archive.org/details/1963fighterpilotssongbookblackwidowsquadron#page/n138/mode/2up #https://archive.org/details/1967354thtacticalfightersdrntrainingmanual/page/n131/mode/2up # https://archive.org/details/1970s-46thtacticalfightersquadronsongbookfromreeves/page/n135/mode/2up # https://archive.org/details/Flight_International_Magazine_1922-01-19-pdf/page/n7/mode/2up # https://ok.ru/video/7961626544846?st._aid=VideoState_open_search # https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1R6jSub-f8g&t=488s # https://books.google.com/books?id=FMbweex1qNEC&q=bloody+spider+went+up+the+bloody+spout&dq=bloody+spider+went+up+the+bloody+spout&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&printsec=frontcover&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiy4NP1h7uVAxU5FVkFHd0VFVMQ6AF6BAgLEAM # https://books.google.com/books?id=adAcAQAAMAAJ&q=bloody+spider+went+up+the+bloody+spout&dq=bloody+spider+went+up+the+bloody+spout&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&printsec=frontcover&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiy4NP1h7uVAxU5FVkFHd0VFVMQ6AF6BAgQEAM # https://books.google.com/books?id=S93LdPw2KP0C&pg=PA676&dq=bloody+spider+went+up+the+bloody+spout&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiy4NP1h7uVAxU5FVkFHd0VFVMQ6AF6BAgHEAM # https://archive.org/details/ourcommoninsects00packrich#page/n17/mode/2up # https://www.google.com/goto?url=CAESTQHuR6pNypATq0YkuRkHv5LBnlE7LYWD3BYZjzGmCoRYYMGf-l6J4WaKQcECMyIY0xEyFq2rOYusTJq0N4Wp-jRSdRieAejxoyS_uVYI # https://www.google.com/goto?url=CAESUAHuR6pNhoMIuFt1JnLijLZFer9VaiY5he5xIEKwCsEVv00Cpb0oaAXZhjmf0kPctxirPRFjdwLk-Zpo49plSE9fZw6B-V5MkiaJQD70uVDC # https://archive.org/details/americanwarfrom100smit#page/n174/mode/2up # https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6wBdjLMM7Ns # https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-kansas-city-times-injured-on-silver/66919121/ # https://archive.org/details/bellsystemtechni08amerrich#page/n616mode # https://archive.org/details/universalweekly100movi_3/page/n430/mode/1up#page/n430mode # https://www.reddit.com/r/Dollywood/comments/1ltvp75/blazing_fury_during_late_70s_and_early_80s/ # https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=M8edn8lOi78&pp=0gcJCZkLAYcqIYzv # https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PHpHx0Zszn4&ab_channel=MarkusBrylka # https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L_hFw_cWg9U # https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LRV-797awEQ # https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SOKxVWqW1Fk # https://www.candomusic.ca/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/sweetly-sings-the-donkey-pdf.pdf # http://www.labbe.de/liederbaum/index.asp?themaid=23&titelid=120 # https://www.mamalisa.com/?t=es&p=3723 # https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CFcobdL8aO8 # https://makingmusicfun.net/public/assets/pdf/sheet_music/itsy-bitsy-spider-piano.pdf ==Elsewhere in the Wikiverse== * [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Itsy_Bitsy_Spider 'Itsy Bitsy Spider' on Wikipedia] [[Category:Nursery Rhymes and Songs]] kc6o3dw3dv64hah3npeij98ib1cjrwc 0 235272 2832742 2832481 2026-09-10T23:43:12Z The Citer 3110681 /* Marchantiophyta (Hepatophyta) */ 2832742 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Image:Diversity of plants (Streptophyta) version 2.png|thumb|300px|right|A sample of plant diversity.]] In botany, the equivalent of a Phylum is called a division. The Kingdom Plantae is divided into 13 Divisions. A Division (pl. Phyla) is the largest formal major grouping within plant taxonomy below kingdoms. This list is presented in alphabetical order, and not in any systematic/evolutionary arrangement. Science is by no means static. There are arguments of all sizes and shapes about the taxonomy of the Plant Divisions. Other sources may combine or split these listed Divisions. However, at this time, the list presented here should stand in good stead for an introduction to the topic of plant diversity. There are approximately 380,000 plant species that have been described by science. This list tries to give the following information on each Division: *Division Name *A link to a subpage discussing that Phylum in more detail (if it yet exists) *Name Meaning (in English) *An English Common Name, where one is in regular use *Distinguishing characteristics of plants within the Division *An approximate number of species described within that Division. Since botany does not stand still, this number can change. You can also see [[Introduction to Taxonomy]] for more on that topic. ==Anthocerotophyta== [[Image:Hornwort (3144429129).jpg|thumb|100px|right|Hornworts.]] [[/Anthocerotophyta/]] Name Meaning: Anthoceros-like plant English Common Name: Hornworts Major distinguishing characteristics: Horn-shaped sporophytes, no vascular system Approximate number of species described: 100-300 or more ==Bryophyta== [[Image:Mose09.jpg|thumb|100px|right|Moss, a bryophyte.]] [[/Bryophyta/]] Name Meaning: Bryum-like plant, moss plant English Common Name: Moss Major distinguishing characteristics: Persistent branched sporophytes, no vascular system Approximate number of species described: 12,000 ==Charophyta== [[Image:Chara overview.jpg|thumb|100px|right|''Chara'', a Charophyte.]] [[/Charophyta/]] Name Meaning: Chara-like plant English Common Name: Charophytes Major distinguishing characteristics: Approximate number of species described: 1,000 ==Chlorophyta== [[image:Bulletin de l'Acadmie impriale des sciences de St.-Ptersbourg (20431048865).jpg|thumb|100px|right|A Chlorophyte.]] [[/Chlorophyta/]] Name Meaning: Yellow-green plant English Common Name: Chlorophytes Major distinguishing characteristics: mainly autotrophs with exceptions and have the same chlorophyll a and b pigments as "higher" plant divisions Approximate number of species described: 8,000 ==Cycadophyta== [[Image:Unidentified cycad in greenhouse.jpg|thumb|100px|right|Unidentified cycad in greenhouse.]] [[/Cycadophyta/]] Name Meaning: Cycas-like plant, palm-like plant English Common Name: Cycads Major distinguishing characteristics: Seeds, crown of compound leaves Approximate number of species described: 100 - 200 ==Ginkgophyta== [[Image:Gingko biloba2.jpg|thumb|100px|right|''Gingko biloba''.]] [[/Ginkgophyta/]] Name Meaning: Ginkgo-like plant English Common Name: Ginkgo, maidenhair tree Major distinguishing characteristics: Seeds not protected by fruit Approximate number of species described: 1 living, about 50 extinct ==Glaucophyta== [[Image:Glaucophyte.jpg|thumb|100px|right|A glaucophyte.]] [[/Glaucophyta/]] Name Meaning: Blue-green plant English Common Name: Glaucophytes Major distinguishing characteristics: Approximate number of species described: 13 ==Gnetophyta== [[Image:Gnetum scandens (6780786863).jpg|thumb|100px|right|''Gnetum scandens''.]] Gnetophyta Name Meaning: Gnetum-like plant English Common Name: Gnetophytes Major distinguishing characteristics: Seeds and woody vascular system with vessels. Approximate number of species described: 70 ==Lycopodiophyta (Lycophyta)== [[Image:Clubmoss - Flickr - pellaea (1).jpg|thumb|100px|right|Clubmoss.]] [[/Lycopodiophyta (Lycophyta)/]] Name Meaning: Lycopodium-like plants, wolf plant English Common Name: Clubmosses, spikemosses Major distinguishing characteristics: Microphyll leaves, vascular system Approximate number of species described: 1290 living ==Magnoliophyta (Anthophyta)== [[Image:Sweetbay Magnolia Magnolia virginiana Flower Closeup 2242px.jpg|thumb|100px|right|''Magnolia virginiana''.]] [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flowering_plant Magnoliophyta] Name Meaning: Magnolia-like plant English Common Name: Flowering plants, angiosperms Major distinguishing characteristics: Flowers and fruit, vascular system with vessels Approximate number of species described: 300,000 ==Marchantiophyta (Hepatophyta)== [[Image:Liverwort Ferndale Park.jpg|thumb|100px|right|Liverwort.]] [[Plant Divisions (Phyla)/Marchantiophyta|Marchantiophyta (Hepatophyta)]] Name Meaning: Marchantia-like plant, liver plant English Common Name: Liverworts Major distinguishing characteristics: Ephemeral unbranched sporophytes, no vascular system Approximate number of species described: 9,000 ==Pinophyta (Coniferophyta)== [[Image:Taxus wallichiana kz1.jpg|thumb|100px|right|''Taxus wallichiana'', the Himalayan Yew, a conifer.]] [[/Pinophyta (Coniferophyta)/]] Name Meaning: Pinus-like plant, cone-bearing plant English Common Name: Conifers Major distinguishing characteristics: Cones containing seeds and wood composed of tracheids Approximate number of species described: 629 living ==Polypodiophyta (Monilophyta)== [[Image:Tree Fern.jpg|thumb|100px|right|Tree fern fronds and fiddleneck (growing young frond).]] [[wikipedia:Fern|Polypodiophyta]] (Monophyte) Once called [[Pteridophyta]] (outdated! The sub-divisions Lycopodiophyte and Euphyllophyte have been differentiated) Name Meaning: Many foot plant, Polypodium-like plant English Common Name: ferns, horsetails Major distinguishing characteristics: Prothallus gametophytes and vascular system Approximate number of species described: 9000 ==Other Resources== *[http://tolweb.org/Green_plants/2382 Tree of Life, Green Plants] *[http://eol.org/pages/281/overview Encyclopedia of life, Plantae] *[[Animal Phyla]] a companion piece to this one ==References== * [[Wikipedia:Phylum]] {{reflist}} [[Category:Botany]] rtox41yzdexq5r3i45gc8p19st3rh06 2832749 2832742 2026-09-11T00:50:15Z The Citer 3110681 /* Gnetophyta */ 2832749 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Image:Diversity of plants (Streptophyta) version 2.png|thumb|300px|right|A sample of plant diversity.]] In botany, the equivalent of a Phylum is called a division. The Kingdom Plantae is divided into 13 Divisions. A Division (pl. Phyla) is the largest formal major grouping within plant taxonomy below kingdoms. This list is presented in alphabetical order, and not in any systematic/evolutionary arrangement. Science is by no means static. There are arguments of all sizes and shapes about the taxonomy of the Plant Divisions. Other sources may combine or split these listed Divisions. However, at this time, the list presented here should stand in good stead for an introduction to the topic of plant diversity. There are approximately 380,000 plant species that have been described by science. This list tries to give the following information on each Division: *Division Name *A link to a subpage discussing that Phylum in more detail (if it yet exists) *Name Meaning (in English) *An English Common Name, where one is in regular use *Distinguishing characteristics of plants within the Division *An approximate number of species described within that Division. Since botany does not stand still, this number can change. You can also see [[Introduction to Taxonomy]] for more on that topic. ==Anthocerotophyta== [[Image:Hornwort (3144429129).jpg|thumb|100px|right|Hornworts.]] [[/Anthocerotophyta/]] Name Meaning: Anthoceros-like plant English Common Name: Hornworts Major distinguishing characteristics: Horn-shaped sporophytes, no vascular system Approximate number of species described: 100-300 or more ==Bryophyta== [[Image:Mose09.jpg|thumb|100px|right|Moss, a bryophyte.]] [[/Bryophyta/]] Name Meaning: Bryum-like plant, moss plant English Common Name: Moss Major distinguishing characteristics: Persistent branched sporophytes, no vascular system Approximate number of species described: 12,000 ==Charophyta== [[Image:Chara overview.jpg|thumb|100px|right|''Chara'', a Charophyte.]] [[/Charophyta/]] Name Meaning: Chara-like plant English Common Name: Charophytes Major distinguishing characteristics: Approximate number of species described: 1,000 ==Chlorophyta== [[image:Bulletin de l'Acadmie impriale des sciences de St.-Ptersbourg (20431048865).jpg|thumb|100px|right|A Chlorophyte.]] [[/Chlorophyta/]] Name Meaning: Yellow-green plant English Common Name: Chlorophytes Major distinguishing characteristics: mainly autotrophs with exceptions and have the same chlorophyll a and b pigments as "higher" plant divisions Approximate number of species described: 8,000 ==Cycadophyta== [[Image:Unidentified cycad in greenhouse.jpg|thumb|100px|right|Unidentified cycad in greenhouse.]] [[/Cycadophyta/]] Name Meaning: Cycas-like plant, palm-like plant English Common Name: Cycads Major distinguishing characteristics: Seeds, crown of compound leaves Approximate number of species described: 100 - 200 ==Ginkgophyta== [[Image:Gingko biloba2.jpg|thumb|100px|right|''Gingko biloba''.]] [[/Ginkgophyta/]] Name Meaning: Ginkgo-like plant English Common Name: Ginkgo, maidenhair tree Major distinguishing characteristics: Seeds not protected by fruit Approximate number of species described: 1 living, about 50 extinct ==Glaucophyta== [[Image:Glaucophyte.jpg|thumb|100px|right|A glaucophyte.]] [[/Glaucophyta/]] Name Meaning: Blue-green plant English Common Name: Glaucophytes Major distinguishing characteristics: Approximate number of species described: 13 ==Gnetophyta== [[Image:Gnetum scandens (6780786863).jpg|thumb|100px|right|''Gnetum scandens''.]] [[Gnetophyta]] Name Meaning: Gnetum-like plant English Common Name: Gnetophytes Major distinguishing characteristics: Seeds and woody vascular system with vessels. Approximate number of species described: 70 ==Lycopodiophyta (Lycophyta)== [[Image:Clubmoss - Flickr - pellaea (1).jpg|thumb|100px|right|Clubmoss.]] [[/Lycopodiophyta (Lycophyta)/]] Name Meaning: Lycopodium-like plants, wolf plant English Common Name: Clubmosses, spikemosses Major distinguishing characteristics: Microphyll leaves, vascular system Approximate number of species described: 1290 living ==Magnoliophyta (Anthophyta)== [[Image:Sweetbay Magnolia Magnolia virginiana Flower Closeup 2242px.jpg|thumb|100px|right|''Magnolia virginiana''.]] [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flowering_plant Magnoliophyta] Name Meaning: Magnolia-like plant English Common Name: Flowering plants, angiosperms Major distinguishing characteristics: Flowers and fruit, vascular system with vessels Approximate number of species described: 300,000 ==Marchantiophyta (Hepatophyta)== [[Image:Liverwort Ferndale Park.jpg|thumb|100px|right|Liverwort.]] [[Plant Divisions (Phyla)/Marchantiophyta|Marchantiophyta (Hepatophyta)]] Name Meaning: Marchantia-like plant, liver plant English Common Name: Liverworts Major distinguishing characteristics: Ephemeral unbranched sporophytes, no vascular system Approximate number of species described: 9,000 ==Pinophyta (Coniferophyta)== [[Image:Taxus wallichiana kz1.jpg|thumb|100px|right|''Taxus wallichiana'', the Himalayan Yew, a conifer.]] [[/Pinophyta (Coniferophyta)/]] Name Meaning: Pinus-like plant, cone-bearing plant English Common Name: Conifers Major distinguishing characteristics: Cones containing seeds and wood composed of tracheids Approximate number of species described: 629 living ==Polypodiophyta (Monilophyta)== [[Image:Tree Fern.jpg|thumb|100px|right|Tree fern fronds and fiddleneck (growing young frond).]] [[wikipedia:Fern|Polypodiophyta]] (Monophyte) Once called [[Pteridophyta]] (outdated! The sub-divisions Lycopodiophyte and Euphyllophyte have been differentiated) Name Meaning: Many foot plant, Polypodium-like plant English Common Name: ferns, horsetails Major distinguishing characteristics: Prothallus gametophytes and vascular system Approximate number of species described: 9000 ==Other Resources== *[http://tolweb.org/Green_plants/2382 Tree of Life, Green Plants] *[http://eol.org/pages/281/overview Encyclopedia of life, Plantae] *[[Animal Phyla]] a companion piece to this one ==References== * [[Wikipedia:Phylum]] {{reflist}} [[Category:Botany]] fb1bgw0puqkc5wsvxccxierfmoojdb4 2832797 2832749 2026-09-11T10:46:43Z The Citer 3110681 Magnoliophyta is ready! 2832797 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Image:Diversity of plants (Streptophyta) version 2.png|thumb|300px|right|A sample of plant diversity.]] In botany, the equivalent of a Phylum is called a division. The Kingdom Plantae is divided into 13 Divisions. A Division (pl. Phyla) is the largest formal major grouping within plant taxonomy below kingdoms. This list is presented in alphabetical order, and not in any systematic/evolutionary arrangement. Science is by no means static. There are arguments of all sizes and shapes about the taxonomy of the Plant Divisions. Other sources may combine or split these listed Divisions. However, at this time, the list presented here should stand in good stead for an introduction to the topic of plant diversity. There are approximately 380,000 plant species that have been described by science. This list tries to give the following information on each Division: *Division Name *A link to a subpage discussing that Phylum in more detail (if it yet exists) *Name Meaning (in English) *An English Common Name, where one is in regular use *Distinguishing characteristics of plants within the Division *An approximate number of species described within that Division. Since botany does not stand still, this number can change. You can also see [[Introduction to Taxonomy]] for more on that topic. ==Anthocerotophyta== [[Image:Hornwort (3144429129).jpg|thumb|100px|right|Hornworts.]] [[/Anthocerotophyta/]] Name Meaning: Anthoceros-like plant English Common Name: Hornworts Major distinguishing characteristics: Horn-shaped sporophytes, no vascular system Approximate number of species described: 100-300 or more ==Bryophyta== [[Image:Mose09.jpg|thumb|100px|right|Moss, a bryophyte.]] [[/Bryophyta/]] Name Meaning: Bryum-like plant, moss plant English Common Name: Moss Major distinguishing characteristics: Persistent branched sporophytes, no vascular system Approximate number of species described: 12,000 ==Charophyta== [[Image:Chara overview.jpg|thumb|100px|right|''Chara'', a Charophyte.]] [[/Charophyta/]] Name Meaning: Chara-like plant English Common Name: Charophytes Major distinguishing characteristics: Approximate number of species described: 1,000 ==Chlorophyta== [[image:Bulletin de l'Acadmie impriale des sciences de St.-Ptersbourg (20431048865).jpg|thumb|100px|right|A Chlorophyte.]] [[/Chlorophyta/]] Name Meaning: Yellow-green plant English Common Name: Chlorophytes Major distinguishing characteristics: mainly autotrophs with exceptions and have the same chlorophyll a and b pigments as "higher" plant divisions Approximate number of species described: 8,000 ==Cycadophyta== [[Image:Unidentified cycad in greenhouse.jpg|thumb|100px|right|Unidentified cycad in greenhouse.]] [[/Cycadophyta/]] Name Meaning: Cycas-like plant, palm-like plant English Common Name: Cycads Major distinguishing characteristics: Seeds, crown of compound leaves Approximate number of species described: 100 - 200 ==Ginkgophyta== [[Image:Gingko biloba2.jpg|thumb|100px|right|''Gingko biloba''.]] [[/Ginkgophyta/]] Name Meaning: Ginkgo-like plant English Common Name: Ginkgo, maidenhair tree Major distinguishing characteristics: Seeds not protected by fruit Approximate number of species described: 1 living, about 50 extinct ==Glaucophyta== [[Image:Glaucophyte.jpg|thumb|100px|right|A glaucophyte.]] [[/Glaucophyta/]] Name Meaning: Blue-green plant English Common Name: Glaucophytes Major distinguishing characteristics: Approximate number of species described: 13 ==Gnetophyta== [[Image:Gnetum scandens (6780786863).jpg|thumb|100px|right|''Gnetum scandens''.]] [[Gnetophyta]] Name Meaning: Gnetum-like plant English Common Name: Gnetophytes Major distinguishing characteristics: Seeds and woody vascular system with vessels. Approximate number of species described: 70 ==Lycopodiophyta (Lycophyta)== [[Image:Clubmoss - Flickr - pellaea (1).jpg|thumb|100px|right|Clubmoss.]] [[/Lycopodiophyta (Lycophyta)/]] Name Meaning: Lycopodium-like plants, wolf plant English Common Name: Clubmosses, spikemosses Major distinguishing characteristics: Microphyll leaves, vascular system Approximate number of species described: 1290 living ==Magnoliophyta (Anthophyta)== [[Image:Sweetbay Magnolia Magnolia virginiana Flower Closeup 2242px.jpg|thumb|100px|right|''Magnolia virginiana''.]] [[Plant Divisions (Phyla)/Magnoliophyta|Magnoliophyta]] Name Meaning: Magnolia-like plant English Common Name: Flowering plants, angiosperms Major distinguishing characteristics: Flowers and fruit, vascular system with vessels Approximate number of species described: 300,000 ==Marchantiophyta (Hepatophyta)== [[Image:Liverwort Ferndale Park.jpg|thumb|100px|right|Liverwort.]] [[Plant Divisions (Phyla)/Marchantiophyta|Marchantiophyta (Hepatophyta)]] Name Meaning: Marchantia-like plant, liver plant English Common Name: Liverworts Major distinguishing characteristics: Ephemeral unbranched sporophytes, no vascular system Approximate number of species described: 9,000 ==Pinophyta (Coniferophyta)== [[Image:Taxus wallichiana kz1.jpg|thumb|100px|right|''Taxus wallichiana'', the Himalayan Yew, a conifer.]] [[/Pinophyta (Coniferophyta)/]] Name Meaning: Pinus-like plant, cone-bearing plant English Common Name: Conifers Major distinguishing characteristics: Cones containing seeds and wood composed of tracheids Approximate number of species described: 629 living ==Polypodiophyta (Monilophyta)== [[Image:Tree Fern.jpg|thumb|100px|right|Tree fern fronds and fiddleneck (growing young frond).]] [[wikipedia:Fern|Polypodiophyta]] (Monophyte) Once called [[Pteridophyta]] (outdated! The sub-divisions Lycopodiophyte and Euphyllophyte have been differentiated) Name Meaning: Many foot plant, Polypodium-like plant English Common Name: ferns, horsetails Major distinguishing characteristics: Prothallus gametophytes and vascular system Approximate number of species described: 9000 ==Other Resources== *[http://tolweb.org/Green_plants/2382 Tree of Life, Green Plants] *[http://eol.org/pages/281/overview Encyclopedia of life, Plantae] *[[Animal Phyla]] a companion piece to this one ==References== * [[Wikipedia:Phylum]] {{reflist}} [[Category:Botany]] 093uu5gzzzbf30jlccvskq6zwka8tej 0 264381 2832738 2832292 2026-09-10T23:04:54Z Scogdill 1331941 2832738 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Viscount Mandeville Vanity Fair 1882-04-22.jpg|alt=Old drawing for a magazine of an aristocratic man in a formal suit|thumb|"Kim," Viscount Mandeville, 1882]] == Overview == The Mandeville who was in a relationship with music-hall and vaudeville star Bessie Bellwood was Kim (George Victor Drogo) Montagu, 8th Duke of Manchester (17 June 1853 – 18 August 1892). He was Viscount Mandeville from 18 August 1855 (when his grandfather died) to 22 March 1890 (when his father died).<ref name=":1" /> When he succeeded to the dukedom in 1890, he ended his relationship with Bellwood. His father was the 7th Duke and his mother was [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish|Louise Cavendish]], "double Duchess" of [[Social Victorians/People/Manchester|Manchester]] and then [[Social Victorians/People/Devonshire|Devonshire]]. Viscount Mandeville (right) was "Man of the Day" (#255) for ''Vanity Fair'', drawn by Leslie Ward ("Spy").<ref>"Viscount Mandeville Vanity Fair 1882-04-22.jpg." Wikimedia Commons. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Viscount_Mandeville_Vanity_Fair_1882-04-22.jpg (retrieved 8 September 2026).</ref> == Also Known As == *Family name: Montagu *The title Viscount Mandeville is a courtesy title for the heir presumptive and eldest son of the [[Social Victorians/People/Manchester |Duke of Manchester]]. This title is one of only 2 (with the heir apparent of the Duke of Somerset) that is below the rank of Earl. *Viscount Mandeville **"Kim" (George Victor Drogo) Montagu [8th Duke], (18 August 1855 – 22 March 1890) **[[Social Victorians/People/William Angus Drogo Montagu|William Angus Drogo Montagu]], 9th Duke (22 March 1890 – 18 August 1892) **Alexander George Francis Drogo Montagu (2 October 1902 – 9 February 1947)<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2020-10-15|title=Alexander Montagu, 10th Duke of Manchester|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alexander_Montagu,_10th_Duke_of_Manchester&oldid=983660353|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> *Viscountess Mandeville **Consuelo Iznaga y Clement Montagu [8th Duchess] (22 May 1876 – 22 March 1890) **Helena Zimmerman Montagu (14 November 1890 – 18 August 1892) *Lord Kimbolton ** [[Social Victorians/People/William Angus Drogo Montagu|William Angus Drogo Montagu]], 9th Duke (1877 – 22 March 1890) == Acquaintances, Friends and Enemies == === "Kim" Montagu, 8th Duke, Lord Mandeville until 1890 === ==== Friends ==== * Edward Russell, 24th Baron de Clifford * Derrick Westenra, 5th Baron Rossmore * Francis Needham, 3rd Earl of Kilmorey === Consuelo Iznaga y Clement Montagu === ==== Friends ==== *Consuelo Iznaga y Clement Montagu was in the intimate circle of [[Social Victorians/People/Albert Edward, Prince of Wales |Albert Edward, Prince of Wales]]. ==Organizations== === "Kim" Montagu, 8th Duke, Lord Mandeville until 1890 === * Eton<ref name=":1" /> === Consuelo Iznaga y Clement Montagu === * Consuelo Iznaga y Clement Montagu was a member of the New York City social set called the Buccaneers when she was a teenager.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|date=2020-10-06|title=Consuelo Montagu, Duchess of Manchester|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Consuelo_Montagu,_Duchess_of_Manchester&oldid=982192002|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> Edith Wharton is said to have take details from the 8th Duke's marriage ''The Buccaneers''.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|date=2020-10-06|title=George Montagu, 8th Duke of Manchester|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=George_Montagu,_8th_Duke_of_Manchester&oldid=982188929|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> == Timeline == '''1855 August 18''', the 6th Duke died. The families "placed in mourning":<blockquote>He is succeeded in the Dukedom by his eldest son, Viscount Mandeville, M.P. By the melancholy event the families of the Marquess and Marchioness of Tweeddale, the Duchess of Wellington, the Duke of Montrose, Lord and Lady Olivia Ossulston [?], Lady Eliza [Elisa?] Steele, the Duke of Richmond, the Countess of St Germans, Lady Sophia Cecil, and many others of rank, are placed in mourning.<ref>"Death of the Duke of Manchester." ''Edinburgh Evening Post and Scottish Standard'' 22 August 1855, Wednesday: 2 [of 4], Col. 5c [of 8]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0001177%2F18550822&page=2&article=025&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Print title ''Edinburgh Evening Post and Scottish Record''; n.p.</ref></blockquote>'''1876 May 22''', Consuelo Iznaga y Clement and "Kim" (George Victor Drogo, 8th Duke) Montagu married in Grace Church, New York City.<ref name=":0" /> '''1890 November 14''', William Angus Drogo Montagu (9th Duke) and Helena Zimmerman married secretly, in London. '''1897 July 2''', the Duke and Duchess of Devonshire ( [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish|Luise Friederike Auguste Gräfin von Alten Montagu Cavendish]] and [[Social Victorians/People/Spencer Compton Cavendish|Spencer Cavendish]]) hosted the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball|Duchess of Devonshire's fancy-dress ball]] at Devonshire House. Lord Charles Montagu, likely Charles William Augustus Montagu, attended, as did [[Social Victorians/People/William Angus Drogo Montagu|William Angus Drogo Montagu]]. == Demographics == ===Nationality=== *Consuelo Iznaga y Clement was Cuban-American. *Helena Zimmerman was American. *George, William and Alexander Montagu were British. == Family == *Consuelo (María Consuelo) Iznaga y Clement Montagu, Duchess of Manchester (1853 – 20 November 1909), née Doña María Consuelo Iznaga y Clement<ref name=":0" /> *"Kim" (George Victor Drogo) Montagu, 8th Duke of Manchester (17 June 1853 – 18 August 1892)<ref name=":1" /> #William Angus Drogo Montagu, 9th Duke of Manchester (3 March 1877 – 9 February 1947) #Jacqueline Mary Alva Montagu (27 November 1879 – 15 March 1895). #Alice Eleanor Louise Montagu (27 November 1879 – 10 January 1900) *[[Social Victorians/People/William Angus Drogo Montagu|William Angus Drogo Montagu]], 9th Duke of Manchester (3 March 1877 – 9 February 1947)<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2020-10-08|title=William Montagu, 9th Duke of Manchester|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=William_Montagu,_9th_Duke_of_Manchester&oldid=982513036|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> *Helena Zimmerman Montagu (25 September 1878 – 15 December 1971)<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2020-10-08|title=Helena, Countess of Kintore|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Helena,_Countess_of_Kintore&oldid=982513630|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> #Mary Alice Montagu Gregory (26 October 1901 – 9 October 1962) #Alexander George Francis Drogo Montagu, 10th Duke of Manchester (2 October 1902 – 23 November 1977) #Edward Eugene Fernando Montagu (26 July 1906 – 4 May 1954/1956) #Ellen Millicent Louise Montagu Hofer Shairp (5 January 1908 – 2 August 1948) === Relations === The three Iznaga y Clement sisters were prominent in London "Society": *Consuelo (María Consuelo) Iznaga Montagu, Duchess of Manchester (1853 – 20 November 1909) *Emilie Iznaga y Clement () *Natividad (Natica) Iznaga y Clement Lister-Kaye () == Questions and Notes == * == Papers, Memoirs and Biographies == == Footnotes == <references /> 638qntlnna9wjucqcmrl4c4ainmop25 0 264724 2832616 2832105 2026-09-10T16:55:34Z Scogdill 1331941 2832616 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Dress worn by Queen Victoria at her wedding to Prince Albert in 1840}} = Sandbox = Page to draft revisions for Wikipedia articles. For Gwladys Robinson, see Gwladys Lowther Robinson, [[Social Victorians/People/Ripon|Marchioness of Ripon]] and, earlier, [[Social Victorians/People/Lowther|Countess of Lonsdale]] ==References== {{reflist|2}} [[Category:1840 works]] [[Category:Royal wedding dresses|Victoria Queen]] [[Category:1840s fashion]] [[Category:British royal attire]] [[Category:Dresses in the Royal Collection of the United Kingdom|Victoria, Wedding]] [[Category:Diamond Jubilee of Queen Victoria]] = Victorian fashion = ==Women's fashion== == Men's fashion == (Some of this belongs in the general intro to both women's and men's fashion, and some should go here?) * evolving definitions of gender, both femininity and masculinity evolved as concepts. The changing definitions of masculinity affected men's clothing. For the growing and rising middle classes, gender roles became more and more rigid around the concept of the separate spheres, the public for men and the private sphere for women. * Shirts and collars separated: "by 1827 detachable collars became available"<ref name=":25">{{Cite book|title=The History of Costume: From Ancient Mesopotamia Through the Twentieth Century|last=Payne|first=Blanche|last2=Winakor|first2=Geitel|last3=Farrell-Beck|first3=Jane|publisher=Addison-Wesley Longman|year=1992|isbn=0-06-047141-7|edition=2nd|location=New York, New York}}</ref> (477) * Beau Brummell: "Men began to aspire to fine cutting, tailoring, and perfect fit in their clothes, flawless grooming and manners in themselves. The Englishman George Bryan (Beau) Brummell deserves much credit for the ideal of meticulous masculine appearance."<ref name=":25" /> (458) "From 1796 to 1816, the Beau set the pattern for cleanliness and liberal use of starch." (459) * The most sweeping change in men’s fashion before 1820 was the length of their pants. Trousers that went from waist to foot were so much more comfortable and popular than knee breeches that they replaced what had dominated men’s wear since the sixteenth century. And trousers have been worn for over two centuries now. * "During the 1820s and 1830s, men sometimes wore two waistcoats, in combinations like white velvet over rose-and-gold brocade."<ref name=":25" /> (474) Men's waistcoats (or vests) could be colorful and embellished so that they were the focus of the ensemble of dark colored fabric of the jacket and trousers. By the end of the 19th century waistcoats made from the same fabric as the trousers and coat dominated men’s fashion. Cultural sources for men's clothing and men's fashion: industrial revolution; expanding middle class; technological advancements; an association in the culture between outward appearance and inward nature; French Revolution; Albert Edward, Prince of Wales Sarah Gharmallah Alzahrani and Safia Abdelaziz Saroukh (https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Safia-Saroukh/publication/385099194_The_Semiotic_Dimension_of_Men's_Fashion_in_Modern_Eras/links/671686fbd796f96b8ec4f90e/The-Semiotic-Dimension-of-Mens-Fashion-in-Modern-Eras.pdf):<blockquote>A study: (Historical, and Cultural Impact on the Costume Development) showed that depending on the functional and aesthetic characteristics, the division of clothing according to gender and age continued for centuries, whether informal or ceremonial, and varied according to gender, general style, nature of the jewelry, as well as family status, and stated that the traditional costume indirectly linked man to nature, as it was a gateway to the relationship between the body (the small world) and the world (the big world) [20].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Alzahrani|first=Sarah Gharmallah|last2=Saroukh|first2=Safia Abdelaziz|date=2024|title=The Semiotic Dimension of Men's Fashion in Modern Eras|url=http://www.sciencepg.com/journal/ijla|journal=International Journal of Literature and Arts|volume=Vol. 12, No. 5|via=Research Gate}}</ref> (136) [20] Park, S.J., & Park, K.S. (2006). Semiotic Analysis on Advertisement Expression of Men's Toiletries. The Research Journal of the Costume Culture, 14(2), 234-246.</blockquote>Citation for Victorian Hell: <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://victorianhell.substack.com/p/victorian-mens-fashion-history-and|title=Victorian Men’s Fashion History and Clothing Guide|last="It's Monty, Actually"|date=31 October 2025|website=Victorian Hell|access-date=7 September 2026}}</ref> ['''new content'''] Although women followed Paris fashion in Europe and America, London tailors led the way for men’s fashion. The Industrial Revolution actually impacted men’s fashion more than women’s.  Sewing machines in factories began mass producing cheap clothing for the largest group in the population, the working class. Ready-made clothing affected the social structure, the economy, and the gender differentiation. '''Victorian gender ideologies''' relegated men to the "public sphere" and women to the "domestic sphere." (??) More than that “the cult of youth . . . the secularization of sport and the influence of modern warfare in generating men’s fashions, the tendency to prefer modern ideas of comfort and convenience, and the transformation of fashion knowledge and fashion urbanism from print to hyperreality” (McNeil 1 or 411) changed the perceptions of masculinity and femininity.<blockquote>This sudden and profound shift in the style of men’s clothes was coined ‘[[The Great Male Renunciation]]’ by psychologist John Flugel in 1930. He argued that at the end of the 18th century, men gave up any claim to be considered beautiful and became instead “only useful.” [*Kirby, Carolyn. The invention of masculine fashion. ''Historia'' <nowiki>https://historiamag.com/invent-masculine-fashion/</nowiki>]</blockquote>Paper patterns, introduced in fashion magazines that targeted women, along with domestic sewing machines had more impact on women’s fashion than men’s. Haute couture was still being individually constructed by tailors or dressmakers or fashion houses like Maison Worth. === Industrial Revolution and Technological Advancements === * the railroad * mass production of fabrics for working-class men's clothing ** Jacquard looms ** * industrial sewing machines * aniline dyes, including black === Expanding Middle Class === * gender roles getting more clearly defined and rigid (referring back to page overview) * The growing middle class involved among other things more and more jobs and careers for young men as clerks, office workers, they were junior, subordinate, and they were commuting on the railroads from suburbs. Carolyn Kirby:<blockquote>In western Europe the fashion for plain dark suits coincided with the rise of the affluent middle-classes in a world where the pace of industrialisation and the globalisation of trade was accelerating as never before. The sharp, dark business suit became the last word in male power-dressing. And so it remains to this day.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://historiamag.com/invent-masculine-fashion/|title=The invention of masculine fashion|last=Kirby|first=Carolyn|date=3 December 2025|website=Historia: Magazine of the Historical Writers' Association|access-date=25 August 2026}}</ref></blockquote>Sarah Gharmallah Alzahrani and Safia Abdelaziz Saroukh (https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Safia-Saroukh/publication/385099194_The_Semiotic_Dimension_of_Men's_Fashion_in_Modern_Eras/links/671686fbd796f96b8ec4f90e/The-Semiotic-Dimension-of-Mens-Fashion-in-Modern-Eras.pdf):<blockquote>The Industrial Revolution that began in the late 18th century had a great impact on the development of fashion in the 19th century, there was a clear change in men's clothing at the beginning of the 19th century, not only in style but also in the appearance of the English sewing machine, and from this date, English clothing became world-class, and this was not only for England but for all of Europe is undoubtedly due to the French Revolution that stripped Europe of its previous leadership of fashion, so the 19th century belonged to the English in terms of fashion [16]. [16]  Hussein, T. (2002). The History and Development of Fashion „Part III‟ Modern Times, Nahdet Misr for Printing and Publishing, Cairo.</blockquote> === French Revolution === David Kuchta:<blockquote>... since 1666, male gentility has been associated with modesty and plainness in dress. Eschewing fashion as an increasingly feminized realm Charles II's vest inaugurated a new and essentially modern era of masculine aesthetics, one that reversed a long-held association between elaborate display and high social status. Manly thrift now displayed elite status.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Three-Piece Suit and Modern Masculinity, England 1550–1850|last=Kutcha|first=David|publisher=University of California Press|year=2002|location=Berkeley and Los Angeles}}</ref> (2)</blockquote>Sarah Gharmallah Alzahrani and Safia Abdelaziz Saroukh (https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Safia-Saroukh/publication/385099194_The_Semiotic_Dimension_of_Men's_Fashion_in_Modern_Eras/links/671686fbd796f96b8ec4f90e/The-Semiotic-Dimension-of-Mens-Fashion-in-Modern-Eras.pdf):<blockquote>The 19th century started with a fashion landscape that was changing dramatically and rapidly from the styles of a generation earlier. The French Revolution brought fashions that had been emerging since the 1780s to the forefront. Neoclassicism now defined fashion as both men and women taking inspiration from classical antiquity. For women, the high-waisted silhouette in lightweight muslin was the dominant style, while fashionable men looked to the tailors of Britain for a new, refined look [17]. [17]  Franklin, H. (Aug 18, 2020). Published on Jun 25, 2020, Retrieved: <nowiki>https://fashionhistory.fitnyc.edu/1800-1809/</nowiki> 11/11/2023. Edited. ...</blockquote>Brent Shannon:<blockquote>"Costume," wrote Max Beerbohm in 1896, "enables us to classify any 'professional man' at a glance, be he lawyer, leech or who not" (24–25). A man's profession and class were read by his jacket, his hat, what he rode in, and how he carried himself. "Perhaps there is a tendency among Englishmen to judge a man too much by the shape of his hat or the kind of collar he wears," conduct author John Wanamaker confessed; "But one must remember that in England if you ''wear'' the wrong thing, you will probably ''do'' the wrong thing, and generally ''be'' the wrong thing" (1).¹¹ Such assertions were predicated on the powerful Victorian conviction that outward appearance reflected inner qualities.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Cut of His Coat: Men, Dress, and Consumer Culture in Britain, 1860–1914|last=Shannon|first=Brent Alan|publisher=Ohio University Press|year=2006|location=Athens, Ohio}}</ref> (148)</blockquote> === Influence of Albert Edward, Prince of Wales === Albert Edward, Prince of Wales was very concerned with fashion and authoritative about it, with a very specific eye to small details. McNeil:<blockquote>When that great lover of pleasure, Edward VII, visited Marienbad incognito as the Duke of Lancaster, he was followed by tailors from Paris, Budapest, Vienna, and Berlin who photographed him and took notes about his clothes. Edward VII introduced many [423–424] novelties into men’s fashion. For the countryside such as at Sandringham, he permitted an informal dress code. The Henry Poole ledger marked as “HRH 1865” is for an evening coat without tails, the first “dinner jacket.” He is also credited with making fashionable the creased trouser in 1909 (his groom dried them with a board weight after heavy rain, resulting in the line), turned-up cuff trouser (after hitching his trouser bot- toms at a dirty racing track) and, as his girth grew, undoing the bottom button of his waistcoat.<ref>McNeil, Peter. "Men's Fashion: 1800–2022." Chapter 22. ''The Routledge History of Fashion and Dress, 1800 to the Present''. Routledge, 2024. https://opus.lib.uts.edu.au/bitstream/10453/182707/2/Men%27s%20Fashion%20200822_24_12_20_09_29_44.pdf DOI: 10.4324/9780429295607-27.</ref></blockquote>Virginia Cowles:<blockquote>It would be wrong to give the impression that the Heir Apparent was unhappy. If he could not work, at least he could play, and he did this very well. He loved being royal. He revelled in the rank and authority and privilege and luxury that accompanied the role of Prince of Wales. There were radicals who liked to lampoon him, and courtiers who wanted to reform him. But there was a much bigger group, a rich, fashionable, powerful society who adored him, fawned on him, gratified him, and copied everything he did. Paradoxically this adulation often increased the Prince’s freedom of movement. A contemporary writer states that it was possible for the Prince of Wales to walk along Piccadilly, or St. James’ Street or Pall Mall without being recognized. Why? Because photography was still undeveloped? Oh no. It was due to ‘the curious fact that there are in society several gentlemen who bear an extraordinary resemblance to him, and who take some pride in dressing and moving exactly like him, so that it is often very difficult to identify him as he passes in the street on foot or in a hansom cab. But the vogue of imitating the Prince did not stop at his beard, his clothes and his walk. Once when he had an attack of rheumatism in his shoulder, he was obliged to shake hands with his '''expo''' pressed stiffly to his side. Immediately this peculiar hand-shake was adopted by fashionable London. And when Alexandra [128–129] had a severe illness in the late sixties which left her lame for life, the smartest ladies in the land began to walk with a slightly halting gait, which became known as ‘the Alexandra Limp’. The aping of royalty was not considered vulgar. On the whole the Prince and Princess were amused and flattered by it, but every now and then someone went too far. On one occasion a rich manufacturer from the North drove in the Park with his horses wearing headbands of the royal scarlet used exclusively by the Prince. The Heir Apparent did not attempt to hide his displeasure. His blue eyes grew cold, and his lower lip protruded in the famous Guelph pout. As a sharp lesson to the perpetrators of this unforgivably bad taste he drove in the Park the next day with his horses wearing black headbands. The manufacturer’s wife and daughters could not fail to observe the significance of this slight, and left the Park in tears; and the Prince’s friends congratulated him on his clever rebuff. The Prince was not just ‘a swell’. In the jargon of the day he was ‘a heavy swell’, and apparently there was a world of difference between the two terms. A swell was a rich young aristocrat who lived in extreme comfort; but a heavy swell added showmanship to the comfort and lived in a stylish luxury that even the French were obliged to envy. And of course the heavy swell was the acme of sartorial elegance. The Prince did not mind changing his dress half a dozen times a day. He loved clothes, and since whatever he chose to wear became the prevailing fashion overnight, he soon was regarded as an expert on the subject. His tailor-in-chief made a fortune. For many years he patronised a Mr. Poole. He discovered this gentleman by accident. He went to the theatre one night to see a well-known actor by the name of Fecher playing ‘Robert Macaire’. As an impecunious adventurer [129–130] Fechter was obliged to wear a coat that was torn and dirty, but Bertie’s expert eye noticed the elegant cut. At the end of the performance he asked Fechter for the name of his tailor, and Mr. Poole’s future was assured. The Prince had so many clothes he could never travel with less than two valets; and two more valets were left at home cleaning, brushing and pressing his vast wardrobe. There were suits and coats for every variation of every climate the world over. There were over a hundred pieces of headgear; and since Bertie was an honorary admiral and an honorary general of most of the countries of Europe, there was an entire room devoted to uniforms, sashes, epaulettes, belts, buckles, swords, feathers and other regalia. As the years rolled on the Prince became an ever-increasing authority on dress. Tailors from all over Europe used to gather to study his clothes. Their favorite meeting place was Homburg, and later, Marienbad. Here they could catch a glimpse of the Prince half a dozen times a day, strolling along the promenade, or riding in an open carriage. Once Bertie dressed hurriedly and forgot to fasten the last button on his waistcoat; this became a permanent fashion. British manufacturers were not slow to realise what an asset they had in the Heir Apparent and kept a vigilant eye on his movements. Once, one of them declared in outraged tones that he was buying his gloves in France. A storm blew up of such proportions that the Prince’s secretary, Sir Francis Knollys, was forced to make a statement to the press. First, he declared that the Prince always had his gloves made in England, and second (and this was calculated to silence the critics) that His Royal Highness was very economical in the use of gloves and only found it necessary to order two dozen pairs a year. Men’s clothes became of such importance that new [130–131] shops sprang up like mushrooms in Savile Row, Clifford Street and Bond Street. Most of the Prince’s innovations were inspired by comfort and convenience. He altered the cut of the evening dress waistcoat, he shortened the tails on the tail coat, he left his frock coat open (due to an increasing girth), he introduced the black homburg, and he attended race meetings, not in the frock coat hitherto ''de regueur'' but in tweeds. He tried having his trousers creased down the sides rather than the front and back, in order to hide his bandy legs, but this idea did not catch on, and he soon discarded it himself. But the prince was not the only arbiter of men’s fashions. The band of  "heavy swells" who followed his lead gave him plenty of competition. Lord Raglan and Lord Petersham invented coats which are still named after them. Lord Dupplin the dinner jacket and Lord Cardigan the button-up sweater. But Lord Hardwicke made the most spectacular contribution. Men’s silk hats were made of beaver which was left in its original rough, shaggy state. Lord Hardwicke polished his hat until he could see his face in it, and consequently was known as "Glossy Top". He is responsible for the top hat as we know it today.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Gay monarch, the life and pleasures of Edward VII|last=Cowles|first=Virginia|publisher=Harper|year=1956|location=New York, New York|archive-url=https://archive.org/details/gaymonarchlifepl0000cowl/}}</ref> (128–131)</blockquote> === Overview of What Victorian Men Wore === ==== Men’s Clothing 1830 -1900 ==== “Tailored wool garments , originally inspired by the clothing of English country gentry, formed the backbone of men’s wardrobes in the early nineteenth century.”<ref name=":25" /> (458) Men’s clothing began to change from styles that were colorful and flamboyant in the eighteenth century to styles that emphasized cut over color. By the end of the century men’s clothing had settled into a kind of uniform with coats and trousers usually made of the same fabric, often with a vest or waistcoat of the same fabric. The uniform included a shirt with a stiff collar, a necktie and very little jewelry. It took the entire nineteenth century to change to a rather static style that is still worn today. (this is middle-class men for day wear?) Overcoats became a significant fashion element and many styles were seen throughout the century. Jackets, trousers and waistcoats underwent many subtle changes as did neck treatments Breeches: Men’s bifurcated garment that ended just below the knee Trousers: men’s bifurcated garment that went down to the ankles or foot ==== Silhouette ==== The silhouette for men sometimes followed the same line as women’s clothing on the top half of their bodies.. For example, as women’s sleeves grew into the huge leg-of-mutton fullness, the shoulders of men’s coats also had added fabric to make a pouf at the shoulder, thus emphasizing a broad shouldered look across the front. Men’s silhouettes changed subtly without the exaggerated fullness of women’s skirts or the raising and lowering of the neckline. Once men began to wear trousers, they did not go back to formal knee breeches (except in European courts). (or for court wear for Victoria) ==== Coats and Shirts ==== Several styles of coats were available to fashion-conscious aristocratic and upper-middle-class men. Men’s suits in this period were tailor made, fitted to one specific man. The factories, however, knew that the vast majority of men were working class and began to manufacture and sell  ready-made shirts, coats and trousers. More clothes were available for working men and they cost less. The cheaper work clothes enabled upper-working-class men to own more than one set of clothes and to have more formal clothes for church or other events. Ready-made shirts were also available in generic sizes, small, medium and large. Generic sizing speeded up the mass production process and, since little of the shirts could be seen, they did not need custom fitting. Frock coats were introduced in the 1820s and worn throughout the nineteenth century with only minor changes to the line or fit. Sleeves were full at the top and waists were tight, creating an hourglass form. Initially frock coats were tightly fitted and closed with buttons. The more tailored frock coats had a waist seam and a flared skirt almost to the knees. On more formal occasions, a cutaway morning coat was worn with light trousers during the daytime, and a dark tail coat and trousers was worn in the evening. Neck treatments (and shirt cuffs) ==== Trousers ==== Trousers or long pants had been introduced and were eagerly accepted by men because they were more comfortable and looser than the tight-fitting knee breeches and coats from earlier in the century. They were originally tailored but began to be mass produced. Although the aristocracy were required to wear knee breeches at court, they wore trousers more than they wore breeches. Aristocrats and upper middle class could afford the well-tailored cut and fit of individually hand sewn trousers and coats. This bifurcated garment was modified in specific places, like the length, the fullness over the hips or the width of the leg. In summer trousers were lighter in color–”grayish blue, aqua and pearl gray.” (Payne 505) in winter trousers mixed darker colors (like “steel gray and brown, black and brown, and black and green.” (Payne 505) Aristocrats and upper middle class men continued to have their suits tailored particularly for them. Working class men had to contend with small, medium, and large from mass production. ==== Waistcoats ==== Victorian men put all their creativity, color and specialty fabrics into their waistcoats. At the beginning of the century men had their waistcoats made from specialty fabrics, like velvet or brocade or a patterned silk. Often, men were seen wearing two waistcoats at the same time. Long after coats and trousers were made from the same dark wool, waistcoats continued to be colorful. By the end of the century, the coats and trousers were mostly made from the same fabric often including a waistcoat of the fabric. ==== Overcoats ==== Kay, Fiona and Neil R. Storey, ''Victorian Fashions for Women'', Pen & Sword History, Yorkshire - Philadelphia, 2022 ==== Notes & Quotes ==== Sarah Gharmallah Alzahrani and Safia Abdelaziz Saroukh (https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Safia-Saroukh/publication/385099194_The_Semiotic_Dimension_of_Men's_Fashion_in_Modern_Eras/links/671686fbd796f96b8ec4f90e/The-Semiotic-Dimension-of-Mens-Fashion-in-Modern-Eras.pdf):<blockquote>Men's clothing during this century consisted of black, brown, blue (dark, shiny, or bright), olive green, and grey. The preferred beautiful colors for evening wear were blue, followed by brown and green, while the fabrics for summer trousers were dark grey or black (with blue coats), and for daywear were light colors such as white or beige (Hussein, T. 2002). [16]. [16]  Hussein, T. (2002). The History and Development of Fashion "Part III" Modern Times, Nahdet Misr for Printing and Publishing, Cairo.</blockquote> === 1830s and 1840s === ==== Silhouette ==== '''The line of men’s garments changed in smaller increments than women’s. Coats and trousers might fit tighter in some decades and looser in others. They were slim, then boxy, flared, then straight and evolved into the contemporary line we see on men today.''' ==== Coats and Shirts ==== Frock coats Shirts were made of linen or cotton with low collars, occasionally turned down, and were worn with wide [[cravats]] or neck ties. Before shirts were mass produced, they were tailored for upper and wealthy middle class men. Shirts were considered more like underwear early in the century but by the end of the 1800s, they were becoming the outside garments popular in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries. ==== Trousers ==== ==== Waistcoats ==== “Waistcoats ('''or vests''') remained colorful, items in men’s wardrobes after the rest of their costumes had become plain.” (Payne 460-462) They could be  single- or double-breasted, with shawl or notched collars, and might be finished in double points at the lowered waist. Collars gradually lowered over the course of the two decades. Often the colorful vests were decorated with fur or velvet collars. ==== Original Text ==== During the [[1840s in fashion|1840s]], men wore tight-fitting, calf length [[frock coat]]s and a [[waistcoat]] or vest. Sleeves were full at the top and waists were tight, creating an hourglass form. Waistcoats were single- or double-breasted, with shawl or notched collars, and might be finished in double points at the lowered waist. For more formal occasions, a cutaway morning coat was worn with light trousers during the daytime, and a dark tail coat and trousers was worn in the evening. Shirts were made of linen or cotton with low collars, occasionally turned down, and were worn with wide [[Cravat (early)|cravat]]s or neck ties. Trousers had fly fronts, and [[breeches]] were used for formal functions and when horseback riding. Men wore [[top hat]]s, with wide brims in sunny weather. === 1850s === '''Silhouette''' '''Coats and Shirts''' “Although the frock coat was worn throughout the century, it lost its dominant position in the 1850s, when the morning coat began to replace it.”  ''Victorian Men’s Fashion History and Clothing Guide'' <nowiki>https://victorianhell.substack.com/p/victorian-mens-fashion-history-and</nowiki> A jacket shorter than the frock coat or morning coat that had visible pockets began to be worn in about 1850. By the 1860s, it had become the most popular casual coat. Cutaway tail coats were still reserved for formal occasions. All of these coats could be single or double breasted. During the 1850s, men started wearing shirts with high upstanding or turnover collars and four-in-hand neckties tied in a bow, or tied in a knot with the pointed ends sticking out like "wings". '''Trousers''' Trousers had fly fronts, and breeches were used for formal functions and when horseback riding. '''Waistcoats'''<br /> ==== Notes & Quotes ==== * transition from frock coats to ditto suits, 1850s (Payne, 463) According to Judith Flanders,<blockquote>While hackney drivers were also considered to be stereotypically shabby, hansom-cab drivers were generally represented as smartly dressed. A print in 1850 showed a driver in a snappy brown coat instead of the coachman’s heavy multiple-caped outfit, pale green striped trousers, short boots and top hat, the [167–168] reins held daintily in his gloved hands. Both cab and coach drivers wore top hats, but cabbies of a sporting bent later switched to bowlers, and in summer donned bright checked outfits.<ref name=":23">{{Cite book|title=The Victorian City: Everyday Life in Dickens' London|last=Flanders|first=Judith|publisher=Thomas Dunne Books|year=2012|location=New York, New York}}</ref> (167–168 [of 972])</blockquote> ==== Original Text ==== During the [[1850s in fashion|1850s]], men started wearing shirts with high upstanding or turnover [[collar (clothing)|collars]] and [[necktie#Four-in-hand|four-in-hand necktie]]s tied in a bow, or tied in a knot with the pointed ends sticking out like "wings". The upper-class continued to wear top hats, and [[bowler hat]]s were worn by the working class. === 1860s === ==== Original Text ==== In the [[1860s in fashion|1860s]], men started wearing wider neckties that were tied in a bow or looped into a loose knot and fastened with a stickpin. Frock coats were shortened to knee-length and were worn for business, while the mid-thigh length [[sack coat]] slowly displaced the frock coat for less-formal occasions, with the overall effect of a looser silhouette. Top hats briefly became the very tall "stovepipe" shape, but a variety of other hat shapes were popular.[[File:Mens Coats 1872 Fashion Plate.jpg|thumb|upright|Drawing of Victorian men 1870s]] === 1870s === * To correct and prevent errors being made in court dress, in 1875 the Lord Chamberlain published ''Dress Worn by Gentleman at Her Majesty's Court'', "a summary of regulations for court uniform and dress."<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/Dress_worn_by_Gentlemen_at_Her_Majesty_s/pvrbQCXq0MEC?hl=en|title=Dress worn by Gentlemen at Her Majesty's Court|last=Britain)|first=Victoria (Queen of Great|date=1875|language=en}}</ref> This is the kind of thing Bertie really cared about. ==== Original Text ==== During the [[1870s in fashion|1870s]], three-piece suits grew in popularity along with patterned fabrics for shirts. Neckties were the four-in-hand and, later, the [[Ascot tie]]s. A narrow ribbon tie was an alternative for tropical climates, especially in the Americas. Both frock coats and sack coats became shorter and more form fitting. Flat straw boaters were worn when boating. === 1880s === ==== Original Text ==== During the [[1880s in fashion|1880s]], formal evening dress remained a dark tail coat and trousers with a dark waistcoat, a white bow tie, and a shirt with a winged collar. In mid-decade, the dinner jacket or [[tuxedo]], was used in more relaxed formal occasions. The [[Norfolk jacket]] and tweed or woolen breeches were used for rugged outdoor pursuits such as shooting. Knee-length topcoats, often with contrasting velvet or fur collars, and calf-length overcoats were worn in winter. Men's shoes had higher heels and a narrow toe. === 1890s === ==== Original Text ==== Starting from the [[1890s in fashion|1890s]], the [[blazer]] was introduced, and was worn for sports, sailing, and other casual activities.<ref>{{cite web|last=Landow|first=George|url=http://www.victorianweb.org/art/costume/90s/2.html|title=Men's informal sporting dress, late 1880s and '90s}}</ref> Throughout much of the Victorian era most men wore fairly short hair. This was often accompanied by various forms of facial hair including moustaches, side-burns, and full beards. A clean-shaven face did not come back into fashion until the end of the 1880s and early 1890s.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.victorianweb.org/art/costume/nunn21.html|title=Victorian Men's Fashions, 1850–1900: Hair}}</ref> Distinguishing what men really wore from what was marketed to them in periodicals and advertisements is difficult, as reliable records do not exist.<ref name="shannon597">{{cite journal|last=Shannon|first=Brent|title=Refashioning Men: Fashion, Masculinity, and the Cultivation of the Male Consumer in Britain, 1860–1914|journal=Victorian Studies|year=2004|volume=46|issue=4|pages=597–630|doi=10.1353/vic.2005.0022}}</ref> === Notes === *Men's suits buttoned higher up than today (Payne, 467) * Norfolk jackets and sack suits (Payne, 471) * formal attire, tuxedos with tails, cutaways (Payne, 469) * Keith Middlemas (https://archive.org/details/storyoffiesta00huxf/page/200/mode/2up?q=fashion) *Brent Shannon. "Refashioning Men: Fashion, Masculinity, and the Cultivation of the Male Consumer in Britain, 1860–1914." Victorian Studies 46, no. 4 (Summer 2004): 597–630. == Hats and headwear == [[File:Ford.madox.brown.last.emma.study.jpg|thumb|''Emma Hill'' by [[Ford Madox Brown]] (1853), a woman wearing a later version of the [[poke bonnet]]]] [[File:Hoed,_objectnr_KA_1237.tif|left|thumb|Perched bonnet style of the early 1870s.]] Hats were crucial to a respectable appearance for both men and women. === Men's Hats === The top hat, for example, was standard formal wear for upper- and middle-class men.[Payne] According to Blanche Payne, "The high top hat, usually black or dark gray, had reached its characteristic shape by 1798 and dominated the entire nineteenth century." (457–58) Although top hats were the dominant hat in the 19th century, other hats became popular for working classes and lower income middle class. “The style of an individual’s hat varied, depending on fashion and their social position, as well as their profession or chosen activity..” ''Goodman 53 of 460'' Other hats that became necessary and popular include the Derby, the straw Boater, and a flat cap with a short brim. In many cases the class, work activity and income could be determined by what kind of hat was on the head of the wearer. For some men, a hat supporting a particular sport or team was important. The Derby or Bowler hat was designed by William and Thomas Bowler, brother shopkeepers in 1849. ''(Goodman 55 of 460)'' It cost less than a top hat but  lasted longer and was soon worn by middle class bankers and clerks. Straw boaters were worn by the aristocracy for casual events and working class factory workers and agricultural laborers. By 1901 working class men had changed their preference to the flat caps which became the most popular hat for the workers. Headdress for men was an essential part of dress for the entire period of the Victorian age, from the 1830s through the end of the century. Judith Flanders describes the hats worn by men in London, <blockquote>It is difficult to bear in mind the importance of hats as not only markers of class and income, but also as indicators of respectability. [509–519] [George Augustus] Sala commented that "every" man throughout the history of the world "must, necessarily and habitually, wear some kind of covering to his head". Postmen wore hats, small children wore hats, field labourers and market gardeners wore hats, cricketers, skaters — all sportsmen — wore hats. It was, self-evidently, impossible to go outdoors without one. ... Those in professional occupations wore pot hats, as did clerks and all those with pretensions to middle-class status. Even doctors' delivery boys wore battered hand-me-down pot hats: "the nap rusty, the band a mournful strip of tarnished lace; but still a Hat", which "stamps him as being associated, in however slender a manner, with a learned profession". Cloth caps were for labourers, for costers and for boys. ... Artisans wore caps made out of paper, which they folded [510–511] themselves and so could easily replace as they became dirty.<ref name=":23" /> (509–511 [of 972]) </blockquote>A pot-hat is a kind of derby or bowler in men's hats. (Lewandowski, 237) ==== Original Text ==== Hats were crucial to a respectable appearance for both men and women. The top hat, for example, was standard formal wear for upper- and middle-class men.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book |last=Steele |first=Valerie |url=https://archive.org/details/fashioneroticism0000stee |title=Victorian Fashion. Fashion and Eroticism: Ideals of Feminine Beauty from the Victorian Era to the Jazz Age |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1985 |isbn=978-0-19-503530-8 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/fashioneroticism0000stee/page/51 51]–84 |url-access=registration}}</ref> For women, the styles of hats changed over time and were designed to match their outfits. === Women's Hats === For a discussion of the history of plumes and feathers, see [[Social Victorians/Victorian Things#Ostrich Plumes and Prince of Wales's Feathers|Ostrich Plumes and Prince of Wales's Feathers in ''Victorian Things'']]. ==== Original Wikipedia Text ==== During the early Victorian decades, hats were modest in size and design, straw and fabric bonnets being the popular choice. [[Poke bonnet]]s, which had been worn during the late [[Regency period]], had high, small crowns and brims that grew larger until the 1830s, when the face of a woman wearing a poke bonnet could only be seen directly from the front. They had rounded brims, echoing the rounded form of the bell-shaped hoop skirts. Bonnets shrunk at the end of the 1860s and moved to a perched position in the early 1870s as hairstyles grew in scale and intricacy. This led to the popularization of hats, which became the headwear of choice for the remainder of the Victorian era.<ref name="g4223">{{cite book |last=Cunnington |first=Cecil Willett |title=English Women's Clothing in the Nineteenth Century |date=1990-05-01 |publisher=Courier Corporation |isbn=0-486-26323-1 |publication-place=New York |page=}}</ref> [[File:The_London_and_Paris_ladies'_magazine_(Apr_1885)_03.png|thumb|Flower pot style hat of 1885.]] The 1880s saw a hat inspired by the top hat for women known as the flowerpot hat, and the 1890s saw the popularity of the boater. The hats of the late Victorian era were covered with elaborate creations of silk flowers, ribbons, and above all, exotic plumes; hats sometimes included entire exotic birds that had been stuffed. Many of these plumes came from birds in the Florida everglades, which were nearly made entirely extinct by overhunting. By 1899, early environmentalists like [[Adeline Knapp]] were engaged in efforts to curtail the hunting for plumes. By 1900, more than five million birds a year were being slaughtered, and nearly 95 per cent of Florida's shore birds had been killed by [[Plume hunting|plume hunter]]s.<ref>{{cite web|title=Everglades National Park|url=https://www.pbs.org/nationalparks/parks/everglades/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090927085907/http://www.pbs.org/nationalparks/parks/everglades/|url-status=dead|archive-date=27 September 2009|publisher=PBS|access-date=7 November 2011}}</ref> == Shoes == The women's shoes of the early Victorian period were narrow and heelless, in black or white satin. By 1850s and 1860s, they were slightly broader with a low heel and made of leather or cloth. Ankle-length laced or buttoned boots were also popular. From the 1870s to the twentieth century, heels grew higher and toes more pointed. Low-cut pumps were worn for the evening.<ref name=":4" /> == Cosmetics == [[Victorian-era cosmetics]] were typically less obvious than ours. However, small amounts of pale face powder or powdered blush were widely used.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Goodman |first=Ruth |title=How to be a Victorian |date=2014 |publisher=Penguin Books |isbn=978-0-670-92136-2 |location=London}}</ref> Tints were sometimes added to face creams. Some cosmetics contained toxic or caustic ingredients like lead, mercury, ammonia, and arsenic {{Citation needed|date=October 2025}}. Hair color ==Mourning black== {{See also |Mourning stationery}} [[File:The royal children in mourning Mar 1862.jpg|thumb|Victoria's five daughters (Alice, Helena, Beatrice, Victoria and Louise), photographed wearing mourning black beneath a bust of their late father, Prince Albert (1862)]] [[File:Mourning dress MET 50.40.3a-b front CP4.jpg|alt=Black Victorian mourning dress|thumb|Mourning Dress, 1894–95]] In Britain, black is the colour traditionally associated with mourning for the dead. The customs and etiquette expected of men, and especially women, were rigid but evolving during much of the Victorian era. The expectations depended on a complex hierarchy of close or distant relationship with the deceased. (Davidoff) The closer the relationship, the longer the mourning period and the wearing of black. The wearing of full black was known as First Mourning, which had its own expected attire, including fabrics, and an expected duration of 4 to 18 months. Following the initial period of First Mourning, the mourner would progress to Second Mourning, a transition period of wearing less black, which was followed by Ordinary Mourning, and then Half-mourning. Some of these stages of mourning were shortened or skipped completely if the mourner's relationship to the deceased was more distant. Half-mourning was a transition period when black was replaced by acceptable colours such as lavender and mauve, possibly considered acceptable transition colours because of the tradition of [[Church of England]] (and [[Catholic Church|Catholic]]) clergy wearing lavender or mauve [[Stole (vestment)|stoles]] for funeral services, to represent the [[Passion (Christianity)|Passion of Christ]].<ref>{{cite web|title=The Colors of the Church Year|url=http://fullhomelydivinity.org/articles/colors.htm|publisher=Consortium of Country Churches|access-date=6 November 2011|archive-date=13 November 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111113075214/http://fullhomelydivinity.org/articles/colors.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> The mourning dress worn by Queen Victoria (below, right) "shows the traditional touches of mourning attire, which she wore from the death of her husband, Prince Albert (1819–1861), until her own death."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/155839?&searchField=All&sortBy=Relevance&deptids=8&ft=queen+victoria&offset=0&rpp=20&amp;pos=2|title=Mourning Dress, 1894–95|last=The Metropolitan Museum of Art|date=7 September 2019|website=The Metropolitan Museum of Art|access-date=7 September 2019}}</ref> Dating from 1894–95, Queen Victoria wore this dress as a result of the death of the eldest son of the Prince and Princess of Wales, Eddy, in line to the throne. === Norms for mourning=== ''Manners and Rules of Good Society, or, Solecisms to be Avoided'' (London, Frederick Warne & Co., 1887) gives clear instructions, such as the following:<ref>{{cite book|last=Flanders|first=Judith|title=The Victorian House|year=2003|publisher=Harper Perennial|location=London|isbn=0-00-713189-5|pages=378–83}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" |- ! Relationship to deceased !! First mourning !! Second mourning !! Ordinary mourning !! Half-mourning |- | Wife for husband || 1-year, 1-month; [[bombazine]] fabric covered with [[Crape|crepe]]; [[widow's cap]], [[lawn cuff]]s, collars || 6 months: less crepe || 6 months: no crepe, silk or wool replaces bombazine; in last 3 months jet jewellery and ribbons can be added || 6 months: colours permitted are grey, lavender, mauve, and black-and-grey |- | Daughter for parent || 6 months: black with black or white crepe (for young girls); no linen cuffs and collars; no jewellery for first 2 months || 4 months: less crepe || – || 2 months as above |- | Wife for husband's parents || 18 months in black bombazine with crepe || – || 3 months in black || 3 months as above |- | Parent for son- or daughter-in-law's parent || – Black armband in representation of someone lost || – || 1-month black || – |- | Second wife for parent of a first wife || – || – || 3 months black || – |} The complexity of these etiquette rules extends to specific mourning periods and attire for siblings, step-parents, aunts and uncles distinguished by blood and by marriage, nieces, nephews, first and second cousins, children, infants, and "connections" (who were entitled to ordinary mourning for a period of "1–3 weeks, depending on level of intimacy"). Men were expected to wear mourning black to a lesser extent than women, and for a shorter mourning period. After the mid-19th century, men would wear a black hatband and black suit, but for only half the prescribed period of mourning expected of women. Widowers were expected to mourn for a mere three months, whereas the proper mourning period expected for widows was up to four years.<ref>{{cite book|last=Flanders|first=Judith|title=The Victorian House|year=2003|publisher=Harper Perennial|location=London|isbn=0-00-713189-5|pages=378–9}}</ref> Women who mourned in black for longer periods were accorded great respect in public for their devotion to the departed, the most prominent example being Queen Victoria herself. It was not uncommon for a widow who did not remarry to wear half-mourning for the rest of her life, except when another death necessitated full mourning. For example, Alexandra, Princess of Wales wore half-mourning for the rest of her life after her eldest son Eddy died in 1894. Empress Elisabeth of Austria did the same, as did Empress Eugénie of France. They reverted to full mourning when appropriate, but they never wore less than half-mourning after their sons' deaths. Women with lesser financial means tried to keep up with the example being set by the middle and upper classes by dyeing their daily dress. Dyers made most of their income during the Victorian period by dyeing clothes black for mourning.<ref>{{cite book|last=Flanders|first=Judith|title=The Victorian House|year=2003|publisher=Harper Perennial|location=London|isbn=0-00-713189-5|page=341}}</ref> == Technological advancement == The technological changes that affected the manufacture and consumption of clothing in the Victorian age included the following: * the mass production of fabrics — for example, "by the early 1850s there were thousands of steam-powered looms churning out millions of miles of fabric every year"  [62] * the invention of aniline dyes, which were much more vibrantly colored and resistant to fading than the natural dyes that had been used. — . Invented by chemist [[William Henry Perkin]] in 1856, the first aniline dye mauveine (or mauve) "wash[ed] the fashionable landscape in a haze of purple."<ref name=":22">{{Cite book|title=The Dress Diary: Secrets from a Victorian Woman's Wardrobe|last=Strasdin|first=Kate|publisher=Pegasus Books|year=2023|location=New York, New York}}</ref> (247) Other intense and, to the Victorians, intensely exciting colors followed, but the new synthetic additions to fabric sometimes included chemicals harmful to their wearers. For example, a "bright-magenta hue was achieved by adding arsenical-based chemicals to existing aniline dyes, brightening the already luminous shades – but these left residues themselves, along with a toxic labour trail in their wake."<ref name=":22" /> (255) Perhaps the most famous of these is arsenic green, used on fabrics, wallpapers, and trim: "The craze for artificial foliage to adorn the heads and dresses of women of fashion in the mid-nineteenth century had seen the proliferation of flower workshops, where young women in their hundreds laboured to produce the lifelike green leaves and blooms that would make a fetching headdress or would trail becomingly across the bodice of a gown. The lushness of the green was achieved by the application of a powder, a pigment that was created by mixing copper and the highly toxic chemical, arsenic trioxide. The physical effects of working with this poisonous compound were horrific. Contemporary medical drawings depict the green hue of the skin and dreadful open lesions on the hands of the maker, whilst the daily gradual ingestion of the powder by the flower girls was eventually fatal."<ref name=":22" /> (255) * the invention of a sewing machine that could be used in the home. Although sewing machines were already in use in the clothing industry, in 1858 Isaac Merritt Singer began to sell "lightweight domestic machines" for home sewing, radically increasing women's control over their own dress.<ref name=":24">{{Cite book|title=Victorian Fashions for Women|last=Kay|first=Fiona|last2=Storey|first2=Neil R.|publisher=Pen & Sword History|year=2022|isbn=978 1 39900 416 9|location=Yorkshire and Philadelphia|pages=}}</ref> (91 [of 298]) * the spread of journalism for women and fashion journalism * the Jacquard loom: "French inventor Joseph-Marie Jacquard’s loom attachment mechanized the weaving of figured fabrics by 1804."<ref name=":25" /> (454) Perhaps not at the same scale as these but as important in 1850s designs was a technology that turned iron into steel, which could then be drawn into fine wires.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book|title=The Culture of Fashion|last=Breward|first=Christopher|publisher=Manchester University Press|year=1995|pages=145–180}}</ref> Steel was refined to a malleable state so that thin blades could be curved into concentric circles (called hoops) and connected with wires to form the cage. Technological advancements not only influenced the economy but brought a major change in the fashion styles worn by men and women. As the Victorian era was based on the principles of gender, race and class.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Graham|first1=P|title=The Victorian Era|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.261548|journal=Digital Library of India}}</ref> Much advancement was in favor of the upper class as they were the ones who could afford the latest technology and change their fashion styles accordingly. In 1830s there was introduction of horse hair crinoline that became a symbol of status and wealth as only the upper-class women could wear it. In 1850s there were more fashion technological advancements hence 1850s could rightly be called a revolution in the Victorian fashion industry such as the innovation of artificial cage crinoline that gave women an artificial hourglass silhouette without layers of petticoats, which was lighter and more hygienic.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Shrimpton|first1=J|title=Victorian Fashion|publisher=Bloomsbury Shire Publications}}</ref> Synthetic dyes, such as [[mauveine]] (aniline purple), were introduced in 1856, adding bright colours to garments. In 1855's ''[[Haute couture]]'' was introduced as tailoring became more mainstream in years to follow.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Aspelund|first1=Karl|title=Fashioning Society|publisher=Fairchild Books}}</ref> Charles Frederick Worth, a prominent English designer, became popular amongst the upper class though its city of destiny always is Paris. Haute couture became popular at the same time that sewing machines were invented.<ref name="Haute Couture">{{cite book|last1=Martin|first1=Richard|last2=Koda|first2=Harold|title=Haute Couture|publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art}}</ref> Princess [[Eugénie de Montijo|Eugenie]] of France wore the Englishman dressmaker, Charles Frederick Worth's couture and he instantly became famous in France though he had just arrived in Paris a few years ago. In 1855, Queen Victoria and Prince Albert of Britain welcomed [[Napoleon III]] and Eugenie of France to a full state visit to England. Eugenie was considered a fashion icon in France. Queen Victoria, who had been the fashion icon for European high fashion, was inspired by Eugenie's style and the fashions she wore.{{Citation needed|date=October 2025}} Later, Queen Victoria also appointed Charles Frederick Worth as her dress maker and he became a prominent designer amongst the European upper class. Charles Frederick Worth is known as the father of the haute couture as later the concept of labels were also invented in the late 19th century as custom, made to fit tailoring became mainstream.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Saillard|first1=Olivier|last2=Zazzo|first2=Anne|title=Paris Haute Couture|publisher=Skira Flammarion}}</ref> By the 1860s, when made-to-fit tailoring was popular in Europe, crinolines were considered impractical. In the 1870s, women preferred more slimmer silhouettes, hence bodices grew longer and the polonaise, a skirt and bodice made together, was introduced. In 1870s the Cuirass Bodice, a piece of armour that covers the torso and functions like a corset, was invented. Towards the end of Victoria's reign, dresses were flared naturally as crinolines were rejected by middle-class women. Designers such as Charles Frederick Worth were also against them. All these inventions and changes in fashion led to women's liberation as tailored looks improved posture and were more practical.<ref name="Haute Couture"/> dressmakers, couturiers, modistes == Home decor == {{main|Victorian decorative arts}} Home decor started spare, veered into the elaborately draped and decorated style we today regard as Victorian, then embraced the retro-chic of [[William Morris]] as well as pseudo-[[Japonaiserie]]. == Myths and Oversimplifications == === Modesty === {{main|Victorian morality}} {{Original research|section|date=May 2008}} [[File:1868-skirt-lengths-girl-ages-Harpers-Bazar.gif|thumb|upright|"The proper length for little girls' skirts at various ages", from ''[[Harper's Bazaar]]'', showing a 1900 idea of how the hemline should descend towards the ankle as a girl got older]]Many myths and exaggerations about the period persist to the modern day. Examples include the idea of men's clothing is seen as formal and stiff, women's as elaborate and over-done; clothing covered the entire body, and even the glimpse of an ankle was scandalous. Critics contend that [[corset]]s constricted women's bodies and lives. Homes are described as gloomy, dark, cluttered with massive and over-ornate furniture and proliferating [[bric-a-brac]]. Myth has it that even piano legs were scandalous, and covered with tiny [[pantalette]]s. === Tight Lacing === Tight-lacing, which was not possible until the development of the grommet in 1828, was famously controversial in the Victorian age, generating many column inches of profitable newspaper copy, in part because it was (and still is) fetishistic and subversive in that adolescent girls used it as a means of rebellion and upper-working- or lower-middle-class shop girls saw it as a means of upward mobility.<ref name=":21">{{Cite book|title=Fashion and Fetishism: Corsets, Tight-Lacing and Other Forms of Body-sculpture|last=Kunzle|first=David|publisher=History Press|year=2013|isbn=978 0 7524 9545 3|location=Stroud, Gloucestershire|pages=}}</ref> (71 [of 1182]) No evidence exists that tight lacing was widespread or particularly dangerous.<ref name=":21" /> () In truth, men's formal clothing may have been less colourful than it was in the previous century, but brilliant [[waistcoat]]s and [[cummerbund]]s provided a touch of colour, and [[smoking jacket]]s and [[robe|dressing gown]]s were often of rich Oriental [[brocade]]s. This phenomenon was the result of the growing textile manufacturing sector, developing mass production processes, and increasing attempts to market fashion to men.<ref name="shannon597"/> Corsets stressed a woman's sexuality, exaggerating hips and bust by contrast with a tiny waist. Women's [[evening gown]]s bared the shoulders and the tops of the breasts. The [[jersey dress]]es of the 1880s may have covered the body, but the stretchy novel fabric fit the body like a glove.<ref>{{cite book |last=Gernsheim |first=Alison |title=Victorian & Edwardian Fashion: A Photographic Survey |year=1981 |publisher=Dover Publications |location=New York |page=65|edition=New |isbn=0-486-24205-6}}</ref> Home furnishing was not necessarily ornate or overstuffed. However, those who could afford lavish draperies and expensive ornaments, and wanted to display their wealth, would often do so. Since the Victorian era was one of increased social mobility, there were ever more ''[[nouveaux riches]]'' making a rich show. The items used in decoration may also have been darker and heavier than those used today, simply as a matter of practicality. London was noisy and its air was full of [[soot]] from countless coal fires. Hence those who could afford it draped their windows in heavy, sound-muffling curtains, and chose colours that didn't show soot quickly. When all washing was done by hand, curtains were not washed as frequently as they might be today. There is no actual evidence that piano legs were considered scandalous. Pianos and tables were often draped with [[shawl]]s or cloths—but if the shawls hid anything, it was the cheapness of the furniture. There are references to lower-middle-class families covering up their [[pine]] tables rather than show that they couldn't afford [[mahogany]]. The piano leg story seems to have originated in the 1839 book, ''A Diary in America'' written by Captain [[Frederick Marryat]], as a satirical comment on American prissiness.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Marryat |first1=C.B. |title=A Diary in America: With Remarks on Its Institutions |date=1839 |publisher=Longman, Orme, Brown, Green, and Longmans |location=London, England |volume=2 |pages=246–247 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2-VEAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA246}} From pp. 246-247: "I was requested by a lady to escort her to a seminary for young ladies, and on being ushered into the reception-room, conceive my astonishment at beholding a square piano-forte with four ''limbs''. However, that the ladies who visited their daughters, might feel in its full force the extreme delicacy of the mistress of the establishment, and her care to preserve in their utmost purity the ideas of the young ladies under her charge, she had dressed all these four limbs in modest little trousers, with frills at the bottom of them!"</ref> Victorian manners may have been as strict as imagined—on the surface. One simply did not speak publicly about sex, childbirth, and such matters, at least in the respectable middle and upper classes. However, as is well known, discretion covered a multitude of sins. Prostitution flourished. Upper-class men and women indulged in [[adultery|adulterous]] liaisons. == Gallery == {{gallery |2=A mid-Victorian interior: ''Hide and Seek'' by [[James Tissot]], c. 1877 Image:Winterhalter Elisabeth.jpg|3=Dress designed by [[Charles Frederick Worth]] for [[Elisabeth of Bavaria|Elisabeth of Austria]] painted by [[Franz Xaver Winterhalter]].|4=File:Frith A Private View detail.jpg|5=[[William Powell Frith]]'s painting of 1883 contrasts women's [[Aesthetic dress]] (left and right) with fashionable attire (center).|6=File:Tissot lilacs 1875.jpg|7=Day dress, c. 1875 [[James Tissot]] painting.|8=File:James Abbot McNeill Whistler 011.jpg|9=[[James McNeill Whistler|Whistler]]'s [[Portrait of Lady Meux]], 1882 Image:Jeanna_Samary-Renoir.png|10=[[Pierre-Auguste Renoir|Renoir]]'s portrait of [[Jeanne Samary]] in an [[evening gown]], 1878|11=File:Melville_-_Queen_Victoria.jpg|12=Portrait by [[Alexander Melville (artist)|Alexander Melville]] of [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]], 1845|13=File:Henry Treffry Dunn Rossetti and Dunton at 16 Cheyne Walk.jpg|14=An artistic interior: [[Dante Gabriel Rossetti]] reading to [[Theodore Watts-Dunton]] in the drawing room at No. 16 [[Cheyne Walk]], 1882|15=File:Punch - Masculine beauty retouched1.png|16=Men's swimwear: Cartoon from ''[[Punch (magazine)|Punch]]'' by [[George du Maurier]]}} == See also == * [[Emily Clapham]] * [[Victorian decorative arts]] * [[Victorian dress reform]] * [[Victorian morality]] * [[Victoriana]] * [[Women in the Victorian Era]] * [[Charles Frederick Worth]] === Time periods === * [[1830s in fashion]] * [[1840s in fashion]] * [[1850s in fashion]] * [[1860s in fashion]] * [[1870s in fashion]] * [[1880s in fashion]] * [[1890s in fashion]] === Women's clothing === * [[Corset]] * [[Corset controversy]] * [[Tightlacing]] * [[Bloomers (clothing)|Bloomers]] * [[Bodice]] === Contemporary interpretations === * [[Steampunk]] * [[Neo-Victorian]] * [[Lolita Fashion|Lolita]] == References == {{Reflist}} == Further reading == *{{cite book |author=Phipps, Elena| title= ''From Queen to Empress: Victorian dress 1837-1877'' | location=New York | publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art | year=1988 | isbn=0870995340| url= http://libmma.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/compoundobject/collection/p15324coll10/id/69547/rec/235 | display-authors=etal}} * Sweet, Matthew – ''Inventing the Victorians'', St. Martin's Press, 2001 {{ISBN|0-312-28326-1}} == External links == * [http://www.victorians.co.uk/victorian-fashion Victorian Fashion] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180407223711/http://www.victorians.co.uk/victorian-fashion |date=7 April 2018 }} * [https://www.victorianvoices.net/topics/fashion/index.shtml VictorianVoices.net] – Fashion articles and illustrations from Victorian periodicals; extensive fashion image gallery * [http://www.cracked.com/article_19575_5-ridiculous-sex-myths-from-history-you-probably-believe.html Victorian myths] * [http://www.victorianstation.com/lifestylemenu.htm Victorian fashion, etiquette, and sports] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180103162620/http://www.victorianstation.com/lifestylemenu.htm |date=3 January 2018 }} * [http://www.thesmartset.com/article/article12180701.aspx Background on "A Diary in America"] * [http://www.mccord-museum.qc.ca/en/keys/webtours/VQ_P2_17_EN.html Form and Fashion] — the evolution of women's dress during the 19th century (many photographs) * [http://www.mccord-museum.qc.ca/en/keys/games/jeu2/ Educational Game: Mix and Match] — build a 19th-century dress using a virtual mannequin * {{cite web |publisher= [[Victoria and Albert Museum]] |url= http://www.vam.ac.uk/content/articles/v/victorian-dress-at-v-and-a/ |title= Victorian Dress |work= Fashion, Jewellery & Accessories |date= 14 January 2011 |access-date= 2011-04-03}} *[http://cv.vic.gov.au/stories/creative-life/fashion-detective-fashion-fiction-and-forensics/ Fashion detective: Fashion, Fiction and Forensics in nineteenth century Australian fashion] on Culture Victoria {{Timeline of clothing and fashion|state=collapsed}}{{Victorian era|state=collapsed}} [[Category:Victorian fashion| ]] [[Category:19th-century fashion|*]] [[Category:1900s fashion]] [[Category:History of Western fashion]] [[Category:19th century in the arts]] =From ''Women in the Victorian era''= ===Victorian women's fashion=== {{Multiple issues|{{tone|date=March 2023}} {{more footnotes needed|date=March 2023}}|section=y}}{{Further|Victorian fashion}} The ideal Victorian woman was pure, chaste, refined, and modest. This ideal was supported by etiquette and manners. The etiquette extended to the pretension of never acknowledging the use of undergarments (sometimes generically referred to as "unmentionables"). The discussion of such a topic, it was feared, would gravitate towards unhealthy attention on anatomical details. As one Victorian lady expressed it: "[those] are not things, my dear, that we speak of; indeed, we try not even to think of them", in contrast to current norms.<ref>{{cite book |last=Cunnington |first=C. Willett |title=English Women's Clothing in the Nineteenth Century: A Comprehensive Guide with 1,117 Illustrations |publisher=Dover Publications |year=1990 |isbn=978-0-486-26323-6 |pages=20}}</ref> The pretence of avoiding acknowledgement of anatomical realities met with embarrassing failure on occasion. In 1859, the Hon. Eleanor Stanley wrote about an incident where the [[Louisa Cavendish, Duchess of Devonshire|Duchess of Manchester]] moved too quickly while manoeuvring over a [[stile]], tripping over her large [[hoop skirt]]: {{blockquote|[the Duchess] caught a hoop of her cage in it and went regularly head over heels lighting on her feet with her cage and whole petticoats above, above her head. They say there was never such a thing seen – and the other ladies hardly knew whether to be thankful or not that a part of her undergarments consisted in a pair of scarlet tartan [[knickerbockers (clothing)|knickerbockers]] (the things Charlie shoots in) which were revealed to the view of all the world in general and the [[Aimable Pélissier|Duc de Malakoff]] in particular".<ref>{{cite book|last=Cunnington|first=C. Willett|title=English Women's Clothing in the Nineteenth Century: A Comprehensive Guide with 1,117 Illustrations|year=1990|publisher=Dover Publications|isbn=978-0-486-26323-6|pages=20–1}}</ref>}} However, despite the fact that Victorians considered the mention of women's undergarments in mixed company unacceptable, men's entertainment made great comedic material out of the topic of ladies' [[bloomers (clothing)|bloomers]], including men's magazines and music hall skits.<ref>{{cite book |last=Cunnington |first=C. Willett |title=English Women's Clothing in the Nineteenth Century: A Comprehensive Guide with 1,117 Illustrations |publisher=Dover Publications |year=1990 |isbn=978-0-486-26323-6 |pages=22}}</ref> Victorian women's clothing followed trends that emphasised elaborate dresses, skirts with wide volume created by the use of layered material such as [[crinoline]]s, hoop skirt frames, and heavy fabrics. Because of the impracticality and health impact of the era's fashions, a [[Victorian dress reform|dress reform movement]] began among women. The ideal silhouette of the time demanded a narrow waist, which was accomplished by constricting the abdomen with a laced [[corset]]. While the silhouette was striking, and the dresses themselves were often exquisitely detailed creations, the fashions were cumbersome. At best, they restricted women's movements and at worst, they had a harmful effect on women's health. Physicians turned their attention to the use of corsets and determined that they caused several medical problems: compression of the thorax, restricted breathing, organ displacement, poor circulation, and prolapsed uterus.<ref name="O'Connor"/> Articles advocating the reform of women's clothing by the British National Health Society, the Ladies' Dress Association, and the [[Rational Dress Society]] were reprinted in ''The Canada Lancet'', Canada's medical journal. In 1884, Dr J. Algernon Temple of Toronto even voiced concern that the fashions were having a negative impact on the health of young women from the working classes. He pointed out that a young working-class woman was likely to spend a large part of her earnings on fine hats and shawls, while "her feet are improperly protected, and she wears no flannel petticoat or woollen stockings".<ref name="O'Connor"/> [[File:Bloomers.jpg|thumb|1850s illustration of a woman wearing [[bloomers]]]] [[Florence Pomeroy]], Lady Haberton, was president of the Rational Dress movement in Britain. At a National Health Society exhibition held in 1882, Viscountess Haliburton presented her invention of a "[[divided skirt]]", which was a long skirt that cleared the ground, with separate halves at the bottom made with material attached to the bottom of the skirt. She hoped that her invention would become popular by supporting women's freedom of physical movement, but the British public was not impressed by the invention, perhaps because of the negative "unwomanly" association of the style with the American [[Bloomers]] movement.<ref>{{cite book|last=Murray|first=Janet Horowitz|title=Strong-Minded Women and Other Lost Voices from 19th Century England|year=1982|publisher=Pantheon Books|location=New York|isbn=0-394-71044-4|pages=[https://archive.org/details/strongmindedwome00jane/page/68 68–70]|url=https://archive.org/details/strongmindedwome00jane/page/68}}</ref> [[Amelia Jenks Bloomer]] had encouraged the wearing of visible bloomers by feminists to assert their right to wear comfortable and practical clothing, but it was no more than a passing fashion itself among radical feminists. The movement to reform women's dress would persist and have long-term success, however; by the 1920s, [[Coco Chanel]] was successful at selling a progressive, far less restrictive silhouette that abandoned the corset and raised hemlines. The new silhouette symbolised modernism for trendy young women and became the 20th century standard. Other Paris designers continued reintroducing pants for women and the trend was gradually adopted over the next century. Fashion trends, in one sense, travelled "full circle" over the course of the Victorian era. The popular women's styles during the [[Georgian era]], and at the very beginning of Victoria's reign, emphasized a simple style influenced by flowing gowns worn by women in [[Ancient Greek clothing|Ancient Greece]] and [[Clothing in ancient Rome|Rome]]. The [[Empire waist]] silhouette was replaced by a trend towards ornate styles and an artificial silhouette, with the restrictiveness of women's clothing reaching its low point during the mid-century passion for narrow corseted waists and hoop skirts. The iconic wide-brimmed women's hats of the later Victorian era also followed the trend towards ostentatious display. Hats began the Victorian era as simple [[Bonnet (headgear)|bonnets]]. By the 1880s, milliners were tested by the competition among women to top their outfits with the most creative (and extravagant) hats, designed with expensive materials such as silk flowers and exotic plumes such as ostrich and peacock. As the Victorian era drew to a close, however, fashions were showing indications of a popular backlash against excessive styles. Model, actress and socialite [[Lillie Langtry]] took London by storm in the 1870s, attracting notice for wearing simple black dresses to social events. Combined with her natural beauty, the style appeared dramatic. Fashions followed her example (as well as Queen Victoria's wearing of mourning black later in her reign). According to [[Harold Koda]], the former Curator-in-chief of the [[Costume Institute at The Met|Metropolitan Museum of Art's Costume Institute]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.metmuseum.org/about-the-museum/press-room/exhibitions/2014/death-becomes-her|title=Death Becomes Her: A Century of Mourning Attire : October 21, 2014-February 1, 2015|website=Metmuseuim.org|access-date=7 November 2021}}</ref> "The predominantly black palette of [[mourning]] dramatizes the evolution of period silhouettes and the increasing absorption of fashion ideals into this most codified of etiquettes," said Koda, "The veiled widow could elicit sympathy as well as predatory male advances. As a woman of sexual experience without marital constraints, she was often imagined as a potential threat to the social order." ====Evolution of Victorian women's fashion==== <gallery> File:Fashion plate December 1844.jpg|Ladies' December Fashions (1844). Hand-coloured steel engraving from a women's magazine. File:Thegalleryofhmscalcutta james tissot 1876.jpg|''[[The Gallery of HMS Calcutta]]'' by [[James Tissot]] (1876). [[Bustle]]s were fashionable in the 1870s and 1880s. File:Mrs lillie langtry george frederic watts 1880.jpg|''Mrs. Lillie Langtry'' by [[George Frederic Watts]] (1880). File:Five-women-on-queenslander-steps-r.jpg|Fashionable women in [[Queensland]], Australia around 1900. </gallery> {{Short description|Irish writer (born 1963)}} {{Use Irish English|date=August 2025}} {{Use dmy dates|date=August 2025}} {{Infobox writer | name = Darach Ó Scolaí | image = Darach Ó Scolaí.JPG | alt = Man holding prize-winning book | caption = Ó Scolaí in 2019 | birth_name = Darach Ó Scolaí | birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1963|df=y}} | birth_place = [[County Galway]], The Republic of Ireland | death_date = | death_place = | occupation = Writer, artist, publisher | alma_mater = [[University of Galway]] | years_active = 1998–present | genre = Novel, retelling, translation, play, screenplay, illustrated book for children and adults | other_names = | spouse = | children = 3 | awards = [[Awards and Honors received by Darach Ó Scolaí|Awards and Honors]] | signature = | website = }}[[File:Darach Ó Scolaí.JPG|thumb|Darach Ó Scolaí, holding ''Oileán an Órchiste'' (his translation of Robert Louis Stevenson's ''Treasure Island'')]] == Darach Ó Scolaí == Darach Ó Scolaí (<small>Irish:</small> [/ˈda.rax/ /oː/ /sˠkˠoː/l̪ˠəi/]; born 1963<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://portraidi.ie/en/darach-o-scolai/|title=Darach Ó Scolaí|date=20 October 2017|website=Portráidí (Portraits of Irish-Language Writers)|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref>) is an Irish author who works in a number of genres, from novels, plays and screenplays to illustrated books for children and adults. He began his literary career in 1998 writing screenplays, stage plays, retellings and translations; he began to publish novels in 2008. Ó Scolaí is widely recognized as a leading figure in contemporary Irish literature, known as “one of the most important Irish language writers of his generation”<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Poirtéir|first=Cathal|date=2022|title=? Suil an Daill: Constant Tensions and Shifting Allegiances|url=https://booksirelandmagazine.com/suil-an-daill-constant-tensions-and-shifting-allegiances/|journal=Books Ireland}}</ref> and "one of the great Irish language novelists [duine d’úrscéalaithe móra na Gaeilge]."<ref name=":17" /> His writing has been called “the high literature of the Irish language.”<ref>Ó Coimín, Maitiú. ''Nós'' 2 February 2018). Qtd. in "Táin Bó Cuailnge." ''Leabhar Breac''. Retrieved 25 August 2025.</ref> Much of his fiction is based on a knowledge of traditional Irish tales and narrative practices as well as Irish history. He specializes in literary and [[wikipedia:Historical_fiction|historical fiction]], or as novelist Alan Titley says, Ó Scolaí’s “peak (for now), or at least his greatest imaginative interest, is the historical novel [tá an chuma air gurb é a bhuaic (go fóill), nó ar a laghad, a mhórspéis samhlaíochta, an t-úrscéal staire].”<ref name=":11">{{Cite journal|last=Titley|first=Alan|date=Fall 2020|title=An Stíl Go Deo!: Soather Dharach Uí Scolaí (The style would be forever!: Worker Darach Ó Scolaí)|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/27046090|journal=Comhar|volume=80, No. 10|pages=27|via=JSTOR}}</ref> His retellings of old stories and tales from their original Middle and Early-Modern Irish into Modern Irish ([[wikipedia:Irish_language|Gaeilge]]) are respected for their accessibility to students and language learners as well as for their artistry. Ó Scolaí also regularly reviews books and lectures and writes on literature and culture. Beyond his writing, Ó Scolaí is a publisher and has co-produced a number of film, television shows and stage plays. == Life == Ó Scolaí was born in Dublin and raised in the Galway [[wikipedia:Gaeltacht#Galway Gaeltacht|Gaeltacht]] (Irish-speaking) regions of Cois Fharraige on the north shore of Galway Bay, in the Republic of Ireland, where he lives now with his wife and children in Lochán Beag (Indreabhán).<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|date=30 October 2024|title=Duais don úrscéal liteartha is fearr buaite ag Darach Ó Scolaí ag Oireachtas na Samhna|url=https://tuairisc.ie/duais-don-ursceal-liteartha-is-fearr-buaite-ag-darach-o-scolai-ag-oireachtas-na-samhna/|journal=Tuairisc}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ní Scolaí|first=Aifric|date=2024|title=Darach Ó Scolaí|url=https://www.taiscecf.ie/ealaiontoiri?category=Scr%C3%ADbhneoir|journal=Taisce Chois Fharraige}}</ref> He graduated the [[wikipedia:University_of_Galway|University of Galway]] (then University College Galway) with a B.A. in 1983.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.linkedin.com/in/darach-ó-scolaí-20026920/|title=Darach Ó Scolaí|last=Ó Scolaí|first=Darach|date=August 2025|website=LinkedIn}}</ref> === Writing and Publishing === Ó Scolaí writes in Irish ([[wikipedia:Irish_language|Gaeilge]]), his native language, and lives in an area defined for the predominant presence of Irish as the vernacular language, the language spoken at home. Irish was the language of his parents' home and is the language of children as well. He is fluent in Irish and English and conversant in French. None of his works has been translated into English. ==== Leabhar Breac ==== In 1995 Darach Ó Scolaí and his brother Caomhán Ó Scolaí — a [[wikipedia:Typography|typographer]] and designer — founded the publishing house Leabhar Breac at Indreabhán (Inverin), County Galway. Their father “Séamas Ó Scolaí was an editor at An Gúm and worked on the Irish-English dictionary team [bhí a n-athair Séamas Ó Scolaí ina eagarthóir sa Ghúm agus d’oibrigh sé ar fhoireann an fhoclóra Gaeilge-Béarla].”<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/about-us/|title=About Us|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 July 2025}}</ref> Darach Ó Scolaí has been publisher and literary editor at Leabhar Breac since its founding. Named for [[wikipedia:An_Leabhar_Breac|An Leabhar Breac (The Speckled Book)]], Leabhar Breac publishing house has more than 140 books in print.<ref name=":0" /> Leabhar Breac aims to publish Irish-language books that meet “a high literary and artistic standard.”<ref name=":0" /> Besides the content, Leabhar Breac is known for the typically "superb [thar cionn]" quality of the design and production of the "physical book [leabhar fisiciúil]."<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=Ní Mhuilneoir|first=Gráinne|date=30 July 2024|title=‘Bláthnaid’ – leabhar álainn i sraithín álainn faoi mhná|url=https://tuairisc.ie/blathnaid-leabhar-alainn-i-sraithin-alainn-faoi-mhna/|journal=Tuairisc}}</ref> Its books regularly win awards for literary and artistic quality. Leabhar Breac also publishes translations for children and adults from various early versions of Irish as well as from French and English (and has published translations of books for young readers from Spanish, Catalan, and Italian as well). Leabhar Breac prints its books in Ireland. === Stage and Screen === ==== Rosg ==== In 1998 along with Ciarán Ó Cofaigh,<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=http://www.rosg.ie/en/about/History_6/|title=About Us: History|date=July 2025|website=Rosg|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> Ó Scolaí co-founded the film and television production company [http://www.rosg.ie/en/ Rosg] and was co-director until 2006. Rosg produced Ó ScolaÍ’s films ''Cosa Nite'' (1999), ''An Leabhar'' (2001) and ''Na Cloigne'' (2010). He left Rosg in 2006 to devote his time to other artistic activities. ==== Ealaín ar Oileán ==== In 2004, along with Val Balance, Ó Scolaí co-founded the annual artists' symposium Ealaín ar Oileán (trans., Art on an Island). The Irish-language symposium was held annually in the Áras Éanna arts and cultural center on Inis Oírr ([[wikipedia:Inisheer|Inisheer]], the smallest of the [[wikipedia:Aran_Islands|Aran Islands]]) from 2004 to 2013. Ó Scolaí was its co-director from its founding<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darach_Ó_Scolaí.|title=Darach Ó Scolaí|date=3 February 2024|website=Vicipéid|access-date=1 July 2025}}</ref> until 2013. Besides being its co-director, Ó Scolaí has taken part in this conference as an artist<ref>{{Cite journal|date=16 January 2005|title=Darach Ó Scolaí|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050116163252/http://bliainiris.com/authors/darach_oscolai.html|journal=Bliainiris}}</ref> and writer<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=http://ealainaroilean.ie/ealainaroilean.html|title=The Conference|date=7 September 2013|website=Ealaín ar Oileán|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130907083744/http://ealainaroilean.ie/ealainaroilean.html|archive-date=7 September 2013|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref>. ==== Salamandar ==== In 2006 Ó Scolaí founded the stage production company Salamandar and directed his own play ''An Braon Aníos''. His plays ''An tSeanbhróg'' (2009) and ''Craos'' (2008) were also produced by Salamandar.<ref name=":19">{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/product-category/darach-o-scolai/|title=Darach Ó Scolaí|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 July 2025}}</ref> == Works == === Novels === * [[wikipedia:An_Cléireach|''An Cléireach'' (trans., ''The Clerk'')]], Leabhar Breac, 2007. The Oireachtas Prize for Literary Fiction, 2007; The Ó Súilleabháin Award (Book of the Year) in 2008, and "named as ‘the best novel since the turn of the Century’ by Comhar."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/fiction/an-cleireach/|title=An Cléireach - Leabhar Breac - Irish language novel|website=Leabhar Breac|language=en-US|access-date=2025-10-24}}</ref> * ''Na Comharthaí'' (trans., ''The Signs''), Leabhar Breac, 2014. * ''Súil an Daill'' (trans., ''The Eye of the Blind''), Leabhar Breac, 2021. The Oireachtas Prize for Literary Fiction, 2019.<ref name=":4">{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/fiction/suil-an-daill/|title=Súil an Daill|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> * ''Bódléar'', Leabhar Breac, 2024. The Oireachtas Prize for Literary Fiction, 2024<ref name=":7" />; The Ó Súilleabháin Award (Book of the Year) in 2025; featured in the 2025 Listen-Up Irish Summer Challenge for students of the Irish language.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://connachttribune.ie/novel-approach-helps-people-learn-irish-in-a-creative-way/|title=Novel approach helps people learn Irish in a creative way|last=Murphy|first=Judy|date=3 October 2025|work=Connaught Tribune|access-date=24 October 2025}}</ref> === Retellings, Translations and Editions === The retellings and translations are into modern Irish. * ''Feis Tigh Chonáin'' (trans., ''The Feast of Conán's House''), Leabhar Breac, 2000; a retelling of a 15^th-century tale from the [[wikipedia:Fenian_Cycle|Fenian Cycle]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/fiction/feis-tigh-chonain/|title=Feis Tigh Chonáin|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> * ''An Ceithearnach Caolriabhach'' (trans., ''The Narrow-Striped Kern''), Leabhar Breac, 2002; a retelling from c. 1500, also illustrated by Darach Ó ScolaÍ.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/fiction/an-ceithearnach-caolriabhach/|title=An Ceithearnach Caolriabhach|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> * ''Táin Bó Cuailnge'' (trans., ''The Cattle Raid of Cooley''), Leabhar Breac, 2017, both a modern edition of an 11th-century epic and an annotated edition.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/darach-o-scolai/tain-bo-cuailnge-2-2/|title=Táin Bó Cuailnge|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> "''Táin Bó Cuailnge'' won the Aodán Mac Poilín Memorial Prize 2017."<ref name=":19" /> * ''Deirdre'', Leabhar Breac, 2023, a “picture book for adults” with artist Anastasia Melnykova.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/darach-o-scolai/deirdre/|title=Deirdre|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> Part of the [[wikipedia:Ulster_Cycle|Ulster Cycle]], ''Deirdre'' is a retelling of the story of possibly the most widely known Irish figure from the early tales and sagas.<ref>{{Cite book|title=A Dictionary of Celtic Mythology|last=MacKillop|first=James|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2004|isbn=9780198609674|pages=181}}</ref> * ''Bláthnaid'', Leabhar Breac, 2024, a “picture book for adults” with artist Anastasia Melnykova; “one of the great stories of the [[wikipedia:Ulster_Cycle|Ulster Cycle]].”<ref name=":4" /> * ''Sadhbh,'' Leabhar Breac, 2025, a picture book for adult readers, illustrated by Alé Mercado; a retelling of the medieval tale ''Ceasacht Inghine Ghuile (''trans., ''The Complaint of Guile's Daughter'').<ref name=":5">{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/tales-of-wonder/|title=Tales of Wonder|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> * ''Eoghan Béal'', Leabhar Breac, 2025, a picture book for adult readers illustrated by Alé Mercado<ref name=":5" />; a retelling of the medieval tale ''[https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caithr%C3%A9im_Cellaig Cathréim Ceallaigh]'' from ''The Yellow Book of Leacan.''<ref name=":5" /> === For Young Readers === Ó Scolaí has written illustrated books for young readers (8–10 years old) in two series, the Fionn Series and the Scéalta Staire series, and translated a large number of classics and popular books for children of all ages. The number of these written and translated works suggests a commitment to children and their literacy in Irish. The Fionn Series “is a retelling ... of the great legends of the Fianna for the young Irish readers of today.”<ref name=":6">{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/oige-en/8-9/doiteoir-na-samhna/|title=Dóiteoir na Samhna|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> [[wikipedia:The_Boyhood_Deeds_of_Fionn|Macgnímartha Finn (The Boyhood Deeds of Fionn)]] is a medieval story in the [[wikipedia:Fenian_Cycle|Fenian Cycle]]. * ''An Bradán Feasa'' (trans., ''The Salmon of Knowledge''), Leabhar Breac, 2010, “shortlisted for the Réics Carlo award 2010.”<ref name=":9">{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/oige-en/8-9/an-bradan-feasa/|title=An Bradán Feasa|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> * ''Dóiteoir na Samhna'' (trans., ''The Halloween Burner''), 2010.<ref name=":6" /> * ''Bodach an Chóta Lachna'' (trans., ''The Churl in the Dun Coat''), 2011.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/oige-en/7-8/bodach-an-chota-lachna/|title=Bodach an Chóta Lachna|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> The Scéalta Staire (Historical Stories) series<ref name=":9" /> * ''Mánas Ó Dónaill'', 2000. * ''Seán Ó Néill'', Leabhar Breac, 2000. * ''Gráinne Mhaol Ní Mháille'', Leabhar Breac, 2003. * ''Tadhg Dall Ó hUiginn'', Leabhar Breac, 2003. ==== Translations ==== * Robert Louis Stevenson, ''Oileán an Órchiste'' (trans. of ''Treasure Island''), Leabhar Breac, 2014.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2025-06-19|title=Oireachtas na Gaeilge|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Oireachtas_na_Gaeilge&oldid=1296394643|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> * Robert Louis Stevenson, ''An Fuadach'' (trans. of ''Kidnapped''), Leabhar Breac, 2016. * Clement Clarke Moore, ''Cuairt San Nioclás'' (trans. of ''A Visit from St. Nicholas'', or "'Twas the Night Before Christmas"), Leabhar Breac, 2022. '''''The Corto Maltese Graphic Novels''''' Written in Italian by Hugo Pratt and translated by Ó Scolaí, both adults and teenagers read this series of Italian adventure graphic novels.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2025-07-01|title=Corto Maltese|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Corto_Maltese&oldid=1298285365|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> Ó Scolaí's '''translation of ''Corto Maltese''''' was listed in 2017 among "The 30 Irish books that Irish people love."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ó Murchú|first=Eoin P.|date=09/06/2017|title=Na 30 leabhar Gaeilge is fearr leis na Gaeil [The 30 Irish books that Irish people love]|url=https://nos.ie/cultur/leabhair/an-30-leabhar-gaeilge-is-fearr-leis-na-gaeil/|journal=Nós}}</ref> * Hugo Pratt, ''Corto: Port na Farraige Goirt'', Leabhar Breac, 2013. * Hugo Pratt, ''Corto: The Golden House in Samarkand'', 2014. * Hugo Pratt, ''Corto: Na Liopard-Fhir ó Rufiji'' (trans. of ''Corto: The Leopard Men of Rufiji''), Leabhar Breac, 2014. * Hugo Pratt, ''Corto: In Ainm Dé Uilthrócairigh'' (trans. of ''Corto: In the Name of God All-Merciful''), Leabhar Breac, 2014. * Hugo Pratt, ''Corto: Tóraíocht Eile'' (trans. of ''Corto: Another Quest''), Leabhar Breac, 2014. * Hugo Pratt, ''Corto: Sa tSibéir'' (trans. of ''Corto: In Siberia''), Leabhar Breac, 2016. '''''Other Translations for Children''''' Ó Scolaí has translated into Irish six books from the ''Le Pavillon Noir'' (trans., ''Jolly Roger'') series by Alain Surget; four books from the ''Catalan First Steps'' series by Enric Lluch Girbés and the ''Caitlín & Cormac'' series by Joan Carles; three books from the ''Louisette le Taupe'' series by Bruno Heitz, and three books from the ''Loup'' series by Orianne Lallemand. === Plays and Screenplays === ==== Stage Plays ==== Ó Scolaí was writer and director of the original productions of two plays in the ''Trí Bhraon'' (trans., ''Three Drops'') trilogy; ''Coinneáil Orainn'' was directed by Darach Mac Con Iomaire and staged by An Taibhdhearc. All three plays have been published in book form by Leabhar Breac. * ''Coinneáil Orainn'' (trans., ''We'll Keep Going''), 2005.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://irishplayography.com/play?playid=32553|title=Coinneáil Orainn|date=2025|website=PlayographyIreland: A Comprehensive Database of New Irish Plays Produced Professionally Since 1904.|access-date=25 August 2025}}</ref> The first play in the ''Trí Bhraon'' (''Three Drops'') trilogy. [[wikipedia:Taibhdhearc_na_Gaillimhe|An Taibhdhearc]], the national Irish-language theatre of Ireland, toured the country in 2005 with ''Coinneáil Orainn''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/darach-o-scolai/coinneail-orainn/|title=Coinneáil Orainn|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> Walter Macken Prize, 2005; BBC Stewart Parker Award, 2006.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://irishplayography.com/person/darach-scola|title=Darach Ó Scolaí|date=2025|website=PlayographyIreland: A Comprehensive Database of New Irish Plays Produced Professionally Since 1904.|access-date=25 August 2025}}</ref> * ''Branwen'', 2006, by Darach Ó Scolaí and Ifor ap Glyn, in Irish, Welsh and English, co-produced by Project Arts Centre and Llwyfan Gogledd Cymru, toured the Republic of Ireland and Wales.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://irishplayography.com/play?playid=32418|title=Branwen|date=2025|website=PlayographyIreland: A Comprehensive Database of New Irish Plays Produced Professionally Since 1904|access-date=25 August 2025}}</ref> * ''An Braon'' Aníos (trans., ''Rising Damp''), 2006, directed by Ó Scolaí.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://irishplayography.com/play?playid=32461|title=An Braon Aníos|date=2025|website=PlayographyIreland: A Comprehensive Database of New Irish Plays Produced Professionally Since 1904|access-date=25 August 2025}}</ref> The second play in the ''Trí Bhraon'' (''Three Drops'') trilogy. “The Salamandar company toured the country in 2006-07 with this play, and Salamandar also produced a radio version of the play for RTÉ Raidió na Gaeltachta in 2009.”<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/darach-o-scolai/an-braon-anios/|title=An Braon Aníos|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> * ''Craos'' (trans., ''Gluttony''), 2008, directed by Ó Scolaí.<ref name=":13">{{Cite web|url=https://irishplayography.com/play?playid=32867|title=Craos|date=2025|website=PlayographyIreland: A Comprehensive Database of New Irish Plays Produced Professionally Since 1904|access-date=25 August 2025}}</ref> The third play in the ''Trí Bhraon'' (''Three Drops'') trilogy, it toured to Cork and Belfast.<ref name=":13" /> A review of the 2008 Salamander performance in the ''Irish Times'' says, “a humorous play which offers plenty to think about, fine acting, and sparklingly witty dialogue.”<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/darach-o-scolai/craos-2/|title=Craos|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> * ''A+E'', 2008, by Ríonach Ní Néill and Darach Ó Scolaí, "dance and music drama," co-produced by Ciotóg and Salamandar.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://irishplayography.com/play?playid=32962|title=A+E|date=2025|website=PlayographyIreland: A Comprehensive Database of New Irish Plays Produced Professionally Since 1904|access-date=25 August 2025}}</ref> * ''An tSeanbhróg'' (trans., ''The Old Shoe''), 2009, produced by Salamander<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://irishplayography.com/play?playid=33042|title=An tSeanbhróg|date=2025|website=PlayographyIreland: A Comprehensive Database of New Irish Plays Produced Professionally Since 1904|access-date=25 August 2025}}</ref> and staged in the Axis Arts Centre, Dublin, and the Letterkenny Arts Centre. * '''In ''Mhuir Fhíondorcha/The Wine-Dark Sea: The Homer Project'', Ó Scolaí's translation of Homer's Cyclops story, performed at the 2019 IMRAM festival'''.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/culture/books/imram-a-festival-celebrating-the-irish-language-1.4047610|title=Imram: a festival celebrating the Irish language. Liam Carson reveals the myths and legends appearing in this year’s programme|last=Carson|first=Liam|date=11 October 2019|work=The Irish Times|access-date=15 October 2025}}</ref> ==== Screenplays ==== * ''Cosa Nite'' (trans., ''Washed Feet''), short film, 1998 (dir. Dearbhla Walsh, prod. Ciarán Ó Cofaigh, Rosg); "a prose version of ''Cosa Nite'' was published (Rosg 2000)."<ref name=":9" /> Nominated for an Irish Film and Television Award.<ref>{{Citation|title=Cosa Nite (Short 1998) - Awards - IMDb|url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0191917/awards/|accessdate=2025-08-25|language=en-US}}</ref> * ''Na Glúnta'' (trans., ''The Generations''), 2001<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.iftn.ie/production/production_companies/production_sub/feature/?act1=record&aid=70&rid=3917&tpl=filmography_dets&only=1&force=1|title=Na Glúnta {{!}} The Irish Film & Television Network|website=www.iftn.ie|access-date=2025-08-25}}</ref>, co-directors Ciarán Ó Cofaigh & Darach Ó Scolaí, prod. Ciarán Ó Cofaigh, Rosg. * ''An Leabhar'' (trans., ''The Book''), short film, 2000, (dir. Robert Quinn, prod. Ciarán Ó Cofaigh, Rosg) Rosg, 2000.<ref>{{Citation|title=An Leabhar|url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0963767/|publisher=Bord Scannán na hÉireann / The Irish Film Board, ROSG|accessdate=2025-08-25|first=Robert|last=Quinn|others=Colm O&apos;Maonlai, Peadar O&apos;Treasaigh, Diarmuid Mac an Adhastair}}</ref> * ''Na Cloigne'' [trans., The Heads], 3-episide series, 2010 (dir. Robert Quinn, prod. Ciarán Ó Cofaigh, Rosg), TG4.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt1607924/|title=Na cloigne|date=2010|website=IMDb|access-date=25 August 2025}}</ref> === Nonfiction === Ó Scolaí's essays and lectures are published and his interviews are broadcast regularly, making for a large body of nonfiction critical and analytical work. Here are a few, almost all published in [https://comhar.ie/iris/scribhneoiri/darach-o-scolai/ Comhar]: * “Ceol Ciúin na nÉagmaise” (trans., “The Silent Music of Absence ['''the Fall?''']”), an essay on the 2014 Nobel Prize winner for literature, [[wikipedia:Patrick_Modiano|Patrick Modiano]], ''Comhar'', December 2014. * The Ó Cadhain Lecture: [https://leachtaiuichadhain.clo.ie/leachtai/2014 “Cuimhne agus Díchuimhne (trans., “Memory & Forgetfulness"]), 2014. * “Rithim agus Réim” ("Rhythm and Register"), a public lecture in the University College Dublin lecture series “Ó Thrácht go Twitter” (trans., "From Talk to Twitter"), 2014. * Review of Pádraig Ó Cíobháin’s ''Dréachta Chrích Fodla'', '''Comhar?, ??'''. * “Na Geilt i mBun an Tí” (trans., "The Madmen in Charge"), a talk at the Merriman Winter School, Comhar April 2012.<ref name=":18">{{Cite web|url=http://darachoscolai.ie/beathaisneis.html|title=Darach Ó Scolaí: Beathaisnéis|website=darachoscolai.ie|access-date=2025-09-26}}</ref> * The EFACIS podcast: Síle Ní Choincheannain talks to Darach Ó Scolaí about the historical novel. == Critical Reception == Ó Scolaí’s style has been called “crisp and elegant, and rich in language while being highly readable,”<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Heussaf|first=Anna|date=Summer 2025|title=Bláthnaid—A tale of love, violence and sorcery retold for readers today|url=https://booksirelandmagazine.com/blathnaid-a-tale-of-love-violence-and-sorcery/|journal=Books Ireland}}</ref> with “an unsurpassed richness and precision of language.”<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|last=Ó Cróinín|first=Breandán|date=Summer 2025|title=unknown|journal=The Limerick Leader}}</ref> “Whimsical, hilarious, and subtly learned” is how Éilis Ní Dhuibhne described his writing.<ref name=":20" /> === Original Works === Ó Scolaí’s first novel, the 2007 ''An Cléireach'' (''The Clerk'') won two prizes and was described as “one of the great historical novels in the Irish language and among the best books written in the language since the beginning of this century.”<ref name=":12" /> Novelist Alan Titley says, “In ''An Cléireach'' Ó Scolaí creates the Ireland of war in the 17th century more fully than any other Irish writer on the subject of war since ''L’Attaque'' Eoghain Ó Thuairisc around 1798 [In ''An Cléireach'' cruthaíonn Ó Scolaí Éire an chogaidh san 17ú haois níos iomláine ná mar a dhein aon scríbhneoir Gaeilge eile ar ábhar cogaidh ó ''L’Attaque'' Eoghain Uí Thuairisc timpeall ar 1798].”<ref name=":11" />{{rp|25, Col. 1a}} Not all the reviews of this first novel were so positive, however; Proinsias O' Drisceoil says for the Irish Times says,<blockquote>This then is a novel in search of a plot, a story that attempts to attain a significance that eludes it.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/news/a-disaffected-clerk-in-the-confederates-1.943070|title=A disaffected clerk in the confederates|last=O' Drisceoil|first=Proinsias|date=5 July 2008|work=The Irish Times|access-date=16 October 2025}}</ref></blockquote> In the ''Oxford Handbook of Modern Irish Fiction'' Pádraig Ó Siadhail analyzes rather than reviews ''An Cléireach'': <blockquote>In ''An Cléireach'', Ó Scolaí revisits the trauma of Cromwellian Ireland. The primary narrative device is once again the first-hand account, in this case by Tadhg Ó Dúbháin, a clerk and quartermaster in the Confederate Army in 1650. We sample the hardships, the friendships, the tensions, the rivalries, and the petty jealousies amongst comrades in arms, including remnants of the Gaelic literary class, as the Confederate soldiers, increasingly a rabble more than a cohesive unit, retreat in advance of Cromwell’s forces. ''An Cléireach'' concludes with the narrator and his family in exile in continental Europe. But along the retreat route, and central to the novel, members of the Confederate army camp, rest up, and tell versions of a story about the keeper of the treasured manuscript "Saltair an Easpaig" (The Bishop’s Psalter). Their versions raise issues about memory construction, the limitations of individual perspectives, personal agendas, and how minor changes in the telling of a story can alter our understanding of history, Thus, ''An Cléireach'' complements ''Fontenoy'' in moving beyond more realistic recreation of a historical event or period to interrogate the notion of history as construct.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Oxford Handbook of Modern Irish Fiction|last=Ó Siadhail|first=Pádraig|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2020|isbn=9780198754893|editor-last=Harte|editor-first=Liam|pages=598–99|chapter=Contemporary Irish Fiction}}</ref> </blockquote> Of ''Súil an Daill,'' in ''Nós'', Cathal Seoighe says, "The book deserves a significant place among the collection of high-quality books published in recent years that would make you feel sorry for someone who does not speak Irish [Tá áit shuntasach ag dul don leabhar i measc an chnuasaigh leabhair ar ardchaighdeán a foilsíodh le roinnt blianta anuas a d’fhágfadh trua agat don té atá gan Ghaeilge]."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Seoighe|first=Cathal|date=09/26/2022|title=‘Dar leathmhagairle an diabhail, is leabhar den scoth é seo!’ ['According to the devil’s half-wit, this is a great book!’]|url=https://nos.ie/cultur/leabhair/dar-leathmhagairle-an-diabhail-is-leabhar-den-scoth-e-seo/|journal=Nós}}</ref> ''Bódléar'', Ó Scolaí's most recent book, is a “beautiful novel. There is magic and craftsmanship in it. A small miracle of a book and it is highly recommended.”<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/bodlear-mioruilt-bheag-de-leabhar/|title=Bódléar: Míorúilt bheag de leabhar (Bódléar: A Small Miracle of a Book)|last=Ní Ghairbhí|first=Róisín|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> Éilis Ní Dhuibhne in the ''Irish Times'' says,<blockquote>what a gem! An affectionately gentle satire of the Irish poetic scene during one creatively fluid 19th-century year, the story focuses on a Maigue poet and schoolteacher who goes on a trip to France and returns with camembert, a cafetiere, ‘Fleurs du Mal’, and a mission to convert the local traditionalists to la modernité. Whimsical, hilarious, and subtly learned, it’s absolutely delightful!<ref name=":20">{{Cite journal|last=Ní Dhuibhne|first=Éilis|date=30 June 2025|title=Éilís Ní Dhuibhne on the best Irish language books of 2025 so far: Including a history of the Gaeltacht Civil Rights Movements, a gem of a novel by Darach Ó Scolaí and Joe McHugh’s entertaining account of learning Irish|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/culture/books/review/2025/06/30/eilis-ni-dhuibhne-on-the-best-irish-language-books-of-2025-so-far/|journal=The Irish Times|pages=22}}</ref></blockquote> === Retellings and Translations === ==== ''Táin Bó Cuailnge'' ==== ''Táin Bó Cuailnge'' [''The Cattle Raid of Cooley''] is a modern edition of an 11th-century epic into modern Irish.<ref name=":3" /> Gearóid Denvir reviewed ''Táin Bó Cuailnge'' for ''Comhar'':<blockquote>Darach Ó Scolaí has ​​achieved a feat in this challenging reworking. He has found a high level of the Irish language to tell his story – as he has done before in his groundbreaking novel An Cléireach (2007, Leabhar Breac) and in his other prose works. This book is a decoration of the language, literature and culture of the Irish language, following the path of the old storytellers and writers and presenting material from the tradition to his own generation according to the understandings of his own time. The book will be a classic that will be of great interest to all readers of the Irish language, both ordinary readers, students, scholars and writers, and there should be a copy in every home in the country. [Tá éacht déanta ag Darach Ó Scolaí san athleagan dúshlánach seo. Tá réim ard den teanga Ghaeilge aimsithe aige lena scéal a inseacht – mar a rinne sé cheana ina úrscéal ceannródaíoch An Cléireach (2007, Leabhar Breac) agus i saothair eile phróis dá chuid. Is maisiú ar an teanga agus ar litríocht agus cultúr na Gaeilge an leabhar seo a leanas conair na seanscéalaithe agus na seanscríobhaithe agus ábhar de chuid an traidisiúin á chur i láthair a ghlúine féin aige de réir thuiscintí a linne féin. Clasaic a bheas sa leabhar a gcuirfidh léitheoirí uilig na Gaeilge, idir ghnáthléitheoirí, mhic léinn, scoláirí agus scríbhneoirí spéis thar na bearta ann, agus ba cheart cóip a bheith i chuile theach sa tír.]<ref name=":15">{{Cite journal|last=Denvir|first=Gearóid|date=April 2018|title=Táin Bó Cuailgne|url=https://comhar.ie/iris/78/4/leirmheas/|journal=Comhar|via=JSTOR}}</ref> </blockquote>Cathal Poirtéir says, "The freshness and richness of Ó Scolaí’s version are a joy …. The author delights us with the linguistic and stylistic richness of the ancient epic in a modern-Irish version that reflects the original’s spirit and language."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Poirtéir|first=Cathal|date=May/June 2018|title=Leabhair Idir Lámha|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26564180|journal=Books Ireland|pages=46–47|via=JSTOR}}</ref>{{rp|47}} Novelist and academic Alan Titley calls Ó Scolaí's "a wonderful gutsy telling" of ''Táin Bó Cuailnge''.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/culture/2023/03/11/the-tain-retold-maeve-and-ailills-spat-could-be-out-of-a-soap-opera/|title=The Táin retold: ‘Maeve and Ailill’s spat could be out of a soap opera’|last=Titley|first=Alan|date=11 March 2023|work=The Irish Times|access-date=16 October 2025}}</ref> ==== ''Deirdre'' ==== Marie Whelton, in "Léann Teanga" ("Language Studies"), in the 2024 ''An Reiviú'' says,<blockquote>this version [of ''Deirdre''] by Darach Ó Scolaí succeeds in skillfully capturing and portraying the complexity of gender and power issues in the ‘Deirdre’ tradition [éiríonn leis an leagan seo le Darach Ó Scolaí castacht cheisteanna na hinscne agus na cumhachta i dtraidisiún scéal Dheirdre a ghabháil agus a léiriú go sciliúil]. … There is no doubt that this new version greatly contributes to the legacy of the story and that it revives that legacy thoughtfully and artistically [Níl amhras faoi ach go gcuireann an leagan úr seo go mór le hoidhreacht an scéil agus go ndéanann sé an oidhreacht sin a athbheochan go tuisceanach agus go healaíonta.].<ref name=":16">{{Cite web|url=https://www.tara.tcd.ie/tara8/server/api/core/bitstreams/3c20175a-7631-44b2-8b0f-f454edd712b4/content|title=An Artistic Retelling of Deirdre's Tale and the Defeat of Conor Review of Deirdre or the Ship of Mac Uisnigh by Darach Ó Scolaí [Athinsint Ealaíonta ar Oidhe Dheirdre agus ar Ansmacht Chonchúir Léirmheas ar Deirdre nó Loingeas Mhac Uisnigh le Darach Ó Scolaí]|last=Whelton|first=Marie|date=2024|website=The Review [An Reiviú], Language Studies [Léann Teanga]|access-date=25 September 2025}}</ref></blockquote> === Works for Young Readers === Meadhbh Ní Eadhra said of ''Bodach an Chóta Lachna'' that it was "Beautiful Irish, but easy to understand for young readers."<ref>Ní Eadhra, Meadhbh. In ''Gaelscéal'', qtd. in "Bodach an Chóta Lachna" https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/oige-en/7-8/bodach-an-chota-lachna/.</ref> == Awards and Honors == Ó Scolaí's works are regularly nominated and make the short list for prizes, an honor in itself, but they are generally not listed here unless they are named as the first-place winner in their category. === Oireachtas Prize === The Oireachtas Prize is the literary prize awarded by [[wikipedia:Oireachtas_na_Gaeilge|Oireachtas na Gaeilge]], the annual arts festival dedicated to Irish language, arts and culture. Darach Ó Scolaí has won the Oireachtas Prize for Literary Fiction three times, once for ''An Cléireach'' (''The Clerk'') in 2007, for ''Súil an Daill'' (''The Eye of the Blind'') in 2021 and for ''Bódléar'' in 2024. * 2007, for ''An Cléireach'' (trans., ''The Clerk'') — “(a special prize commemorating the 400th anniversary of the foundation of Coláiste na nGael in Louvain, awarded under the auspices of the Franciscan Province of Ireland). The prize of €10,000 was the largest prize ever awarded to an Irish language novel [(duais speisialta chomórtha 400 bliain bhunú Choláiste na nGael i Lobháin a bronnadh faoi urraíocht Phroibhinse Phroinsiasach na hÉireann). Ba é an duais €10,000 sin an duais ba mhó a bronnadh riamh ar úrscéal Gaeilge].”<ref name=":18" /> * 2021, for ''Súil an Daill'' (''The Eye of the Blind'') * 2024, for ''Bódléar'' === Ó Shúilleabháin Award, Irish language “Book of the Year” === The first prize of this award includes €5,000 to the publisher and €2,500 to the author of the winning work.<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal|date=15 August 2023|title=20 saothar san iomaíocht do ‘Leabhair Ghaeilge na Bliana 2023’|url=https://tuairisc.ie/20-saothar-san-iomaiocht-do-leabhair-ghaeilge-na-bliana-2023/|journal=Tuairisc}}</ref> * ''An Cléireach'' (''The Clerk'').<ref>{{Cite web|url=http:/www.gaelport.com/uploads/documents/edition19.html|title=Eagrán / Edition 19 - 04 11 2008|date=4/11/2008|website=Internet Archive|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130525011340/http:/www.gaelport.com/uploads/documents/edition19.html|archive-date=25 May 2013|access-date=25 August 2025}}</ref> * ''Táin Bó Cuailnge'', 2018. * ''Bódléar'', 2025. ==== De Bhaldraithe Award ==== The Gradam de Bhaldraithe is awarded to the best work in translation.<ref name=":10" /> * ''Cuairt San Nioclás,'' a translation of Clement Clarke Moore's ''A Visit from St. Nicholas'', or "'Twas the Night Before Christmas."<ref name=":10" /> ==== Other ==== * Walter Macken Prize, for ''Coinneáil Orainn'' (trans., ''We'll Keep Going''), 2005 * Bháiteir Uí Mhaicín Memorial Award, for ''Coinneáil Orainn'' (trans., ''We'll Keep Going''), 2005<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/gaeilge/tuarascail/duais-oireachtais-1.501571|title=Oireachtas Prize: Over €50,000 was awarded to writers in the Oireachtas Literary Competitions at an event in Dublin last night. Winners… [Duais Oireachtais: Bronnadh breis agus €50,000 ar scríbhneoirí i gComórtais Liteartha an Oireachtais ar ócáid i mBaile Átha Cliath aréir. Bhuaigh…]|work=5 October 2005|access-date=15 October 2025}}</ref> * BBC Stewart Parker Award, for ''Coinneáil Orainn'' (trans., ''We'll Keep Going''), 2006 * The Aodán Mac Póilín Commemorative Prize, for ''Táin Bó Cuailnge'' (trans., ''The Cattle Raid of Cooley''), 2017 == External Links == * Leabhar Breac website: https://leabharbreac.com/en/ * Leabhar Breac Facebook pages: * Rosg website: [http://www.rosg.ie/en/ <nowiki>http://ww</nowiki>w.rosg.ie/en/] * Art on the Island (Ealaín ar Oileán) website, archived at the Wayback Machine: https://web.archive.org/web/20130601000520/http://ealainaroilean.ie/ 31 March 2012, 1 June 2013 and 8 January 2014 * Darach Ó Scolaí's website Archived 25 September 2015 at the Wayback Machine: https://web.archive.org/web/20150925103456/http://darachoscolai.ie/ * Youtube video of [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OlP2AmSBzXc Breandán Ó Cróinin introducing Deirdre at the book launch] in the pub Tigh Mholly (Molly’s House). == Primordial Ooze == * Known for his sensitivity to language and voices. * Finish scanning through JSTOR * Scan through Irish Times, 56 hits * Check Goodreads * Check YouTube (In the spring of 2013, the arts programme Imeall interviewed the author on TG4.) * Check both Wikipedias for pages on the origins of the retold tales (like Deirdre) and link to this article * Propose link from University of Galway page once Darach’s is up * Write Irish National Biography (<nowiki>https://www.dib.ie</nowiki>) to propose an article about Darach once the Wikip article is done? See what they say. * Link to Ó Scolaí from the Wikipedia * Make sure links '''to''' Wikipedia in the actual encyclopedia work right === Not Placed Yet === * "So here are the books that Irish people love the most! [Mar sin seo iad na leabhair is gile leis na Gaeil!]" — "32. An Cléireach – Darach Ó Scolaí (2)" [18 books got 2 votes, and then they're alphabetized by author's last name, so the 32 of 34 doesn't signify the specificity it seems to]<ref name=":14">{{Cite journal|last=Ó Murchú|first=Eoin P.|date=9 June 2017|title=Na 30 leabhar Gaeilge is fearr leis na Gaeil. [The 30 best Irish books for Irish people]|url=https://nos.ie/cultur/leabhair/an-30-leabhar-gaeilge-is-fearr-leis-na-gaeil/|journal=Nós}}</ref> * "Below is a list of those 111 works – a list that shows a great deal of diversity in the reading habits of Irish speakers.Here is a list of those 111 works – a list that shows a great deal of diversity in the reading habits of Irish speakers [Anseo thíos tá liosta den 111 saothar sin – liosta a léiríonn éagsúlacht an-mhór i nósanna léitheoireachta Gaeilgeoirí.Anseo thíos tá liosta den 111 saothar sin – liosta a léiríonn éagsúlacht an-mhór i nósanna léitheoireachta Gaeilgeoirí]." "Corto Maltese – Hugo Pratt (aistrithe ag Darach Ó Scolaí)"<ref name=":14" /> * "Ceann eile de bhuaicphointí na hÉigse a bheidh sa seisiún le Darach Ó Scolaí, duine d’úrscéalaithe móra na Gaeilge, agus duine de chomhbhunaitheoirí teach foilsitheoireachta Leabhar Breac. [Another highlight of the Éigse will be the session with Darach Ó Scolaí, one of the great Irish language novelists, and one of the co-founders of the publishing house Leabhar Breac.]"<ref name=":17">{{Cite journal|last=Nós|date=4 May 2023|title=Éigse na Bruiséile le filleadh i mí na Bealtaine. [Éigse na Bruséile to return in May]|url=https://nos.ie/cultur/eigse-na-bruiseile-le-filleadh-i-mi-na-bealtaine/|journal=Nós}}</ref> === Things Taken Out for Now === “’The play is a comedy about language, lies, bureaucracy and Gaeltacht grants, in the tradition of Myles na Gcopaleen,’ according to Norma-Jean Kenny in the ''Galway Advertizer'', ‘in which the author comments and criticizes the institutions of the Irish language in Ireland without ceasing.’" Supposedly a quotation by Gearóid Denvir reviewing ''Táin Bó Cuailnge'' for ''Comhar'' (but I don't find it in the article): This book has long been needed by Irish language readers and there is no doubt that it will become a classic in time and surpass Thomas Kinsella’s English version. This version remains faithful to the language of the original while at the same time finding an appropriate language in today’s Irish. Ó Scolaí masterfully overcomes the difficulties of the original’s rhetorical difficulties and the versions of the original poetic texts are extremely effective.[supposedly <ref name=":15" />] “The biggest prize ever awarded for a novel in Irish was presented at a special ceremony in the National Concert Hall in Dublin, today (Thursday, 4 October 2007). Darach Ó Scolaí, writer, artist & playwright from Casla, Co. Galway, was awarded €10,000 for his literary novel, ‘An Ardscoil’. This work, under the new title ‘An Cléireach’, will be launched at Oireachtas na Samhna in Westport in November. This is the first novel from his pen, a story set in the late seventeenth century. This competition was sponsored by the Franciscan Province of Ireland.” (archive, Oireachtas na Gaeilge site, 04 October, 2007) ''Súil an Daill'' (trans., ''The Eye of the Blind''), Leabhar Breac, 2021. number 2 in ''Comhar'' literary magazine’s list of best books of 2021. '''{6}.''' *William Shakespeare, ''Romeo agus Juliet'' (trans. of ''Romeo and Juliet''), Leabhar Breac, 2016. *Jonathan Swift, ''Camchuairt Ghuilivéir'' (trans. of ''Gulliver's Travels''), Leabhar Breac, 2016. *Hugo Pratt, ''Corto Maltese'' '''''Flag of Bones (Bratach na gCnámh) Series''''' Leabhar Breac published the Bratach na gCnámh series of books for young readers. Written in French by Alain Surget, illustrated by Annette Marnat and translated by Darach Ó Scolaí, this series uses the history of Caribbean Sea pirates<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/product-category/alain-surget/|title=Alain Surget Archives|website=Leabhar Breac|language=en-US|access-date=2025-09-30}}</ref>: *Alain Surget, ''Éalú as Páras'' (''Escape from Paris''), Annette Marnat (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2011. * Alain Surget, ''Oilean na Siorcanna'' (''Shark Island''), Annette Marnat (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2011. * Alain Surget, ''Long na dTaibhsi'' (''Ship of the Ghosts''), Annette Marnat (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2011. * Alain Surget, ''San Ochtapas Dubh'' (''In the Black Octopus''), Annette Marnat (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2013. * Alain Surget, ''San Ionsai ar Veracruz'' (''The Attack on Veracruz''), Annette Marnat (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2013. '''''For "First Readers" (children to 6 years old or so)''''' These books were written originally in Catalan by Spanish author Enric Lluch Girbés and translated into Irish by Ó ScolaÍ: *Enric Lluch, ''Ag Péinteáil an Tí'' (''Painting the House''), Anna Clariana (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2017. *Enric Lluch, ''An Colúr Bacach'' (''The Lazy Dove''), Anna Clariana (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2017. *Enric Lluch, ''An Phluais'' (''The Cave''), Anna Clariana (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2017. *Enric Lluch, ''Madra Dhaideo'' (''Grandpa's Dog''), Anna Clariana (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2017. *Enric Lluch, ''Fiacail Mháire'' (''Mary's Tooth''), Anna Clariana (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2017. '''''Bruno Heitz''''' Leabhar Breac published a series of 3 Heitz books for small children. Published originally in French, this series of three comic books is about a blind mole named Cáitín Chaoch in Irish (and ''Louisette la taupe'' in French).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/product-category/bruno-heitz-en/|title=Bruno Heitz Archives|website=Leabhar Breac|language=en-US|access-date=2025-10-02}}</ref> Ó Scolaí translated these: *Bruno Heitz (author and illustr.), ''Práinneach'' (''Urgent''), Leabhar Breac, 2020 *Bruno Heitz (author and illustr.), ''Preab san Aer'' (''Bounce in the Air''), Leabhar Breac, 2020. '''''Books for Toddlers''''' Leabhar Breac has published 14 books written by French author Orianne Lallemand's and illustrated by Eleonore Thuillier, about Lallemmand's popular character Loup, Wolf. These are translated by Ó Scolaí: *Orianne Lallemand, ''An Mac Tire a Raibh Faitios an Domhain Air'' (trans. of ''The Son Who Saw the World in His Eyes''), Eleonore Thuillier  Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2018. *Orianne Lallemand, ''Macan agus an Goban'' (trans. of ''Macan and the Goblin''), Eleonore Thuillier (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2018. * Orianne Lallemand, ''A Mac Tíre a Chuaigh go Tóin na Farraige'' (trans. of ''The Wolf Who Went to the Bottom of the Sea''), Éléanore Thuillier  (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2019. '''''Board Books (for babies)''''' J. C. (Joan Carles) Girbés Aparisi is a Catalan author and editor. These books were written in Catalan and translated by Ó Scolai. *J. C. Girbés, ''An Phicnic'' (''The Picnic''), Silvia Ortega (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2013. * J. C. Girbés, ''An Chóisir'' (''The Party''), Silvia Ortega (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2013. *J. C. Girbés, ''Lá Mór Fada'' (''A Long Day''), Silvia Ortega (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2014. *J. C. Girbés, ''Tabhair Leat do Leabhar'' (''Bring Your Book''), Silvia Ortega (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2014. ==== Gradam Réics Carló ==== The Réics Carló prize is awarded for the best book in the Irish language for young readers. It is named for one of the characters of 20th-century writer [[wikipedia:Cathal_Ó_Sándair|Cathal Ó Sándair (Charles Saunders)]]. * ''An Bradán Feasa'' was “shortlisted for the Réics Carlo award 2010.”<ref name=":9" /> == References == {{reflist}} 7incdhkz27xvu2gwqqe05xiga386rut 1 284543 2832681 2400476 2026-09-10T19:51:47Z Mikael Häggström 12130 archived 2832681 wikitext text/x-wiki {{archive}} == Spam submissions? == There are at the moment about 20 submissions to WJM by Piyush Kumar in the queue. Should they be taken seriously? [[User:Sylvain Ribault|Sylvain Ribault]] ([[User talk:Sylvain Ribault|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Sylvain Ribault|contribs]]) 14:59, 28 January 2022 (UTC) :Initially I'd hoped to screen them for merit individually to send the best one out for review and decide on the others based on how it fared. However there are such severe problems with a few of them that it really challenges the assumption of good faith on the others (somewhat similar cases have been raised at COPE but nothing identical; [https://publicationethics.org/self-plagiarism-salami-publishing-case-discussion example]). Based on the consensus discussion amongst the WikiJMed editors, I'm going to mark them all as declined with notes as to why in case the author has good faith intentions to improve. [[User:Evolution and evolvability|T.Shafee(Evo&#65120;Evo)]]^{[[User talk:Evolution and evolvability|talk]]} 00:58, 1 February 2022 (UTC) == Recruiting technical editors == We are hiring new [[WikiJournal User Group/Technical editors|technical editors]] for the journals. Please see [https://www.linkedin.com/posts/andrewcleung_technical-editor-job-poster-activity-6912636772371828736-LteF this job posting for details.] [[User:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: #0000FF;">OhanaUnited</span></b>]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: green;">^{Talk page}</span></b>]] 03:18, 29 March 2022 (UTC) == Reference deposits == Hi all! I was taking a look at the [https://www.crossref.org/members/prep/6026 WikiJournal User Group participation report] over on Crossref's site. This is a useful tool for exploring how rich the metadata that WJUG submits to Crossref along with its DOIs is. It looks like there's lots of room for improvement, some of which would be fairly straightforward to accomplish: the License URLs category, for instance, measures how many articles' metadata include a link to the license under which the papers are distributed (either CC-BY 4.0 or CC-BY-SA 4.0 typically, right?). What I wanted to look at right now was the References category, in which WJUG is currently scoring 0%. What this means is that none of the 87 articles registered for DOIs by WJUG with Crossref include the references as part of their metadata. This matters for a few reasons. First, reference linking (i.e., including DOIs in references) is required by Crossref's terms of service, and reference depositing (i.e., submitting metadata with references) is strongly encouraged. Second, the inclusion of references in metadata is how Crossref tracks citations. When you see a journal article's "What Cites This" page, you'll often see a few numbers, frequently a Crossref citation count, a Web of Science citation count, and a Google Scholar citation count. On these pages, you are often able to view which articles are specifically citing the article in question too, and in some cases, publishers may preemptively set up modules that autodisplay the citing articles alongside the article itself. This brings up the third reason to begin depositing references: not only is it good practice for good metadata management's sake itself, but it also has the capability to improve visibility for WikiJournal articles. Consider the ''WJS'' article "[[WikiJournal of Science/Beak and feather disease virus: biology and resultant disease|Beak and feather disease virus: biology and resultant disease]]"; its first reference is the 1907 article "Parrakeets Moulting". If you visit the Taylor & Francis [https://doi.org/10.1071/MU906192f page for "Parrakeets Moulting"], however, you can see in the righthand "Related research" module in the "Cited by" tab that no articles cite this paper. Because references for WJUG articles haven't yet been deposited with Crossref, there's no way to link "Beak and feather disease virus" and "Parrakeets Moulting"; if references ''were'' deposited for this paper, then the ''WJS'' article would eventually appear as a citing article on the "Parrakeets Moulting" page. Thus, reference linking offers readers of the cited article another connection to the citing WikiJournal article, increasing the visibility of WJUG outputs. One final reason to consider depositing references is that doing so will grant WJUG eligibility for Crossref's [https://www.crossref.org/documentation/cited-by/ Cited-by service], which is essentially the tool that allows WJUG the ability to see what research is citing WikiJournal articles. Right now, WJUG can access the ''number'' of citations for each of its journals' articles through Crossref (''[http://data.crossref.org/depositorreport?pubid=J243966 WJM]'', ''[http://data.crossref.org/depositorreport?pubid=J310521 WJS]'', and ''[http://data.crossref.org/depositorreport?pubid=J310522 WJH]'') but can't actually see what those citing articles are. Depositing references will grant eligibility for Cited-by which WJUG can opt to enroll in (free!) and access said lists of citing materials for WikiJournal articles. If depositing references is of interest, the good news is that Crossref has made it pretty easy! References can be deposited manually via the [https://apps.crossref.org/SimpleTextQuery Simple Text Query] tool on Crossref's site. All one needs to do is copy the list of references from a WikiJournal article and paste it into the tool. (Note that for some articles, this will be easy; "[[WikiJournal of Science/Beak and feather disease virus: biology and resultant disease|Beak and feather disease virus: biology and resultant disease]]" has a unified reference list, but other articles like "[[WikiJournal of Humanities/Themes in Maya Angelou's autobiographies|Themes in Maya Angelou's autobiographies]]" have references split between a footnotes and a cited by list and may need to be manually trimmed to remove the repeated "[Author], [date], p. XX" footnotes when submitting.) Simple Text Query then parses the list and connects materials based on their DOIs. Once this is done, the depositor clicks ''Deposit'', enters their email, the Parent DOI (i.e., the DOI of the article for which references are being deposited), and their Crossref depositor credentials. I have been manually going through all articles in all three journals to make sure that all of them have relevant DOIs included in their references. I have completed ''WJS'', am almost done with ''WJH'', and will then start on ''WJM''. Once this is done, I would be happy to either guide someone interested through beginning to deposit references or take over the project myself, at least to work through the 87-article backlog of existing papers. (If someone with depositor access wants to try making a reference deposit, "Beak and feather disease virus" is in good shape and its reflist is ready to be deposited.) In either case, please let me know if this is something WJUG would be interested in pursuing and how I can help. Please let me know if you have any questions. Kindly —[[User:Bobamnertiopsis|Collin]] (Bobamnertiopsis)^{[[User talk:Bobamnertiopsis|t]] [[Special:Contributions/Bobamnertiopsis|c]]} 01:02, 19 June 2022 (UTC) : Okay, all ''WJH'' articles now include all available DOIs. ''WJM'' is left to do. —[[User:Bobamnertiopsis|Collin]] (Bobamnertiopsis)^{[[User talk:Bobamnertiopsis|t]] [[Special:Contributions/Bobamnertiopsis|c]]} 20:23, 19 June 2022 (UTC) ::Thanks Colin for the very informative post and your great work on adding DOIs. I will bring this up at our next monthly meeting. [[User:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: #0000FF;">OhanaUnited</span></b>]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: green;">^{Talk page}</span></b>]] 19:31, 20 June 2022 (UTC) :::Great points raised! I've added a step-wise summary process [[WikiJournal User Group/Editorial guidelines#Submitting reference metadata|here]] and we're looking at organising going through and uploading the back-catalogue. [[User:Evolution and evolvability|T.Shafee(Evo&#65120;Evo)]]^{[[User talk:Evolution and evolvability|talk]]} 01:50, 21 July 2022 (UTC) ::::Thanks {{u|Evolution and evolvability}}! I'm glad to hear it's of interest. I'm still working through adding DOIs to all references in ''WJM'' but I'll try to finish that by the end of the month so all articles in all three journals are ready to be deposited. Let me know if you have any other questions! —[[User:Bobamnertiopsis|Collin]] (Bobamnertiopsis)^{[[User talk:Bobamnertiopsis|t]] [[Special:Contributions/Bobamnertiopsis|c]]} 05:18, 21 July 2022 (UTC) :::::''WJM'' is now complete, so all existing articles are ready to have their references uploaded should you choose to do so. Thanks! —[[User:Bobamnertiopsis|Collin]] (Bobamnertiopsis)^{[[User talk:Bobamnertiopsis|t]] [[Special:Contributions/Bobamnertiopsis|c]]} 00:44, 26 July 2022 (UTC) ::::::Oh neat, I see references have already been deposited for "[https://doi.org/10.15347/WJM/2022.003 Parenting stress]" and it's already showing up in the cited articles' Cited By lists (e.g., [https://citations.springernature.com/item?doi=10.1007/s10826-017-0963-6 here]). Thanks for doing this! —[[User:Bobamnertiopsis|Collin]] (Bobamnertiopsis)^{[[User talk:Bobamnertiopsis|t]] [[Special:Contributions/Bobamnertiopsis|c]]} 01:44, 26 July 2022 (UTC) :::::::{{re|Bobamnertiopsis}} Yes, I did [[WikiJournal of Medicine/Parenting stress|Parenting stress]] and another one (can't remember if it was [[WikiJournal of Medicine/The Kivu Ebola Epidemic|Kivu Ebola Epidemic]] or the [[WikiJournal of Medicine/Leptospirosis|Leptospirosis]]) as a trial to see how easy/difficult the process was. Is there a way to check back which one I did? [[User:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: #0000FF;">OhanaUnited</span></b>]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: green;">^{Talk page}</span></b>]] 19:27, 19 August 2022 (UTC) ::::::::{{re|OhanaUnited}}, good question. Looking at the [http://data.crossref.org/depositorreport?pubid=J243966 dates the DOIs were most recently updated], I'd guess that it was "[https://doi.org/10.15347/WJM/2022.002 Leptospirosis]", updated 18 July just like "Parenting stress". However, looking at [https://api.crossref.org/v1/works/10.15347/wjm/2022.002 the metadata itself], it looks like only a single reference was actually deposited ("Hussain, A. (2021). Society and culture. International Journal of Scientific Research. 12 (1). 40608-40613.") and it doesn't even seem to be a reference actually cited in the article, so it may be worth it to try depositing refs for that one again. (Compare to the [https://api.crossref.org/v1/works/10.15347/wjm/2022.003 "Parenting stress" metadata] where you can see all the references properly located within the metadata itself.) I hope this is useful! —[[User:Bobamnertiopsis|Collin]] (Bobamnertiopsis)^{[[User talk:Bobamnertiopsis|t]] [[Special:Contributions/Bobamnertiopsis|c]]} 20:52, 19 August 2022 (UTC) :::::::::That was indeed strange. Thanks for the detective work. I'll try Leptospirosis again this weekend and let the rest to be tackled by our technical editors. [[User:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: #0000FF;">OhanaUnited</span></b>]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: green;">^{Talk page}</span></b>]] 22:10, 19 August 2022 (UTC) == Rabeprazole? == I was just taking a look at the [[WikiJournal User Group/Potential upcoming articles|potential upcoming articles]] and noticed the 2018 preprint "[[WikiJournal Preprints/Rabeprazole|Rabeprazole]]" which does not seem to be included on the tracking list despite having received two peer reviews. It also doesn't seem to have a Wikidata item, but I couldn't see anywhere that it had been declined. Just flagging it here to make sure it hasn't slipped through the cracks. Thanks! —[[User:Bobamnertiopsis|Collin]] (Bobamnertiopsis)^{[[User talk:Bobamnertiopsis|t]] [[Special:Contributions/Bobamnertiopsis|c]]} 20:45, 16 August 2022 (UTC) :Good catch. I'm contacting the WJM board to find out. [[User:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: #0000FF;">OhanaUnited</span></b>]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: green;">^{Talk page}</span></b>]] 19:31, 19 August 2022 (UTC) {{re|Bobamnertiopsis}} Thanks for catching this. It was indeed an approved article that didn't get published because it fell through the crack. It will be published shortly. [[User:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: #0000FF;">OhanaUnited</span></b>]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: green;">^{Talk page}</span></b>]] 15:28, 20 August 2022 (UTC) == Wikipedia as a bibliographic tool for researchers? == Wikijournals give incentives for researchers to write in Wikipedia, by allowing Wikipedia articles to be peer-reviewed and officially counted as academic publications. What if in some cases, researchers did not need incentives because writing in Wikipedia would be directly useful to their own work? The idea is that they would not write on their own results or subject, but on some related subject which they would need to learn. (See [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Sylvain_Ribault/WP_biblio_essay this short essay] for details.) Does anyone know examples of this modus operandi? If you are a researcher, does it seem applicable in your own field of research? [[User:Sylvain Ribault|Sylvain Ribault]] ([[User talk:Sylvain Ribault|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Sylvain Ribault|contribs]]) 21:44, 17 August 2022 (UTC) == Capitalized titles? == Hello all, There's currently an inconsistency whether article titles are written with upper-case or lower-case first letter in its words. I think it's reasonable to have them lower-case, and Wikipedia as well as high impact scholarly journals (such as Nature and The Lancet) do the same. I think this should be added to the [[WikiJournal_User_Group/Publishing|Author guidelines]]. [[User:Mikael Häggström|Mikael Häggström]] ([[User talk:Mikael Häggström|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mikael Häggström|contribs]]) 20:35, 21 August 2022 (UTC) : There was some discussion of this [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:WikiJournal_User_Group&oldid=2342516 last year] as well. —[[User:Bobamnertiopsis|Collin]] (Bobamnertiopsis)^{[[User talk:Bobamnertiopsis|t]] [[Special:Contributions/Bobamnertiopsis|c]]} 16:45, 22 August 2022 (UTC) ::Thanks. I've added sentence case to the Author guidelines: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=WikiJournal_User_Group%2FPublishing&type=revision&diff=2424728&oldid=2423560]. [[User:Mikael Häggström|Mikael Häggström]] ([[User talk:Mikael Häggström|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mikael Häggström|contribs]]) 23:32, 17 October 2022 (UTC) == Proposal to introduce "Inactivity removal policy" to the [[WikiJournal User Group/Individual WikiJournal bylaws|bylaws]] == {|class=wikitable | '''Outcome: Approved''' (see section bottom) As per September's WikiJournal meetings on September 7 and September 9, I am proposing amendments to the bylaw to introduce an inactivity removal policy in "ARTICLE VII - END OF TERM" to all WikiJournals. The reason for this proposal is to ensure that current editorial board members (editors and associated editors) are active in the activities that support the journal. At the meetings, we identified this issue when we attempted to find peer review coordinators to handle our submission backlogs across the journals. The proposal seeks to ensure that the activities that support the journal are spread out to many individuals and not place a burden on a few active volunteers. The proposed wording can be found at [[WikiJournal User Group/Individual WikiJournal bylaws/Proposed changes]] (the inactive policy words being added are in '''bold'''). Inactive members will be automatically removed if they do not participate in any WikiJournal activities for past 12 months. They will be given an opportunity to become active again before being removed from the editorial board. Meeting attendees representing all 3 WikiJournals unanimously agreed to proposed amendment. Our proposed inactive removal policy and its approach are [[meta:Admin activity review|similar to other WMF communities over how to handle inactive senior staff]]. I also included an exemption clause to the inactive removal due to extenuating circumstances if advance notice was given. The voting will be conducted according to [[WikiJournal User Group/Individual WikiJournal bylaws#ARTICLE III - VOTING|ARTICLE III - VOTING]] with regards to eligibility, quorum and outcome. [[User:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: #0000FF;">OhanaUnited</span></b>]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: green;">^{Talk page}</span></b>]] 03:13, 12 September 2022 (UTC) ===Support=== # Support as nom. [[User:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: #0000FF;">OhanaUnited</span></b>]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: green;">^{Talk page}</span></b>]] 03:13, 12 September 2022 (UTC) # {{support}} [[User:Physikerwelt|Physikerwelt]] ([[User talk:Physikerwelt|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Physikerwelt|contribs]]) 04:57, 12 September 2022 (UTC) # {{support}} - makes sense. Don't know many academic journals that will continue to support inactive Editors. --[[User:Stevenfruitsmaak|Steven Fruitsmaak]] <small>([[User_talk:Stevenfruitsmaak|Reply]])</small> 07:00, 12 September 2022 (UTC) # {{support}} [[User:rwatson1955|rwatson1955]] # {{support}} [[User:Eystein Thanisch|Eystein Thanisch]] This sadly does seem necessary. I've been inactive for some time and have been making inquiries about how to tidily resign from the board, but presumably those who are still active are too busy with other things to assist with that. An automated procedure thus seems best. # {{support}} [[User:Rosieredfield|Rosieredfield]] ([[User talk:Rosieredfield|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Rosieredfield|contribs]]) 15:22, 12 September 2022 (UTC) # {{support}} --[[User:AmyFou|AmyFou]] ([[User talk:AmyFou|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/AmyFou|contribs]]) 15:35, 12 September 2022 (UTC) # {{support}} I do support these types of clauses for a variety of reasons. I have been involved in the drafting and proposing of similar policy on several wikis as {{re|OhanaUnited}} is aware. There are good reasons for this. For administrative roles its security, as pointed out above here its backlogs. For myself I have spent the last two years serving as chair of the Ombuds Commission which takes considerable time for me. As such if people wish to remove me from the editorial board here I can understand that and will not object to it. I am still currently working on the OC and have plans to do a third term next year. Cheers [[User:Faendalimas|<span style="color: #004730">Scott Thomson</span>]] (<small class="nickname">Faendalimas</small>) ^{[[User talk:Faendalimas|<span style="color: maroon">talk</span>]]} 16:39, 12 September 2022 (UTC) # {{support}} [[User:Rachel Helps (BYU)|Rachel Helps (BYU)]] ([[User talk:Rachel Helps (BYU)|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Rachel Helps (BYU)|contribs]]) 17:00, 12 September 2022 (UTC) # {{support}} [[User:Mstefan|Mstefan]] ([[User talk:Mstefan|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mstefan|contribs]]) 12:36, 14 September 2022 (UTC) # {{support}} [[User:Oertherdb|Oertherdb]] ([[User talk:Oertherdb|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Oertherdb|contribs]]) 12:56, 14 September 2022 (UTC) # {{support}} I think it's reasonable. I'd originally envisaged that we could just let people who's activity dropped off simply not renew at the end of a [[WikiJournal User Group/Individual WikiJournal bylaws#ARTICLE VII - END OF TERM|4-year term]], but I can see how that's probably insufficient for cases of complete inactivity over a year or more (so long as it doesn't add in too much admin overhead). It it were to be implemented, a reasonable process might be an email with the options: A) remain on the board; B) drop down to assoc editor to be contacted only for articles on their key subject area; or C) be removed from the board (default if no response). It'd also be an opportunity for them to give feedback if they have any. [[User:Evolution and evolvability|T.Shafee(Evo&#65120;Evo)]]^{[[User talk:Evolution and evolvability|talk]]} 04:33, 19 September 2022 (UTC) # {{support}} As an inactive member, I approuve. [[User:Marcrr|MarcRR]] ===Oppose=== # Perhaps we can find better incentives to stay active rather than to punish inactivity, in light of us having fixed terms renewable as per the existing by-laws. If feasible, we can perhaps create another category for officials to be deemed "inactive" by new definition, and maintain them as pool of experts ("fleet in being" analogy) who can choose to reactivate their editorship at any time, since we believe in their expertise the first time. This may help us project an image of a welcoming board that provides better recognition and promotion of active members. [[User:Arius1998|Arius1998]] ([[User talk:Arius1998|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Arius1998|contribs]]) 03:39, 12 September 2022 (UTC) #:I find the conceptualisation of it as "punishment" questionable. Nothing bad happens. It's just that people who aren't doing any editing (and haven't done any in a long time) are no longer listed as editors. I think the discrepancy is with how different people in this discussion understand the "title" of "editor": some see it as some sort of badge of recognition for a person's expertise, while others (including myself) see is as a description of an activity. If it's just a descriptor of an activity, when the activity ceases (for a long amount of time), then the descriptor is no longer accurate. The proposed definition of "activity" makes the bar for further participation extremely low, so I do think that continued listing as editor is accessible to those who want it. [[User:Mstefan|Mstefan]] ([[User talk:Mstefan|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mstefan|contribs]]) 12:44, 14 September 2022 (UTC) # I second Arius1998. Definitions of active and inactive along with exceptions need to be put forward before jumping to conclusions. Being an innovative journal with non-conventional format, we need to be careful in executing hasty decisions. [[User:G10sinha|G10sinha]] ([[User talk:G10sinha|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/G10sinha|contribs]]) 09:15, 12 September 2022 (UTC) #:{{re|G10sinha}} The definitions of active (and vice versa for being inactive) along with exceptions have already been specified in [[WikiJournal User Group/Individual WikiJournal bylaws/Proposed changes]]. [[User:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: #0000FF;">OhanaUnited</span></b>]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: green;">^{Talk page}</span></b>]] 13:08, 12 September 2022 (UTC) # Oppose per my comments below regarding "The definitions of active (and vice versa for being inactive)" etc. If you limit editorship to a year where no editable submissions occur you lose valuable editors! --[[User:Marshallsumter|Marshallsumter]] ([[User talk:Marshallsumter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Marshallsumter|contribs]]) 07:43, 13 September 2022 (UTC) #:Indeed we risk losing editors in the process, but I believe it is for the better overall, as we are in need of activity more than having people registered as members. I think a year gives plenty of opportunity to engage. [[User:Mikael Häggström|Mikael Häggström]] ([[User talk:Mikael Häggström|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mikael Häggström|contribs]]) 23:42, 17 October 2022 (UTC) ===Neutral=== # I have been inactive for some time for want of submissions in my particular subject. I am not actively trying to encourage submissions, but if a submission came I would be happy to work on it. People like me could be kept in some kind of purgatory as per [[User:Arius1998|Arius1998]]'s suggestion. [[User:Sylvain Ribault|Sylvain Ribault]] ([[User talk:Sylvain Ribault|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Sylvain Ribault|contribs]]) 07:12, 12 September 2022 (UTC) ===Comments=== I think it would be good to specify active. I myself was not active, as no articles were submitted and I never got a reply regarding my idea to organize a special issue. [[User:Physikerwelt|Physikerwelt]] ([[User talk:Physikerwelt|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Physikerwelt|contribs]]) 05:02, 12 September 2022 (UTC) I'd like to add a few observations: # I haven't been serving as an editor for the same reason stated above in '''Neutral'''. Lately, all of the submissions have been outside the physical, chemical, astronomical, geological or mathematical. I update [[WikiJournal of Science/Contribute]] occasionally and have asked Wikipedia contributors to submit articles to the WikiJournal of Science but so far no submittals. I am interested in genetics and do consider serving as an editor in this area but my expertise is limited and expanding. --[[User:Marshallsumter|Marshallsumter]] ([[User talk:Marshallsumter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Marshallsumter|contribs]]) 16:41, 13 September 2022 (UTC) # if you look at the current submissions on [[WikiJournal of Science/Potential upcoming articles]] you'll see that almost all current submittals are biological. I hope that the WikiJournal of Science is not being reduced to the WikiJournal of Biology. # on [[WikiJournal of Science/Contribute]] we have the following: "Are you proud of any science article you've written on Wikiversity, Wikipedia or any other Wikimedia wiki? Then your article may be eligible for publication at the WikiJournal of Science!" Many of my lectures and resources that are part of my open educational resource called [[Radiation astronomy/Courses/Principles|Principles of radiation astronomy]] are attempts to review in a course context fields within astronomy. Any that others believe might make a good contribution to the WikiJournal of Science could be submitted, and open to peer review. This of course also applies to other contributors here at Wikiversity. --[[User:Marshallsumter|Marshallsumter]] ([[User talk:Marshallsumter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Marshallsumter|contribs]]) 02:18, 13 September 2022 (UTC) # usually the WikiJournal of Science only accepts open access submissions. ''Nature'' is the foremost science journal in the world and with a few exceptions its articles are for educational use only. This suggests that occasionally perhaps the WikiJournal of Science could publish educational issues or articles where figures could be fairuse. --[[User:Marshallsumter|Marshallsumter]] ([[User talk:Marshallsumter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Marshallsumter|contribs]]) 04:26, 13 September 2022 (UTC) # "Active is defined as at least one productive engagement in an email or on-wiki discussion, participating in a virtual WikiJournal meeting, participating, attending or presenting as a WikiJournal representative at a local, national or international event, or finding peer reviewers for a submission." No! The purpose of an editor is to help prepare submissions for publication such as but not limited to finding peer reviewers for a submission where professionally likely. Discussions, meetings, and attending or presenting are optional and voluntary and do not constitute activeness as an editor. These instead help the success of the journal by encouraging submissions and are a user group function but are voluntary and encouraged but never mandatory. To make them mandatory is not needed for any editor or editor-in-chief but a manager only. Anyone who manages but does not perform editorship can be considered active but not as an editor. No editor should be considered inactive for lack of submissions upon which to perform editorship. --[[User:Marshallsumter|Marshallsumter]] ([[User talk:Marshallsumter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Marshallsumter|contribs]]) 07:38, 13 September 2022 (UTC) #:But Editorial Board meetings are meetings for members of the editorial board. Who else would be attending? I get that there may be a year where no article within one's area of expertise is submitted and where therefore one cannot edit an article. But at least showing up to meetings where the general editorial policy of WikiJournals is discussed (or getting active in some other way that furthers the WikiJ mission) at least once in a year - I don't think that's asking too much. [[User:Mstefan|Mstefan]] ([[User talk:Mstefan|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mstefan|contribs]]) 12:36, 14 September 2022 (UTC) #::Actually it may be too much to ask. Looking at the history of submissions, the last one outside biology was just more than two years ago. Supplemental participation to a meeting here may widen participation where schedule conflicts occur. Usually, anything I have to add or discuss is easier here. The matters discussed are important and I'm happy with the general outcome. I have listed some suggestions here for widening submittals to the WikiJournal of Science which can be discussed at such meetings as well as here. But, the number and variety of submissions has dwindled suggesting that the meetings are failing somewhere or that the ended pandemic has caused some withdrawal that will soon change. On my talk page I'm putting together a table of "Recent contributions from WikiJournal of Science Editorial Board" which suggests that we may have to remove some inactive members for no activity for two or more years. While I'm not familiar with the success of "getting active in some other way that furthers the WikiJ mission", the number of scientists I've contacted for peer review has greatly widened their general awareness of our journal's existence. --[[User:Marshallsumter|Marshallsumter]] ([[User talk:Marshallsumter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Marshallsumter|contribs]]) 20:28, 14 September 2022 (UTC) #:::Regarding the "Recent contributions from WikiJournal of Science Editorial Board" an arbitrary cutoff after one year seems to be a bit of a problem. A better solution would be to contact some of those I've listed as "Inactive" to see if they wish to continue on our board. --[[User:Marshallsumter|Marshallsumter]] ([[User talk:Marshallsumter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Marshallsumter|contribs]]) 03:43, 15 September 2022 (UTC) # Looking at our WikiJournal User Group, there are about 73 members. Perhaps half of these would be considered inactive. To have a reasonable vote of the 37 active members would require some 19 votes as a quorum. --[[User:Marshallsumter|Marshallsumter]] ([[User talk:Marshallsumter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Marshallsumter|contribs]]) 04:24, 15 September 2022 (UTC) #:Incorrect. The [[WikiJournal_User_Group/Individual_WikiJournal_bylaws#Section_3._Quorum|Quorum]] is the lesser of "10 votes from eligible voting members" or "20% of the total number of Editorial Board members". Using your number (73), 20% of 73 is 15 members. Both metrics have already been met at the current stage, with 10 days to go. [[User:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: #0000FF;">OhanaUnited</span></b>]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: green;">^{Talk page}</span></b>]] 16:50, 16 September 2022 (UTC) #::Thanks for your comment! What we have done in the past, e.g., with G. Brian Whalley, was attempt contact during 2018, both by myself and with the Editor-in-chief. Whalley did not respond to emails but I was able to contact him at his university through a third party regarding his participation on finding reviewers for the [[WikiJournal of Science/Ice drilling methods|Ice drilling methods]] submission. He indicated he had inquired of colleagues to review but none responded. This effort to contact took several days. Simply dropping an editor for no activity after one year may not be good. As you've noted above an attempt to contact each is needed but is time consuming. Expecting them to respond with email (that may no longer be active) may not be effective. On established journals, members of an editorial board are responsible for contacting the Editor-in-chief if they no longer wish to be considered for finding reviewers or as some have done with the WikiJournal of Science, they've just withdrawn from the board. Usually, a member is kept for obtaining reviewers for about five years, assuming submissions have occurred in their area of expertise and response has occurred in the past. --[[User:Marshallsumter|Marshallsumter]] ([[User talk:Marshallsumter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Marshallsumter|contribs]]) 17:56, 16 September 2022 (UTC) #:::While I realize we have agreed to what we consider a quorum, according to Wiktionary, somewhat modified, '''Def.''' the "number of people [members]<ref name=QuorumWikt1>{{ cite book |author=[[wikt:User:63.86.210.252|63.86.210.252]] |title=quorum |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=1 February 2005 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/quorum |accessdate=7 September 2022 }}</ref> required for a governing body or organization to actually vote or [group to officially]<ref name=QuorumWikt1/> conduct business<ref name=QuorumWikt>{{ cite book |author=[[wikt:User:Alia H|Alia H]] |title=quorum |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=1 February 2005 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/quorum |accessdate=7 September 2022 }}</ref> [and to cast votes, often but not necessarily a majority or supermajority]"<ref name=QuorumWikt1/>is called a '''quorum'''. A majority of 73 is 37 which if half the boards are inactive is perhaps unrealistic though perhaps not required, but to contact 37 editors to see if they wish to be kept on our boards is a heavily time consuming task. --[[User:Marshallsumter|Marshallsumter]] ([[User talk:Marshallsumter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Marshallsumter|contribs]]) 18:48, 16 September 2022 (UTC) '''Outcome: Approved'''. Valid points have been raised about the consequences of introducing a minimal activity requirement, but overall there is strong support for it, so I hereby mark it as approved. [[User:Mikael Häggström|Mikael Häggström]] ([[User talk:Mikael Häggström|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mikael Häggström|contribs]]) 02:23, 18 October 2022 (UTC) jpzhw1a05iv453wxde620pbjvk0jmvx 0 285380 2832607 2832351 2026-09-10T14:03:24Z Young1lim 21186 /* Applications */ 2832607 wikitext text/x-wiki === Introduction === * Overview ([[Media:C01.Intro1.Overview.1.A.20170925.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro1.Overview.1.B.20170901.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro1.Overview.1.C.20170904.pdf |C.pdf]]) * Number System ([[Media:C01.Intro2.Number.1.A.20171023.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro2.Number.1.B.20170909.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro2.Number.1.C.20170914.pdf |C.pdf]]) * Memory System ([[Media:C01.Intro2.Memory.1.A.20170907.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro3.Memory.1.B.20170909.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro3.Memory.1.C.20170914.pdf |C.pdf]]) === Handling Repetition === * Control ([[Media:C02.Repeat1.Control.1.A.20170925.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C02.Repeat1.Control.1.B.20170918.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C02.Repeat1.Control.1.C.20170926.pdf |C.pdf]]) * Loop ([[Media:C02.Repeat2.Loop.1.A.20170925.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C02.Repeat2.Loop.1.B.20170918.pdf |B.pdf]]) === Handling a Big Work === * Function Overview ([[Media:C03.Func1.Overview.1.A.20171030.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func1.Oerview.1.B.20161022.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Functions & Variables ([[Media:C03.Func2.Variable.1.A.20161222.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func2.Variable.1.B.20161222.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Functions & Pointers ([[Media:C03.Func3.Pointer.1.A.20161122.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func3.Pointer.1.B.20161122.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Functions & Recursions ([[Media:C03.Func4.Recursion.1.A.20161214.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func4.Recursion.1.B.20161214.pdf |B.pdf]]) === Handling Series of Data === ==== Background ==== * Background ([[Media:C04.Series0.Background.1.A.20180727.pdf |A.pdf]]) ==== Basics ==== * Pointers ([[Media:C04.S1.Pointer.1A.20240524.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series2.Pointer.1.B.20161115.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Arrays ([[Media:C04.S2.Array.1A.20240514.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series1.Array.1.B.20161115.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Array Pointers ([[Media:C04.S3.ArrayPointer.1A.20240208.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series3.ArrayPointer.1.B.20181203.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Multi-dimensional Arrays ([[Media:C04.Series4.MultiDim.1.A.20221130.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series4.MultiDim.1.B.1111.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Array Access Methods ([[Media:C04.Series4.ArrayAccess.1.A.20190511.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series3.ArrayPointer.1.B.20181203.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Structures ([[Media:C04.Series3.Structure.1.A.20171204.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series2.Structure.1.B.20161130.pdf |B.pdf]]) ==== Examples ==== * Spreadsheet Example Programs :: Example 1 ([[Media:C04.Series7.Example.1.A.20171213.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series7.Example.1.C.20171213.pdf |C.pdf]]) :: Example 2 ([[Media:C04.Series7.Example.2.A.20171213.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series7.Example.2.C.20171213.pdf |C.pdf]]) :: Example 3 ([[Media:C04.Series7.Example.3.A.20171213.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series7.Example.3.C.20171213.pdf |C.pdf]]) :: Bubble Sort ([[Media:C04.Series7.BubbleSort.1.A.20171211.pdf |A.pdf]]) ==== Applications ==== * Address-of and de-reference operators ([[Media:C04.SA0.PtrOperator.1A.20260910.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Pointers ([[Media:C04.SA1.AppPointer.1A.20241121.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Arrays ([[Media:C04.SA2.AppArray.1A.20240715.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Array Pointers ([[Media:C04.SA3.AppArrayPointer.1A.20240210.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Multi-dimensional Arrays ([[Media:C04.Series4App.MultiDim.1.A.20210719.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Array Access Methods ([[Media:C04.Series9.AppArrAcess.1.A.20190511.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Structures ([[Media:C04.Series6.AppStruct.1.A.20190423.pdf |A.pdf]]) === Handling Various Kinds of Data === * Types ([[Media:C05.Data1.Type.1.A.20180217.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data1.Type.1.B.20161212.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Typecasts ([[Media:C05.Data2.TypeCast.1.A.20180217.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data2.TypeCast.1.B.20161216.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Operators ([[Media:C05.Data3.Operators.1.A.20161219.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data3.Operators.1.B.20161216.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Files ([[Media:C05.Data4.File.1.A.20161124.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data4.File.1.B.20161212.pdf |B.pdf]]) === Handling Low Level Operations === * Bitwise Operations ([[Media:BitOp.1.B.20161214.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:BitOp.1.B.20161203.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Bit Field ([[Media:BitField.1.A.20161214.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:BitField.1.B.20161202.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Union ([[Media:Union.1.A.20161221.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Union.1.B.20161111.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Accessing IO Registers ([[Media:IO.1.A.20141215.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:IO.1.B.20161217.pdf |B.pdf]]) === Declarations === * Type Specifiers and Qualifiers ([[Media:C07.Spec1.Type.1.A.20171004.pdf |pdf]]) * Storage Class Specifiers ([[Media:C07.Spec2.Storage.1.A.20171009.pdf |pdf]]) * Scope === Class Notes === * TOC ([[Media:TOC.20171007.pdf |TOC.pdf]]) * Day01 ([[Media:Day01.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day01.B.20171209.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day01.C.20171211.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Introduction (1) Standard Library * Day02 ([[Media:Day02.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day02.B.20171209.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day02.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Introduction (2) Basic Elements * Day03 ([[Media:Day03.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day03.B.20170908.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day03.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Introduction (3) Numbers * Day04 ([[Media:Day04.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day04.B.20170915.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day04.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structured Programming (1) Flowcharts * Day05 ([[Media:Day05.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day05.B.20170915.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day05.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structured Programming (2) Conditions and Loops * Day06 ([[Media:Day06.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day06.B.20170923.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day06.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Program Control * Day07 ([[Media:Day07.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day07.B.20170926.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day07.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Function (1) Definitions * Day08 ([[Media:Day08.A.20171028.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day08.B.20171016.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day08.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Function (2) Storage Class and Scope * Day09 ([[Media:Day09.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day09.B.20171017.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day09.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Function (3) Recursion * Day10 ([[Media:Day10.A.20171209.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day10.B.20171017.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day10.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Arrays (1) Definitions * Day11 ([[Media:Day11.A.20171024.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day11.B.20171017.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day11.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Arrays (2) Applications * Day12 ([[Media:Day12.A.20171024.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day12.B.20171020.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day12.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Pointers (1) Definitions * Day13 ([[Media:Day13.A.20171025.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day13.B.20171024.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day13.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Pointers (2) Applications * Day14 ([[Media:Day14.A.20171226.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day14.B.20171101.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day14.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... C String (1) * Day15 ([[Media:Day15.A.20171209.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day15.B.20171124.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day15.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... C String (2) * Day16 ([[Media:Day16.A.20171208.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day16.B.20171114.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day16.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... C Formatted IO * Day17 ([[Media:Day17.A.20171031.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day17.B.20171111.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day17.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structure (1) Definitions * Day18 ([[Media:Day18.A.20171206.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day18.B.20171128.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day18.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structure (2) Applications * Day19 ([[Media:Day19.A.20171205.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day19.B.20171121.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day19.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Union, Bitwise Operators, Enum * Day20 ([[Media:Day20.A.20171205.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day20.B.20171201.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day20.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Linked List * Day21 ([[Media:Day21.A.20171206.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day21.B.20171208.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day21.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... File Processing * Day22 ([[Media:Day22.A.20171212.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day22.B.20171213.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day22.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Preprocessing <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> </br> See also https://cprogramex.wordpress.com/ == '''Old Materials '''== until 201201 * Intro.Overview.1.A ([[Media:C.Intro.Overview.1.A.20120107.pdf |pdf]]) * Intro.Memory.1.A ([[Media:C.Intro.Memory.1.A.20120107.pdf |pdf]]) * Intro.Number.1.A ([[Media:C.Intro.Number.1.A.20120107.pdf |pdf]]) * Repeat.Control.1.A ([[Media:C.Repeat.Control.1.A.20120109.pdf |pdf]]) * Repeat.Loop.1.A ([[Media:C.Repeat.Loop.1.A.20120113.pdf |pdf]]) * Work.Function.1.A ([[Media:C.Work.Function.1.A.20120117.pdf |pdf]]) * Work.Scope.1.A ([[Media:C.Work.Scope.1.A.20120117.pdf |pdf]]) * Series.Array.1.A ([[Media:Series.Array.1.A.20110718.pdf |pdf]]) * Series.Pointer.1.A ([[Media:Series.Pointer.1.A.20110719.pdf |pdf]]) * Series.Structure.1.A ([[Media:Series.Structure.1.A.20110805.pdf |pdf]]) * Data.Type.1.A ([[Media:C05.Data2.TypeCast.1.A.20130813.pdf |pdf]]) * Data.TypeCast.1.A ([[Media:Data.TypeCast.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Data.Operators.1.A ([[Media:Data.Operators.1.A.20110712.pdf |pdf]]) <br> until 201107 * Intro.1.A ([[Media:Intro.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Control.1.A ([[Media:Control.1.A.20110706.pdf |pdf]]) * Iteration.1.A ([[Media:Iteration.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Function.1.A ([[Media:Function.1.A.20110705.pdf |pdf]]) * Variable.1.A ([[Media:Variable.1.A.20110708.pdf |pdf]]) * Operators.1.A ([[Media:Operators.1.A.20110712.pdf |pdf]]) * Pointer.1.A ([[Media:Pointer.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Pointer.2.A ([[Media:Pointer.2.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Array.1.A ([[Media:Array.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Type.1.A ([[Media:Type.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Structure.1.A ([[Media:Structure.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) go to [ [[C programming in plain view]] ] [[Category:C programming language]] </br> lyd80b1g2vckdfibi4yne6c0c12epza 2 296072 2832731 2692726 2026-09-10T22:20:33Z Indexcard88 118020 2832731 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Wikipedia:User:Indexcard88]] [[Metawiki:User:Indexcard88]] [[/Mysteries]] pl5rwa6d19y8wxercje5k4bdsvc6jte 2 296076 2832732 2743993 2026-09-10T22:21:50Z Indexcard88 118020 2832732 wikitext text/x-wiki <!--{{Original research}}--> <!--Personal reflection, research, informal journalism, note taking.--> <!--Theist / antiquarian / futurist / knowledge research:--> [[Wikipedia:Theism]] [[Wikipedia:Time perception]] <!--Someone should answer whether the first page of each day is "0"--> <!--<syntaxhighlight lang="text"> You may have just been on a journal page. </syntaxhighlight>--> Information research (Christian agnostic theist journaling): [[/June 2023|June 2023]] [[/July 2023|July 2023]] [[/November 2024|November 2024]] [[/December 2024|December 2024]] [[/June 2025|June 2025]] [[/September 2025|September 2025]] [[/September 2026|September 2026]] jofk4auqrn545qkc38hiw8ske24orkg 0 305659 2832601 2832488 2026-09-10T13:02:57Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Is the Bully system internally consistent? */ 2832601 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the Sun's orbit around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp occurs each time the Sun advances by roughly one solar radius along its path through the cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|upright=2.2|center|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] == One Solar Radius == The Sun hurtles around the Milky Way Galaxy at a blistering 0.076% of the speed of light ([https://arxiv.org/abs/1810.09466 229.0 ± 0.2 kilometers per second]). Yet, even at this staggering pace, it takes about five-sixths of an hour for the Sun to traverse a distance equal to its own radius. This highlights the truly colossal size of our star, which boasts a radius of 2.3206 light-seconds (695,700 kilometers). '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. During each '''3,055-second''' period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over '''2.33 light-seconds''', which is slightly more than one solar radius (<math>R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 2.33 \text{ ls} \gtrapprox R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', it is a vast, oblong, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into surrounding space. While somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, the latter is a comparatively thin layer of gas held near the planetary surface, whereas the heliosphere is a plasma constantly blasted into space by the Sun's extreme heat and energy. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is so vast that if it were truly spherical, it would take the Sun roughly 6.344 years to travel a distance equivalent to the heliosphere's diameter. The digit in the '''fifth position''' of a Bully timestamp represents this orbital distance. Figure 2 illustrates the motion of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. Timestamp 8209 ED00 0000 is defined to have occurred at exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16, 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. During each 6.344-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 306 astronomical units, which is slightly more than 65,536 solar radii (<math>16^{4}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 306 \text{ AU} \gtrapprox 16^{4}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === Naked-Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (not to scale) across 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' corresponds to approximately 383,000 B.C., while timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., representing a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a cyan dashed line marking 100 parsecs. The Sun travels a little less than this distance during each 416,000-year interval, which is tracked by the digit in the '''ninth position''' of the Bully timestamp. Because a large percentage of naked-eye stars sit within this 100-parsec radius, the appearance of Earth's night sky changes completely over this timeframe. [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of naked-eye stars binned according to brightness and distance from the Sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the Sun than 100 parsecs, which is the distance the Sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of naked-eye stars are within this 100-parsec travel distance of the Sun.]] During each 415,792-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 97 parsecs, which is slightly more than 4,294,967,296 solar radii (<math>16^{8}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 97 \text{ pc} \gtrapprox 16^{8}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> ==== The Bully Milky Way ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3e''': Division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 3e''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid). Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000'''. These represent the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D., respectively, assuming a full orbital path around the Milky Way of roughly 50,000 parsecs. In the lower half of the image, cyan lines further divide a single yellow sector into 16 equal subsectors. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center in Figure 3e, corresponding to the 6 o'clock position, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle of the Sun at Bully timestamp 820A 0000 0000, estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D. The nine cyan grid lines to the right of the red line mark the Sun's polar angle for Bully timestamps 8201 0000 0000 through 8209 0000 0000. Meanwhile, the five cyan grid lines to the left of the red line indicate the polar angle for timestamps 820B 0000 0000 through 820F 0000 0000. <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,t_{\odot} \approx 212.9 \text{ million years} </math> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \sim 50,000 \text{ parsecs} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> == The Galactic Calendar == [[File:Galactic centre orbits.svg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 4a''':Inferred orbits of 6 stars around the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* at the Milky Way's center<ref name="Eisenhauer">{{cite journal|last=Eisenhauer|first=F.|display-authors=et al. |title=SINFONI in the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares in the Central Light-Month|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=July 20, 2005|volume=628|issue=1|pages=246–259|doi=10.1086/430667|bibcode=2005ApJ...628..246E|arxiv=astro-ph/0502129|s2cid=122485461 }}</ref>]] [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, labeled S2 in '''Figure 4a''', completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance from the Sun to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: &hairsp; :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \\ \end{align}</math> &hairsp; If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. ==== Idealized Galactic Weeks ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Weeks_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3f''': Division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks of solar travel (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 3f''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks (yellow grid). Each week represents 1,000 parsecs of solar travel, which in this plot is assumed to be traversed by the Sun in roughly 4.09 million years. Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000''', respectively, indicating the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D. The cyan lines in the lower half of the image further divide one sector into 10 equal subsectors of 100 parsecs each. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 3f, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun had during Bully timestamp 8209 D89D 89D8 (approximately 31,000 B.C.), which is 1,000 parsecs of travel beyond the yellow line representing timestamp 8200 0000 0000. The nine cyan lines to the left of the red line represent the polar angles of the Sun after traveling 1,100 through 1,900 parsecs beyond timestamp 8200 0000 0000. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2⁴¹ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4b''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. It outlines the specific Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved across this idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4b:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. ==== Is the Galactic Calendar Realistic? ==== [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4c:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250-million-year time period.]] The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4c). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4c''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in Figure 4b states that the galactic week beginning on timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark. ==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ==== In Figure 3a and Figure 3e, the Sun is shown to travel less than 50,000 parsecs per galactic year. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar shown in Figure 3f assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per galactic year, introducing a distinct discrepancy in both galactic scale and calculated orbital velocity. Because the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to complex gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is neither perfectly uniform nor entirely predictable. Consequently, the Sun's true orbital velocity remains a subject of ongoing discovery and refinement. The conjectured values used in Figure 3e and Figure 3f should be viewed as '''practical assumptions''' rather than a reflection of a stable, long-term physical reality; the idealized Bully Calendar is a '''conceptual model''' designed to help visualize the immense scale of the galactic orbit. The table in '''Figure 4d''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp up to 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | '''Figure 4d''': Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 100 parsecs per 16⁸ Bully timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps</small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | <small>2^18.597453 ≈ 396,635 </small> | <small>2^18.6438562 ≈ 409,600 </small> | <small>2^18.666224 ≈ 416,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | <small>2^14.597453 ≈ 24,789.7 </small> | <small>2^14.6438562 ≈ 25,600.0 </small> | <small>2^14.666224 ≈ 26,000.0 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | <small>2^10.597453 ≈ 1,549.36 </small> | <small>2^10.6438562 ≈ 1,600.00 </small> | <small>2^10.666224 ≈ 1,625.00 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁸''' | <small>2^6.597453 ≈ 96.8348 </small> | <small>2^6.6438562 ≈ 100.0000 </small> | <small>2^6.666224 ≈ 101.5625 </small> |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off-Nominal Values |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | <small>2^15.597453 ≈ 49,579 </small> | <small>2^15.6438562 ≈ 51,200 </small> | <small>2^15.666224 ≈ 52,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2²⁶''' | <small>2^0.597453 ≈ 1.513043 </small> | <small>2^0.6438562 ≈ 1.562500 </small> | <small>2^0.666224 ≈ 1.586914 </small> |} == The Earth and Moon == The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep-time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics. ==== Earth's sidereal year ==== The duration of Earth's sidereal year is '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. While gravitational perturbations from neighboring planets cause this value to vary by 20 to 25 minutes annually, the averaged century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given this relative stability, using a clean divisor of the sidereal year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system offers significant utility. Specifically, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds, meaning Earth's sidereal year—rounded to the nearest second—equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's tropical year ==== Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of seasons between successive vernal equinoxes, spans '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp shorter than the sidereal year, coming in at '''10,329.6 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's Great Year ==== With Earth's sidereal year (<math>P</math>) spanning 10,330 timestamps and the tropical year (<math>a_{t}</math>) spanning 10,329.6 timestamps, a full precessional cycle requires a number of years, <math>N</math>, where the cumulative annual difference equals exactly one year: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} N &= \frac{1\text{ Bully timestamp}}{P - a_{t}} \\ &= \frac{1}{10,330 - 10,329.6} \\ &= \frac{1}{0.4} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; Expressing this duration in terms of sidereal years yields: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= 25,824 \, P \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; Alternatively, expressing the cycle in terms of tropical years yields: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= 25,825 \, a_{t} \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic|Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] ==== The Metonic cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23, 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp complete approximately three cycles per one Metonic cycle, as illustrated below: <div style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: inherit; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688; border-radius: 4px; line-height: 1.6; margin: 1em 0;"> '''July 23 New Moons:''' * July 23, 1998 — 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 — 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 — 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> * [[Bully Metric Metonic cycle|Learn More About The Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] === The Bully Timestamp Duration === While 3,055 seconds may appear to be an arbitrary choice, the length of a single Bully timestamp is mathematically derived to balance local solar observations with deep-time orbital mechanics. {{Quote box| align = center| width = 100%| title = Bully Timestamp Duration | text = Justification: # The Sun orbits approximately one solar radius per Bully timestamp. # The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year. # The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's Great Year. # The Earth–Moon Metonic cycle is synchronized with hexadecimal multiples of the Bully unit. }} == Anchoring Bully Timestamps == To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''. === The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 5a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]], where the plane intersects the Galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 5a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] ==== Bullies in the Bully System ==== A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in Figure 5a: * '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign. * '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left. * '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left. As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history: {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was “sweetheart”. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, “lover”. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}} Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of "excellent" or "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. {{Quote box| align = center | width = full | title = The "Bully" Name | text = The specific "bullies" in the "Bully" timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}} === A surrogate for the Sun === As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving. The path of the node can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°): <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4b''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 5b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}'''. (Note: Figure 4a assumes an idealized travel distance of exactly 52,000 parsecs (or 2^15.666224) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps, whereas Figure 5b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs (or 2^15.666040) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center;" |+ '''Figure 5b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 3px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled in parsecs |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B32}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5058}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.100 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|820A D4AD 4AD4}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1099.86''}}}} |} {{Quote box| align = center| width = full| title = Bully Timestamp Anchor| text = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 5b).}} ==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ==== In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 5c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days. The Earth's orbital speed varies throughout the year, moving slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Consequently, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season. As shown in Figure 5c, '''winter''' was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. It took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to '''spring''' being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to '''summer'''. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over '''21,000 years'''. [[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 5c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]] Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 5c. The transition from '''spring to summer''' is correlated with a large '''green dot''' and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large '''red dot''' appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from '''summer to autumn''', and a large '''blue dot''', back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from '''winter to spring'''. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,500 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly '''26,000 years''' (1 Great Year ≈ 25,824 sidereal years ≈ 25,825 tropical years). {{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | text = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred near the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. All of the Galactic crossings shown in Figure 5c, at 4495 BCE, 1998 CE, and 8329 CE, are roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE. }} == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 6a''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in Figure 6a, these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|'''Figure 6a''': Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of Figure 6a, follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. Ideally, all of the black lines in Figure 6a could be discontinued and replaced by Bully timestamps going forward. === Why do we need Bully timestamps? === All the timestamps in '''Figure 6b''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ '''Figure 6b''': UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of Figure 6b attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of Figure 6b, breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3,055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950s, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic timekeeping (1958 AD – present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Estimation == [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 8a: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 8a'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 8b'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|'''Figure 8b''': The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in '''Figure 8c''' contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8c''': Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in '''Figure 8d''' (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8d''': Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 8d) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in '''Figure 8e''' is the same as is shown in Figure 8d, but Figure 8e plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8e''': A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in '''Figure 8f''' is similar to the table in Figure 8c, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 8c was for large z values, Figure 8f shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8f''': Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] lniwm49h1iryigcv17l54ouqe424n2l 2832613 2832601 2026-09-10T16:44:10Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Naked-Eye Stars */ 2832613 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the Sun's orbit around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp occurs each time the Sun advances by roughly one solar radius along its path through the cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|upright=2.2|center|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] == One Solar Radius == The Sun hurtles around the Milky Way Galaxy at a blistering 0.076% of the speed of light ([https://arxiv.org/abs/1810.09466 229.0 ± 0.2 kilometers per second]). Yet, even at this staggering pace, it takes about five-sixths of an hour for the Sun to traverse a distance equal to its own radius. This highlights the truly colossal size of our star, which boasts a radius of 2.3206 light-seconds (695,700 kilometers). '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. During each '''3,055-second''' period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over '''2.33 light-seconds''', which is slightly more than one solar radius (<math>R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 2.33 \text{ ls} \gtrapprox R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', it is a vast, oblong, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into surrounding space. While somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, the latter is a comparatively thin layer of gas held near the planetary surface, whereas the heliosphere is a plasma constantly blasted into space by the Sun's extreme heat and energy. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is so vast that if it were truly spherical, it would take the Sun roughly 6.344 years to travel a distance equivalent to the heliosphere's diameter. The digit in the '''fifth position''' of a Bully timestamp represents this orbital distance. Figure 2 illustrates the motion of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. Timestamp 8209 ED00 0000 is defined to have occurred at exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16, 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. During each 6.344-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 306 astronomical units, which is slightly more than 65,536 solar radii (<math>16^{4}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 306 \text{ AU} \gtrapprox 16^{4}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === Naked-Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (not to scale) across 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' corresponds to approximately 383,000 B.C., while timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., representing a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a cyan dashed line marking 100 parsecs. The Sun travels a little less than this distance during each 416,000-year interval, which is tracked by the digit in the '''ninth position''' of the Bully timestamp. Because a large percentage of naked-eye stars sit within this 100-parsec radius, the appearance of Earth's night sky changes completely over this timeframe. [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of naked-eye stars binned according to brightness and distance from the Sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the Sun than 100 parsecs, which is the distance the Sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of naked-eye stars are within this 100-parsec travel distance of the Sun.]] During each 415,792-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 97 parsecs, which is slightly more than 4,294,967,296 solar radii (<math>16^{8}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 97 \text{ pc} \gtrapprox 16^{8}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> ==== The Bully Milky Way ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3b''': Division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 3b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid). Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000'''. These represent the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D., respectively, assuming a full orbital path around the Milky Way of roughly 50,000 parsecs. In the lower half of the image, cyan lines further divide a single yellow sector into 16 equal subsectors. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center in Figure 3b, corresponding to the 6 o'clock position, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle of the Sun at Bully timestamp 820A 0000 0000, estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D. The nine cyan grid lines to the right of the red line mark the Sun's polar angle for Bully timestamps 8201 0000 0000 through 8209 0000 0000. Meanwhile, the five cyan grid lines to the left of the red line indicate the polar angle for timestamps 820B 0000 0000 through 820F 0000 0000. <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,t_{\odot} \approx 212.9 \text{ million years} </math> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \sim 50,000 \text{ parsecs} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> == The Galactic Calendar == [[File:Galactic centre orbits.svg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 4a''':Inferred orbits of 6 stars around the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* at the Milky Way's center<ref name="Eisenhauer">{{cite journal|last=Eisenhauer|first=F.|display-authors=et al. |title=SINFONI in the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares in the Central Light-Month|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=July 20, 2005|volume=628|issue=1|pages=246–259|doi=10.1086/430667|bibcode=2005ApJ...628..246E|arxiv=astro-ph/0502129|s2cid=122485461 }}</ref>]] [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, labeled S2 in '''Figure 4a''', completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance from the Sun to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: &hairsp; :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \\ \end{align}</math> &hairsp; If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. ==== Idealized Galactic Weeks ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Weeks_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3f''': Division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks of solar travel (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 3f''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks (yellow grid). Each week represents 1,000 parsecs of solar travel, which in this plot is assumed to be traversed by the Sun in roughly 4.09 million years. Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000''', respectively, indicating the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D. The cyan lines in the lower half of the image further divide one sector into 10 equal subsectors of 100 parsecs each. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 3f, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun had during Bully timestamp 8209 D89D 89D8 (approximately 31,000 B.C.), which is 1,000 parsecs of travel beyond the yellow line representing timestamp 8200 0000 0000. The nine cyan lines to the left of the red line represent the polar angles of the Sun after traveling 1,100 through 1,900 parsecs beyond timestamp 8200 0000 0000. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2⁴¹ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4b''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. It outlines the specific Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved across this idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4b:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. ==== Is the Galactic Calendar Realistic? ==== [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4c:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250-million-year time period.]] The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4c). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4c''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in Figure 4b states that the galactic week beginning on timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark. ==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ==== In Figure 3a and Figure 3e, the Sun is shown to travel less than 50,000 parsecs per galactic year. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar shown in Figure 3f assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per galactic year, introducing a distinct discrepancy in both galactic scale and calculated orbital velocity. Because the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to complex gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is neither perfectly uniform nor entirely predictable. Consequently, the Sun's true orbital velocity remains a subject of ongoing discovery and refinement. The conjectured values used in Figure 3e and Figure 3f should be viewed as '''practical assumptions''' rather than a reflection of a stable, long-term physical reality; the idealized Bully Calendar is a '''conceptual model''' designed to help visualize the immense scale of the galactic orbit. The table in '''Figure 4d''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp up to 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | '''Figure 4d''': Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 100 parsecs per 16⁸ Bully timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps</small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | <small>2^18.597453 ≈ 396,635 </small> | <small>2^18.6438562 ≈ 409,600 </small> | <small>2^18.666224 ≈ 416,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | <small>2^14.597453 ≈ 24,789.7 </small> | <small>2^14.6438562 ≈ 25,600.0 </small> | <small>2^14.666224 ≈ 26,000.0 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | <small>2^10.597453 ≈ 1,549.36 </small> | <small>2^10.6438562 ≈ 1,600.00 </small> | <small>2^10.666224 ≈ 1,625.00 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁸''' | <small>2^6.597453 ≈ 96.8348 </small> | <small>2^6.6438562 ≈ 100.0000 </small> | <small>2^6.666224 ≈ 101.5625 </small> |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off-Nominal Values |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | <small>2^15.597453 ≈ 49,579 </small> | <small>2^15.6438562 ≈ 51,200 </small> | <small>2^15.666224 ≈ 52,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2²⁶''' | <small>2^0.597453 ≈ 1.513043 </small> | <small>2^0.6438562 ≈ 1.562500 </small> | <small>2^0.666224 ≈ 1.586914 </small> |} == The Earth and Moon == The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep-time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics. ==== Earth's sidereal year ==== The duration of Earth's sidereal year is '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. While gravitational perturbations from neighboring planets cause this value to vary by 20 to 25 minutes annually, the averaged century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given this relative stability, using a clean divisor of the sidereal year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system offers significant utility. Specifically, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds, meaning Earth's sidereal year—rounded to the nearest second—equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's tropical year ==== Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of seasons between successive vernal equinoxes, spans '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp shorter than the sidereal year, coming in at '''10,329.6 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's Great Year ==== With Earth's sidereal year (<math>P</math>) spanning 10,330 timestamps and the tropical year (<math>a_{t}</math>) spanning 10,329.6 timestamps, a full precessional cycle requires a number of years, <math>N</math>, where the cumulative annual difference equals exactly one year: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} N &= \frac{1\text{ Bully timestamp}}{P - a_{t}} \\ &= \frac{1}{10,330 - 10,329.6} \\ &= \frac{1}{0.4} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; Expressing this duration in terms of sidereal years yields: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= 25,824 \, P \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; Alternatively, expressing the cycle in terms of tropical years yields: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= 25,825 \, a_{t} \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic|Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] ==== The Metonic cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23, 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp complete approximately three cycles per one Metonic cycle, as illustrated below: <div style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: inherit; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688; border-radius: 4px; line-height: 1.6; margin: 1em 0;"> '''July 23 New Moons:''' * July 23, 1998 — 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 — 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 — 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> * [[Bully Metric Metonic cycle|Learn More About The Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] === The Bully Timestamp Duration === While 3,055 seconds may appear to be an arbitrary choice, the length of a single Bully timestamp is mathematically derived to balance local solar observations with deep-time orbital mechanics. {{Quote box| align = center| width = 100%| title = Bully Timestamp Duration | text = Justification: # The Sun orbits approximately one solar radius per Bully timestamp. # The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year. # The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's Great Year. # The Earth–Moon Metonic cycle is synchronized with hexadecimal multiples of the Bully unit. }} == Anchoring Bully Timestamps == To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''. === The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 5a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]], where the plane intersects the Galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 5a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] ==== Bullies in the Bully System ==== A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in Figure 5a: * '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign. * '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left. * '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left. As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history: {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was “sweetheart”. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, “lover”. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}} Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of "excellent" or "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. {{Quote box| align = center | width = full | title = The "Bully" Name | text = The specific "bullies" in the "Bully" timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}} === A surrogate for the Sun === As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving. The path of the node can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°): <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4b''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 5b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}'''. (Note: Figure 4a assumes an idealized travel distance of exactly 52,000 parsecs (or 2^15.666224) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps, whereas Figure 5b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs (or 2^15.666040) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center;" |+ '''Figure 5b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 3px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled in parsecs |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B32}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5058}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.100 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|820A D4AD 4AD4}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1099.86''}}}} |} {{Quote box| align = center| width = full| title = Bully Timestamp Anchor| text = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 5b).}} ==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ==== In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 5c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days. The Earth's orbital speed varies throughout the year, moving slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Consequently, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season. As shown in Figure 5c, '''winter''' was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. It took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to '''spring''' being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to '''summer'''. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over '''21,000 years'''. [[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 5c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]] Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 5c. The transition from '''spring to summer''' is correlated with a large '''green dot''' and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large '''red dot''' appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from '''summer to autumn''', and a large '''blue dot''', back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from '''winter to spring'''. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,500 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly '''26,000 years''' (1 Great Year ≈ 25,824 sidereal years ≈ 25,825 tropical years). {{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | text = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred near the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. All of the Galactic crossings shown in Figure 5c, at 4495 BCE, 1998 CE, and 8329 CE, are roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE. }} == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 6a''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in Figure 6a, these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|'''Figure 6a''': Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of Figure 6a, follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. Ideally, all of the black lines in Figure 6a could be discontinued and replaced by Bully timestamps going forward. === Why do we need Bully timestamps? === All the timestamps in '''Figure 6b''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ '''Figure 6b''': UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of Figure 6b attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of Figure 6b, breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3,055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950s, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic timekeeping (1958 AD – present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Estimation == [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 8a: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 8a'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 8b'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|'''Figure 8b''': The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in '''Figure 8c''' contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8c''': Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in '''Figure 8d''' (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8d''': Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 8d) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in '''Figure 8e''' is the same as is shown in Figure 8d, but Figure 8e plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8e''': A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in '''Figure 8f''' is similar to the table in Figure 8c, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 8c was for large z values, Figure 8f shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8f''': Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] dg16z7diurw4g70bkaffuxeiycyq2ha 2832614 2832613 2026-09-10T16:47:25Z Unitfreak 695864 /* The Galactic Calendar */ 2832614 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the Sun's orbit around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp occurs each time the Sun advances by roughly one solar radius along its path through the cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|upright=2.2|center|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] == One Solar Radius == The Sun hurtles around the Milky Way Galaxy at a blistering 0.076% of the speed of light ([https://arxiv.org/abs/1810.09466 229.0 ± 0.2 kilometers per second]). Yet, even at this staggering pace, it takes about five-sixths of an hour for the Sun to traverse a distance equal to its own radius. This highlights the truly colossal size of our star, which boasts a radius of 2.3206 light-seconds (695,700 kilometers). '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. During each '''3,055-second''' period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over '''2.33 light-seconds''', which is slightly more than one solar radius (<math>R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 2.33 \text{ ls} \gtrapprox R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', it is a vast, oblong, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into surrounding space. While somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, the latter is a comparatively thin layer of gas held near the planetary surface, whereas the heliosphere is a plasma constantly blasted into space by the Sun's extreme heat and energy. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is so vast that if it were truly spherical, it would take the Sun roughly 6.344 years to travel a distance equivalent to the heliosphere's diameter. The digit in the '''fifth position''' of a Bully timestamp represents this orbital distance. Figure 2 illustrates the motion of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. Timestamp 8209 ED00 0000 is defined to have occurred at exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16, 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. During each 6.344-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 306 astronomical units, which is slightly more than 65,536 solar radii (<math>16^{4}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 306 \text{ AU} \gtrapprox 16^{4}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === Naked-Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (not to scale) across 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' corresponds to approximately 383,000 B.C., while timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., representing a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a cyan dashed line marking 100 parsecs. The Sun travels a little less than this distance during each 416,000-year interval, which is tracked by the digit in the '''ninth position''' of the Bully timestamp. Because a large percentage of naked-eye stars sit within this 100-parsec radius, the appearance of Earth's night sky changes completely over this timeframe. [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of naked-eye stars binned according to brightness and distance from the Sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the Sun than 100 parsecs, which is the distance the Sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of naked-eye stars are within this 100-parsec travel distance of the Sun.]] During each 415,792-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 97 parsecs, which is slightly more than 4,294,967,296 solar radii (<math>16^{8}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 97 \text{ pc} \gtrapprox 16^{8}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> ==== The Bully Milky Way ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3b''': Division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 3b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid). Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000'''. These represent the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D., respectively, assuming a full orbital path around the Milky Way of roughly 50,000 parsecs. In the lower half of the image, cyan lines further divide a single yellow sector into 16 equal subsectors. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center in Figure 3b, corresponding to the 6 o'clock position, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle of the Sun at Bully timestamp 820A 0000 0000, estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D. The nine cyan grid lines to the right of the red line mark the Sun's polar angle for Bully timestamps 8201 0000 0000 through 8209 0000 0000. Meanwhile, the five cyan grid lines to the left of the red line indicate the polar angle for timestamps 820B 0000 0000 through 820F 0000 0000. <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,t_{\odot} \approx 212.9 \text{ million years} </math> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \sim 50,000 \text{ parsecs} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> == The Galactic Calendar == [[File:Galactic centre orbits.svg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 4a''':Inferred orbits of 6 stars around the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* at the Milky Way's center<ref name="Eisenhauer">{{cite journal|last=Eisenhauer|first=F.|display-authors=et al. |title=SINFONI in the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares in the Central Light-Month|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=July 20, 2005|volume=628|issue=1|pages=246–259|doi=10.1086/430667|bibcode=2005ApJ...628..246E|arxiv=astro-ph/0502129|s2cid=122485461 }}</ref>]] [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, labeled S2 in '''Figure 4a''', completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance from the Sun to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: &hairsp; :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \\ \end{align}</math> &hairsp; If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. ==== Idealized Galactic Weeks ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Weeks_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 4b''': Division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks of solar travel (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 4b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks (yellow grid). Each week represents 1,000 parsecs of solar travel, which in this plot is assumed to be traversed by the Sun in roughly 4.09 million years. Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000''', respectively, indicating the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D. The cyan lines in the lower half of the image further divide one sector into 10 equal subsectors of 100 parsecs each. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 4b, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun had during Bully timestamp 8209 D89D 89D8 (approximately 31,000 B.C.), which is 1,000 parsecs of travel beyond the yellow line representing timestamp 8200 0000 0000. The nine cyan lines to the left of the red line represent the polar angles of the Sun after traveling 1,100 through 1,900 parsecs beyond timestamp 8200 0000 0000. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2⁴¹ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4b''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. It outlines the specific Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved across this idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4b:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. ==== Is the Galactic Calendar Realistic? ==== [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4c:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250-million-year time period.]] The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4c). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4c''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in Figure 4b states that the galactic week beginning on timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark. ==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ==== In Figure 3a and Figure 3b, the Sun is shown to travel less than 50,000 parsecs per galactic year. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar shown in Figure 4b assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per galactic year, introducing a distinct discrepancy in both galactic scale and calculated orbital velocity. Because the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to complex gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is neither perfectly uniform nor entirely predictable. Consequently, the Sun's true orbital velocity remains a subject of ongoing discovery and refinement. The conjectured values used in Figure 3b and Figure 4b should be viewed as '''practical assumptions''' rather than a reflection of a stable, long-term physical reality; the idealized Bully Calendar is a '''conceptual model''' designed to help visualize the immense scale of the galactic orbit. The table in '''Figure 4d''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp up to 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | '''Figure 4d''': Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 100 parsecs per 16⁸ Bully timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps</small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | <small>2^18.597453 ≈ 396,635 </small> | <small>2^18.6438562 ≈ 409,600 </small> | <small>2^18.666224 ≈ 416,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | <small>2^14.597453 ≈ 24,789.7 </small> | <small>2^14.6438562 ≈ 25,600.0 </small> | <small>2^14.666224 ≈ 26,000.0 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | <small>2^10.597453 ≈ 1,549.36 </small> | <small>2^10.6438562 ≈ 1,600.00 </small> | <small>2^10.666224 ≈ 1,625.00 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁸''' | <small>2^6.597453 ≈ 96.8348 </small> | <small>2^6.6438562 ≈ 100.0000 </small> | <small>2^6.666224 ≈ 101.5625 </small> |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off-Nominal Values |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | <small>2^15.597453 ≈ 49,579 </small> | <small>2^15.6438562 ≈ 51,200 </small> | <small>2^15.666224 ≈ 52,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2²⁶''' | <small>2^0.597453 ≈ 1.513043 </small> | <small>2^0.6438562 ≈ 1.562500 </small> | <small>2^0.666224 ≈ 1.586914 </small> |} == The Earth and Moon == The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep-time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics. ==== Earth's sidereal year ==== The duration of Earth's sidereal year is '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. While gravitational perturbations from neighboring planets cause this value to vary by 20 to 25 minutes annually, the averaged century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given this relative stability, using a clean divisor of the sidereal year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system offers significant utility. Specifically, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds, meaning Earth's sidereal year—rounded to the nearest second—equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's tropical year ==== Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of seasons between successive vernal equinoxes, spans '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp shorter than the sidereal year, coming in at '''10,329.6 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's Great Year ==== With Earth's sidereal year (<math>P</math>) spanning 10,330 timestamps and the tropical year (<math>a_{t}</math>) spanning 10,329.6 timestamps, a full precessional cycle requires a number of years, <math>N</math>, where the cumulative annual difference equals exactly one year: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} N &= \frac{1\text{ Bully timestamp}}{P - a_{t}} \\ &= \frac{1}{10,330 - 10,329.6} \\ &= \frac{1}{0.4} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; Expressing this duration in terms of sidereal years yields: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= 25,824 \, P \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; Alternatively, expressing the cycle in terms of tropical years yields: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= 25,825 \, a_{t} \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic|Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] ==== The Metonic cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23, 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp complete approximately three cycles per one Metonic cycle, as illustrated below: <div style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: inherit; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688; border-radius: 4px; line-height: 1.6; margin: 1em 0;"> '''July 23 New Moons:''' * July 23, 1998 — 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 — 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 — 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> * [[Bully Metric Metonic cycle|Learn More About The Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] === The Bully Timestamp Duration === While 3,055 seconds may appear to be an arbitrary choice, the length of a single Bully timestamp is mathematically derived to balance local solar observations with deep-time orbital mechanics. {{Quote box| align = center| width = 100%| title = Bully Timestamp Duration | text = Justification: # The Sun orbits approximately one solar radius per Bully timestamp. # The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year. # The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's Great Year. # The Earth–Moon Metonic cycle is synchronized with hexadecimal multiples of the Bully unit. }} == Anchoring Bully Timestamps == To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''. === The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 5a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]], where the plane intersects the Galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 5a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] ==== Bullies in the Bully System ==== A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in Figure 5a: * '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign. * '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left. * '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left. As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history: {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was “sweetheart”. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, “lover”. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}} Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of "excellent" or "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. {{Quote box| align = center | width = full | title = The "Bully" Name | text = The specific "bullies" in the "Bully" timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}} === A surrogate for the Sun === As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving. The path of the node can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°): <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4b''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 5b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}'''. (Note: Figure 4a assumes an idealized travel distance of exactly 52,000 parsecs (or 2^15.666224) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps, whereas Figure 5b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs (or 2^15.666040) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center;" |+ '''Figure 5b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 3px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled in parsecs |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B32}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5058}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.100 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|820A D4AD 4AD4}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1099.86''}}}} |} {{Quote box| align = center| width = full| title = Bully Timestamp Anchor| text = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 5b).}} ==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ==== In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 5c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days. The Earth's orbital speed varies throughout the year, moving slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Consequently, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season. As shown in Figure 5c, '''winter''' was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. It took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to '''spring''' being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to '''summer'''. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over '''21,000 years'''. [[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 5c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]] Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 5c. The transition from '''spring to summer''' is correlated with a large '''green dot''' and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large '''red dot''' appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from '''summer to autumn''', and a large '''blue dot''', back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from '''winter to spring'''. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,500 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly '''26,000 years''' (1 Great Year ≈ 25,824 sidereal years ≈ 25,825 tropical years). {{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | text = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred near the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. All of the Galactic crossings shown in Figure 5c, at 4495 BCE, 1998 CE, and 8329 CE, are roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE. }} == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 6a''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in Figure 6a, these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|'''Figure 6a''': Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of Figure 6a, follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. Ideally, all of the black lines in Figure 6a could be discontinued and replaced by Bully timestamps going forward. === Why do we need Bully timestamps? === All the timestamps in '''Figure 6b''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ '''Figure 6b''': UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of Figure 6b attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of Figure 6b, breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3,055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950s, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic timekeeping (1958 AD – present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Estimation == [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 8a: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 8a'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 8b'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|'''Figure 8b''': The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in '''Figure 8c''' contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8c''': Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in '''Figure 8d''' (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8d''': Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 8d) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in '''Figure 8e''' is the same as is shown in Figure 8d, but Figure 8e plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8e''': A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in '''Figure 8f''' is similar to the table in Figure 8c, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 8c was for large z values, Figure 8f shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8f''': Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] 9pmmdqp5to9jmnkqojapcyvhdhzrm0q 2832615 2832614 2026-09-10T16:52:49Z Unitfreak 695864 /* The Galactic Calendar */ 2832615 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the Sun's orbit around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp occurs each time the Sun advances by roughly one solar radius along its path through the cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|upright=2.2|center|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] == One Solar Radius == The Sun hurtles around the Milky Way Galaxy at a blistering 0.076% of the speed of light ([https://arxiv.org/abs/1810.09466 229.0 ± 0.2 kilometers per second]). Yet, even at this staggering pace, it takes about five-sixths of an hour for the Sun to traverse a distance equal to its own radius. This highlights the truly colossal size of our star, which boasts a radius of 2.3206 light-seconds (695,700 kilometers). '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. During each '''3,055-second''' period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over '''2.33 light-seconds''', which is slightly more than one solar radius (<math>R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 2.33 \text{ ls} \gtrapprox R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', it is a vast, oblong, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into surrounding space. While somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, the latter is a comparatively thin layer of gas held near the planetary surface, whereas the heliosphere is a plasma constantly blasted into space by the Sun's extreme heat and energy. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is so vast that if it were truly spherical, it would take the Sun roughly 6.344 years to travel a distance equivalent to the heliosphere's diameter. The digit in the '''fifth position''' of a Bully timestamp represents this orbital distance. Figure 2 illustrates the motion of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. Timestamp 8209 ED00 0000 is defined to have occurred at exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16, 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. During each 6.344-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 306 astronomical units, which is slightly more than 65,536 solar radii (<math>16^{4}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 306 \text{ AU} \gtrapprox 16^{4}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === Naked-Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (not to scale) across 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' corresponds to approximately 383,000 B.C., while timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., representing a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a cyan dashed line marking 100 parsecs. The Sun travels a little less than this distance during each 416,000-year interval, which is tracked by the digit in the '''ninth position''' of the Bully timestamp. Because a large percentage of naked-eye stars sit within this 100-parsec radius, the appearance of Earth's night sky changes completely over this timeframe. [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of naked-eye stars binned according to brightness and distance from the Sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the Sun than 100 parsecs, which is the distance the Sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of naked-eye stars are within this 100-parsec travel distance of the Sun.]] During each 415,792-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 97 parsecs, which is slightly more than 4,294,967,296 solar radii (<math>16^{8}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 97 \text{ pc} \gtrapprox 16^{8}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> ==== The Bully Milky Way ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3b''': Division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 3b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid). Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000'''. These represent the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D., respectively, assuming a full orbital path around the Milky Way of roughly 50,000 parsecs. In the lower half of the image, cyan lines further divide a single yellow sector into 16 equal subsectors. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center in Figure 3b, corresponding to the 6 o'clock position, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle of the Sun at Bully timestamp 820A 0000 0000, estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D. The nine cyan grid lines to the right of the red line mark the Sun's polar angle for Bully timestamps 8201 0000 0000 through 8209 0000 0000. Meanwhile, the five cyan grid lines to the left of the red line indicate the polar angle for timestamps 820B 0000 0000 through 820F 0000 0000. <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,t_{\odot} \approx 212.9 \text{ million years} </math> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \sim 50,000 \text{ parsecs} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> == The Galactic Calendar == [[File:Galactic centre orbits.svg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 4a''':Inferred orbits of 6 stars around the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* at the Milky Way's center<ref name="Eisenhauer">{{cite journal|last=Eisenhauer|first=F.|display-authors=et al. |title=SINFONI in the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares in the Central Light-Month|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=July 20, 2005|volume=628|issue=1|pages=246–259|doi=10.1086/430667|bibcode=2005ApJ...628..246E|arxiv=astro-ph/0502129|s2cid=122485461 }}</ref>]] [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, labeled S2 in '''Figure 4a''', completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance from the Sun to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: &hairsp; :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \\ \end{align}</math> &hairsp; If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. ==== Idealized Galactic Weeks ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Weeks_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 4b''': Division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks of solar travel (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 4b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks (yellow grid). Each week represents 1,000 parsecs of solar travel, which in this plot is assumed to be traversed by the Sun in roughly 4.09 million years. Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000''', respectively, indicating the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D. The cyan lines in the lower half of the image further divide one sector into 10 equal subsectors of 100 parsecs each. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 4b, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun had during Bully timestamp 8209 D89D 89D8 (approximately 31,000 B.C.), which is 1,000 parsecs of travel beyond the yellow line representing timestamp 8200 0000 0000. The nine cyan lines to the left of the red line represent the polar angles of the Sun after traveling 1,100 through 1,900 parsecs beyond timestamp 8200 0000 0000. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2⁴¹ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4c''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. It outlines the specific Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved across this idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4c:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. ==== Is the Galactic Calendar Realistic? ==== [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4d:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250-million-year time period.]] The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4d). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4d''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in Figure 4c states that the galactic week beginning on timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark. ==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ==== In Figure 3a and Figure 3b, the Sun is shown to travel less than 50,000 parsecs per galactic year. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar shown in Figure 4b assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per galactic year, introducing a distinct discrepancy in both galactic scale and calculated orbital velocity. Because the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to complex gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is neither perfectly uniform nor entirely predictable. Consequently, the Sun's true orbital velocity remains a subject of ongoing discovery and refinement. The conjectured values used in Figure 3b and Figure 4b should be viewed as '''practical assumptions''' rather than a reflection of a stable, long-term physical reality; the idealized Bully Calendar is a '''conceptual model''' designed to help visualize the immense scale of the galactic orbit. The table in '''Figure 4e''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp up to 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | '''Figure 4e''': Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 100 parsecs per 16⁸ Bully timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps</small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | <small>2^18.597453 ≈ 396,635 </small> | <small>2^18.6438562 ≈ 409,600 </small> | <small>2^18.666224 ≈ 416,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | <small>2^14.597453 ≈ 24,789.7 </small> | <small>2^14.6438562 ≈ 25,600.0 </small> | <small>2^14.666224 ≈ 26,000.0 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | <small>2^10.597453 ≈ 1,549.36 </small> | <small>2^10.6438562 ≈ 1,600.00 </small> | <small>2^10.666224 ≈ 1,625.00 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁸''' | <small>2^6.597453 ≈ 96.8348 </small> | <small>2^6.6438562 ≈ 100.0000 </small> | <small>2^6.666224 ≈ 101.5625 </small> |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off-Nominal Values |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | <small>2^15.597453 ≈ 49,579 </small> | <small>2^15.6438562 ≈ 51,200 </small> | <small>2^15.666224 ≈ 52,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2²⁶''' | <small>2^0.597453 ≈ 1.513043 </small> | <small>2^0.6438562 ≈ 1.562500 </small> | <small>2^0.666224 ≈ 1.586914 </small> |} == The Earth and Moon == The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep-time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics. ==== Earth's sidereal year ==== The duration of Earth's sidereal year is '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. While gravitational perturbations from neighboring planets cause this value to vary by 20 to 25 minutes annually, the averaged century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given this relative stability, using a clean divisor of the sidereal year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system offers significant utility. Specifically, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds, meaning Earth's sidereal year—rounded to the nearest second—equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's tropical year ==== Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of seasons between successive vernal equinoxes, spans '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp shorter than the sidereal year, coming in at '''10,329.6 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's Great Year ==== With Earth's sidereal year (<math>P</math>) spanning 10,330 timestamps and the tropical year (<math>a_{t}</math>) spanning 10,329.6 timestamps, a full precessional cycle requires a number of years, <math>N</math>, where the cumulative annual difference equals exactly one year: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} N &= \frac{1\text{ Bully timestamp}}{P - a_{t}} \\ &= \frac{1}{10,330 - 10,329.6} \\ &= \frac{1}{0.4} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; Expressing this duration in terms of sidereal years yields: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= 25,824 \, P \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; Alternatively, expressing the cycle in terms of tropical years yields: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= 25,825 \, a_{t} \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic|Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] ==== The Metonic cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23, 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp complete approximately three cycles per one Metonic cycle, as illustrated below: <div style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: inherit; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688; border-radius: 4px; line-height: 1.6; margin: 1em 0;"> '''July 23 New Moons:''' * July 23, 1998 — 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 — 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 — 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> * [[Bully Metric Metonic cycle|Learn More About The Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] === The Bully Timestamp Duration === While 3,055 seconds may appear to be an arbitrary choice, the length of a single Bully timestamp is mathematically derived to balance local solar observations with deep-time orbital mechanics. {{Quote box| align = center| width = 100%| title = Bully Timestamp Duration | text = Justification: # The Sun orbits approximately one solar radius per Bully timestamp. # The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year. # The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's Great Year. # The Earth–Moon Metonic cycle is synchronized with hexadecimal multiples of the Bully unit. }} == Anchoring Bully Timestamps == To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''. === The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 5a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]], where the plane intersects the Galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 5a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] ==== Bullies in the Bully System ==== A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in Figure 5a: * '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign. * '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left. * '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left. As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history: {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was “sweetheart”. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, “lover”. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}} Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of "excellent" or "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. {{Quote box| align = center | width = full | title = The "Bully" Name | text = The specific "bullies" in the "Bully" timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}} === A surrogate for the Sun === As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving. The path of the node can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°): <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4b''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 5b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}'''. (Note: Figure 4a assumes an idealized travel distance of exactly 52,000 parsecs (or 2^15.666224) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps, whereas Figure 5b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs (or 2^15.666040) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center;" |+ '''Figure 5b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 3px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled in parsecs |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B32}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5058}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.100 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|820A D4AD 4AD4}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1099.86''}}}} |} {{Quote box| align = center| width = full| title = Bully Timestamp Anchor| text = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 5b).}} ==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ==== In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 5c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days. The Earth's orbital speed varies throughout the year, moving slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Consequently, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season. As shown in Figure 5c, '''winter''' was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. It took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to '''spring''' being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to '''summer'''. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over '''21,000 years'''. [[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 5c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]] Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 5c. The transition from '''spring to summer''' is correlated with a large '''green dot''' and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large '''red dot''' appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from '''summer to autumn''', and a large '''blue dot''', back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from '''winter to spring'''. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,500 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly '''26,000 years''' (1 Great Year ≈ 25,824 sidereal years ≈ 25,825 tropical years). {{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | text = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred near the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. All of the Galactic crossings shown in Figure 5c, at 4495 BCE, 1998 CE, and 8329 CE, are roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE. }} == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 6a''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in Figure 6a, these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|'''Figure 6a''': Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of Figure 6a, follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. Ideally, all of the black lines in Figure 6a could be discontinued and replaced by Bully timestamps going forward. === Why do we need Bully timestamps? === All the timestamps in '''Figure 6b''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ '''Figure 6b''': UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of Figure 6b attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of Figure 6b, breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3,055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950s, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic timekeeping (1958 AD – present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Estimation == [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 8a: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 8a'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 8b'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|'''Figure 8b''': The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in '''Figure 8c''' contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8c''': Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in '''Figure 8d''' (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8d''': Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 8d) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in '''Figure 8e''' is the same as is shown in Figure 8d, but Figure 8e plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8e''': A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in '''Figure 8f''' is similar to the table in Figure 8c, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 8c was for large z values, Figure 8f shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8f''': Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] 4le87g35vlu3a55zz79lu6xq4dfqj3e 2832617 2832615 2026-09-10T16:59:46Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time */ 2832617 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the Sun's orbit around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp occurs each time the Sun advances by roughly one solar radius along its path through the cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|upright=2.2|center|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] == One Solar Radius == The Sun hurtles around the Milky Way Galaxy at a blistering 0.076% of the speed of light ([https://arxiv.org/abs/1810.09466 229.0 ± 0.2 kilometers per second]). Yet, even at this staggering pace, it takes about five-sixths of an hour for the Sun to traverse a distance equal to its own radius. This highlights the truly colossal size of our star, which boasts a radius of 2.3206 light-seconds (695,700 kilometers). '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. During each '''3,055-second''' period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over '''2.33 light-seconds''', which is slightly more than one solar radius (<math>R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 2.33 \text{ ls} \gtrapprox R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', it is a vast, oblong, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into surrounding space. While somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, the latter is a comparatively thin layer of gas held near the planetary surface, whereas the heliosphere is a plasma constantly blasted into space by the Sun's extreme heat and energy. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is so vast that if it were truly spherical, it would take the Sun roughly 6.344 years to travel a distance equivalent to the heliosphere's diameter. The digit in the '''fifth position''' of a Bully timestamp represents this orbital distance. Figure 2 illustrates the motion of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. Timestamp 8209 ED00 0000 is defined to have occurred at exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16, 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. During each 6.344-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 306 astronomical units, which is slightly more than 65,536 solar radii (<math>16^{4}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 306 \text{ AU} \gtrapprox 16^{4}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === Naked-Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (not to scale) across 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' corresponds to approximately 383,000 B.C., while timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., representing a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a cyan dashed line marking 100 parsecs. The Sun travels a little less than this distance during each 416,000-year interval, which is tracked by the digit in the '''ninth position''' of the Bully timestamp. Because a large percentage of naked-eye stars sit within this 100-parsec radius, the appearance of Earth's night sky changes completely over this timeframe. [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of naked-eye stars binned according to brightness and distance from the Sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the Sun than 100 parsecs, which is the distance the Sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of naked-eye stars are within this 100-parsec travel distance of the Sun.]] During each 415,792-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 97 parsecs, which is slightly more than 4,294,967,296 solar radii (<math>16^{8}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 97 \text{ pc} \gtrapprox 16^{8}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> ==== The Bully Milky Way ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3b''': Division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 3b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid). Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000'''. These represent the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D., respectively, assuming a full orbital path around the Milky Way of roughly 50,000 parsecs. In the lower half of the image, cyan lines further divide a single yellow sector into 16 equal subsectors. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center in Figure 3b, corresponding to the 6 o'clock position, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle of the Sun at Bully timestamp 820A 0000 0000, estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D. The nine cyan grid lines to the right of the red line mark the Sun's polar angle for Bully timestamps 8201 0000 0000 through 8209 0000 0000. Meanwhile, the five cyan grid lines to the left of the red line indicate the polar angle for timestamps 820B 0000 0000 through 820F 0000 0000. <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,t_{\odot} \approx 212.9 \text{ million years} </math> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \sim 50,000 \text{ parsecs} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> == The Galactic Calendar == [[File:Galactic centre orbits.svg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 4a''':Inferred orbits of 6 stars around the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* at the Milky Way's center<ref name="Eisenhauer">{{cite journal|last=Eisenhauer|first=F.|display-authors=et al. |title=SINFONI in the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares in the Central Light-Month|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=July 20, 2005|volume=628|issue=1|pages=246–259|doi=10.1086/430667|bibcode=2005ApJ...628..246E|arxiv=astro-ph/0502129|s2cid=122485461 }}</ref>]] [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, labeled S2 in '''Figure 4a''', completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance from the Sun to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: &hairsp; :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \\ \end{align}</math> &hairsp; If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. ==== Idealized Galactic Weeks ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Weeks_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 4b''': Division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks of solar travel (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 4b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks (yellow grid). Each week represents 1,000 parsecs of solar travel, which in this plot is assumed to be traversed by the Sun in roughly 4.09 million years. Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000''', respectively, indicating the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D. The cyan lines in the lower half of the image further divide one sector into 10 equal subsectors of 100 parsecs each. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 4b, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun had during Bully timestamp 8209 D89D 89D8 (approximately 31,000 B.C.), which is 1,000 parsecs of travel beyond the yellow line representing timestamp 8200 0000 0000. The nine cyan lines to the left of the red line represent the polar angles of the Sun after traveling 1,100 through 1,900 parsecs beyond timestamp 8200 0000 0000. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2⁴¹ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4c''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. It outlines the specific Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved across this idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4c:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. ==== Is the Galactic Calendar Realistic? ==== [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4d:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250-million-year time period.]] The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4d). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4d''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in Figure 4c states that the galactic week beginning on timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark. ==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ==== In Figure 3a and Figure 3b, the Sun is shown to travel less than 50,000 parsecs per galactic year. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar shown in Figure 4b assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per galactic year, introducing a distinct discrepancy in both galactic scale and calculated orbital velocity. Because the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to complex gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is neither perfectly uniform nor entirely predictable. Consequently, the Sun's true orbital velocity remains a subject of ongoing discovery and refinement. The conjectured values used in Figure 3b and Figure 4b should be viewed as '''practical assumptions''' rather than a reflection of a stable, long-term physical reality; the idealized Bully Calendar is a '''conceptual model''' designed to help visualize the immense scale of the galactic orbit. The table in '''Figure 4e''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp up to 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | '''Figure 4e''': Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 100 parsecs per 16⁸ Bully timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps</small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | <small>2^18.597453 ≈ 396,635 </small> | <small>2^18.6438562 ≈ 409,600 </small> | <small>2^18.666224 ≈ 416,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | <small>2^14.597453 ≈ 24,789.7 </small> | <small>2^14.6438562 ≈ 25,600.0 </small> | <small>2^14.666224 ≈ 26,000.0 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | <small>2^10.597453 ≈ 1,549.36 </small> | <small>2^10.6438562 ≈ 1,600.00 </small> | <small>2^10.666224 ≈ 1,625.00 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁸''' | <small>2^6.597453 ≈ 96.8348 </small> | <small>2^6.6438562 ≈ 100.0000 </small> | <small>2^6.666224 ≈ 101.5625 </small> |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off-Nominal Values |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | <small>2^15.597453 ≈ 49,579 </small> | <small>2^15.6438562 ≈ 51,200 </small> | <small>2^15.666224 ≈ 52,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2²⁶''' | <small>2^0.597453 ≈ 1.513043 </small> | <small>2^0.6438562 ≈ 1.562500 </small> | <small>2^0.666224 ≈ 1.586914 </small> |} == The Earth and Moon == The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep-time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics. ==== Earth's sidereal year ==== The duration of Earth's sidereal year is '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. While gravitational perturbations from neighboring planets cause this value to vary by 20 to 25 minutes annually, the averaged century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given this relative stability, using a clean divisor of the sidereal year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system offers significant utility. Specifically, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds, meaning Earth's sidereal year—rounded to the nearest second—equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's tropical year ==== Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of seasons between successive vernal equinoxes, spans '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp shorter than the sidereal year, coming in at '''10,329.6 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's Great Year ==== With Earth's sidereal year (<math>P</math>) spanning 10,330 timestamps and the tropical year (<math>a_{t}</math>) spanning 10,329.6 timestamps, a full precessional cycle requires a number of years, <math>N</math>, where the cumulative annual difference equals exactly one year: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} N &= \frac{1\text{ Bully timestamp}}{P - a_{t}} \\ &= \frac{1}{10,330 - 10,329.6} \\ &= \frac{1}{0.4} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; Expressing this duration in terms of sidereal years yields: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= 25,824 \, P \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; Alternatively, expressing the cycle in terms of tropical years yields: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= 25,825 \, a_{t} \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic|Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] ==== The Metonic cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23, 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp complete approximately three cycles per one Metonic cycle, as illustrated below: <div style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: inherit; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688; border-radius: 4px; line-height: 1.6; margin: 1em 0;"> '''July 23 New Moons:''' * July 23, 1998 — 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 — 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 — 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> * [[Bully Metric Metonic cycle|Learn More About The Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] === The Bully Timestamp Duration === While 3,055 seconds may appear to be an arbitrary choice, the length of a single Bully timestamp is mathematically derived to balance local solar observations with deep-time orbital mechanics. {{Quote box| align = center| width = 100%| title = Bully Timestamp Duration | text = Justification: # The Sun orbits approximately one solar radius per Bully timestamp. # The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year. # The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's Great Year. # The Earth–Moon Metonic cycle is synchronized with hexadecimal multiples of the Bully unit. }} == Anchoring Bully Timestamps == To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''. === The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 5a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]], where the plane intersects the Galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 5a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] ==== Bullies in the Bully System ==== A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in Figure 5a: * '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign. * '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left. * '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left. As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history: {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was “sweetheart”. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, “lover”. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}} Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of "excellent" or "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. {{Quote box| align = center | width = full | title = The "Bully" Name | text = The specific "bullies" in the "Bully" timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}} === A surrogate for the Sun === As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving. The path of the node can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°): <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4b''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 5b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}'''. (Note: Figure 4a assumes an idealized travel distance of exactly 52,000 parsecs (or 2^15.666224) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps, whereas Figure 5b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs (or 2^15.666040) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center;" |+ '''Figure 5b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 3px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled in parsecs |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B32}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5058}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.100 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|820A D4AD 4AD4}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1099.86''}}}} |} {{Quote box| align = center| width = full| title = Bully Timestamp Anchor| text = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 5b).}} ==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ==== In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 5c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days. The Earth's orbital speed varies throughout the year, moving slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Consequently, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season. As shown in Figure 5c, '''winter''' was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. It took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to '''spring''' being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to '''summer'''. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over '''21,000 years'''. [[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 5c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]] Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 5c. The transition from '''spring to summer''' is correlated with a large '''green dot''' and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large '''red dot''' appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from '''summer to autumn''', and a large '''blue dot''', back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from '''winter to spring'''. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,500 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly '''26,000 years''' (1 Great Year ≈ 25,824 sidereal years ≈ 25,825 tropical years). {{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | text = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred near the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. All of the Galactic crossings shown in Figure 5c, at 4495 BCE, 1998 CE, and 8329 CE, are roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE. }} == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 7a''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in Figure 7a, these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|'''Figure 7a''': Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of Figure 7a, follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. Ideally, all of the black lines in Figure 7a could be discontinued and replaced by Bully timestamps going forward. === Why do we need Bully timestamps? === All the timestamps in '''Figure 7b''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ '''Figure 7b''': UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of Figure 7b attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of Figure 7b, breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3,055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950s, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic timekeeping (1958 AD – present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Estimation == [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 8a: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 8a'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 8b'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|'''Figure 8b''': The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in '''Figure 8c''' contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8c''': Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in '''Figure 8d''' (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8d''': Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 8d) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in '''Figure 8e''' is the same as is shown in Figure 8d, but Figure 8e plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8e''': A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in '''Figure 8f''' is similar to the table in Figure 8c, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 8c was for large z values, Figure 8f shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8f''': Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] qf69hovsff1tgblk1ai8yvblat2hsp3 2832618 2832617 2026-09-10T17:05:40Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Anchoring Bully Timestamps */ 2832618 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the Sun's orbit around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp occurs each time the Sun advances by roughly one solar radius along its path through the cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|upright=2.2|center|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] == One Solar Radius == The Sun hurtles around the Milky Way Galaxy at a blistering 0.076% of the speed of light ([https://arxiv.org/abs/1810.09466 229.0 ± 0.2 kilometers per second]). Yet, even at this staggering pace, it takes about five-sixths of an hour for the Sun to traverse a distance equal to its own radius. This highlights the truly colossal size of our star, which boasts a radius of 2.3206 light-seconds (695,700 kilometers). '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. During each '''3,055-second''' period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over '''2.33 light-seconds''', which is slightly more than one solar radius (<math>R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 2.33 \text{ ls} \gtrapprox R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', it is a vast, oblong, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into surrounding space. While somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, the latter is a comparatively thin layer of gas held near the planetary surface, whereas the heliosphere is a plasma constantly blasted into space by the Sun's extreme heat and energy. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is so vast that if it were truly spherical, it would take the Sun roughly 6.344 years to travel a distance equivalent to the heliosphere's diameter. The digit in the '''fifth position''' of a Bully timestamp represents this orbital distance. Figure 2 illustrates the motion of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. Timestamp 8209 ED00 0000 is defined to have occurred at exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16, 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. During each 6.344-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 306 astronomical units, which is slightly more than 65,536 solar radii (<math>16^{4}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 306 \text{ AU} \gtrapprox 16^{4}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === Naked-Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (not to scale) across 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' corresponds to approximately 383,000 B.C., while timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., representing a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a cyan dashed line marking 100 parsecs. The Sun travels a little less than this distance during each 416,000-year interval, which is tracked by the digit in the '''ninth position''' of the Bully timestamp. Because a large percentage of naked-eye stars sit within this 100-parsec radius, the appearance of Earth's night sky changes completely over this timeframe. [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of naked-eye stars binned according to brightness and distance from the Sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the Sun than 100 parsecs, which is the distance the Sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of naked-eye stars are within this 100-parsec travel distance of the Sun.]] During each 415,792-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 97 parsecs, which is slightly more than 4,294,967,296 solar radii (<math>16^{8}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 97 \text{ pc} \gtrapprox 16^{8}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> ==== The Bully Milky Way ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3b''': Division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 3b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid). Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000'''. These represent the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D., respectively, assuming a full orbital path around the Milky Way of roughly 50,000 parsecs. In the lower half of the image, cyan lines further divide a single yellow sector into 16 equal subsectors. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center in Figure 3b, corresponding to the 6 o'clock position, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle of the Sun at Bully timestamp 820A 0000 0000, estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D. The nine cyan grid lines to the right of the red line mark the Sun's polar angle for Bully timestamps 8201 0000 0000 through 8209 0000 0000. Meanwhile, the five cyan grid lines to the left of the red line indicate the polar angle for timestamps 820B 0000 0000 through 820F 0000 0000. <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,t_{\odot} \approx 212.9 \text{ million years} </math> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \sim 50,000 \text{ parsecs} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> == The Galactic Calendar == [[File:Galactic centre orbits.svg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 4a''':Inferred orbits of 6 stars around the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* at the Milky Way's center<ref name="Eisenhauer">{{cite journal|last=Eisenhauer|first=F.|display-authors=et al. |title=SINFONI in the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares in the Central Light-Month|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=July 20, 2005|volume=628|issue=1|pages=246–259|doi=10.1086/430667|bibcode=2005ApJ...628..246E|arxiv=astro-ph/0502129|s2cid=122485461 }}</ref>]] [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, labeled S2 in '''Figure 4a''', completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance from the Sun to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: &hairsp; :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \\ \end{align}</math> &hairsp; If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. ==== Idealized Galactic Weeks ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Weeks_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 4b''': Division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks of solar travel (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 4b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks (yellow grid). Each week represents 1,000 parsecs of solar travel, which in this plot is assumed to be traversed by the Sun in roughly 4.09 million years. Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000''', respectively, indicating the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D. The cyan lines in the lower half of the image further divide one sector into 10 equal subsectors of 100 parsecs each. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 4b, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun had during Bully timestamp 8209 D89D 89D8 (approximately 31,000 B.C.), which is 1,000 parsecs of travel beyond the yellow line representing timestamp 8200 0000 0000. The nine cyan lines to the left of the red line represent the polar angles of the Sun after traveling 1,100 through 1,900 parsecs beyond timestamp 8200 0000 0000. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2⁴¹ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4c''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. It outlines the specific Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved across this idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4c:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. ==== Is the Galactic Calendar Realistic? ==== [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4d:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250-million-year time period.]] The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4d). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4d''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in Figure 4c states that the galactic week beginning on timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark. ==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ==== In Figure 3a and Figure 3b, the Sun is shown to travel less than 50,000 parsecs per galactic year. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar shown in Figure 4b assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per galactic year, introducing a distinct discrepancy in both galactic scale and calculated orbital velocity. Because the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to complex gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is neither perfectly uniform nor entirely predictable. Consequently, the Sun's true orbital velocity remains a subject of ongoing discovery and refinement. The conjectured values used in Figure 3b and Figure 4b should be viewed as '''practical assumptions''' rather than a reflection of a stable, long-term physical reality; the idealized Bully Calendar is a '''conceptual model''' designed to help visualize the immense scale of the galactic orbit. The table in '''Figure 4e''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp up to 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | '''Figure 4e''': Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 100 parsecs per 16⁸ Bully timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps</small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | <small>2^18.597453 ≈ 396,635 </small> | <small>2^18.6438562 ≈ 409,600 </small> | <small>2^18.666224 ≈ 416,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | <small>2^14.597453 ≈ 24,789.7 </small> | <small>2^14.6438562 ≈ 25,600.0 </small> | <small>2^14.666224 ≈ 26,000.0 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | <small>2^10.597453 ≈ 1,549.36 </small> | <small>2^10.6438562 ≈ 1,600.00 </small> | <small>2^10.666224 ≈ 1,625.00 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁸''' | <small>2^6.597453 ≈ 96.8348 </small> | <small>2^6.6438562 ≈ 100.0000 </small> | <small>2^6.666224 ≈ 101.5625 </small> |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off-Nominal Values |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | <small>2^15.597453 ≈ 49,579 </small> | <small>2^15.6438562 ≈ 51,200 </small> | <small>2^15.666224 ≈ 52,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2²⁶''' | <small>2^0.597453 ≈ 1.513043 </small> | <small>2^0.6438562 ≈ 1.562500 </small> | <small>2^0.666224 ≈ 1.586914 </small> |} == The Earth and Moon == The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep-time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics. ==== Earth's sidereal year ==== The duration of Earth's sidereal year is '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. While gravitational perturbations from neighboring planets cause this value to vary by 20 to 25 minutes annually, the averaged century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given this relative stability, using a clean divisor of the sidereal year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system offers significant utility. Specifically, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds, meaning Earth's sidereal year—rounded to the nearest second—equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's tropical year ==== Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of seasons between successive vernal equinoxes, spans '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp shorter than the sidereal year, coming in at '''10,329.6 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's Great Year ==== With Earth's sidereal year (<math>P</math>) spanning 10,330 timestamps and the tropical year (<math>a_{t}</math>) spanning 10,329.6 timestamps, a full precessional cycle requires a number of years, <math>N</math>, where the cumulative annual difference equals exactly one year: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} N &= \frac{1\text{ Bully timestamp}}{P - a_{t}} \\ &= \frac{1}{10,330 - 10,329.6} \\ &= \frac{1}{0.4} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; Expressing this duration in terms of sidereal years yields: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= 25,824 \, P \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; Alternatively, expressing the cycle in terms of tropical years yields: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= 25,825 \, a_{t} \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic|Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] ==== The Metonic cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23, 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp complete approximately three cycles per one Metonic cycle, as illustrated below: <div style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: inherit; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688; border-radius: 4px; line-height: 1.6; margin: 1em 0;"> '''July 23 New Moons:''' * July 23, 1998 — 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 — 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 — 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> * [[Bully Metric Metonic cycle|Learn More About The Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] === The Bully Timestamp Duration === While 3,055 seconds may appear to be an arbitrary choice, the length of a single Bully timestamp is mathematically derived to balance local solar observations with deep-time orbital mechanics. {{Quote box| align = center| width = 100%| title = Bully Timestamp Duration | text = Justification: # The Sun orbits approximately one solar radius per Bully timestamp. # The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year. # The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's Great Year. # The Earth–Moon Metonic cycle is synchronized with hexadecimal multiples of the Bully unit. }} == Anchoring Bully Timestamps == To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''. === The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 6a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]], where the plane intersects the Galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 6a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] ==== Bullies in the Bully System ==== A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in Figure 6a: * '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign. * '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left. * '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left. As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history: {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was “sweetheart”. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, “lover”. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}} Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of "excellent" or "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. {{Quote box| align = center | width = full | title = The "Bully" Name | text = The specific "bullies" in the "Bully" timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}} === A surrogate for the Sun === As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving. The path of the node can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°): <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4c''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 6b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}'''. (Note: Figure 4c assumes an idealized travel distance of exactly 52,000 parsecs (or 2^15.666224) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps, whereas Figure 6b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs (or 2^15.666040) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center;" |+ '''Figure 6b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 3px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled in parsecs |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B32}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5058}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.100 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|820A D4AD 4AD4}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1099.86''}}}} |} {{Quote box| align = center| width = full| title = Bully Timestamp Anchor| text = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 6b).}} ==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ==== In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 6c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days. The Earth's orbital speed varies throughout the year, moving slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Consequently, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season. As shown in Figure 6c, '''winter''' was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. It took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to '''spring''' being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to '''summer'''. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over '''21,000 years'''. [[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 6c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]] Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 6c. The transition from '''spring to summer''' is correlated with a large '''green dot''' and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large '''red dot''' appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from '''summer to autumn''', and a large '''blue dot''', back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from '''winter to spring'''. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,500 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly '''26,000 years''' (1 Great Year ≈ 25,824 sidereal years ≈ 25,825 tropical years). {{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | text = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred near the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. All of the Galactic crossings shown in Figure 6c, at 4495 BCE, 1998 CE, and 8329 CE, are roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE. }} == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 7a''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in Figure 7a, these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|'''Figure 7a''': Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of Figure 7a, follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. Ideally, all of the black lines in Figure 7a could be discontinued and replaced by Bully timestamps going forward. === Why do we need Bully timestamps? === All the timestamps in '''Figure 7b''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ '''Figure 7b''': UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of Figure 7b attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of Figure 7b, breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3,055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950s, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic timekeeping (1958 AD – present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Estimation == [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 8a: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 8a'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 8b'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|'''Figure 8b''': The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in '''Figure 8c''' contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8c''': Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in '''Figure 8d''' (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8d''': Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 8d) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in '''Figure 8e''' is the same as is shown in Figure 8d, but Figure 8e plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8e''': A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in '''Figure 8f''' is similar to the table in Figure 8c, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 8c was for large z values, Figure 8f shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8f''': Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] 0z9cw7rh9el5gl7sdjgcqupb5ak5j0v 2832619 2832618 2026-09-10T17:11:23Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Earth's Great Year */ 2832619 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the Sun's orbit around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp occurs each time the Sun advances by roughly one solar radius along its path through the cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|upright=2.2|center|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] == One Solar Radius == The Sun hurtles around the Milky Way Galaxy at a blistering 0.076% of the speed of light ([https://arxiv.org/abs/1810.09466 229.0 ± 0.2 kilometers per second]). Yet, even at this staggering pace, it takes about five-sixths of an hour for the Sun to traverse a distance equal to its own radius. This highlights the truly colossal size of our star, which boasts a radius of 2.3206 light-seconds (695,700 kilometers). '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. During each '''3,055-second''' period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over '''2.33 light-seconds''', which is slightly more than one solar radius (<math>R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 2.33 \text{ ls} \gtrapprox R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', it is a vast, oblong, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into surrounding space. While somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, the latter is a comparatively thin layer of gas held near the planetary surface, whereas the heliosphere is a plasma constantly blasted into space by the Sun's extreme heat and energy. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is so vast that if it were truly spherical, it would take the Sun roughly 6.344 years to travel a distance equivalent to the heliosphere's diameter. The digit in the '''fifth position''' of a Bully timestamp represents this orbital distance. Figure 2 illustrates the motion of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. Timestamp 8209 ED00 0000 is defined to have occurred at exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16, 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. During each 6.344-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 306 astronomical units, which is slightly more than 65,536 solar radii (<math>16^{4}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 306 \text{ AU} \gtrapprox 16^{4}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === Naked-Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (not to scale) across 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' corresponds to approximately 383,000 B.C., while timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., representing a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a cyan dashed line marking 100 parsecs. The Sun travels a little less than this distance during each 416,000-year interval, which is tracked by the digit in the '''ninth position''' of the Bully timestamp. Because a large percentage of naked-eye stars sit within this 100-parsec radius, the appearance of Earth's night sky changes completely over this timeframe. [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of naked-eye stars binned according to brightness and distance from the Sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the Sun than 100 parsecs, which is the distance the Sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of naked-eye stars are within this 100-parsec travel distance of the Sun.]] During each 415,792-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 97 parsecs, which is slightly more than 4,294,967,296 solar radii (<math>16^{8}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 97 \text{ pc} \gtrapprox 16^{8}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> ==== The Bully Milky Way ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3b''': Division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 3b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid). Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000'''. These represent the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D., respectively, assuming a full orbital path around the Milky Way of roughly 50,000 parsecs. In the lower half of the image, cyan lines further divide a single yellow sector into 16 equal subsectors. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center in Figure 3b, corresponding to the 6 o'clock position, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle of the Sun at Bully timestamp 820A 0000 0000, estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D. The nine cyan grid lines to the right of the red line mark the Sun's polar angle for Bully timestamps 8201 0000 0000 through 8209 0000 0000. Meanwhile, the five cyan grid lines to the left of the red line indicate the polar angle for timestamps 820B 0000 0000 through 820F 0000 0000. <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,t_{\odot} \approx 212.9 \text{ million years} </math> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \sim 50,000 \text{ parsecs} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> == The Galactic Calendar == [[File:Galactic centre orbits.svg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 4a''':Inferred orbits of 6 stars around the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* at the Milky Way's center<ref name="Eisenhauer">{{cite journal|last=Eisenhauer|first=F.|display-authors=et al. |title=SINFONI in the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares in the Central Light-Month|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=July 20, 2005|volume=628|issue=1|pages=246–259|doi=10.1086/430667|bibcode=2005ApJ...628..246E|arxiv=astro-ph/0502129|s2cid=122485461 }}</ref>]] [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, labeled S2 in '''Figure 4a''', completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance from the Sun to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: &hairsp; :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \\ \end{align}</math> &hairsp; If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. ==== Idealized Galactic Weeks ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Weeks_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 4b''': Division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks of solar travel (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 4b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks (yellow grid). Each week represents 1,000 parsecs of solar travel, which in this plot is assumed to be traversed by the Sun in roughly 4.09 million years. Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000''', respectively, indicating the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D. The cyan lines in the lower half of the image further divide one sector into 10 equal subsectors of 100 parsecs each. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 4b, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun had during Bully timestamp 8209 D89D 89D8 (approximately 31,000 B.C.), which is 1,000 parsecs of travel beyond the yellow line representing timestamp 8200 0000 0000. The nine cyan lines to the left of the red line represent the polar angles of the Sun after traveling 1,100 through 1,900 parsecs beyond timestamp 8200 0000 0000. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2⁴¹ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4c''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. It outlines the specific Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved across this idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4c:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. ==== Is the Galactic Calendar Realistic? ==== [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4d:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250-million-year time period.]] The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4d). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4d''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in Figure 4c states that the galactic week beginning on timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark. ==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ==== In Figure 3a and Figure 3b, the Sun is shown to travel less than 50,000 parsecs per galactic year. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar shown in Figure 4b assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per galactic year, introducing a distinct discrepancy in both galactic scale and calculated orbital velocity. Because the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to complex gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is neither perfectly uniform nor entirely predictable. Consequently, the Sun's true orbital velocity remains a subject of ongoing discovery and refinement. The conjectured values used in Figure 3b and Figure 4b should be viewed as '''practical assumptions''' rather than a reflection of a stable, long-term physical reality; the idealized Bully Calendar is a '''conceptual model''' designed to help visualize the immense scale of the galactic orbit. The table in '''Figure 4e''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp up to 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | '''Figure 4e''': Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 100 parsecs per 16⁸ Bully timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps</small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | <small>2^18.597453 ≈ 396,635 </small> | <small>2^18.6438562 ≈ 409,600 </small> | <small>2^18.666224 ≈ 416,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | <small>2^14.597453 ≈ 24,789.7 </small> | <small>2^14.6438562 ≈ 25,600.0 </small> | <small>2^14.666224 ≈ 26,000.0 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | <small>2^10.597453 ≈ 1,549.36 </small> | <small>2^10.6438562 ≈ 1,600.00 </small> | <small>2^10.666224 ≈ 1,625.00 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁸''' | <small>2^6.597453 ≈ 96.8348 </small> | <small>2^6.6438562 ≈ 100.0000 </small> | <small>2^6.666224 ≈ 101.5625 </small> |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off-Nominal Values |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | <small>2^15.597453 ≈ 49,579 </small> | <small>2^15.6438562 ≈ 51,200 </small> | <small>2^15.666224 ≈ 52,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2²⁶''' | <small>2^0.597453 ≈ 1.513043 </small> | <small>2^0.6438562 ≈ 1.562500 </small> | <small>2^0.666224 ≈ 1.586914 </small> |} == The Earth and Moon == The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep-time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics. ==== Earth's sidereal year ==== The duration of Earth's sidereal year is '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. While gravitational perturbations from neighboring planets cause this value to vary by 20 to 25 minutes annually, the averaged century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given this relative stability, using a clean divisor of the sidereal year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system offers significant utility. Specifically, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds, meaning Earth's sidereal year—rounded to the nearest second—equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's tropical year ==== Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of seasons between successive vernal equinoxes, spans '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp shorter than the sidereal year, coming in at '''10,329.6 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's Great Year ==== With Earth's sidereal year (<math>P</math>) spanning 10,330 timestamps and the tropical year (<math>a_{t}</math>) spanning 10,329.6 timestamps, a full precessional cycle requires a number of years ratio, <math>N</math>, where the cumulative annual difference equals exactly one year: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} N &= \frac{1\text{ Bully timestamp}}{P - a_{t}} \\ &= \frac{1}{10,330 - 10,329.6} \\ &= \frac{1}{0.4} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; Expressing this duration in terms of sidereal years yields: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= 25,824 \, P \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; Alternatively, expressing the cycle in terms of tropical years yields: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= 25,825 \, a_{t} \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic|Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] ==== The Metonic cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23, 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp complete approximately three cycles per one Metonic cycle, as illustrated below: <div style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: inherit; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688; border-radius: 4px; line-height: 1.6; margin: 1em 0;"> '''July 23 New Moons:''' * July 23, 1998 — 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 — 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 — 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> * [[Bully Metric Metonic cycle|Learn More About The Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] === The Bully Timestamp Duration === While 3,055 seconds may appear to be an arbitrary choice, the length of a single Bully timestamp is mathematically derived to balance local solar observations with deep-time orbital mechanics. {{Quote box| align = center| width = 100%| title = Bully Timestamp Duration | text = Justification: # The Sun orbits approximately one solar radius per Bully timestamp. # The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year. # The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's Great Year. # The Earth–Moon Metonic cycle is synchronized with hexadecimal multiples of the Bully unit. }} == Anchoring Bully Timestamps == To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''. === The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 6a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]], where the plane intersects the Galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 6a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] ==== Bullies in the Bully System ==== A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in Figure 6a: * '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign. * '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left. * '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left. As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history: {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was “sweetheart”. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, “lover”. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}} Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of "excellent" or "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. {{Quote box| align = center | width = full | title = The "Bully" Name | text = The specific "bullies" in the "Bully" timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}} === A surrogate for the Sun === As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving. The path of the node can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°): <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4c''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 6b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}'''. (Note: Figure 4c assumes an idealized travel distance of exactly 52,000 parsecs (or 2^15.666224) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps, whereas Figure 6b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs (or 2^15.666040) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center;" |+ '''Figure 6b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 3px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled in parsecs |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B32}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5058}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.100 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|820A D4AD 4AD4}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1099.86''}}}} |} {{Quote box| align = center| width = full| title = Bully Timestamp Anchor| text = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 6b).}} ==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ==== In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 6c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days. The Earth's orbital speed varies throughout the year, moving slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Consequently, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season. As shown in Figure 6c, '''winter''' was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. It took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to '''spring''' being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to '''summer'''. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over '''21,000 years'''. [[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 6c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]] Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 6c. The transition from '''spring to summer''' is correlated with a large '''green dot''' and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large '''red dot''' appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from '''summer to autumn''', and a large '''blue dot''', back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from '''winter to spring'''. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,500 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly '''26,000 years''' (1 Great Year ≈ 25,824 sidereal years ≈ 25,825 tropical years). {{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | text = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred near the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. All of the Galactic crossings shown in Figure 6c, at 4495 BCE, 1998 CE, and 8329 CE, are roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE. }} == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 7a''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in Figure 7a, these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|'''Figure 7a''': Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of Figure 7a, follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. Ideally, all of the black lines in Figure 7a could be discontinued and replaced by Bully timestamps going forward. === Why do we need Bully timestamps? === All the timestamps in '''Figure 7b''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ '''Figure 7b''': UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of Figure 7b attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of Figure 7b, breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3,055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950s, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic timekeeping (1958 AD – present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Estimation == [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 8a: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 8a'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 8b'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|'''Figure 8b''': The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in '''Figure 8c''' contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8c''': Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in '''Figure 8d''' (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8d''': Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 8d) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in '''Figure 8e''' is the same as is shown in Figure 8d, but Figure 8e plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8e''': A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in '''Figure 8f''' is similar to the table in Figure 8c, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 8c was for large z values, Figure 8f shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8f''': Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] 9syz0qtck2mxltwwt6278mgwa31qrf1 2832622 2832619 2026-09-10T17:54:22Z Unitfreak 695864 /* The Bully Timestamp Duration */ 2832622 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the Sun's orbit around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp occurs each time the Sun advances by roughly one solar radius along its path through the cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|upright=2.2|center|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] == One Solar Radius == The Sun hurtles around the Milky Way Galaxy at a blistering 0.076% of the speed of light ([https://arxiv.org/abs/1810.09466 229.0 ± 0.2 kilometers per second]). Yet, even at this staggering pace, it takes about five-sixths of an hour for the Sun to traverse a distance equal to its own radius. This highlights the truly colossal size of our star, which boasts a radius of 2.3206 light-seconds (695,700 kilometers). '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. During each '''3,055-second''' period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over '''2.33 light-seconds''', which is slightly more than one solar radius (<math>R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 2.33 \text{ ls} \gtrapprox R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', it is a vast, oblong, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into surrounding space. While somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, the latter is a comparatively thin layer of gas held near the planetary surface, whereas the heliosphere is a plasma constantly blasted into space by the Sun's extreme heat and energy. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is so vast that if it were truly spherical, it would take the Sun roughly 6.344 years to travel a distance equivalent to the heliosphere's diameter. The digit in the '''fifth position''' of a Bully timestamp represents this orbital distance. Figure 2 illustrates the motion of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. Timestamp 8209 ED00 0000 is defined to have occurred at exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16, 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. During each 6.344-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 306 astronomical units, which is slightly more than 65,536 solar radii (<math>16^{4}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 306 \text{ AU} \gtrapprox 16^{4}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === Naked-Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (not to scale) across 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' corresponds to approximately 383,000 B.C., while timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., representing a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a cyan dashed line marking 100 parsecs. The Sun travels a little less than this distance during each 416,000-year interval, which is tracked by the digit in the '''ninth position''' of the Bully timestamp. Because a large percentage of naked-eye stars sit within this 100-parsec radius, the appearance of Earth's night sky changes completely over this timeframe. [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of naked-eye stars binned according to brightness and distance from the Sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the Sun than 100 parsecs, which is the distance the Sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of naked-eye stars are within this 100-parsec travel distance of the Sun.]] During each 415,792-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 97 parsecs, which is slightly more than 4,294,967,296 solar radii (<math>16^{8}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 97 \text{ pc} \gtrapprox 16^{8}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> ==== The Bully Milky Way ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3b''': Division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 3b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid). Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000'''. These represent the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D., respectively, assuming a full orbital path around the Milky Way of roughly 50,000 parsecs. In the lower half of the image, cyan lines further divide a single yellow sector into 16 equal subsectors. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center in Figure 3b, corresponding to the 6 o'clock position, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle of the Sun at Bully timestamp 820A 0000 0000, estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D. The nine cyan grid lines to the right of the red line mark the Sun's polar angle for Bully timestamps 8201 0000 0000 through 8209 0000 0000. Meanwhile, the five cyan grid lines to the left of the red line indicate the polar angle for timestamps 820B 0000 0000 through 820F 0000 0000. <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,t_{\odot} \approx 212.9 \text{ million years} </math> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \sim 50,000 \text{ parsecs} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> == The Galactic Calendar == [[File:Galactic centre orbits.svg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 4a''':Inferred orbits of 6 stars around the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* at the Milky Way's center<ref name="Eisenhauer">{{cite journal|last=Eisenhauer|first=F.|display-authors=et al. |title=SINFONI in the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares in the Central Light-Month|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=July 20, 2005|volume=628|issue=1|pages=246–259|doi=10.1086/430667|bibcode=2005ApJ...628..246E|arxiv=astro-ph/0502129|s2cid=122485461 }}</ref>]] [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, labeled S2 in '''Figure 4a''', completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance from the Sun to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: &hairsp; :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \\ \end{align}</math> &hairsp; If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. ==== Idealized Galactic Weeks ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Weeks_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 4b''': Division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks of solar travel (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 4b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks (yellow grid). Each week represents 1,000 parsecs of solar travel, which in this plot is assumed to be traversed by the Sun in roughly 4.09 million years. Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000''', respectively, indicating the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D. The cyan lines in the lower half of the image further divide one sector into 10 equal subsectors of 100 parsecs each. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 4b, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun had during Bully timestamp 8209 D89D 89D8 (approximately 31,000 B.C.), which is 1,000 parsecs of travel beyond the yellow line representing timestamp 8200 0000 0000. The nine cyan lines to the left of the red line represent the polar angles of the Sun after traveling 1,100 through 1,900 parsecs beyond timestamp 8200 0000 0000. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2⁴¹ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4c''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. It outlines the specific Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved across this idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4c:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. ==== Is the Galactic Calendar Realistic? ==== [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4d:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250-million-year time period.]] The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4d). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4d''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in Figure 4c states that the galactic week beginning on timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark. ==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ==== In Figure 3a and Figure 3b, the Sun is shown to travel less than 50,000 parsecs per galactic year. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar shown in Figure 4b assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per galactic year, introducing a distinct discrepancy in both galactic scale and calculated orbital velocity. Because the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to complex gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is neither perfectly uniform nor entirely predictable. Consequently, the Sun's true orbital velocity remains a subject of ongoing discovery and refinement. The conjectured values used in Figure 3b and Figure 4b should be viewed as '''practical assumptions''' rather than a reflection of a stable, long-term physical reality; the idealized Bully Calendar is a '''conceptual model''' designed to help visualize the immense scale of the galactic orbit. The table in '''Figure 4e''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp up to 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | '''Figure 4e''': Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 100 parsecs per 16⁸ Bully timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps</small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | <small>2^18.597453 ≈ 396,635 </small> | <small>2^18.6438562 ≈ 409,600 </small> | <small>2^18.666224 ≈ 416,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | <small>2^14.597453 ≈ 24,789.7 </small> | <small>2^14.6438562 ≈ 25,600.0 </small> | <small>2^14.666224 ≈ 26,000.0 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | <small>2^10.597453 ≈ 1,549.36 </small> | <small>2^10.6438562 ≈ 1,600.00 </small> | <small>2^10.666224 ≈ 1,625.00 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁸''' | <small>2^6.597453 ≈ 96.8348 </small> | <small>2^6.6438562 ≈ 100.0000 </small> | <small>2^6.666224 ≈ 101.5625 </small> |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off-Nominal Values |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | <small>2^15.597453 ≈ 49,579 </small> | <small>2^15.6438562 ≈ 51,200 </small> | <small>2^15.666224 ≈ 52,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2²⁶''' | <small>2^0.597453 ≈ 1.513043 </small> | <small>2^0.6438562 ≈ 1.562500 </small> | <small>2^0.666224 ≈ 1.586914 </small> |} == The Earth and Moon == The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep-time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics. ==== Earth's sidereal year ==== The duration of Earth's sidereal year is '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. While gravitational perturbations from neighboring planets cause this value to vary by 20 to 25 minutes annually, the averaged century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given this relative stability, using a clean divisor of the sidereal year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system offers significant utility. Specifically, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds, meaning Earth's sidereal year—rounded to the nearest second—equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's tropical year ==== Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of seasons between successive vernal equinoxes, spans '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp shorter than the sidereal year, coming in at '''10,329.6 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's Great Year ==== With Earth's sidereal year (<math>P</math>) spanning 10,330 timestamps and the tropical year (<math>a_{t}</math>) spanning 10,329.6 timestamps, a full precessional cycle requires a number of years ratio, <math>N</math>, where the cumulative annual difference equals exactly one year: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} N &= \frac{1\text{ Bully timestamp}}{P - a_{t}} \\ &= \frac{1}{10,330 - 10,329.6} \\ &= \frac{1}{0.4} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; Expressing this duration in terms of sidereal years yields: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= 25,824 \, P \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; Alternatively, expressing the cycle in terms of tropical years yields: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= 25,825 \, a_{t} \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic|Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] ==== The Metonic cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23, 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp complete approximately three cycles per one Metonic cycle, as illustrated below: <div style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: inherit; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688; border-radius: 4px; line-height: 1.6; margin: 1em 0;"> '''July 23 New Moons:''' * July 23, 1998 — 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 — 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 — 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> * [[Bully Metric Metonic cycle|Learn More About The Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] ==== The Bully Timestamp Duration ==== While 3,055 seconds may appear to be an arbitrary choice, the length of a single Bully timestamp is mathematically derived from solar, lunar, and deep-time orbital mechanics. {{Quote box| align = center| width = 100%| title = Bully Timestamp Duration | text = Justification: # The Sun orbits approximately one solar radius per Bully timestamp [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|<math> t_{\odot} \equiv 3,055 \text{ seconds} </math>]] # The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year. # The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's Great Year. # The Earth–Moon Metonic cycle is synchronized with hexadecimal multiples of the Bully unit. }} == Anchoring Bully Timestamps == To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''. === The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 6a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]], where the plane intersects the Galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 6a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] ==== Bullies in the Bully System ==== A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in Figure 6a: * '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign. * '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left. * '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left. As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history: {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was “sweetheart”. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, “lover”. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}} Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of "excellent" or "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. {{Quote box| align = center | width = full | title = The "Bully" Name | text = The specific "bullies" in the "Bully" timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}} === A surrogate for the Sun === As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving. The path of the node can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°): <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4c''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 6b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}'''. (Note: Figure 4c assumes an idealized travel distance of exactly 52,000 parsecs (or 2^15.666224) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps, whereas Figure 6b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs (or 2^15.666040) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center;" |+ '''Figure 6b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 3px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled in parsecs |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B32}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5058}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.100 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|820A D4AD 4AD4}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1099.86''}}}} |} {{Quote box| align = center| width = full| title = Bully Timestamp Anchor| text = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 6b).}} ==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ==== In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 6c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days. The Earth's orbital speed varies throughout the year, moving slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Consequently, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season. As shown in Figure 6c, '''winter''' was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. It took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to '''spring''' being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to '''summer'''. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over '''21,000 years'''. [[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 6c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]] Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 6c. The transition from '''spring to summer''' is correlated with a large '''green dot''' and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large '''red dot''' appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from '''summer to autumn''', and a large '''blue dot''', back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from '''winter to spring'''. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,500 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly '''26,000 years''' (1 Great Year ≈ 25,824 sidereal years ≈ 25,825 tropical years). {{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | text = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred near the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. All of the Galactic crossings shown in Figure 6c, at 4495 BCE, 1998 CE, and 8329 CE, are roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE. }} == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 7a''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in Figure 7a, these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|'''Figure 7a''': Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of Figure 7a, follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. Ideally, all of the black lines in Figure 7a could be discontinued and replaced by Bully timestamps going forward. === Why do we need Bully timestamps? === All the timestamps in '''Figure 7b''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ '''Figure 7b''': UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of Figure 7b attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of Figure 7b, breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3,055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950s, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic timekeeping (1958 AD – present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Estimation == [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 8a: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 8a'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 8b'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|'''Figure 8b''': The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in '''Figure 8c''' contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8c''': Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in '''Figure 8d''' (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8d''': Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 8d) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in '''Figure 8e''' is the same as is shown in Figure 8d, but Figure 8e plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8e''': A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in '''Figure 8f''' is similar to the table in Figure 8c, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 8c was for large z values, Figure 8f shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8f''': Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] inr6ycttmxrz6026o4orrembtfgc3zy 2832623 2832622 2026-09-10T17:57:33Z Unitfreak 695864 /* The Bully Timestamp Duration */ 2832623 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the Sun's orbit around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp occurs each time the Sun advances by roughly one solar radius along its path through the cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|upright=2.2|center|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] == One Solar Radius == The Sun hurtles around the Milky Way Galaxy at a blistering 0.076% of the speed of light ([https://arxiv.org/abs/1810.09466 229.0 ± 0.2 kilometers per second]). Yet, even at this staggering pace, it takes about five-sixths of an hour for the Sun to traverse a distance equal to its own radius. This highlights the truly colossal size of our star, which boasts a radius of 2.3206 light-seconds (695,700 kilometers). '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. During each '''3,055-second''' period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over '''2.33 light-seconds''', which is slightly more than one solar radius (<math>R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 2.33 \text{ ls} \gtrapprox R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', it is a vast, oblong, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into surrounding space. While somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, the latter is a comparatively thin layer of gas held near the planetary surface, whereas the heliosphere is a plasma constantly blasted into space by the Sun's extreme heat and energy. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is so vast that if it were truly spherical, it would take the Sun roughly 6.344 years to travel a distance equivalent to the heliosphere's diameter. The digit in the '''fifth position''' of a Bully timestamp represents this orbital distance. Figure 2 illustrates the motion of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. Timestamp 8209 ED00 0000 is defined to have occurred at exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16, 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. During each 6.344-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 306 astronomical units, which is slightly more than 65,536 solar radii (<math>16^{4}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 306 \text{ AU} \gtrapprox 16^{4}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === Naked-Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (not to scale) across 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' corresponds to approximately 383,000 B.C., while timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., representing a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a cyan dashed line marking 100 parsecs. The Sun travels a little less than this distance during each 416,000-year interval, which is tracked by the digit in the '''ninth position''' of the Bully timestamp. Because a large percentage of naked-eye stars sit within this 100-parsec radius, the appearance of Earth's night sky changes completely over this timeframe. [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of naked-eye stars binned according to brightness and distance from the Sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the Sun than 100 parsecs, which is the distance the Sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of naked-eye stars are within this 100-parsec travel distance of the Sun.]] During each 415,792-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 97 parsecs, which is slightly more than 4,294,967,296 solar radii (<math>16^{8}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 97 \text{ pc} \gtrapprox 16^{8}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> ==== The Bully Milky Way ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3b''': Division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 3b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid). Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000'''. These represent the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D., respectively, assuming a full orbital path around the Milky Way of roughly 50,000 parsecs. In the lower half of the image, cyan lines further divide a single yellow sector into 16 equal subsectors. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center in Figure 3b, corresponding to the 6 o'clock position, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle of the Sun at Bully timestamp 820A 0000 0000, estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D. The nine cyan grid lines to the right of the red line mark the Sun's polar angle for Bully timestamps 8201 0000 0000 through 8209 0000 0000. Meanwhile, the five cyan grid lines to the left of the red line indicate the polar angle for timestamps 820B 0000 0000 through 820F 0000 0000. <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,t_{\odot} \approx 212.9 \text{ million years} </math> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \sim 50,000 \text{ parsecs} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> == The Galactic Calendar == [[File:Galactic centre orbits.svg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 4a''':Inferred orbits of 6 stars around the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* at the Milky Way's center<ref name="Eisenhauer">{{cite journal|last=Eisenhauer|first=F.|display-authors=et al. |title=SINFONI in the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares in the Central Light-Month|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=July 20, 2005|volume=628|issue=1|pages=246–259|doi=10.1086/430667|bibcode=2005ApJ...628..246E|arxiv=astro-ph/0502129|s2cid=122485461 }}</ref>]] [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, labeled S2 in '''Figure 4a''', completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance from the Sun to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: &hairsp; :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \\ \end{align}</math> &hairsp; If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. ==== Idealized Galactic Weeks ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Weeks_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 4b''': Division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks of solar travel (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 4b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks (yellow grid). Each week represents 1,000 parsecs of solar travel, which in this plot is assumed to be traversed by the Sun in roughly 4.09 million years. Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000''', respectively, indicating the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D. The cyan lines in the lower half of the image further divide one sector into 10 equal subsectors of 100 parsecs each. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 4b, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun had during Bully timestamp 8209 D89D 89D8 (approximately 31,000 B.C.), which is 1,000 parsecs of travel beyond the yellow line representing timestamp 8200 0000 0000. The nine cyan lines to the left of the red line represent the polar angles of the Sun after traveling 1,100 through 1,900 parsecs beyond timestamp 8200 0000 0000. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2⁴¹ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4c''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. It outlines the specific Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved across this idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4c:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. ==== Is the Galactic Calendar Realistic? ==== [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4d:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250-million-year time period.]] The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4d). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4d''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in Figure 4c states that the galactic week beginning on timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark. ==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ==== In Figure 3a and Figure 3b, the Sun is shown to travel less than 50,000 parsecs per galactic year. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar shown in Figure 4b assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per galactic year, introducing a distinct discrepancy in both galactic scale and calculated orbital velocity. Because the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to complex gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is neither perfectly uniform nor entirely predictable. Consequently, the Sun's true orbital velocity remains a subject of ongoing discovery and refinement. The conjectured values used in Figure 3b and Figure 4b should be viewed as '''practical assumptions''' rather than a reflection of a stable, long-term physical reality; the idealized Bully Calendar is a '''conceptual model''' designed to help visualize the immense scale of the galactic orbit. The table in '''Figure 4e''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp up to 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | '''Figure 4e''': Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 100 parsecs per 16⁸ Bully timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps</small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | <small>2^18.597453 ≈ 396,635 </small> | <small>2^18.6438562 ≈ 409,600 </small> | <small>2^18.666224 ≈ 416,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | <small>2^14.597453 ≈ 24,789.7 </small> | <small>2^14.6438562 ≈ 25,600.0 </small> | <small>2^14.666224 ≈ 26,000.0 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | <small>2^10.597453 ≈ 1,549.36 </small> | <small>2^10.6438562 ≈ 1,600.00 </small> | <small>2^10.666224 ≈ 1,625.00 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁸''' | <small>2^6.597453 ≈ 96.8348 </small> | <small>2^6.6438562 ≈ 100.0000 </small> | <small>2^6.666224 ≈ 101.5625 </small> |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off-Nominal Values |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | <small>2^15.597453 ≈ 49,579 </small> | <small>2^15.6438562 ≈ 51,200 </small> | <small>2^15.666224 ≈ 52,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2²⁶''' | <small>2^0.597453 ≈ 1.513043 </small> | <small>2^0.6438562 ≈ 1.562500 </small> | <small>2^0.666224 ≈ 1.586914 </small> |} == The Earth and Moon == The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep-time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics. ==== Earth's sidereal year ==== The duration of Earth's sidereal year is '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. While gravitational perturbations from neighboring planets cause this value to vary by 20 to 25 minutes annually, the averaged century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given this relative stability, using a clean divisor of the sidereal year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system offers significant utility. Specifically, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds, meaning Earth's sidereal year—rounded to the nearest second—equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's tropical year ==== Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of seasons between successive vernal equinoxes, spans '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp shorter than the sidereal year, coming in at '''10,329.6 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's Great Year ==== With Earth's sidereal year (<math>P</math>) spanning 10,330 timestamps and the tropical year (<math>a_{t}</math>) spanning 10,329.6 timestamps, a full precessional cycle requires a number of years ratio, <math>N</math>, where the cumulative annual difference equals exactly one year: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} N &= \frac{1\text{ Bully timestamp}}{P - a_{t}} \\ &= \frac{1}{10,330 - 10,329.6} \\ &= \frac{1}{0.4} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; Expressing this duration in terms of sidereal years yields: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= 25,824 \, P \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; Alternatively, expressing the cycle in terms of tropical years yields: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= 25,825 \, a_{t} \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic|Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] ==== The Metonic cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23, 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp complete approximately three cycles per one Metonic cycle, as illustrated below: <div style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: inherit; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688; border-radius: 4px; line-height: 1.6; margin: 1em 0;"> '''July 23 New Moons:''' * July 23, 1998 — 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 — 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 — 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> * [[Bully Metric Metonic cycle|Learn More About The Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] ==== The Bully Timestamp Duration ==== While 3,055 seconds may appear to be an arbitrary choice, the length of a single Bully timestamp is mathematically derived from solar, lunar, and deep-time orbital mechanics. {{Quote box| align = center| width = 100%| title = Bully Timestamp Duration | text = Justification: # The Sun orbits approximately one solar radius per Bully timestamp [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics#Solar_Radius_Mnemonics|<math> t_{\odot} \equiv 3,055 \text{ seconds} </math>]] # The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year. # The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's Great Year. # The Earth–Moon Metonic cycle is synchronized with hexadecimal multiples of the Bully unit. }} == Anchoring Bully Timestamps == To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''. === The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 6a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]], where the plane intersects the Galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 6a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] ==== Bullies in the Bully System ==== A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in Figure 6a: * '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign. * '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left. * '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left. As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history: {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was “sweetheart”. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, “lover”. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}} Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of "excellent" or "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. {{Quote box| align = center | width = full | title = The "Bully" Name | text = The specific "bullies" in the "Bully" timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}} === A surrogate for the Sun === As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving. The path of the node can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°): <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4c''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 6b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}'''. (Note: Figure 4c assumes an idealized travel distance of exactly 52,000 parsecs (or 2^15.666224) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps, whereas Figure 6b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs (or 2^15.666040) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center;" |+ '''Figure 6b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 3px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled in parsecs |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B32}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5058}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.100 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|820A D4AD 4AD4}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1099.86''}}}} |} {{Quote box| align = center| width = full| title = Bully Timestamp Anchor| text = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 6b).}} ==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ==== In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 6c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days. The Earth's orbital speed varies throughout the year, moving slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Consequently, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season. As shown in Figure 6c, '''winter''' was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. It took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to '''spring''' being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to '''summer'''. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over '''21,000 years'''. [[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 6c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]] Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 6c. The transition from '''spring to summer''' is correlated with a large '''green dot''' and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large '''red dot''' appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from '''summer to autumn''', and a large '''blue dot''', back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from '''winter to spring'''. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,500 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly '''26,000 years''' (1 Great Year ≈ 25,824 sidereal years ≈ 25,825 tropical years). {{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | text = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred near the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. All of the Galactic crossings shown in Figure 6c, at 4495 BCE, 1998 CE, and 8329 CE, are roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE. }} == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 7a''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in Figure 7a, these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|'''Figure 7a''': Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of Figure 7a, follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. Ideally, all of the black lines in Figure 7a could be discontinued and replaced by Bully timestamps going forward. === Why do we need Bully timestamps? === All the timestamps in '''Figure 7b''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ '''Figure 7b''': UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of Figure 7b attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of Figure 7b, breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3,055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950s, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic timekeeping (1958 AD – present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Estimation == [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 8a: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 8a'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 8b'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|'''Figure 8b''': The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in '''Figure 8c''' contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8c''': Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in '''Figure 8d''' (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8d''': Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 8d) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in '''Figure 8e''' is the same as is shown in Figure 8d, but Figure 8e plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8e''': A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in '''Figure 8f''' is similar to the table in Figure 8c, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 8c was for large z values, Figure 8f shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8f''': Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] 9fc1gks1iyre122bxzmieup895yeix9 2832624 2832623 2026-09-10T17:59:24Z Unitfreak 695864 /* The Bully Timestamp Duration */ 2832624 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the Sun's orbit around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp occurs each time the Sun advances by roughly one solar radius along its path through the cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|upright=2.2|center|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] == One Solar Radius == The Sun hurtles around the Milky Way Galaxy at a blistering 0.076% of the speed of light ([https://arxiv.org/abs/1810.09466 229.0 ± 0.2 kilometers per second]). Yet, even at this staggering pace, it takes about five-sixths of an hour for the Sun to traverse a distance equal to its own radius. This highlights the truly colossal size of our star, which boasts a radius of 2.3206 light-seconds (695,700 kilometers). '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. During each '''3,055-second''' period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over '''2.33 light-seconds''', which is slightly more than one solar radius (<math>R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 2.33 \text{ ls} \gtrapprox R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', it is a vast, oblong, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into surrounding space. While somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, the latter is a comparatively thin layer of gas held near the planetary surface, whereas the heliosphere is a plasma constantly blasted into space by the Sun's extreme heat and energy. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is so vast that if it were truly spherical, it would take the Sun roughly 6.344 years to travel a distance equivalent to the heliosphere's diameter. The digit in the '''fifth position''' of a Bully timestamp represents this orbital distance. Figure 2 illustrates the motion of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. Timestamp 8209 ED00 0000 is defined to have occurred at exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16, 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. During each 6.344-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 306 astronomical units, which is slightly more than 65,536 solar radii (<math>16^{4}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 306 \text{ AU} \gtrapprox 16^{4}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === Naked-Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (not to scale) across 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' corresponds to approximately 383,000 B.C., while timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., representing a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a cyan dashed line marking 100 parsecs. The Sun travels a little less than this distance during each 416,000-year interval, which is tracked by the digit in the '''ninth position''' of the Bully timestamp. Because a large percentage of naked-eye stars sit within this 100-parsec radius, the appearance of Earth's night sky changes completely over this timeframe. [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of naked-eye stars binned according to brightness and distance from the Sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the Sun than 100 parsecs, which is the distance the Sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of naked-eye stars are within this 100-parsec travel distance of the Sun.]] During each 415,792-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 97 parsecs, which is slightly more than 4,294,967,296 solar radii (<math>16^{8}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 97 \text{ pc} \gtrapprox 16^{8}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> ==== The Bully Milky Way ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3b''': Division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 3b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid). Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000'''. These represent the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D., respectively, assuming a full orbital path around the Milky Way of roughly 50,000 parsecs. In the lower half of the image, cyan lines further divide a single yellow sector into 16 equal subsectors. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center in Figure 3b, corresponding to the 6 o'clock position, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle of the Sun at Bully timestamp 820A 0000 0000, estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D. The nine cyan grid lines to the right of the red line mark the Sun's polar angle for Bully timestamps 8201 0000 0000 through 8209 0000 0000. Meanwhile, the five cyan grid lines to the left of the red line indicate the polar angle for timestamps 820B 0000 0000 through 820F 0000 0000. <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,t_{\odot} \approx 212.9 \text{ million years} </math> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \sim 50,000 \text{ parsecs} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> == The Galactic Calendar == [[File:Galactic centre orbits.svg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 4a''':Inferred orbits of 6 stars around the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* at the Milky Way's center<ref name="Eisenhauer">{{cite journal|last=Eisenhauer|first=F.|display-authors=et al. |title=SINFONI in the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares in the Central Light-Month|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=July 20, 2005|volume=628|issue=1|pages=246–259|doi=10.1086/430667|bibcode=2005ApJ...628..246E|arxiv=astro-ph/0502129|s2cid=122485461 }}</ref>]] [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, labeled S2 in '''Figure 4a''', completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance from the Sun to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: &hairsp; :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \\ \end{align}</math> &hairsp; If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. ==== Idealized Galactic Weeks ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Weeks_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 4b''': Division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks of solar travel (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 4b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks (yellow grid). Each week represents 1,000 parsecs of solar travel, which in this plot is assumed to be traversed by the Sun in roughly 4.09 million years. Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000''', respectively, indicating the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D. The cyan lines in the lower half of the image further divide one sector into 10 equal subsectors of 100 parsecs each. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 4b, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun had during Bully timestamp 8209 D89D 89D8 (approximately 31,000 B.C.), which is 1,000 parsecs of travel beyond the yellow line representing timestamp 8200 0000 0000. The nine cyan lines to the left of the red line represent the polar angles of the Sun after traveling 1,100 through 1,900 parsecs beyond timestamp 8200 0000 0000. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2⁴¹ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4c''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. It outlines the specific Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved across this idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4c:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. ==== Is the Galactic Calendar Realistic? ==== [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4d:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250-million-year time period.]] The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4d). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4d''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in Figure 4c states that the galactic week beginning on timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark. ==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ==== In Figure 3a and Figure 3b, the Sun is shown to travel less than 50,000 parsecs per galactic year. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar shown in Figure 4b assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per galactic year, introducing a distinct discrepancy in both galactic scale and calculated orbital velocity. Because the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to complex gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is neither perfectly uniform nor entirely predictable. Consequently, the Sun's true orbital velocity remains a subject of ongoing discovery and refinement. The conjectured values used in Figure 3b and Figure 4b should be viewed as '''practical assumptions''' rather than a reflection of a stable, long-term physical reality; the idealized Bully Calendar is a '''conceptual model''' designed to help visualize the immense scale of the galactic orbit. The table in '''Figure 4e''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp up to 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | '''Figure 4e''': Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 100 parsecs per 16⁸ Bully timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps</small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | <small>2^18.597453 ≈ 396,635 </small> | <small>2^18.6438562 ≈ 409,600 </small> | <small>2^18.666224 ≈ 416,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | <small>2^14.597453 ≈ 24,789.7 </small> | <small>2^14.6438562 ≈ 25,600.0 </small> | <small>2^14.666224 ≈ 26,000.0 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | <small>2^10.597453 ≈ 1,549.36 </small> | <small>2^10.6438562 ≈ 1,600.00 </small> | <small>2^10.666224 ≈ 1,625.00 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁸''' | <small>2^6.597453 ≈ 96.8348 </small> | <small>2^6.6438562 ≈ 100.0000 </small> | <small>2^6.666224 ≈ 101.5625 </small> |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off-Nominal Values |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | <small>2^15.597453 ≈ 49,579 </small> | <small>2^15.6438562 ≈ 51,200 </small> | <small>2^15.666224 ≈ 52,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2²⁶''' | <small>2^0.597453 ≈ 1.513043 </small> | <small>2^0.6438562 ≈ 1.562500 </small> | <small>2^0.666224 ≈ 1.586914 </small> |} == The Earth and Moon == The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep-time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics. ==== Earth's sidereal year ==== The duration of Earth's sidereal year is '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. While gravitational perturbations from neighboring planets cause this value to vary by 20 to 25 minutes annually, the averaged century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given this relative stability, using a clean divisor of the sidereal year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system offers significant utility. Specifically, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds, meaning Earth's sidereal year—rounded to the nearest second—equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's tropical year ==== Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of seasons between successive vernal equinoxes, spans '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp shorter than the sidereal year, coming in at '''10,329.6 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's Great Year ==== With Earth's sidereal year (<math>P</math>) spanning 10,330 timestamps and the tropical year (<math>a_{t}</math>) spanning 10,329.6 timestamps, a full precessional cycle requires a number of years ratio, <math>N</math>, where the cumulative annual difference equals exactly one year: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} N &= \frac{1\text{ Bully timestamp}}{P - a_{t}} \\ &= \frac{1}{10,330 - 10,329.6} \\ &= \frac{1}{0.4} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; Expressing this duration in terms of sidereal years yields: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= 25,824 \, P \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; Alternatively, expressing the cycle in terms of tropical years yields: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= 25,825 \, a_{t} \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic|Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] ==== The Metonic cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23, 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp complete approximately three cycles per one Metonic cycle, as illustrated below: <div style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: inherit; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688; border-radius: 4px; line-height: 1.6; margin: 1em 0;"> '''July 23 New Moons:''' * July 23, 1998 — 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 — 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 — 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> * [[Bully Metric Metonic cycle|Learn More About The Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] ==== The Bully Timestamp Duration ==== While 3,055 seconds may appear to be an arbitrary choice, the length of a single Bully timestamp is mathematically derived from solar, lunar, and deep-time orbital mechanics. {{Quote box| align = center| width = 100%| title = Bully Timestamp Duration | text = Justification: # The Sun orbits approximately one solar radius per Bully timestamp: [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics#Solar_Radius_Mnemonics|<math> t_{\odot} \equiv 3,055 \text{ seconds} </math>]] # The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year: [[Bully Mnemonic |31558150 s = 10330 × 3055 s]]. # The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's Great Year. # The Earth–Moon Metonic cycle is synchronized with hexadecimal multiples of the Bully unit. }} == Anchoring Bully Timestamps == To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''. === The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 6a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]], where the plane intersects the Galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 6a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] ==== Bullies in the Bully System ==== A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in Figure 6a: * '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign. * '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left. * '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left. As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history: {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was “sweetheart”. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, “lover”. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}} Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of "excellent" or "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. {{Quote box| align = center | width = full | title = The "Bully" Name | text = The specific "bullies" in the "Bully" timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}} === A surrogate for the Sun === As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving. The path of the node can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°): <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4c''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 6b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}'''. (Note: Figure 4c assumes an idealized travel distance of exactly 52,000 parsecs (or 2^15.666224) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps, whereas Figure 6b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs (or 2^15.666040) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center;" |+ '''Figure 6b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 3px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled in parsecs |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B32}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5058}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.100 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|820A D4AD 4AD4}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1099.86''}}}} |} {{Quote box| align = center| width = full| title = Bully Timestamp Anchor| text = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 6b).}} ==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ==== In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 6c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days. The Earth's orbital speed varies throughout the year, moving slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Consequently, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season. As shown in Figure 6c, '''winter''' was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. It took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to '''spring''' being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to '''summer'''. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over '''21,000 years'''. [[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 6c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]] Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 6c. The transition from '''spring to summer''' is correlated with a large '''green dot''' and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large '''red dot''' appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from '''summer to autumn''', and a large '''blue dot''', back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from '''winter to spring'''. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,500 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly '''26,000 years''' (1 Great Year ≈ 25,824 sidereal years ≈ 25,825 tropical years). {{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | text = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred near the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. All of the Galactic crossings shown in Figure 6c, at 4495 BCE, 1998 CE, and 8329 CE, are roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE. }} == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 7a''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in Figure 7a, these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|'''Figure 7a''': Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of Figure 7a, follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. Ideally, all of the black lines in Figure 7a could be discontinued and replaced by Bully timestamps going forward. === Why do we need Bully timestamps? === All the timestamps in '''Figure 7b''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ '''Figure 7b''': UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of Figure 7b attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of Figure 7b, breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3,055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950s, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic timekeeping (1958 AD – present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Estimation == [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 8a: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 8a'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 8b'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|'''Figure 8b''': The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in '''Figure 8c''' contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8c''': Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in '''Figure 8d''' (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8d''': Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 8d) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in '''Figure 8e''' is the same as is shown in Figure 8d, but Figure 8e plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8e''': A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in '''Figure 8f''' is similar to the table in Figure 8c, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 8c was for large z values, Figure 8f shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8f''': Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] s6dezg5wdz624ubeixga1mi81d99990 2832625 2832624 2026-09-10T18:02:56Z Unitfreak 695864 /* The Bully Timestamp Duration */ 2832625 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the Sun's orbit around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp occurs each time the Sun advances by roughly one solar radius along its path through the cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|upright=2.2|center|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] == One Solar Radius == The Sun hurtles around the Milky Way Galaxy at a blistering 0.076% of the speed of light ([https://arxiv.org/abs/1810.09466 229.0 ± 0.2 kilometers per second]). Yet, even at this staggering pace, it takes about five-sixths of an hour for the Sun to traverse a distance equal to its own radius. This highlights the truly colossal size of our star, which boasts a radius of 2.3206 light-seconds (695,700 kilometers). '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. During each '''3,055-second''' period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over '''2.33 light-seconds''', which is slightly more than one solar radius (<math>R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 2.33 \text{ ls} \gtrapprox R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', it is a vast, oblong, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into surrounding space. While somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, the latter is a comparatively thin layer of gas held near the planetary surface, whereas the heliosphere is a plasma constantly blasted into space by the Sun's extreme heat and energy. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is so vast that if it were truly spherical, it would take the Sun roughly 6.344 years to travel a distance equivalent to the heliosphere's diameter. The digit in the '''fifth position''' of a Bully timestamp represents this orbital distance. Figure 2 illustrates the motion of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. Timestamp 8209 ED00 0000 is defined to have occurred at exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16, 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. During each 6.344-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 306 astronomical units, which is slightly more than 65,536 solar radii (<math>16^{4}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 306 \text{ AU} \gtrapprox 16^{4}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === Naked-Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (not to scale) across 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' corresponds to approximately 383,000 B.C., while timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., representing a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a cyan dashed line marking 100 parsecs. The Sun travels a little less than this distance during each 416,000-year interval, which is tracked by the digit in the '''ninth position''' of the Bully timestamp. Because a large percentage of naked-eye stars sit within this 100-parsec radius, the appearance of Earth's night sky changes completely over this timeframe. [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of naked-eye stars binned according to brightness and distance from the Sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the Sun than 100 parsecs, which is the distance the Sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of naked-eye stars are within this 100-parsec travel distance of the Sun.]] During each 415,792-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 97 parsecs, which is slightly more than 4,294,967,296 solar radii (<math>16^{8}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 97 \text{ pc} \gtrapprox 16^{8}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> ==== The Bully Milky Way ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3b''': Division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 3b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid). Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000'''. These represent the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D., respectively, assuming a full orbital path around the Milky Way of roughly 50,000 parsecs. In the lower half of the image, cyan lines further divide a single yellow sector into 16 equal subsectors. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center in Figure 3b, corresponding to the 6 o'clock position, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle of the Sun at Bully timestamp 820A 0000 0000, estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D. The nine cyan grid lines to the right of the red line mark the Sun's polar angle for Bully timestamps 8201 0000 0000 through 8209 0000 0000. Meanwhile, the five cyan grid lines to the left of the red line indicate the polar angle for timestamps 820B 0000 0000 through 820F 0000 0000. <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,t_{\odot} \approx 212.9 \text{ million years} </math> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \sim 50,000 \text{ parsecs} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> == The Galactic Calendar == [[File:Galactic centre orbits.svg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 4a''':Inferred orbits of 6 stars around the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* at the Milky Way's center<ref name="Eisenhauer">{{cite journal|last=Eisenhauer|first=F.|display-authors=et al. |title=SINFONI in the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares in the Central Light-Month|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=July 20, 2005|volume=628|issue=1|pages=246–259|doi=10.1086/430667|bibcode=2005ApJ...628..246E|arxiv=astro-ph/0502129|s2cid=122485461 }}</ref>]] [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, labeled S2 in '''Figure 4a''', completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance from the Sun to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: &hairsp; :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \\ \end{align}</math> &hairsp; If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. ==== Idealized Galactic Weeks ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Weeks_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 4b''': Division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks of solar travel (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 4b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks (yellow grid). Each week represents 1,000 parsecs of solar travel, which in this plot is assumed to be traversed by the Sun in roughly 4.09 million years. Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000''', respectively, indicating the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D. The cyan lines in the lower half of the image further divide one sector into 10 equal subsectors of 100 parsecs each. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 4b, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun had during Bully timestamp 8209 D89D 89D8 (approximately 31,000 B.C.), which is 1,000 parsecs of travel beyond the yellow line representing timestamp 8200 0000 0000. The nine cyan lines to the left of the red line represent the polar angles of the Sun after traveling 1,100 through 1,900 parsecs beyond timestamp 8200 0000 0000. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2⁴¹ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4c''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. It outlines the specific Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved across this idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4c:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. ==== Is the Galactic Calendar Realistic? ==== [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4d:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250-million-year time period.]] The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4d). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4d''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in Figure 4c states that the galactic week beginning on timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark. ==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ==== In Figure 3a and Figure 3b, the Sun is shown to travel less than 50,000 parsecs per galactic year. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar shown in Figure 4b assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per galactic year, introducing a distinct discrepancy in both galactic scale and calculated orbital velocity. Because the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to complex gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is neither perfectly uniform nor entirely predictable. Consequently, the Sun's true orbital velocity remains a subject of ongoing discovery and refinement. The conjectured values used in Figure 3b and Figure 4b should be viewed as '''practical assumptions''' rather than a reflection of a stable, long-term physical reality; the idealized Bully Calendar is a '''conceptual model''' designed to help visualize the immense scale of the galactic orbit. The table in '''Figure 4e''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp up to 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | '''Figure 4e''': Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 100 parsecs per 16⁸ Bully timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps</small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | <small>2^18.597453 ≈ 396,635 </small> | <small>2^18.6438562 ≈ 409,600 </small> | <small>2^18.666224 ≈ 416,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | <small>2^14.597453 ≈ 24,789.7 </small> | <small>2^14.6438562 ≈ 25,600.0 </small> | <small>2^14.666224 ≈ 26,000.0 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | <small>2^10.597453 ≈ 1,549.36 </small> | <small>2^10.6438562 ≈ 1,600.00 </small> | <small>2^10.666224 ≈ 1,625.00 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁸''' | <small>2^6.597453 ≈ 96.8348 </small> | <small>2^6.6438562 ≈ 100.0000 </small> | <small>2^6.666224 ≈ 101.5625 </small> |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off-Nominal Values |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | <small>2^15.597453 ≈ 49,579 </small> | <small>2^15.6438562 ≈ 51,200 </small> | <small>2^15.666224 ≈ 52,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2²⁶''' | <small>2^0.597453 ≈ 1.513043 </small> | <small>2^0.6438562 ≈ 1.562500 </small> | <small>2^0.666224 ≈ 1.586914 </small> |} == The Earth and Moon == The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep-time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics. ==== Earth's sidereal year ==== The duration of Earth's sidereal year is '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. While gravitational perturbations from neighboring planets cause this value to vary by 20 to 25 minutes annually, the averaged century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given this relative stability, using a clean divisor of the sidereal year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system offers significant utility. Specifically, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds, meaning Earth's sidereal year—rounded to the nearest second—equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's tropical year ==== Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of seasons between successive vernal equinoxes, spans '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp shorter than the sidereal year, coming in at '''10,329.6 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's Great Year ==== With Earth's sidereal year (<math>P</math>) spanning 10,330 timestamps and the tropical year (<math>a_{t}</math>) spanning 10,329.6 timestamps, a full precessional cycle requires a number of years ratio, <math>N</math>, where the cumulative annual difference equals exactly one year: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} N &= \frac{1\text{ Bully timestamp}}{P - a_{t}} \\ &= \frac{1}{10,330 - 10,329.6} \\ &= \frac{1}{0.4} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; Expressing this duration in terms of sidereal years yields: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= 25,824 \, P \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; Alternatively, expressing the cycle in terms of tropical years yields: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= 25,825 \, a_{t} \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic|Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] ==== The Metonic cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23, 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp complete approximately three cycles per one Metonic cycle, as illustrated below: <div style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: inherit; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688; border-radius: 4px; line-height: 1.6; margin: 1em 0;"> '''July 23 New Moons:''' * July 23, 1998 — 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 — 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 — 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> * [[Bully Metric Metonic cycle|Learn More About The Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] ==== The Bully Timestamp Duration ==== While 3,055 seconds may appear to be an arbitrary choice, the length of a single Bully timestamp is mathematically derived from solar, lunar, and deep-time orbital mechanics. {{Quote box| align = center| width = 100%| title = Bully Timestamp Duration | text = Justification: # The Sun orbits approximately one solar radius per Bully timestamp: [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics#Solar_Radius_Mnemonics|<math> t_{\odot} \equiv 3,055 \text{ seconds} </math>]] # The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year: [[Bully Mnemonic |31558150 s = 10330 × 3055 s]]. # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of Earth's Great Year: [https://www.google.com/search?q=16%5E7+*+3055+s 1 Great Year ≈ 16⁷ × 3055 s]. # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of the galactic year: [https://www.google.com/search?q=16%5E10+*+2+*+3055+s 1 galactic year ≈ 16¹⁰ × 2 × 3055 s] # The Earth–Moon Metonic cycle is synchronized with hexadecimal multiples of the Bully unit. }} == Anchoring Bully Timestamps == To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''. === The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 6a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]], where the plane intersects the Galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 6a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] ==== Bullies in the Bully System ==== A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in Figure 6a: * '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign. * '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left. * '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left. As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history: {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was “sweetheart”. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, “lover”. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}} Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of "excellent" or "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. {{Quote box| align = center | width = full | title = The "Bully" Name | text = The specific "bullies" in the "Bully" timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}} === A surrogate for the Sun === As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving. The path of the node can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°): <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4c''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 6b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}'''. (Note: Figure 4c assumes an idealized travel distance of exactly 52,000 parsecs (or 2^15.666224) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps, whereas Figure 6b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs (or 2^15.666040) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center;" |+ '''Figure 6b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 3px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled in parsecs |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B32}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5058}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.100 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|820A D4AD 4AD4}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1099.86''}}}} |} {{Quote box| align = center| width = full| title = Bully Timestamp Anchor| text = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 6b).}} ==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ==== In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 6c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days. The Earth's orbital speed varies throughout the year, moving slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Consequently, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season. As shown in Figure 6c, '''winter''' was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. It took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to '''spring''' being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to '''summer'''. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over '''21,000 years'''. [[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 6c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]] Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 6c. The transition from '''spring to summer''' is correlated with a large '''green dot''' and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large '''red dot''' appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from '''summer to autumn''', and a large '''blue dot''', back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from '''winter to spring'''. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,500 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly '''26,000 years''' (1 Great Year ≈ 25,824 sidereal years ≈ 25,825 tropical years). {{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | text = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred near the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. All of the Galactic crossings shown in Figure 6c, at 4495 BCE, 1998 CE, and 8329 CE, are roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE. }} == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 7a''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in Figure 7a, these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|'''Figure 7a''': Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of Figure 7a, follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. Ideally, all of the black lines in Figure 7a could be discontinued and replaced by Bully timestamps going forward. === Why do we need Bully timestamps? === All the timestamps in '''Figure 7b''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ '''Figure 7b''': UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of Figure 7b attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of Figure 7b, breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3,055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950s, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic timekeeping (1958 AD – present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Estimation == [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 8a: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 8a'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 8b'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|'''Figure 8b''': The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in '''Figure 8c''' contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8c''': Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in '''Figure 8d''' (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8d''': Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 8d) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in '''Figure 8e''' is the same as is shown in Figure 8d, but Figure 8e plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8e''': A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in '''Figure 8f''' is similar to the table in Figure 8c, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 8c was for large z values, Figure 8f shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8f''': Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] 1cnsbqd8v3mzh7n88apjtqtro2n6e0y 2832626 2832625 2026-09-10T18:05:32Z Unitfreak 695864 /* The Bully Timestamp Duration */ 2832626 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the Sun's orbit around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp occurs each time the Sun advances by roughly one solar radius along its path through the cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|upright=2.2|center|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] == One Solar Radius == The Sun hurtles around the Milky Way Galaxy at a blistering 0.076% of the speed of light ([https://arxiv.org/abs/1810.09466 229.0 ± 0.2 kilometers per second]). Yet, even at this staggering pace, it takes about five-sixths of an hour for the Sun to traverse a distance equal to its own radius. This highlights the truly colossal size of our star, which boasts a radius of 2.3206 light-seconds (695,700 kilometers). '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. During each '''3,055-second''' period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over '''2.33 light-seconds''', which is slightly more than one solar radius (<math>R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 2.33 \text{ ls} \gtrapprox R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', it is a vast, oblong, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into surrounding space. While somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, the latter is a comparatively thin layer of gas held near the planetary surface, whereas the heliosphere is a plasma constantly blasted into space by the Sun's extreme heat and energy. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is so vast that if it were truly spherical, it would take the Sun roughly 6.344 years to travel a distance equivalent to the heliosphere's diameter. The digit in the '''fifth position''' of a Bully timestamp represents this orbital distance. Figure 2 illustrates the motion of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. Timestamp 8209 ED00 0000 is defined to have occurred at exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16, 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. During each 6.344-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 306 astronomical units, which is slightly more than 65,536 solar radii (<math>16^{4}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 306 \text{ AU} \gtrapprox 16^{4}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === Naked-Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (not to scale) across 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' corresponds to approximately 383,000 B.C., while timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., representing a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a cyan dashed line marking 100 parsecs. The Sun travels a little less than this distance during each 416,000-year interval, which is tracked by the digit in the '''ninth position''' of the Bully timestamp. Because a large percentage of naked-eye stars sit within this 100-parsec radius, the appearance of Earth's night sky changes completely over this timeframe. [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of naked-eye stars binned according to brightness and distance from the Sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the Sun than 100 parsecs, which is the distance the Sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of naked-eye stars are within this 100-parsec travel distance of the Sun.]] During each 415,792-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 97 parsecs, which is slightly more than 4,294,967,296 solar radii (<math>16^{8}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 97 \text{ pc} \gtrapprox 16^{8}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> ==== The Bully Milky Way ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3b''': Division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 3b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid). Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000'''. These represent the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D., respectively, assuming a full orbital path around the Milky Way of roughly 50,000 parsecs. In the lower half of the image, cyan lines further divide a single yellow sector into 16 equal subsectors. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center in Figure 3b, corresponding to the 6 o'clock position, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle of the Sun at Bully timestamp 820A 0000 0000, estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D. The nine cyan grid lines to the right of the red line mark the Sun's polar angle for Bully timestamps 8201 0000 0000 through 8209 0000 0000. Meanwhile, the five cyan grid lines to the left of the red line indicate the polar angle for timestamps 820B 0000 0000 through 820F 0000 0000. <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,t_{\odot} \approx 212.9 \text{ million years} </math> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \sim 50,000 \text{ parsecs} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> == The Galactic Calendar == [[File:Galactic centre orbits.svg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 4a''':Inferred orbits of 6 stars around the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* at the Milky Way's center<ref name="Eisenhauer">{{cite journal|last=Eisenhauer|first=F.|display-authors=et al. |title=SINFONI in the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares in the Central Light-Month|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=July 20, 2005|volume=628|issue=1|pages=246–259|doi=10.1086/430667|bibcode=2005ApJ...628..246E|arxiv=astro-ph/0502129|s2cid=122485461 }}</ref>]] [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, labeled S2 in '''Figure 4a''', completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance from the Sun to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: &hairsp; :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \\ \end{align}</math> &hairsp; If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. ==== Idealized Galactic Weeks ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Weeks_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 4b''': Division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks of solar travel (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 4b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks (yellow grid). Each week represents 1,000 parsecs of solar travel, which in this plot is assumed to be traversed by the Sun in roughly 4.09 million years. Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000''', respectively, indicating the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D. The cyan lines in the lower half of the image further divide one sector into 10 equal subsectors of 100 parsecs each. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 4b, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun had during Bully timestamp 8209 D89D 89D8 (approximately 31,000 B.C.), which is 1,000 parsecs of travel beyond the yellow line representing timestamp 8200 0000 0000. The nine cyan lines to the left of the red line represent the polar angles of the Sun after traveling 1,100 through 1,900 parsecs beyond timestamp 8200 0000 0000. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2⁴¹ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4c''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. It outlines the specific Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved across this idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4c:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. ==== Is the Galactic Calendar Realistic? ==== [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4d:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250-million-year time period.]] The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4d). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4d''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in Figure 4c states that the galactic week beginning on timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark. ==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ==== In Figure 3a and Figure 3b, the Sun is shown to travel less than 50,000 parsecs per galactic year. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar shown in Figure 4b assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per galactic year, introducing a distinct discrepancy in both galactic scale and calculated orbital velocity. Because the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to complex gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is neither perfectly uniform nor entirely predictable. Consequently, the Sun's true orbital velocity remains a subject of ongoing discovery and refinement. The conjectured values used in Figure 3b and Figure 4b should be viewed as '''practical assumptions''' rather than a reflection of a stable, long-term physical reality; the idealized Bully Calendar is a '''conceptual model''' designed to help visualize the immense scale of the galactic orbit. The table in '''Figure 4e''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp up to 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | '''Figure 4e''': Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 100 parsecs per 16⁸ Bully timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps</small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | <small>2^18.597453 ≈ 396,635 </small> | <small>2^18.6438562 ≈ 409,600 </small> | <small>2^18.666224 ≈ 416,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | <small>2^14.597453 ≈ 24,789.7 </small> | <small>2^14.6438562 ≈ 25,600.0 </small> | <small>2^14.666224 ≈ 26,000.0 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | <small>2^10.597453 ≈ 1,549.36 </small> | <small>2^10.6438562 ≈ 1,600.00 </small> | <small>2^10.666224 ≈ 1,625.00 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁸''' | <small>2^6.597453 ≈ 96.8348 </small> | <small>2^6.6438562 ≈ 100.0000 </small> | <small>2^6.666224 ≈ 101.5625 </small> |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off-Nominal Values |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | <small>2^15.597453 ≈ 49,579 </small> | <small>2^15.6438562 ≈ 51,200 </small> | <small>2^15.666224 ≈ 52,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2²⁶''' | <small>2^0.597453 ≈ 1.513043 </small> | <small>2^0.6438562 ≈ 1.562500 </small> | <small>2^0.666224 ≈ 1.586914 </small> |} == The Earth and Moon == The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep-time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics. ==== Earth's sidereal year ==== The duration of Earth's sidereal year is '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. While gravitational perturbations from neighboring planets cause this value to vary by 20 to 25 minutes annually, the averaged century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given this relative stability, using a clean divisor of the sidereal year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system offers significant utility. Specifically, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds, meaning Earth's sidereal year—rounded to the nearest second—equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's tropical year ==== Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of seasons between successive vernal equinoxes, spans '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp shorter than the sidereal year, coming in at '''10,329.6 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's Great Year ==== With Earth's sidereal year (<math>P</math>) spanning 10,330 timestamps and the tropical year (<math>a_{t}</math>) spanning 10,329.6 timestamps, a full precessional cycle requires a number of years ratio, <math>N</math>, where the cumulative annual difference equals exactly one year: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} N &= \frac{1\text{ Bully timestamp}}{P - a_{t}} \\ &= \frac{1}{10,330 - 10,329.6} \\ &= \frac{1}{0.4} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; Expressing this duration in terms of sidereal years yields: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= 25,824 \, P \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; Alternatively, expressing the cycle in terms of tropical years yields: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= 25,825 \, a_{t} \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic|Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] ==== The Metonic cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23, 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp complete approximately three cycles per one Metonic cycle, as illustrated below: <div style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: inherit; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688; border-radius: 4px; line-height: 1.6; margin: 1em 0;"> '''July 23 New Moons:''' * July 23, 1998 — 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 — 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 — 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> * [[Bully Metric Metonic cycle|Learn More About The Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] ==== The Bully Timestamp Duration ==== While 3,055 seconds may appear to be an arbitrary choice, the length of a single Bully timestamp is mathematically derived from solar, lunar, and deep-time orbital mechanics. {{Quote box| align = center| width = 100%| title = Bully Timestamp Duration | text = Justification: # The Sun orbits approximately one solar radius per Bully timestamp: [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics#Solar_Radius_Mnemonics|<math> t_{\odot} \equiv 3,055 \text{ seconds} </math>]] # The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year: [[Bully Mnemonic |31558150 s = 10330 × 3055 s]]. # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of Earth's Great Year: [https://www.google.com/search?q=16%5E7+*+3055+s 1 Great Year ≈ 16⁷ × 3055 s]. # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of the galactic year: [https://www.google.com/search?q=2%5E41+*+3055+s 1 galactic year ≈ 2⁴¹ × 3055 s] # The Earth–Moon Metonic cycle is synchronized with hexadecimal multiples of the Bully unit. }} == Anchoring Bully Timestamps == To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''. === The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 6a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]], where the plane intersects the Galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 6a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] ==== Bullies in the Bully System ==== A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in Figure 6a: * '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign. * '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left. * '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left. As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history: {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was “sweetheart”. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, “lover”. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}} Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of "excellent" or "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. {{Quote box| align = center | width = full | title = The "Bully" Name | text = The specific "bullies" in the "Bully" timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}} === A surrogate for the Sun === As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving. The path of the node can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°): <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4c''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 6b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}'''. (Note: Figure 4c assumes an idealized travel distance of exactly 52,000 parsecs (or 2^15.666224) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps, whereas Figure 6b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs (or 2^15.666040) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center;" |+ '''Figure 6b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 3px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled in parsecs |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B32}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5058}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.100 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|820A D4AD 4AD4}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1099.86''}}}} |} {{Quote box| align = center| width = full| title = Bully Timestamp Anchor| text = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 6b).}} ==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ==== In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 6c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days. The Earth's orbital speed varies throughout the year, moving slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Consequently, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season. As shown in Figure 6c, '''winter''' was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. It took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to '''spring''' being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to '''summer'''. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over '''21,000 years'''. [[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 6c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]] Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 6c. The transition from '''spring to summer''' is correlated with a large '''green dot''' and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large '''red dot''' appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from '''summer to autumn''', and a large '''blue dot''', back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from '''winter to spring'''. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,500 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly '''26,000 years''' (1 Great Year ≈ 25,824 sidereal years ≈ 25,825 tropical years). {{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | text = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred near the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. All of the Galactic crossings shown in Figure 6c, at 4495 BCE, 1998 CE, and 8329 CE, are roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE. }} == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 7a''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in Figure 7a, these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|'''Figure 7a''': Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of Figure 7a, follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. Ideally, all of the black lines in Figure 7a could be discontinued and replaced by Bully timestamps going forward. === Why do we need Bully timestamps? === All the timestamps in '''Figure 7b''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ '''Figure 7b''': UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of Figure 7b attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of Figure 7b, breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3,055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950s, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic timekeeping (1958 AD – present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Estimation == [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 8a: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 8a'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 8b'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|'''Figure 8b''': The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in '''Figure 8c''' contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8c''': Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in '''Figure 8d''' (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8d''': Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 8d) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in '''Figure 8e''' is the same as is shown in Figure 8d, but Figure 8e plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8e''': A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in '''Figure 8f''' is similar to the table in Figure 8c, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 8c was for large z values, Figure 8f shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8f''': Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] 1ythzde6brs4acsapqwz5j6x478dhdn 2832627 2832626 2026-09-10T18:08:02Z Unitfreak 695864 /* The Bully Timestamp Duration */ 2832627 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the Sun's orbit around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp occurs each time the Sun advances by roughly one solar radius along its path through the cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|upright=2.2|center|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] == One Solar Radius == The Sun hurtles around the Milky Way Galaxy at a blistering 0.076% of the speed of light ([https://arxiv.org/abs/1810.09466 229.0 ± 0.2 kilometers per second]). Yet, even at this staggering pace, it takes about five-sixths of an hour for the Sun to traverse a distance equal to its own radius. This highlights the truly colossal size of our star, which boasts a radius of 2.3206 light-seconds (695,700 kilometers). '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. During each '''3,055-second''' period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over '''2.33 light-seconds''', which is slightly more than one solar radius (<math>R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 2.33 \text{ ls} \gtrapprox R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', it is a vast, oblong, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into surrounding space. While somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, the latter is a comparatively thin layer of gas held near the planetary surface, whereas the heliosphere is a plasma constantly blasted into space by the Sun's extreme heat and energy. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is so vast that if it were truly spherical, it would take the Sun roughly 6.344 years to travel a distance equivalent to the heliosphere's diameter. The digit in the '''fifth position''' of a Bully timestamp represents this orbital distance. Figure 2 illustrates the motion of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. Timestamp 8209 ED00 0000 is defined to have occurred at exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16, 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. During each 6.344-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 306 astronomical units, which is slightly more than 65,536 solar radii (<math>16^{4}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 306 \text{ AU} \gtrapprox 16^{4}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === Naked-Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (not to scale) across 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' corresponds to approximately 383,000 B.C., while timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., representing a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a cyan dashed line marking 100 parsecs. The Sun travels a little less than this distance during each 416,000-year interval, which is tracked by the digit in the '''ninth position''' of the Bully timestamp. Because a large percentage of naked-eye stars sit within this 100-parsec radius, the appearance of Earth's night sky changes completely over this timeframe. [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of naked-eye stars binned according to brightness and distance from the Sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the Sun than 100 parsecs, which is the distance the Sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of naked-eye stars are within this 100-parsec travel distance of the Sun.]] During each 415,792-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 97 parsecs, which is slightly more than 4,294,967,296 solar radii (<math>16^{8}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 97 \text{ pc} \gtrapprox 16^{8}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> ==== The Bully Milky Way ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3b''': Division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 3b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid). Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000'''. These represent the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D., respectively, assuming a full orbital path around the Milky Way of roughly 50,000 parsecs. In the lower half of the image, cyan lines further divide a single yellow sector into 16 equal subsectors. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center in Figure 3b, corresponding to the 6 o'clock position, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle of the Sun at Bully timestamp 820A 0000 0000, estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D. The nine cyan grid lines to the right of the red line mark the Sun's polar angle for Bully timestamps 8201 0000 0000 through 8209 0000 0000. Meanwhile, the five cyan grid lines to the left of the red line indicate the polar angle for timestamps 820B 0000 0000 through 820F 0000 0000. <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,t_{\odot} \approx 212.9 \text{ million years} </math> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \sim 50,000 \text{ parsecs} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> == The Galactic Calendar == [[File:Galactic centre orbits.svg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 4a''':Inferred orbits of 6 stars around the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* at the Milky Way's center<ref name="Eisenhauer">{{cite journal|last=Eisenhauer|first=F.|display-authors=et al. |title=SINFONI in the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares in the Central Light-Month|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=July 20, 2005|volume=628|issue=1|pages=246–259|doi=10.1086/430667|bibcode=2005ApJ...628..246E|arxiv=astro-ph/0502129|s2cid=122485461 }}</ref>]] [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, labeled S2 in '''Figure 4a''', completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance from the Sun to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: &hairsp; :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \\ \end{align}</math> &hairsp; If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. ==== Idealized Galactic Weeks ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Weeks_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 4b''': Division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks of solar travel (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 4b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks (yellow grid). Each week represents 1,000 parsecs of solar travel, which in this plot is assumed to be traversed by the Sun in roughly 4.09 million years. Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000''', respectively, indicating the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D. The cyan lines in the lower half of the image further divide one sector into 10 equal subsectors of 100 parsecs each. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 4b, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun had during Bully timestamp 8209 D89D 89D8 (approximately 31,000 B.C.), which is 1,000 parsecs of travel beyond the yellow line representing timestamp 8200 0000 0000. The nine cyan lines to the left of the red line represent the polar angles of the Sun after traveling 1,100 through 1,900 parsecs beyond timestamp 8200 0000 0000. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2⁴¹ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4c''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. It outlines the specific Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved across this idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4c:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. ==== Is the Galactic Calendar Realistic? ==== [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4d:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250-million-year time period.]] The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4d). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4d''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in Figure 4c states that the galactic week beginning on timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark. ==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ==== In Figure 3a and Figure 3b, the Sun is shown to travel less than 50,000 parsecs per galactic year. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar shown in Figure 4b assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per galactic year, introducing a distinct discrepancy in both galactic scale and calculated orbital velocity. Because the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to complex gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is neither perfectly uniform nor entirely predictable. Consequently, the Sun's true orbital velocity remains a subject of ongoing discovery and refinement. The conjectured values used in Figure 3b and Figure 4b should be viewed as '''practical assumptions''' rather than a reflection of a stable, long-term physical reality; the idealized Bully Calendar is a '''conceptual model''' designed to help visualize the immense scale of the galactic orbit. The table in '''Figure 4e''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp up to 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | '''Figure 4e''': Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 100 parsecs per 16⁸ Bully timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps</small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | <small>2^18.597453 ≈ 396,635 </small> | <small>2^18.6438562 ≈ 409,600 </small> | <small>2^18.666224 ≈ 416,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | <small>2^14.597453 ≈ 24,789.7 </small> | <small>2^14.6438562 ≈ 25,600.0 </small> | <small>2^14.666224 ≈ 26,000.0 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | <small>2^10.597453 ≈ 1,549.36 </small> | <small>2^10.6438562 ≈ 1,600.00 </small> | <small>2^10.666224 ≈ 1,625.00 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁸''' | <small>2^6.597453 ≈ 96.8348 </small> | <small>2^6.6438562 ≈ 100.0000 </small> | <small>2^6.666224 ≈ 101.5625 </small> |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off-Nominal Values |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | <small>2^15.597453 ≈ 49,579 </small> | <small>2^15.6438562 ≈ 51,200 </small> | <small>2^15.666224 ≈ 52,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2²⁶''' | <small>2^0.597453 ≈ 1.513043 </small> | <small>2^0.6438562 ≈ 1.562500 </small> | <small>2^0.666224 ≈ 1.586914 </small> |} == The Earth and Moon == The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep-time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics. ==== Earth's sidereal year ==== The duration of Earth's sidereal year is '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. While gravitational perturbations from neighboring planets cause this value to vary by 20 to 25 minutes annually, the averaged century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given this relative stability, using a clean divisor of the sidereal year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system offers significant utility. Specifically, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds, meaning Earth's sidereal year—rounded to the nearest second—equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's tropical year ==== Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of seasons between successive vernal equinoxes, spans '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp shorter than the sidereal year, coming in at '''10,329.6 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's Great Year ==== With Earth's sidereal year (<math>P</math>) spanning 10,330 timestamps and the tropical year (<math>a_{t}</math>) spanning 10,329.6 timestamps, a full precessional cycle requires a number of years ratio, <math>N</math>, where the cumulative annual difference equals exactly one year: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} N &= \frac{1\text{ Bully timestamp}}{P - a_{t}} \\ &= \frac{1}{10,330 - 10,329.6} \\ &= \frac{1}{0.4} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; Expressing this duration in terms of sidereal years yields: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= 25,824 \, P \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; Alternatively, expressing the cycle in terms of tropical years yields: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= 25,825 \, a_{t} \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic|Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] ==== The Metonic cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23, 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp complete approximately three cycles per one Metonic cycle, as illustrated below: <div style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: inherit; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688; border-radius: 4px; line-height: 1.6; margin: 1em 0;"> '''July 23 New Moons:''' * July 23, 1998 — 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 — 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 — 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> * [[Bully Metric Metonic cycle|Learn More About The Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] ==== The Bully Timestamp Duration ==== While 3,055 seconds may appear to be an arbitrary choice, the length of a single Bully timestamp is mathematically derived from solar, lunar, and deep-time orbital mechanics. {{Quote box| align = center| width = 100%| title = Bully Timestamp Duration | text = Justification: # The Sun orbits approximately one solar radius per Bully timestamp: [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics#Solar_Radius_Mnemonics|<math> t_{\odot} \equiv 3,055 \text{ seconds} </math>]] # The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year: [[Bully Mnemonic |31558150 s = 10330 × 3055 s]]. # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of Earth's Great Year: [https://www.google.com/search?q=16%5E7+*+3055+s 1 Great Year ≈ 16⁷ × 3055 s]. # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of the galactic year: [https://www.google.com/search?q=2%5E41+*+3055+s 1 galactic year ≈ 2⁴¹ × 3055 s] # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of the Earth–Moon Metonic cycle: [https://www.google.com/search?q=3+*+16%5E4+*+3055+s 1 Metonic cycle ≈ 3 * 16⁴ × 3055 s] == Anchoring Bully Timestamps == To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''. === The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 6a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]], where the plane intersects the Galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 6a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] ==== Bullies in the Bully System ==== A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in Figure 6a: * '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign. * '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left. * '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left. As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history: {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was “sweetheart”. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, “lover”. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}} Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of "excellent" or "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. {{Quote box| align = center | width = full | title = The "Bully" Name | text = The specific "bullies" in the "Bully" timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}} === A surrogate for the Sun === As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving. The path of the node can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°): <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4c''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 6b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}'''. (Note: Figure 4c assumes an idealized travel distance of exactly 52,000 parsecs (or 2^15.666224) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps, whereas Figure 6b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs (or 2^15.666040) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center;" |+ '''Figure 6b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 3px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled in parsecs |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B32}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5058}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.100 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|820A D4AD 4AD4}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1099.86''}}}} |} {{Quote box| align = center| width = full| title = Bully Timestamp Anchor| text = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 6b).}} ==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ==== In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 6c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days. The Earth's orbital speed varies throughout the year, moving slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Consequently, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season. As shown in Figure 6c, '''winter''' was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. It took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to '''spring''' being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to '''summer'''. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over '''21,000 years'''. [[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 6c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]] Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 6c. The transition from '''spring to summer''' is correlated with a large '''green dot''' and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large '''red dot''' appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from '''summer to autumn''', and a large '''blue dot''', back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from '''winter to spring'''. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,500 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly '''26,000 years''' (1 Great Year ≈ 25,824 sidereal years ≈ 25,825 tropical years). {{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | text = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred near the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. All of the Galactic crossings shown in Figure 6c, at 4495 BCE, 1998 CE, and 8329 CE, are roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE. }} == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 7a''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in Figure 7a, these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|'''Figure 7a''': Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of Figure 7a, follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. Ideally, all of the black lines in Figure 7a could be discontinued and replaced by Bully timestamps going forward. === Why do we need Bully timestamps? === All the timestamps in '''Figure 7b''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ '''Figure 7b''': UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of Figure 7b attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of Figure 7b, breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3,055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950s, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic timekeeping (1958 AD – present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Estimation == [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 8a: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 8a'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 8b'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|'''Figure 8b''': The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in '''Figure 8c''' contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8c''': Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in '''Figure 8d''' (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8d''': Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 8d) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in '''Figure 8e''' is the same as is shown in Figure 8d, but Figure 8e plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8e''': A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in '''Figure 8f''' is similar to the table in Figure 8c, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 8c was for large z values, Figure 8f shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8f''': Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] 8au987cyqdz7f0nmby77mubuveg98o6 2832628 2832627 2026-09-10T18:09:15Z Unitfreak 695864 /* The Bully Timestamp Duration */ 2832628 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the Sun's orbit around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp occurs each time the Sun advances by roughly one solar radius along its path through the cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|upright=2.2|center|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] == One Solar Radius == The Sun hurtles around the Milky Way Galaxy at a blistering 0.076% of the speed of light ([https://arxiv.org/abs/1810.09466 229.0 ± 0.2 kilometers per second]). Yet, even at this staggering pace, it takes about five-sixths of an hour for the Sun to traverse a distance equal to its own radius. This highlights the truly colossal size of our star, which boasts a radius of 2.3206 light-seconds (695,700 kilometers). '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. During each '''3,055-second''' period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over '''2.33 light-seconds''', which is slightly more than one solar radius (<math>R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 2.33 \text{ ls} \gtrapprox R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', it is a vast, oblong, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into surrounding space. While somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, the latter is a comparatively thin layer of gas held near the planetary surface, whereas the heliosphere is a plasma constantly blasted into space by the Sun's extreme heat and energy. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is so vast that if it were truly spherical, it would take the Sun roughly 6.344 years to travel a distance equivalent to the heliosphere's diameter. The digit in the '''fifth position''' of a Bully timestamp represents this orbital distance. Figure 2 illustrates the motion of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. Timestamp 8209 ED00 0000 is defined to have occurred at exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16, 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. During each 6.344-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 306 astronomical units, which is slightly more than 65,536 solar radii (<math>16^{4}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 306 \text{ AU} \gtrapprox 16^{4}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === Naked-Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (not to scale) across 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' corresponds to approximately 383,000 B.C., while timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., representing a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a cyan dashed line marking 100 parsecs. The Sun travels a little less than this distance during each 416,000-year interval, which is tracked by the digit in the '''ninth position''' of the Bully timestamp. Because a large percentage of naked-eye stars sit within this 100-parsec radius, the appearance of Earth's night sky changes completely over this timeframe. [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of naked-eye stars binned according to brightness and distance from the Sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the Sun than 100 parsecs, which is the distance the Sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of naked-eye stars are within this 100-parsec travel distance of the Sun.]] During each 415,792-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 97 parsecs, which is slightly more than 4,294,967,296 solar radii (<math>16^{8}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 97 \text{ pc} \gtrapprox 16^{8}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> ==== The Bully Milky Way ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3b''': Division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 3b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid). Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000'''. These represent the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D., respectively, assuming a full orbital path around the Milky Way of roughly 50,000 parsecs. In the lower half of the image, cyan lines further divide a single yellow sector into 16 equal subsectors. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center in Figure 3b, corresponding to the 6 o'clock position, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle of the Sun at Bully timestamp 820A 0000 0000, estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D. The nine cyan grid lines to the right of the red line mark the Sun's polar angle for Bully timestamps 8201 0000 0000 through 8209 0000 0000. Meanwhile, the five cyan grid lines to the left of the red line indicate the polar angle for timestamps 820B 0000 0000 through 820F 0000 0000. <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,t_{\odot} \approx 212.9 \text{ million years} </math> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \sim 50,000 \text{ parsecs} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> == The Galactic Calendar == [[File:Galactic centre orbits.svg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 4a''':Inferred orbits of 6 stars around the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* at the Milky Way's center<ref name="Eisenhauer">{{cite journal|last=Eisenhauer|first=F.|display-authors=et al. |title=SINFONI in the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares in the Central Light-Month|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=July 20, 2005|volume=628|issue=1|pages=246–259|doi=10.1086/430667|bibcode=2005ApJ...628..246E|arxiv=astro-ph/0502129|s2cid=122485461 }}</ref>]] [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, labeled S2 in '''Figure 4a''', completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance from the Sun to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: &hairsp; :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \\ \end{align}</math> &hairsp; If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. ==== Idealized Galactic Weeks ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Weeks_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 4b''': Division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks of solar travel (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 4b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks (yellow grid). Each week represents 1,000 parsecs of solar travel, which in this plot is assumed to be traversed by the Sun in roughly 4.09 million years. Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000''', respectively, indicating the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D. The cyan lines in the lower half of the image further divide one sector into 10 equal subsectors of 100 parsecs each. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 4b, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun had during Bully timestamp 8209 D89D 89D8 (approximately 31,000 B.C.), which is 1,000 parsecs of travel beyond the yellow line representing timestamp 8200 0000 0000. The nine cyan lines to the left of the red line represent the polar angles of the Sun after traveling 1,100 through 1,900 parsecs beyond timestamp 8200 0000 0000. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2⁴¹ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4c''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. It outlines the specific Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved across this idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4c:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. ==== Is the Galactic Calendar Realistic? ==== [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4d:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250-million-year time period.]] The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4d). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4d''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in Figure 4c states that the galactic week beginning on timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark. ==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ==== In Figure 3a and Figure 3b, the Sun is shown to travel less than 50,000 parsecs per galactic year. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar shown in Figure 4b assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per galactic year, introducing a distinct discrepancy in both galactic scale and calculated orbital velocity. Because the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to complex gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is neither perfectly uniform nor entirely predictable. Consequently, the Sun's true orbital velocity remains a subject of ongoing discovery and refinement. The conjectured values used in Figure 3b and Figure 4b should be viewed as '''practical assumptions''' rather than a reflection of a stable, long-term physical reality; the idealized Bully Calendar is a '''conceptual model''' designed to help visualize the immense scale of the galactic orbit. The table in '''Figure 4e''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp up to 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | '''Figure 4e''': Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 100 parsecs per 16⁸ Bully timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps</small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | <small>2^18.597453 ≈ 396,635 </small> | <small>2^18.6438562 ≈ 409,600 </small> | <small>2^18.666224 ≈ 416,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | <small>2^14.597453 ≈ 24,789.7 </small> | <small>2^14.6438562 ≈ 25,600.0 </small> | <small>2^14.666224 ≈ 26,000.0 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | <small>2^10.597453 ≈ 1,549.36 </small> | <small>2^10.6438562 ≈ 1,600.00 </small> | <small>2^10.666224 ≈ 1,625.00 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁸''' | <small>2^6.597453 ≈ 96.8348 </small> | <small>2^6.6438562 ≈ 100.0000 </small> | <small>2^6.666224 ≈ 101.5625 </small> |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off-Nominal Values |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | <small>2^15.597453 ≈ 49,579 </small> | <small>2^15.6438562 ≈ 51,200 </small> | <small>2^15.666224 ≈ 52,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2²⁶''' | <small>2^0.597453 ≈ 1.513043 </small> | <small>2^0.6438562 ≈ 1.562500 </small> | <small>2^0.666224 ≈ 1.586914 </small> |} == The Earth and Moon == The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep-time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics. ==== Earth's sidereal year ==== The duration of Earth's sidereal year is '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. While gravitational perturbations from neighboring planets cause this value to vary by 20 to 25 minutes annually, the averaged century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given this relative stability, using a clean divisor of the sidereal year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system offers significant utility. Specifically, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds, meaning Earth's sidereal year—rounded to the nearest second—equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's tropical year ==== Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of seasons between successive vernal equinoxes, spans '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp shorter than the sidereal year, coming in at '''10,329.6 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's Great Year ==== With Earth's sidereal year (<math>P</math>) spanning 10,330 timestamps and the tropical year (<math>a_{t}</math>) spanning 10,329.6 timestamps, a full precessional cycle requires a number of years ratio, <math>N</math>, where the cumulative annual difference equals exactly one year: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} N &= \frac{1\text{ Bully timestamp}}{P - a_{t}} \\ &= \frac{1}{10,330 - 10,329.6} \\ &= \frac{1}{0.4} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; Expressing this duration in terms of sidereal years yields: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= 25,824 \, P \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; Alternatively, expressing the cycle in terms of tropical years yields: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= 25,825 \, a_{t} \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic|Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] ==== The Metonic cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23, 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp complete approximately three cycles per one Metonic cycle, as illustrated below: <div style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: inherit; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688; border-radius: 4px; line-height: 1.6; margin: 1em 0;"> '''July 23 New Moons:''' * July 23, 1998 — 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 — 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 — 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> * [[Bully Metric Metonic cycle|Learn More About The Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] ==== The Bully Timestamp Duration ==== While 3,055 seconds may appear to be an arbitrary choice, the length of a single Bully timestamp is mathematically derived from solar, lunar, and deep-time orbital mechanics. {{Quote box| align = center| width = 100%| title = Bully Timestamp Duration | text = Justification: # The Sun orbits approximately one solar radius per Bully timestamp: [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics#Solar_Radius_Mnemonics|<math> t_{\odot} \equiv 3,055 \text{ seconds} </math>]] # The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year: [[Bully Mnemonic |31558150 s = 10330 × 3055 s]]. # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of Earth's Great Year: [https://www.google.com/search?q=16%5E7+*+3055+s 1 Great Year ≈ 16⁷ × 3055 s]. # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of the galactic year: [https://www.google.com/search?q=2%5E41+*+3055+s 1 galactic year ≈ 2⁴¹ × 3055 s] # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of the Earth–Moon Metonic cycle: [https://www.google.com/search?q=3+*+16%5E4+*+3055+s 1 Metonic cycle ≈ 3 * 16⁴ × 3055 s] }} == Anchoring Bully Timestamps == To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''. === The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 6a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]], where the plane intersects the Galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 6a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] ==== Bullies in the Bully System ==== A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in Figure 6a: * '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign. * '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left. * '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left. As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history: {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was “sweetheart”. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, “lover”. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}} Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of "excellent" or "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. {{Quote box| align = center | width = full | title = The "Bully" Name | text = The specific "bullies" in the "Bully" timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}} === A surrogate for the Sun === As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving. The path of the node can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°): <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4c''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 6b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}'''. (Note: Figure 4c assumes an idealized travel distance of exactly 52,000 parsecs (or 2^15.666224) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps, whereas Figure 6b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs (or 2^15.666040) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center;" |+ '''Figure 6b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 3px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled in parsecs |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B32}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5058}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.100 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|820A D4AD 4AD4}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1099.86''}}}} |} {{Quote box| align = center| width = full| title = Bully Timestamp Anchor| text = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 6b).}} ==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ==== In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 6c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days. The Earth's orbital speed varies throughout the year, moving slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Consequently, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season. As shown in Figure 6c, '''winter''' was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. It took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to '''spring''' being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to '''summer'''. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over '''21,000 years'''. [[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 6c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]] Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 6c. The transition from '''spring to summer''' is correlated with a large '''green dot''' and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large '''red dot''' appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from '''summer to autumn''', and a large '''blue dot''', back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from '''winter to spring'''. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,500 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly '''26,000 years''' (1 Great Year ≈ 25,824 sidereal years ≈ 25,825 tropical years). {{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | text = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred near the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. All of the Galactic crossings shown in Figure 6c, at 4495 BCE, 1998 CE, and 8329 CE, are roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE. }} == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 7a''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in Figure 7a, these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|'''Figure 7a''': Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of Figure 7a, follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. Ideally, all of the black lines in Figure 7a could be discontinued and replaced by Bully timestamps going forward. === Why do we need Bully timestamps? === All the timestamps in '''Figure 7b''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ '''Figure 7b''': UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of Figure 7b attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of Figure 7b, breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3,055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950s, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic timekeeping (1958 AD – present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Estimation == [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 8a: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 8a'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 8b'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|'''Figure 8b''': The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in '''Figure 8c''' contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8c''': Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in '''Figure 8d''' (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8d''': Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 8d) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in '''Figure 8e''' is the same as is shown in Figure 8d, but Figure 8e plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8e''': A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in '''Figure 8f''' is similar to the table in Figure 8c, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 8c was for large z values, Figure 8f shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8f''': Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] hdkxovkd122n3wa429ke9qwik81rbie 2832629 2832628 2026-09-10T18:11:37Z Unitfreak 695864 /* The Bully Timestamp Duration */ 2832629 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the Sun's orbit around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp occurs each time the Sun advances by roughly one solar radius along its path through the cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|upright=2.2|center|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] == One Solar Radius == The Sun hurtles around the Milky Way Galaxy at a blistering 0.076% of the speed of light ([https://arxiv.org/abs/1810.09466 229.0 ± 0.2 kilometers per second]). Yet, even at this staggering pace, it takes about five-sixths of an hour for the Sun to traverse a distance equal to its own radius. This highlights the truly colossal size of our star, which boasts a radius of 2.3206 light-seconds (695,700 kilometers). '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. During each '''3,055-second''' period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over '''2.33 light-seconds''', which is slightly more than one solar radius (<math>R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 2.33 \text{ ls} \gtrapprox R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', it is a vast, oblong, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into surrounding space. While somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, the latter is a comparatively thin layer of gas held near the planetary surface, whereas the heliosphere is a plasma constantly blasted into space by the Sun's extreme heat and energy. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is so vast that if it were truly spherical, it would take the Sun roughly 6.344 years to travel a distance equivalent to the heliosphere's diameter. The digit in the '''fifth position''' of a Bully timestamp represents this orbital distance. Figure 2 illustrates the motion of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. Timestamp 8209 ED00 0000 is defined to have occurred at exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16, 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. During each 6.344-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 306 astronomical units, which is slightly more than 65,536 solar radii (<math>16^{4}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 306 \text{ AU} \gtrapprox 16^{4}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === Naked-Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (not to scale) across 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' corresponds to approximately 383,000 B.C., while timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., representing a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a cyan dashed line marking 100 parsecs. The Sun travels a little less than this distance during each 416,000-year interval, which is tracked by the digit in the '''ninth position''' of the Bully timestamp. Because a large percentage of naked-eye stars sit within this 100-parsec radius, the appearance of Earth's night sky changes completely over this timeframe. [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of naked-eye stars binned according to brightness and distance from the Sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the Sun than 100 parsecs, which is the distance the Sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of naked-eye stars are within this 100-parsec travel distance of the Sun.]] During each 415,792-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 97 parsecs, which is slightly more than 4,294,967,296 solar radii (<math>16^{8}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 97 \text{ pc} \gtrapprox 16^{8}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> ==== The Bully Milky Way ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3b''': Division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 3b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid). Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000'''. These represent the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D., respectively, assuming a full orbital path around the Milky Way of roughly 50,000 parsecs. In the lower half of the image, cyan lines further divide a single yellow sector into 16 equal subsectors. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center in Figure 3b, corresponding to the 6 o'clock position, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle of the Sun at Bully timestamp 820A 0000 0000, estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D. The nine cyan grid lines to the right of the red line mark the Sun's polar angle for Bully timestamps 8201 0000 0000 through 8209 0000 0000. Meanwhile, the five cyan grid lines to the left of the red line indicate the polar angle for timestamps 820B 0000 0000 through 820F 0000 0000. <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,t_{\odot} \approx 212.9 \text{ million years} </math> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \sim 50,000 \text{ parsecs} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> == The Galactic Calendar == [[File:Galactic centre orbits.svg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 4a''':Inferred orbits of 6 stars around the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* at the Milky Way's center<ref name="Eisenhauer">{{cite journal|last=Eisenhauer|first=F.|display-authors=et al. |title=SINFONI in the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares in the Central Light-Month|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=July 20, 2005|volume=628|issue=1|pages=246–259|doi=10.1086/430667|bibcode=2005ApJ...628..246E|arxiv=astro-ph/0502129|s2cid=122485461 }}</ref>]] [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, labeled S2 in '''Figure 4a''', completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance from the Sun to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: &hairsp; :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \\ \end{align}</math> &hairsp; If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. ==== Idealized Galactic Weeks ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Weeks_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 4b''': Division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks of solar travel (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 4b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks (yellow grid). Each week represents 1,000 parsecs of solar travel, which in this plot is assumed to be traversed by the Sun in roughly 4.09 million years. Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000''', respectively, indicating the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D. The cyan lines in the lower half of the image further divide one sector into 10 equal subsectors of 100 parsecs each. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 4b, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun had during Bully timestamp 8209 D89D 89D8 (approximately 31,000 B.C.), which is 1,000 parsecs of travel beyond the yellow line representing timestamp 8200 0000 0000. The nine cyan lines to the left of the red line represent the polar angles of the Sun after traveling 1,100 through 1,900 parsecs beyond timestamp 8200 0000 0000. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2⁴¹ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4c''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. It outlines the specific Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved across this idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4c:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. ==== Is the Galactic Calendar Realistic? ==== [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4d:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250-million-year time period.]] The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4d). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4d''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in Figure 4c states that the galactic week beginning on timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark. ==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ==== In Figure 3a and Figure 3b, the Sun is shown to travel less than 50,000 parsecs per galactic year. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar shown in Figure 4b assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per galactic year, introducing a distinct discrepancy in both galactic scale and calculated orbital velocity. Because the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to complex gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is neither perfectly uniform nor entirely predictable. Consequently, the Sun's true orbital velocity remains a subject of ongoing discovery and refinement. The conjectured values used in Figure 3b and Figure 4b should be viewed as '''practical assumptions''' rather than a reflection of a stable, long-term physical reality; the idealized Bully Calendar is a '''conceptual model''' designed to help visualize the immense scale of the galactic orbit. The table in '''Figure 4e''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp up to 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | '''Figure 4e''': Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 100 parsecs per 16⁸ Bully timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps</small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | <small>2^18.597453 ≈ 396,635 </small> | <small>2^18.6438562 ≈ 409,600 </small> | <small>2^18.666224 ≈ 416,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | <small>2^14.597453 ≈ 24,789.7 </small> | <small>2^14.6438562 ≈ 25,600.0 </small> | <small>2^14.666224 ≈ 26,000.0 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | <small>2^10.597453 ≈ 1,549.36 </small> | <small>2^10.6438562 ≈ 1,600.00 </small> | <small>2^10.666224 ≈ 1,625.00 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁸''' | <small>2^6.597453 ≈ 96.8348 </small> | <small>2^6.6438562 ≈ 100.0000 </small> | <small>2^6.666224 ≈ 101.5625 </small> |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off-Nominal Values |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | <small>2^15.597453 ≈ 49,579 </small> | <small>2^15.6438562 ≈ 51,200 </small> | <small>2^15.666224 ≈ 52,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2²⁶''' | <small>2^0.597453 ≈ 1.513043 </small> | <small>2^0.6438562 ≈ 1.562500 </small> | <small>2^0.666224 ≈ 1.586914 </small> |} == The Earth and Moon == The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep-time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics. ==== Earth's sidereal year ==== The duration of Earth's sidereal year is '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. While gravitational perturbations from neighboring planets cause this value to vary by 20 to 25 minutes annually, the averaged century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given this relative stability, using a clean divisor of the sidereal year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system offers significant utility. Specifically, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds, meaning Earth's sidereal year—rounded to the nearest second—equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's tropical year ==== Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of seasons between successive vernal equinoxes, spans '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp shorter than the sidereal year, coming in at '''10,329.6 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's Great Year ==== With Earth's sidereal year (<math>P</math>) spanning 10,330 timestamps and the tropical year (<math>a_{t}</math>) spanning 10,329.6 timestamps, a full precessional cycle requires a number of years ratio, <math>N</math>, where the cumulative annual difference equals exactly one year: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} N &= \frac{1\text{ Bully timestamp}}{P - a_{t}} \\ &= \frac{1}{10,330 - 10,329.6} \\ &= \frac{1}{0.4} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; Expressing this duration in terms of sidereal years yields: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= 25,824 \, P \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; Alternatively, expressing the cycle in terms of tropical years yields: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= 25,825 \, a_{t} \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic|Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] ==== The Metonic cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23, 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp complete approximately three cycles per one Metonic cycle, as illustrated below: <div style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: inherit; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688; border-radius: 4px; line-height: 1.6; margin: 1em 0;"> '''July 23 New Moons:''' * July 23, 1998 — 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 — 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 — 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> * [[Bully Metric Metonic cycle|Learn More About The Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] ==== The Bully Timestamp Duration ==== While 3,055 seconds may appear to be an arbitrary choice, the length of a single Bully timestamp is mathematically derived from solar, lunar, and deep-time orbital mechanics. {{Quote box| align = center| width = 100%| title = Bully Timestamp Duration | text = Justification: # The Sun orbits approximately one solar radius per Bully timestamp: [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics#Solar_Radius_Mnemonics|<math> t_{\odot} \equiv 3,055 \text{ seconds} </math>]] # The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year: [[Bully Mnemonic |31558150 s = 10330 × 3055 s]]. # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of Earth's Great Year: [https://www.google.com/search?q=16%5E7+*+3055+s 1 Great Year ≈ 16⁷ × 3055 s]. # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of the galactic year: [https://www.google.com/search?q=2+*+16%5E10+*+3055+s 1 galactic year ≈ 2 × 16¹⁰ × 3055 s] # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of the Earth–Moon Metonic cycle: [https://www.google.com/search?q=3+*+16%5E4+*+3055+s 1 Metonic cycle ≈ 3 * 16⁴ × 3055 s] }} == Anchoring Bully Timestamps == To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''. === The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 6a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]], where the plane intersects the Galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 6a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] ==== Bullies in the Bully System ==== A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in Figure 6a: * '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign. * '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left. * '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left. As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history: {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was “sweetheart”. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, “lover”. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}} Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of "excellent" or "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. {{Quote box| align = center | width = full | title = The "Bully" Name | text = The specific "bullies" in the "Bully" timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}} === A surrogate for the Sun === As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving. The path of the node can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°): <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4c''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 6b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}'''. (Note: Figure 4c assumes an idealized travel distance of exactly 52,000 parsecs (or 2^15.666224) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps, whereas Figure 6b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs (or 2^15.666040) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center;" |+ '''Figure 6b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 3px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled in parsecs |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B32}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5058}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.100 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|820A D4AD 4AD4}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1099.86''}}}} |} {{Quote box| align = center| width = full| title = Bully Timestamp Anchor| text = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 6b).}} ==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ==== In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 6c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days. The Earth's orbital speed varies throughout the year, moving slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Consequently, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season. As shown in Figure 6c, '''winter''' was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. It took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to '''spring''' being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to '''summer'''. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over '''21,000 years'''. [[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 6c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]] Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 6c. The transition from '''spring to summer''' is correlated with a large '''green dot''' and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large '''red dot''' appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from '''summer to autumn''', and a large '''blue dot''', back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from '''winter to spring'''. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,500 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly '''26,000 years''' (1 Great Year ≈ 25,824 sidereal years ≈ 25,825 tropical years). {{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | text = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred near the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. All of the Galactic crossings shown in Figure 6c, at 4495 BCE, 1998 CE, and 8329 CE, are roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE. }} == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 7a''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in Figure 7a, these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|'''Figure 7a''': Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of Figure 7a, follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. Ideally, all of the black lines in Figure 7a could be discontinued and replaced by Bully timestamps going forward. === Why do we need Bully timestamps? === All the timestamps in '''Figure 7b''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ '''Figure 7b''': UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of Figure 7b attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of Figure 7b, breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3,055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950s, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic timekeeping (1958 AD – present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Estimation == [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 8a: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 8a'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 8b'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|'''Figure 8b''': The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in '''Figure 8c''' contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8c''': Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in '''Figure 8d''' (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8d''': Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 8d) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in '''Figure 8e''' is the same as is shown in Figure 8d, but Figure 8e plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8e''': A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in '''Figure 8f''' is similar to the table in Figure 8c, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 8c was for large z values, Figure 8f shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8f''': Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] jy1hbq94n24nsan3mktydxwhmgzzky9 2832630 2832629 2026-09-10T18:11:58Z Unitfreak 695864 /* The Bully Timestamp Duration */ 2832630 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the Sun's orbit around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp occurs each time the Sun advances by roughly one solar radius along its path through the cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|upright=2.2|center|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] == One Solar Radius == The Sun hurtles around the Milky Way Galaxy at a blistering 0.076% of the speed of light ([https://arxiv.org/abs/1810.09466 229.0 ± 0.2 kilometers per second]). Yet, even at this staggering pace, it takes about five-sixths of an hour for the Sun to traverse a distance equal to its own radius. This highlights the truly colossal size of our star, which boasts a radius of 2.3206 light-seconds (695,700 kilometers). '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. During each '''3,055-second''' period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over '''2.33 light-seconds''', which is slightly more than one solar radius (<math>R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 2.33 \text{ ls} \gtrapprox R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', it is a vast, oblong, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into surrounding space. While somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, the latter is a comparatively thin layer of gas held near the planetary surface, whereas the heliosphere is a plasma constantly blasted into space by the Sun's extreme heat and energy. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is so vast that if it were truly spherical, it would take the Sun roughly 6.344 years to travel a distance equivalent to the heliosphere's diameter. The digit in the '''fifth position''' of a Bully timestamp represents this orbital distance. Figure 2 illustrates the motion of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. Timestamp 8209 ED00 0000 is defined to have occurred at exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16, 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. During each 6.344-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 306 astronomical units, which is slightly more than 65,536 solar radii (<math>16^{4}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 306 \text{ AU} \gtrapprox 16^{4}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === Naked-Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (not to scale) across 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' corresponds to approximately 383,000 B.C., while timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., representing a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a cyan dashed line marking 100 parsecs. The Sun travels a little less than this distance during each 416,000-year interval, which is tracked by the digit in the '''ninth position''' of the Bully timestamp. Because a large percentage of naked-eye stars sit within this 100-parsec radius, the appearance of Earth's night sky changes completely over this timeframe. [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of naked-eye stars binned according to brightness and distance from the Sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the Sun than 100 parsecs, which is the distance the Sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of naked-eye stars are within this 100-parsec travel distance of the Sun.]] During each 415,792-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 97 parsecs, which is slightly more than 4,294,967,296 solar radii (<math>16^{8}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 97 \text{ pc} \gtrapprox 16^{8}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> ==== The Bully Milky Way ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3b''': Division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 3b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid). Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000'''. These represent the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D., respectively, assuming a full orbital path around the Milky Way of roughly 50,000 parsecs. In the lower half of the image, cyan lines further divide a single yellow sector into 16 equal subsectors. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center in Figure 3b, corresponding to the 6 o'clock position, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle of the Sun at Bully timestamp 820A 0000 0000, estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D. The nine cyan grid lines to the right of the red line mark the Sun's polar angle for Bully timestamps 8201 0000 0000 through 8209 0000 0000. Meanwhile, the five cyan grid lines to the left of the red line indicate the polar angle for timestamps 820B 0000 0000 through 820F 0000 0000. <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,t_{\odot} \approx 212.9 \text{ million years} </math> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \sim 50,000 \text{ parsecs} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> == The Galactic Calendar == [[File:Galactic centre orbits.svg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 4a''':Inferred orbits of 6 stars around the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* at the Milky Way's center<ref name="Eisenhauer">{{cite journal|last=Eisenhauer|first=F.|display-authors=et al. |title=SINFONI in the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares in the Central Light-Month|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=July 20, 2005|volume=628|issue=1|pages=246–259|doi=10.1086/430667|bibcode=2005ApJ...628..246E|arxiv=astro-ph/0502129|s2cid=122485461 }}</ref>]] [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, labeled S2 in '''Figure 4a''', completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance from the Sun to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: &hairsp; :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \\ \end{align}</math> &hairsp; If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. ==== Idealized Galactic Weeks ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Weeks_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 4b''': Division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks of solar travel (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 4b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks (yellow grid). Each week represents 1,000 parsecs of solar travel, which in this plot is assumed to be traversed by the Sun in roughly 4.09 million years. Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000''', respectively, indicating the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D. The cyan lines in the lower half of the image further divide one sector into 10 equal subsectors of 100 parsecs each. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 4b, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun had during Bully timestamp 8209 D89D 89D8 (approximately 31,000 B.C.), which is 1,000 parsecs of travel beyond the yellow line representing timestamp 8200 0000 0000. The nine cyan lines to the left of the red line represent the polar angles of the Sun after traveling 1,100 through 1,900 parsecs beyond timestamp 8200 0000 0000. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2⁴¹ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4c''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. It outlines the specific Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved across this idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4c:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. ==== Is the Galactic Calendar Realistic? ==== [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4d:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250-million-year time period.]] The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4d). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4d''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in Figure 4c states that the galactic week beginning on timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark. ==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ==== In Figure 3a and Figure 3b, the Sun is shown to travel less than 50,000 parsecs per galactic year. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar shown in Figure 4b assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per galactic year, introducing a distinct discrepancy in both galactic scale and calculated orbital velocity. Because the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to complex gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is neither perfectly uniform nor entirely predictable. Consequently, the Sun's true orbital velocity remains a subject of ongoing discovery and refinement. The conjectured values used in Figure 3b and Figure 4b should be viewed as '''practical assumptions''' rather than a reflection of a stable, long-term physical reality; the idealized Bully Calendar is a '''conceptual model''' designed to help visualize the immense scale of the galactic orbit. The table in '''Figure 4e''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp up to 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | '''Figure 4e''': Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 100 parsecs per 16⁸ Bully timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps</small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | <small>2^18.597453 ≈ 396,635 </small> | <small>2^18.6438562 ≈ 409,600 </small> | <small>2^18.666224 ≈ 416,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | <small>2^14.597453 ≈ 24,789.7 </small> | <small>2^14.6438562 ≈ 25,600.0 </small> | <small>2^14.666224 ≈ 26,000.0 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | <small>2^10.597453 ≈ 1,549.36 </small> | <small>2^10.6438562 ≈ 1,600.00 </small> | <small>2^10.666224 ≈ 1,625.00 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁸''' | <small>2^6.597453 ≈ 96.8348 </small> | <small>2^6.6438562 ≈ 100.0000 </small> | <small>2^6.666224 ≈ 101.5625 </small> |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off-Nominal Values |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | <small>2^15.597453 ≈ 49,579 </small> | <small>2^15.6438562 ≈ 51,200 </small> | <small>2^15.666224 ≈ 52,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2²⁶''' | <small>2^0.597453 ≈ 1.513043 </small> | <small>2^0.6438562 ≈ 1.562500 </small> | <small>2^0.666224 ≈ 1.586914 </small> |} == The Earth and Moon == The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep-time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics. ==== Earth's sidereal year ==== The duration of Earth's sidereal year is '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. While gravitational perturbations from neighboring planets cause this value to vary by 20 to 25 minutes annually, the averaged century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given this relative stability, using a clean divisor of the sidereal year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system offers significant utility. Specifically, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds, meaning Earth's sidereal year—rounded to the nearest second—equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's tropical year ==== Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of seasons between successive vernal equinoxes, spans '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp shorter than the sidereal year, coming in at '''10,329.6 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's Great Year ==== With Earth's sidereal year (<math>P</math>) spanning 10,330 timestamps and the tropical year (<math>a_{t}</math>) spanning 10,329.6 timestamps, a full precessional cycle requires a number of years ratio, <math>N</math>, where the cumulative annual difference equals exactly one year: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} N &= \frac{1\text{ Bully timestamp}}{P - a_{t}} \\ &= \frac{1}{10,330 - 10,329.6} \\ &= \frac{1}{0.4} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; Expressing this duration in terms of sidereal years yields: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= 25,824 \, P \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; Alternatively, expressing the cycle in terms of tropical years yields: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= 25,825 \, a_{t} \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic|Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] ==== The Metonic cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23, 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp complete approximately three cycles per one Metonic cycle, as illustrated below: <div style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: inherit; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688; border-radius: 4px; line-height: 1.6; margin: 1em 0;"> '''July 23 New Moons:''' * July 23, 1998 — 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 — 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 — 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> * [[Bully Metric Metonic cycle|Learn More About The Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] ==== The Bully Timestamp Duration ==== While 3,055 seconds may appear to be an arbitrary choice, the length of a single Bully timestamp is mathematically derived from solar, lunar, and deep-time orbital mechanics. {{Quote box| align = center| width = 100%| title = Bully Timestamp Duration | text = Justification: # The Sun orbits approximately one solar radius per Bully timestamp: [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics#Solar_Radius_Mnemonics|<math> t_{\odot} \equiv 3,055 \text{ seconds} </math>]] # The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year: [[Bully Mnemonic |31558150 s = 10330 × 3055 s]]. # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of Earth's Great Year: [https://www.google.com/search?q=16%5E7+*+3055+s 1 Great Year ≈ 16⁷ × 3055 s]. # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of the galactic year: [https://www.google.com/search?q=2+*+16%5E10+*+3055+s 1 galactic year ≈ 2 × 16¹⁰ × 3055 s] # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of the Earth–Moon Metonic cycle: [https://www.google.com/search?q=3+*+16%5E4+*+3055+s 1 Metonic cycle ≈ 3 × 16⁴ × 3055 s] }} == Anchoring Bully Timestamps == To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''. === The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 6a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]], where the plane intersects the Galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 6a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] ==== Bullies in the Bully System ==== A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in Figure 6a: * '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign. * '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left. * '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left. As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history: {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was “sweetheart”. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, “lover”. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}} Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of "excellent" or "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. {{Quote box| align = center | width = full | title = The "Bully" Name | text = The specific "bullies" in the "Bully" timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}} === A surrogate for the Sun === As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving. The path of the node can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°): <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4c''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 6b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}'''. (Note: Figure 4c assumes an idealized travel distance of exactly 52,000 parsecs (or 2^15.666224) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps, whereas Figure 6b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs (or 2^15.666040) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center;" |+ '''Figure 6b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 3px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled in parsecs |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B32}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5058}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.100 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|820A D4AD 4AD4}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1099.86''}}}} |} {{Quote box| align = center| width = full| title = Bully Timestamp Anchor| text = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 6b).}} ==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ==== In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 6c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days. The Earth's orbital speed varies throughout the year, moving slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Consequently, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season. As shown in Figure 6c, '''winter''' was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. It took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to '''spring''' being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to '''summer'''. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over '''21,000 years'''. [[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 6c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]] Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 6c. The transition from '''spring to summer''' is correlated with a large '''green dot''' and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large '''red dot''' appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from '''summer to autumn''', and a large '''blue dot''', back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from '''winter to spring'''. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,500 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly '''26,000 years''' (1 Great Year ≈ 25,824 sidereal years ≈ 25,825 tropical years). {{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | text = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred near the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. All of the Galactic crossings shown in Figure 6c, at 4495 BCE, 1998 CE, and 8329 CE, are roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE. }} == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 7a''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in Figure 7a, these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|'''Figure 7a''': Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of Figure 7a, follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. Ideally, all of the black lines in Figure 7a could be discontinued and replaced by Bully timestamps going forward. === Why do we need Bully timestamps? === All the timestamps in '''Figure 7b''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ '''Figure 7b''': UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of Figure 7b attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of Figure 7b, breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3,055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950s, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic timekeeping (1958 AD – present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Estimation == [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 8a: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 8a'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 8b'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|'''Figure 8b''': The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in '''Figure 8c''' contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8c''': Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in '''Figure 8d''' (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8d''': Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 8d) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in '''Figure 8e''' is the same as is shown in Figure 8d, but Figure 8e plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8e''': A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in '''Figure 8f''' is similar to the table in Figure 8c, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 8c was for large z values, Figure 8f shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8f''': Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] egunsn85xi7nr8j6mgno0teuq88sz19 2832632 2832630 2026-09-10T18:13:54Z Unitfreak 695864 /* The Bully Timestamp Duration */ 2832632 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the Sun's orbit around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp occurs each time the Sun advances by roughly one solar radius along its path through the cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|upright=2.2|center|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] == One Solar Radius == The Sun hurtles around the Milky Way Galaxy at a blistering 0.076% of the speed of light ([https://arxiv.org/abs/1810.09466 229.0 ± 0.2 kilometers per second]). Yet, even at this staggering pace, it takes about five-sixths of an hour for the Sun to traverse a distance equal to its own radius. This highlights the truly colossal size of our star, which boasts a radius of 2.3206 light-seconds (695,700 kilometers). '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. During each '''3,055-second''' period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over '''2.33 light-seconds''', which is slightly more than one solar radius (<math>R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 2.33 \text{ ls} \gtrapprox R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', it is a vast, oblong, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into surrounding space. While somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, the latter is a comparatively thin layer of gas held near the planetary surface, whereas the heliosphere is a plasma constantly blasted into space by the Sun's extreme heat and energy. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is so vast that if it were truly spherical, it would take the Sun roughly 6.344 years to travel a distance equivalent to the heliosphere's diameter. The digit in the '''fifth position''' of a Bully timestamp represents this orbital distance. Figure 2 illustrates the motion of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. Timestamp 8209 ED00 0000 is defined to have occurred at exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16, 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. During each 6.344-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 306 astronomical units, which is slightly more than 65,536 solar radii (<math>16^{4}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 306 \text{ AU} \gtrapprox 16^{4}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === Naked-Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (not to scale) across 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' corresponds to approximately 383,000 B.C., while timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., representing a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a cyan dashed line marking 100 parsecs. The Sun travels a little less than this distance during each 416,000-year interval, which is tracked by the digit in the '''ninth position''' of the Bully timestamp. Because a large percentage of naked-eye stars sit within this 100-parsec radius, the appearance of Earth's night sky changes completely over this timeframe. [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of naked-eye stars binned according to brightness and distance from the Sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the Sun than 100 parsecs, which is the distance the Sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of naked-eye stars are within this 100-parsec travel distance of the Sun.]] During each 415,792-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 97 parsecs, which is slightly more than 4,294,967,296 solar radii (<math>16^{8}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 97 \text{ pc} \gtrapprox 16^{8}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> ==== The Bully Milky Way ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3b''': Division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 3b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid). Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000'''. These represent the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D., respectively, assuming a full orbital path around the Milky Way of roughly 50,000 parsecs. In the lower half of the image, cyan lines further divide a single yellow sector into 16 equal subsectors. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center in Figure 3b, corresponding to the 6 o'clock position, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle of the Sun at Bully timestamp 820A 0000 0000, estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D. The nine cyan grid lines to the right of the red line mark the Sun's polar angle for Bully timestamps 8201 0000 0000 through 8209 0000 0000. Meanwhile, the five cyan grid lines to the left of the red line indicate the polar angle for timestamps 820B 0000 0000 through 820F 0000 0000. <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,t_{\odot} \approx 212.9 \text{ million years} </math> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \sim 50,000 \text{ parsecs} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> == The Galactic Calendar == [[File:Galactic centre orbits.svg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 4a''':Inferred orbits of 6 stars around the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* at the Milky Way's center<ref name="Eisenhauer">{{cite journal|last=Eisenhauer|first=F.|display-authors=et al. |title=SINFONI in the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares in the Central Light-Month|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=July 20, 2005|volume=628|issue=1|pages=246–259|doi=10.1086/430667|bibcode=2005ApJ...628..246E|arxiv=astro-ph/0502129|s2cid=122485461 }}</ref>]] [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, labeled S2 in '''Figure 4a''', completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance from the Sun to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: &hairsp; :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \\ \end{align}</math> &hairsp; If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. ==== Idealized Galactic Weeks ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Weeks_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 4b''': Division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks of solar travel (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 4b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks (yellow grid). Each week represents 1,000 parsecs of solar travel, which in this plot is assumed to be traversed by the Sun in roughly 4.09 million years. Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000''', respectively, indicating the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D. The cyan lines in the lower half of the image further divide one sector into 10 equal subsectors of 100 parsecs each. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 4b, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun had during Bully timestamp 8209 D89D 89D8 (approximately 31,000 B.C.), which is 1,000 parsecs of travel beyond the yellow line representing timestamp 8200 0000 0000. The nine cyan lines to the left of the red line represent the polar angles of the Sun after traveling 1,100 through 1,900 parsecs beyond timestamp 8200 0000 0000. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2⁴¹ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4c''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. It outlines the specific Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved across this idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4c:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. ==== Is the Galactic Calendar Realistic? ==== [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4d:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250-million-year time period.]] The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4d). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4d''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in Figure 4c states that the galactic week beginning on timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark. ==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ==== In Figure 3a and Figure 3b, the Sun is shown to travel less than 50,000 parsecs per galactic year. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar shown in Figure 4b assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per galactic year, introducing a distinct discrepancy in both galactic scale and calculated orbital velocity. Because the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to complex gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is neither perfectly uniform nor entirely predictable. Consequently, the Sun's true orbital velocity remains a subject of ongoing discovery and refinement. The conjectured values used in Figure 3b and Figure 4b should be viewed as '''practical assumptions''' rather than a reflection of a stable, long-term physical reality; the idealized Bully Calendar is a '''conceptual model''' designed to help visualize the immense scale of the galactic orbit. The table in '''Figure 4e''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp up to 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | '''Figure 4e''': Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 100 parsecs per 16⁸ Bully timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps</small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | <small>2^18.597453 ≈ 396,635 </small> | <small>2^18.6438562 ≈ 409,600 </small> | <small>2^18.666224 ≈ 416,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | <small>2^14.597453 ≈ 24,789.7 </small> | <small>2^14.6438562 ≈ 25,600.0 </small> | <small>2^14.666224 ≈ 26,000.0 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | <small>2^10.597453 ≈ 1,549.36 </small> | <small>2^10.6438562 ≈ 1,600.00 </small> | <small>2^10.666224 ≈ 1,625.00 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁸''' | <small>2^6.597453 ≈ 96.8348 </small> | <small>2^6.6438562 ≈ 100.0000 </small> | <small>2^6.666224 ≈ 101.5625 </small> |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off-Nominal Values |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | <small>2^15.597453 ≈ 49,579 </small> | <small>2^15.6438562 ≈ 51,200 </small> | <small>2^15.666224 ≈ 52,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2²⁶''' | <small>2^0.597453 ≈ 1.513043 </small> | <small>2^0.6438562 ≈ 1.562500 </small> | <small>2^0.666224 ≈ 1.586914 </small> |} == The Earth and Moon == The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep-time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics. ==== Earth's sidereal year ==== The duration of Earth's sidereal year is '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. While gravitational perturbations from neighboring planets cause this value to vary by 20 to 25 minutes annually, the averaged century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given this relative stability, using a clean divisor of the sidereal year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system offers significant utility. Specifically, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds, meaning Earth's sidereal year—rounded to the nearest second—equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's tropical year ==== Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of seasons between successive vernal equinoxes, spans '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp shorter than the sidereal year, coming in at '''10,329.6 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's Great Year ==== With Earth's sidereal year (<math>P</math>) spanning 10,330 timestamps and the tropical year (<math>a_{t}</math>) spanning 10,329.6 timestamps, a full precessional cycle requires a number of years ratio, <math>N</math>, where the cumulative annual difference equals exactly one year: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} N &= \frac{1\text{ Bully timestamp}}{P - a_{t}} \\ &= \frac{1}{10,330 - 10,329.6} \\ &= \frac{1}{0.4} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; Expressing this duration in terms of sidereal years yields: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= 25,824 \, P \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; Alternatively, expressing the cycle in terms of tropical years yields: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= 25,825 \, a_{t} \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic|Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] ==== The Metonic cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23, 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp complete approximately three cycles per one Metonic cycle, as illustrated below: <div style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: inherit; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688; border-radius: 4px; line-height: 1.6; margin: 1em 0;"> '''July 23 New Moons:''' * July 23, 1998 — 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 — 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 — 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> * [[Bully Metric Metonic cycle|Learn More About The Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] ==== The Bully Timestamp Duration ==== While 3,055 seconds may appear to be an arbitrary choice, the length of a single Bully timestamp is mathematically derived from solar, lunar, and deep-time orbital mechanics. {{Quote box| align = center| width = 100%| title = Bully Timestamp Duration | text = Justification: # The Sun orbits approximately one solar radius per Bully timestamp: [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics#Solar_Radius_Mnemonics|<math> t_{\odot} \equiv 3,055 \text{ seconds} </math>]] # The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year: [[Bully Mnemonic |31558150 s = 10330 × 3055 s]]. # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of the Earth–Moon Metonic cycle: [https://www.google.com/search?q=3+*+16%5E4+*+3055+s 1 Metonic cycle ≈ 3 × 16⁴ × 3055 s] # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of Earth's Great Year: [https://www.google.com/search?q=16%5E7+*+3055+s 1 Great Year ≈ 16⁷ × 3055 s]. # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of the galactic year: [https://www.google.com/search?q=2+*+16%5E10+*+3055+s 1 galactic year ≈ 2 × 16¹⁰ × 3055 s] }} == Anchoring Bully Timestamps == To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''. === The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 6a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]], where the plane intersects the Galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 6a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] ==== Bullies in the Bully System ==== A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in Figure 6a: * '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign. * '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left. * '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left. As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history: {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was “sweetheart”. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, “lover”. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}} Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of "excellent" or "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. {{Quote box| align = center | width = full | title = The "Bully" Name | text = The specific "bullies" in the "Bully" timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}} === A surrogate for the Sun === As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving. The path of the node can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°): <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4c''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 6b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}'''. (Note: Figure 4c assumes an idealized travel distance of exactly 52,000 parsecs (or 2^15.666224) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps, whereas Figure 6b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs (or 2^15.666040) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center;" |+ '''Figure 6b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 3px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled in parsecs |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B32}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5058}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.100 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|820A D4AD 4AD4}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1099.86''}}}} |} {{Quote box| align = center| width = full| title = Bully Timestamp Anchor| text = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 6b).}} ==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ==== In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 6c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days. The Earth's orbital speed varies throughout the year, moving slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Consequently, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season. As shown in Figure 6c, '''winter''' was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. It took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to '''spring''' being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to '''summer'''. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over '''21,000 years'''. [[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 6c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]] Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 6c. The transition from '''spring to summer''' is correlated with a large '''green dot''' and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large '''red dot''' appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from '''summer to autumn''', and a large '''blue dot''', back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from '''winter to spring'''. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,500 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly '''26,000 years''' (1 Great Year ≈ 25,824 sidereal years ≈ 25,825 tropical years). {{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | text = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred near the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. All of the Galactic crossings shown in Figure 6c, at 4495 BCE, 1998 CE, and 8329 CE, are roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE. }} == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 7a''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in Figure 7a, these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|'''Figure 7a''': Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of Figure 7a, follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. Ideally, all of the black lines in Figure 7a could be discontinued and replaced by Bully timestamps going forward. === Why do we need Bully timestamps? === All the timestamps in '''Figure 7b''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ '''Figure 7b''': UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of Figure 7b attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of Figure 7b, breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3,055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950s, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic timekeeping (1958 AD – present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Estimation == [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 8a: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 8a'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 8b'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|'''Figure 8b''': The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in '''Figure 8c''' contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8c''': Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in '''Figure 8d''' (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8d''': Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 8d) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in '''Figure 8e''' is the same as is shown in Figure 8d, but Figure 8e plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8e''': A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in '''Figure 8f''' is similar to the table in Figure 8c, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 8c was for large z values, Figure 8f shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8f''': Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] qg7et069hxkjpqsafsjqkkocd7w1rim 2832633 2832632 2026-09-10T18:16:51Z Unitfreak 695864 /* The Bully Timestamp Duration */ 2832633 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the Sun's orbit around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp occurs each time the Sun advances by roughly one solar radius along its path through the cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|upright=2.2|center|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] == One Solar Radius == The Sun hurtles around the Milky Way Galaxy at a blistering 0.076% of the speed of light ([https://arxiv.org/abs/1810.09466 229.0 ± 0.2 kilometers per second]). Yet, even at this staggering pace, it takes about five-sixths of an hour for the Sun to traverse a distance equal to its own radius. This highlights the truly colossal size of our star, which boasts a radius of 2.3206 light-seconds (695,700 kilometers). '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. During each '''3,055-second''' period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over '''2.33 light-seconds''', which is slightly more than one solar radius (<math>R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 2.33 \text{ ls} \gtrapprox R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', it is a vast, oblong, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into surrounding space. While somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, the latter is a comparatively thin layer of gas held near the planetary surface, whereas the heliosphere is a plasma constantly blasted into space by the Sun's extreme heat and energy. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is so vast that if it were truly spherical, it would take the Sun roughly 6.344 years to travel a distance equivalent to the heliosphere's diameter. The digit in the '''fifth position''' of a Bully timestamp represents this orbital distance. Figure 2 illustrates the motion of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. Timestamp 8209 ED00 0000 is defined to have occurred at exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16, 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. During each 6.344-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 306 astronomical units, which is slightly more than 65,536 solar radii (<math>16^{4}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 306 \text{ AU} \gtrapprox 16^{4}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === Naked-Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (not to scale) across 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' corresponds to approximately 383,000 B.C., while timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., representing a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a cyan dashed line marking 100 parsecs. The Sun travels a little less than this distance during each 416,000-year interval, which is tracked by the digit in the '''ninth position''' of the Bully timestamp. Because a large percentage of naked-eye stars sit within this 100-parsec radius, the appearance of Earth's night sky changes completely over this timeframe. [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of naked-eye stars binned according to brightness and distance from the Sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the Sun than 100 parsecs, which is the distance the Sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of naked-eye stars are within this 100-parsec travel distance of the Sun.]] During each 415,792-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 97 parsecs, which is slightly more than 4,294,967,296 solar radii (<math>16^{8}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 97 \text{ pc} \gtrapprox 16^{8}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> ==== The Bully Milky Way ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3b''': Division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 3b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid). Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000'''. These represent the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D., respectively, assuming a full orbital path around the Milky Way of roughly 50,000 parsecs. In the lower half of the image, cyan lines further divide a single yellow sector into 16 equal subsectors. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center in Figure 3b, corresponding to the 6 o'clock position, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle of the Sun at Bully timestamp 820A 0000 0000, estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D. The nine cyan grid lines to the right of the red line mark the Sun's polar angle for Bully timestamps 8201 0000 0000 through 8209 0000 0000. Meanwhile, the five cyan grid lines to the left of the red line indicate the polar angle for timestamps 820B 0000 0000 through 820F 0000 0000. <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,t_{\odot} \approx 212.9 \text{ million years} </math> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \sim 50,000 \text{ parsecs} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> == The Galactic Calendar == [[File:Galactic centre orbits.svg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 4a''':Inferred orbits of 6 stars around the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* at the Milky Way's center<ref name="Eisenhauer">{{cite journal|last=Eisenhauer|first=F.|display-authors=et al. |title=SINFONI in the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares in the Central Light-Month|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=July 20, 2005|volume=628|issue=1|pages=246–259|doi=10.1086/430667|bibcode=2005ApJ...628..246E|arxiv=astro-ph/0502129|s2cid=122485461 }}</ref>]] [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, labeled S2 in '''Figure 4a''', completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance from the Sun to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: &hairsp; :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \\ \end{align}</math> &hairsp; If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. ==== Idealized Galactic Weeks ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Weeks_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 4b''': Division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks of solar travel (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 4b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks (yellow grid). Each week represents 1,000 parsecs of solar travel, which in this plot is assumed to be traversed by the Sun in roughly 4.09 million years. Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000''', respectively, indicating the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D. The cyan lines in the lower half of the image further divide one sector into 10 equal subsectors of 100 parsecs each. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 4b, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun had during Bully timestamp 8209 D89D 89D8 (approximately 31,000 B.C.), which is 1,000 parsecs of travel beyond the yellow line representing timestamp 8200 0000 0000. The nine cyan lines to the left of the red line represent the polar angles of the Sun after traveling 1,100 through 1,900 parsecs beyond timestamp 8200 0000 0000. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2⁴¹ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4c''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. It outlines the specific Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved across this idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4c:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. ==== Is the Galactic Calendar Realistic? ==== [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4d:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250-million-year time period.]] The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4d). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4d''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in Figure 4c states that the galactic week beginning on timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark. ==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ==== In Figure 3a and Figure 3b, the Sun is shown to travel less than 50,000 parsecs per galactic year. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar shown in Figure 4b assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per galactic year, introducing a distinct discrepancy in both galactic scale and calculated orbital velocity. Because the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to complex gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is neither perfectly uniform nor entirely predictable. Consequently, the Sun's true orbital velocity remains a subject of ongoing discovery and refinement. The conjectured values used in Figure 3b and Figure 4b should be viewed as '''practical assumptions''' rather than a reflection of a stable, long-term physical reality; the idealized Bully Calendar is a '''conceptual model''' designed to help visualize the immense scale of the galactic orbit. The table in '''Figure 4e''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp up to 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | '''Figure 4e''': Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 100 parsecs per 16⁸ Bully timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps</small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | <small>2^18.597453 ≈ 396,635 </small> | <small>2^18.6438562 ≈ 409,600 </small> | <small>2^18.666224 ≈ 416,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | <small>2^14.597453 ≈ 24,789.7 </small> | <small>2^14.6438562 ≈ 25,600.0 </small> | <small>2^14.666224 ≈ 26,000.0 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | <small>2^10.597453 ≈ 1,549.36 </small> | <small>2^10.6438562 ≈ 1,600.00 </small> | <small>2^10.666224 ≈ 1,625.00 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁸''' | <small>2^6.597453 ≈ 96.8348 </small> | <small>2^6.6438562 ≈ 100.0000 </small> | <small>2^6.666224 ≈ 101.5625 </small> |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off-Nominal Values |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | <small>2^15.597453 ≈ 49,579 </small> | <small>2^15.6438562 ≈ 51,200 </small> | <small>2^15.666224 ≈ 52,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2²⁶''' | <small>2^0.597453 ≈ 1.513043 </small> | <small>2^0.6438562 ≈ 1.562500 </small> | <small>2^0.666224 ≈ 1.586914 </small> |} == The Earth and Moon == The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep-time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics. ==== Earth's sidereal year ==== The duration of Earth's sidereal year is '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. While gravitational perturbations from neighboring planets cause this value to vary by 20 to 25 minutes annually, the averaged century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given this relative stability, using a clean divisor of the sidereal year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system offers significant utility. Specifically, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds, meaning Earth's sidereal year—rounded to the nearest second—equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's tropical year ==== Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of seasons between successive vernal equinoxes, spans '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp shorter than the sidereal year, coming in at '''10,329.6 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's Great Year ==== With Earth's sidereal year (<math>P</math>) spanning 10,330 timestamps and the tropical year (<math>a_{t}</math>) spanning 10,329.6 timestamps, a full precessional cycle requires a number of years ratio, <math>N</math>, where the cumulative annual difference equals exactly one year: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} N &= \frac{1\text{ Bully timestamp}}{P - a_{t}} \\ &= \frac{1}{10,330 - 10,329.6} \\ &= \frac{1}{0.4} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; Expressing this duration in terms of sidereal years yields: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= 25,824 \, P \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; Alternatively, expressing the cycle in terms of tropical years yields: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= 25,825 \, a_{t} \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic|Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] ==== The Metonic cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23, 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp complete approximately three cycles per one Metonic cycle, as illustrated below: <div style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: inherit; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688; border-radius: 4px; line-height: 1.6; margin: 1em 0;"> '''July 23 New Moons:''' * July 23, 1998 — 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 — 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 — 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> * [[Bully Metric Metonic cycle|Learn More About The Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] ==== The Bully Timestamp Duration ==== While 3,055 seconds may appear to be an arbitrary choice, the length of a single Bully timestamp is mathematically derived from solar, lunar, and deep-time orbital mechanics. {{Quote box| align = center| width = 100%| title = Bully Timestamp Duration | text = Justification: # The Sun orbits approximately one solar radius per Bully timestamp: [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics#Solar_Radius_Mnemonics|<math> t_{\odot} \equiv 3,055 \text{ seconds} </math>]] # The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year: [[Bully Mnemonic |31558150 s = 10330 × 3055 s]]. # Approximate divisor of the ratio of the speed of light with g_earth: [https://www.google.com/search?q=c+%2F+g_earth+in+megaseconds c / g_earth ≈ 30.55 Ms] # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of the Earth–Moon Metonic cycle: [https://www.google.com/search?q=3+*+16%5E4+*+3055+s 1 Metonic cycle ≈ 3 × 16⁴ × 3055 s] # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of Earth's Great Year: [https://www.google.com/search?q=16%5E7+*+3055+s 1 Great Year ≈ 16⁷ × 3055 s]. # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of the galactic year: [https://www.google.com/search?q=2+*+16%5E10+*+3055+s 1 galactic year ≈ 2 × 16¹⁰ × 3055 s] }} == Anchoring Bully Timestamps == To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''. === The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 6a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]], where the plane intersects the Galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 6a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] ==== Bullies in the Bully System ==== A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in Figure 6a: * '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign. * '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left. * '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left. As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history: {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was “sweetheart”. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, “lover”. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}} Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of "excellent" or "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. {{Quote box| align = center | width = full | title = The "Bully" Name | text = The specific "bullies" in the "Bully" timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}} === A surrogate for the Sun === As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving. The path of the node can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°): <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4c''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 6b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}'''. (Note: Figure 4c assumes an idealized travel distance of exactly 52,000 parsecs (or 2^15.666224) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps, whereas Figure 6b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs (or 2^15.666040) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center;" |+ '''Figure 6b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 3px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled in parsecs |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B32}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5058}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.100 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|820A D4AD 4AD4}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1099.86''}}}} |} {{Quote box| align = center| width = full| title = Bully Timestamp Anchor| text = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 6b).}} ==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ==== In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 6c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days. The Earth's orbital speed varies throughout the year, moving slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Consequently, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season. As shown in Figure 6c, '''winter''' was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. It took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to '''spring''' being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to '''summer'''. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over '''21,000 years'''. [[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 6c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]] Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 6c. The transition from '''spring to summer''' is correlated with a large '''green dot''' and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large '''red dot''' appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from '''summer to autumn''', and a large '''blue dot''', back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from '''winter to spring'''. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,500 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly '''26,000 years''' (1 Great Year ≈ 25,824 sidereal years ≈ 25,825 tropical years). {{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | text = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred near the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. All of the Galactic crossings shown in Figure 6c, at 4495 BCE, 1998 CE, and 8329 CE, are roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE. }} == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 7a''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in Figure 7a, these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|'''Figure 7a''': Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of Figure 7a, follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. Ideally, all of the black lines in Figure 7a could be discontinued and replaced by Bully timestamps going forward. === Why do we need Bully timestamps? === All the timestamps in '''Figure 7b''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ '''Figure 7b''': UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of Figure 7b attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of Figure 7b, breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3,055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950s, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic timekeeping (1958 AD – present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Estimation == [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 8a: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 8a'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 8b'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|'''Figure 8b''': The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in '''Figure 8c''' contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8c''': Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in '''Figure 8d''' (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8d''': Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 8d) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in '''Figure 8e''' is the same as is shown in Figure 8d, but Figure 8e plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8e''': A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in '''Figure 8f''' is similar to the table in Figure 8c, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 8c was for large z values, Figure 8f shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8f''': Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] 7uozrecsjpgo9g0xl831orrcrb6ymna 2832634 2832633 2026-09-10T18:18:32Z Unitfreak 695864 /* The Bully Timestamp Duration */ 2832634 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the Sun's orbit around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp occurs each time the Sun advances by roughly one solar radius along its path through the cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|upright=2.2|center|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] == One Solar Radius == The Sun hurtles around the Milky Way Galaxy at a blistering 0.076% of the speed of light ([https://arxiv.org/abs/1810.09466 229.0 ± 0.2 kilometers per second]). Yet, even at this staggering pace, it takes about five-sixths of an hour for the Sun to traverse a distance equal to its own radius. This highlights the truly colossal size of our star, which boasts a radius of 2.3206 light-seconds (695,700 kilometers). '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. During each '''3,055-second''' period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over '''2.33 light-seconds''', which is slightly more than one solar radius (<math>R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 2.33 \text{ ls} \gtrapprox R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', it is a vast, oblong, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into surrounding space. While somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, the latter is a comparatively thin layer of gas held near the planetary surface, whereas the heliosphere is a plasma constantly blasted into space by the Sun's extreme heat and energy. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is so vast that if it were truly spherical, it would take the Sun roughly 6.344 years to travel a distance equivalent to the heliosphere's diameter. The digit in the '''fifth position''' of a Bully timestamp represents this orbital distance. Figure 2 illustrates the motion of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. Timestamp 8209 ED00 0000 is defined to have occurred at exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16, 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. During each 6.344-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 306 astronomical units, which is slightly more than 65,536 solar radii (<math>16^{4}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 306 \text{ AU} \gtrapprox 16^{4}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === Naked-Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (not to scale) across 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' corresponds to approximately 383,000 B.C., while timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., representing a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a cyan dashed line marking 100 parsecs. The Sun travels a little less than this distance during each 416,000-year interval, which is tracked by the digit in the '''ninth position''' of the Bully timestamp. Because a large percentage of naked-eye stars sit within this 100-parsec radius, the appearance of Earth's night sky changes completely over this timeframe. [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of naked-eye stars binned according to brightness and distance from the Sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the Sun than 100 parsecs, which is the distance the Sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of naked-eye stars are within this 100-parsec travel distance of the Sun.]] During each 415,792-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 97 parsecs, which is slightly more than 4,294,967,296 solar radii (<math>16^{8}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 97 \text{ pc} \gtrapprox 16^{8}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> ==== The Bully Milky Way ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3b''': Division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 3b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid). Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000'''. These represent the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D., respectively, assuming a full orbital path around the Milky Way of roughly 50,000 parsecs. In the lower half of the image, cyan lines further divide a single yellow sector into 16 equal subsectors. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center in Figure 3b, corresponding to the 6 o'clock position, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle of the Sun at Bully timestamp 820A 0000 0000, estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D. The nine cyan grid lines to the right of the red line mark the Sun's polar angle for Bully timestamps 8201 0000 0000 through 8209 0000 0000. Meanwhile, the five cyan grid lines to the left of the red line indicate the polar angle for timestamps 820B 0000 0000 through 820F 0000 0000. <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,t_{\odot} \approx 212.9 \text{ million years} </math> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \sim 50,000 \text{ parsecs} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> == The Galactic Calendar == [[File:Galactic centre orbits.svg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 4a''':Inferred orbits of 6 stars around the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* at the Milky Way's center<ref name="Eisenhauer">{{cite journal|last=Eisenhauer|first=F.|display-authors=et al. |title=SINFONI in the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares in the Central Light-Month|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=July 20, 2005|volume=628|issue=1|pages=246–259|doi=10.1086/430667|bibcode=2005ApJ...628..246E|arxiv=astro-ph/0502129|s2cid=122485461 }}</ref>]] [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, labeled S2 in '''Figure 4a''', completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance from the Sun to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: &hairsp; :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \\ \end{align}</math> &hairsp; If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. ==== Idealized Galactic Weeks ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Weeks_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 4b''': Division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks of solar travel (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 4b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks (yellow grid). Each week represents 1,000 parsecs of solar travel, which in this plot is assumed to be traversed by the Sun in roughly 4.09 million years. Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000''', respectively, indicating the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D. The cyan lines in the lower half of the image further divide one sector into 10 equal subsectors of 100 parsecs each. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 4b, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun had during Bully timestamp 8209 D89D 89D8 (approximately 31,000 B.C.), which is 1,000 parsecs of travel beyond the yellow line representing timestamp 8200 0000 0000. The nine cyan lines to the left of the red line represent the polar angles of the Sun after traveling 1,100 through 1,900 parsecs beyond timestamp 8200 0000 0000. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2⁴¹ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4c''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. It outlines the specific Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved across this idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4c:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. ==== Is the Galactic Calendar Realistic? ==== [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4d:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250-million-year time period.]] The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4d). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4d''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in Figure 4c states that the galactic week beginning on timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark. ==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ==== In Figure 3a and Figure 3b, the Sun is shown to travel less than 50,000 parsecs per galactic year. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar shown in Figure 4b assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per galactic year, introducing a distinct discrepancy in both galactic scale and calculated orbital velocity. Because the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to complex gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is neither perfectly uniform nor entirely predictable. Consequently, the Sun's true orbital velocity remains a subject of ongoing discovery and refinement. The conjectured values used in Figure 3b and Figure 4b should be viewed as '''practical assumptions''' rather than a reflection of a stable, long-term physical reality; the idealized Bully Calendar is a '''conceptual model''' designed to help visualize the immense scale of the galactic orbit. The table in '''Figure 4e''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp up to 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | '''Figure 4e''': Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 100 parsecs per 16⁸ Bully timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps</small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | <small>2^18.597453 ≈ 396,635 </small> | <small>2^18.6438562 ≈ 409,600 </small> | <small>2^18.666224 ≈ 416,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | <small>2^14.597453 ≈ 24,789.7 </small> | <small>2^14.6438562 ≈ 25,600.0 </small> | <small>2^14.666224 ≈ 26,000.0 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | <small>2^10.597453 ≈ 1,549.36 </small> | <small>2^10.6438562 ≈ 1,600.00 </small> | <small>2^10.666224 ≈ 1,625.00 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁸''' | <small>2^6.597453 ≈ 96.8348 </small> | <small>2^6.6438562 ≈ 100.0000 </small> | <small>2^6.666224 ≈ 101.5625 </small> |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off-Nominal Values |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | <small>2^15.597453 ≈ 49,579 </small> | <small>2^15.6438562 ≈ 51,200 </small> | <small>2^15.666224 ≈ 52,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2²⁶''' | <small>2^0.597453 ≈ 1.513043 </small> | <small>2^0.6438562 ≈ 1.562500 </small> | <small>2^0.666224 ≈ 1.586914 </small> |} == The Earth and Moon == The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep-time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics. ==== Earth's sidereal year ==== The duration of Earth's sidereal year is '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. While gravitational perturbations from neighboring planets cause this value to vary by 20 to 25 minutes annually, the averaged century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given this relative stability, using a clean divisor of the sidereal year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system offers significant utility. Specifically, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds, meaning Earth's sidereal year—rounded to the nearest second—equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's tropical year ==== Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of seasons between successive vernal equinoxes, spans '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp shorter than the sidereal year, coming in at '''10,329.6 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's Great Year ==== With Earth's sidereal year (<math>P</math>) spanning 10,330 timestamps and the tropical year (<math>a_{t}</math>) spanning 10,329.6 timestamps, a full precessional cycle requires a number of years ratio, <math>N</math>, where the cumulative annual difference equals exactly one year: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} N &= \frac{1\text{ Bully timestamp}}{P - a_{t}} \\ &= \frac{1}{10,330 - 10,329.6} \\ &= \frac{1}{0.4} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; Expressing this duration in terms of sidereal years yields: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= 25,824 \, P \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; Alternatively, expressing the cycle in terms of tropical years yields: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= 25,825 \, a_{t} \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic|Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] ==== The Metonic cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23, 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp complete approximately three cycles per one Metonic cycle, as illustrated below: <div style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: inherit; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688; border-radius: 4px; line-height: 1.6; margin: 1em 0;"> '''July 23 New Moons:''' * July 23, 1998 — 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 — 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 — 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> * [[Bully Metric Metonic cycle|Learn More About The Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Anchoring Bully Timestamps == To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''. === The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 6a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]], where the plane intersects the Galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 6a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] ==== Bullies in the Bully System ==== A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in Figure 6a: * '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign. * '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left. * '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left. As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history: {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was “sweetheart”. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, “lover”. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}} Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of "excellent" or "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. {{Quote box| align = center | width = full | title = The "Bully" Name | text = The specific "bullies" in the "Bully" timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}} === A surrogate for the Sun === As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving. The path of the node can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°): <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4c''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 6b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}'''. (Note: Figure 4c assumes an idealized travel distance of exactly 52,000 parsecs (or 2^15.666224) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps, whereas Figure 6b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs (or 2^15.666040) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center;" |+ '''Figure 6b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 3px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled in parsecs |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B32}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5058}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.100 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|820A D4AD 4AD4}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1099.86''}}}} |} {{Quote box| align = center| width = full| title = Bully Timestamp Anchor| text = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 6b).}} ==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ==== In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 6c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days. The Earth's orbital speed varies throughout the year, moving slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Consequently, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season. As shown in Figure 6c, '''winter''' was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. It took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to '''spring''' being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to '''summer'''. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over '''21,000 years'''. [[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 6c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]] Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 6c. The transition from '''spring to summer''' is correlated with a large '''green dot''' and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large '''red dot''' appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from '''summer to autumn''', and a large '''blue dot''', back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from '''winter to spring'''. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,500 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly '''26,000 years''' (1 Great Year ≈ 25,824 sidereal years ≈ 25,825 tropical years). {{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | text = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred near the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. All of the Galactic crossings shown in Figure 6c, at 4495 BCE, 1998 CE, and 8329 CE, are roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE. }} == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 7a''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in Figure 7a, these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|'''Figure 7a''': Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of Figure 7a, follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. Ideally, all of the black lines in Figure 7a could be discontinued and replaced by Bully timestamps going forward. === Why do we need Bully timestamps? === All the timestamps in '''Figure 7b''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ '''Figure 7b''': UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of Figure 7b attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of Figure 7b, breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3,055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950s, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic timekeeping (1958 AD – present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Estimation == [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 8a: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 8a'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 8b'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|'''Figure 8b''': The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in '''Figure 8c''' contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8c''': Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in '''Figure 8d''' (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8d''': Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 8d) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in '''Figure 8e''' is the same as is shown in Figure 8d, but Figure 8e plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8e''': A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in '''Figure 8f''' is similar to the table in Figure 8c, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 8c was for large z values, Figure 8f shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8f''': Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] l0lwfclj3gr6g5jq8bx8zz838vvp4md 2832636 2832634 2026-09-10T18:19:08Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Anchoring Bully Timestamps */ 2832636 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the Sun's orbit around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp occurs each time the Sun advances by roughly one solar radius along its path through the cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|upright=2.2|center|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] == One Solar Radius == The Sun hurtles around the Milky Way Galaxy at a blistering 0.076% of the speed of light ([https://arxiv.org/abs/1810.09466 229.0 ± 0.2 kilometers per second]). Yet, even at this staggering pace, it takes about five-sixths of an hour for the Sun to traverse a distance equal to its own radius. This highlights the truly colossal size of our star, which boasts a radius of 2.3206 light-seconds (695,700 kilometers). '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. During each '''3,055-second''' period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over '''2.33 light-seconds''', which is slightly more than one solar radius (<math>R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 2.33 \text{ ls} \gtrapprox R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', it is a vast, oblong, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into surrounding space. While somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, the latter is a comparatively thin layer of gas held near the planetary surface, whereas the heliosphere is a plasma constantly blasted into space by the Sun's extreme heat and energy. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is so vast that if it were truly spherical, it would take the Sun roughly 6.344 years to travel a distance equivalent to the heliosphere's diameter. The digit in the '''fifth position''' of a Bully timestamp represents this orbital distance. Figure 2 illustrates the motion of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. Timestamp 8209 ED00 0000 is defined to have occurred at exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16, 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. During each 6.344-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 306 astronomical units, which is slightly more than 65,536 solar radii (<math>16^{4}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 306 \text{ AU} \gtrapprox 16^{4}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === Naked-Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (not to scale) across 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' corresponds to approximately 383,000 B.C., while timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., representing a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a cyan dashed line marking 100 parsecs. The Sun travels a little less than this distance during each 416,000-year interval, which is tracked by the digit in the '''ninth position''' of the Bully timestamp. Because a large percentage of naked-eye stars sit within this 100-parsec radius, the appearance of Earth's night sky changes completely over this timeframe. [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of naked-eye stars binned according to brightness and distance from the Sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the Sun than 100 parsecs, which is the distance the Sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of naked-eye stars are within this 100-parsec travel distance of the Sun.]] During each 415,792-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 97 parsecs, which is slightly more than 4,294,967,296 solar radii (<math>16^{8}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 97 \text{ pc} \gtrapprox 16^{8}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> ==== The Bully Milky Way ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3b''': Division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 3b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid). Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000'''. These represent the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D., respectively, assuming a full orbital path around the Milky Way of roughly 50,000 parsecs. In the lower half of the image, cyan lines further divide a single yellow sector into 16 equal subsectors. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center in Figure 3b, corresponding to the 6 o'clock position, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle of the Sun at Bully timestamp 820A 0000 0000, estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D. The nine cyan grid lines to the right of the red line mark the Sun's polar angle for Bully timestamps 8201 0000 0000 through 8209 0000 0000. Meanwhile, the five cyan grid lines to the left of the red line indicate the polar angle for timestamps 820B 0000 0000 through 820F 0000 0000. <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,t_{\odot} \approx 212.9 \text{ million years} </math> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \sim 50,000 \text{ parsecs} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> == The Galactic Calendar == [[File:Galactic centre orbits.svg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 4a''':Inferred orbits of 6 stars around the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* at the Milky Way's center<ref name="Eisenhauer">{{cite journal|last=Eisenhauer|first=F.|display-authors=et al. |title=SINFONI in the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares in the Central Light-Month|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=July 20, 2005|volume=628|issue=1|pages=246–259|doi=10.1086/430667|bibcode=2005ApJ...628..246E|arxiv=astro-ph/0502129|s2cid=122485461 }}</ref>]] [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, labeled S2 in '''Figure 4a''', completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance from the Sun to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: &hairsp; :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \\ \end{align}</math> &hairsp; If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. ==== Idealized Galactic Weeks ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Weeks_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 4b''': Division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks of solar travel (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 4b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks (yellow grid). Each week represents 1,000 parsecs of solar travel, which in this plot is assumed to be traversed by the Sun in roughly 4.09 million years. Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000''', respectively, indicating the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D. The cyan lines in the lower half of the image further divide one sector into 10 equal subsectors of 100 parsecs each. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 4b, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun had during Bully timestamp 8209 D89D 89D8 (approximately 31,000 B.C.), which is 1,000 parsecs of travel beyond the yellow line representing timestamp 8200 0000 0000. The nine cyan lines to the left of the red line represent the polar angles of the Sun after traveling 1,100 through 1,900 parsecs beyond timestamp 8200 0000 0000. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2⁴¹ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4c''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. It outlines the specific Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved across this idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4c:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. ==== Is the Galactic Calendar Realistic? ==== [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4d:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250-million-year time period.]] The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4d). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4d''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in Figure 4c states that the galactic week beginning on timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark. ==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ==== In Figure 3a and Figure 3b, the Sun is shown to travel less than 50,000 parsecs per galactic year. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar shown in Figure 4b assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per galactic year, introducing a distinct discrepancy in both galactic scale and calculated orbital velocity. Because the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to complex gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is neither perfectly uniform nor entirely predictable. Consequently, the Sun's true orbital velocity remains a subject of ongoing discovery and refinement. The conjectured values used in Figure 3b and Figure 4b should be viewed as '''practical assumptions''' rather than a reflection of a stable, long-term physical reality; the idealized Bully Calendar is a '''conceptual model''' designed to help visualize the immense scale of the galactic orbit. The table in '''Figure 4e''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp up to 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | '''Figure 4e''': Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 100 parsecs per 16⁸ Bully timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps</small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | <small>2^18.597453 ≈ 396,635 </small> | <small>2^18.6438562 ≈ 409,600 </small> | <small>2^18.666224 ≈ 416,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | <small>2^14.597453 ≈ 24,789.7 </small> | <small>2^14.6438562 ≈ 25,600.0 </small> | <small>2^14.666224 ≈ 26,000.0 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | <small>2^10.597453 ≈ 1,549.36 </small> | <small>2^10.6438562 ≈ 1,600.00 </small> | <small>2^10.666224 ≈ 1,625.00 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁸''' | <small>2^6.597453 ≈ 96.8348 </small> | <small>2^6.6438562 ≈ 100.0000 </small> | <small>2^6.666224 ≈ 101.5625 </small> |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off-Nominal Values |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | <small>2^15.597453 ≈ 49,579 </small> | <small>2^15.6438562 ≈ 51,200 </small> | <small>2^15.666224 ≈ 52,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2²⁶''' | <small>2^0.597453 ≈ 1.513043 </small> | <small>2^0.6438562 ≈ 1.562500 </small> | <small>2^0.666224 ≈ 1.586914 </small> |} == The Earth and Moon == The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep-time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics. ==== Earth's sidereal year ==== The duration of Earth's sidereal year is '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. While gravitational perturbations from neighboring planets cause this value to vary by 20 to 25 minutes annually, the averaged century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given this relative stability, using a clean divisor of the sidereal year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system offers significant utility. Specifically, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds, meaning Earth's sidereal year—rounded to the nearest second—equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's tropical year ==== Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of seasons between successive vernal equinoxes, spans '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp shorter than the sidereal year, coming in at '''10,329.6 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's Great Year ==== With Earth's sidereal year (<math>P</math>) spanning 10,330 timestamps and the tropical year (<math>a_{t}</math>) spanning 10,329.6 timestamps, a full precessional cycle requires a number of years ratio, <math>N</math>, where the cumulative annual difference equals exactly one year: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} N &= \frac{1\text{ Bully timestamp}}{P - a_{t}} \\ &= \frac{1}{10,330 - 10,329.6} \\ &= \frac{1}{0.4} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; Expressing this duration in terms of sidereal years yields: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= 25,824 \, P \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; Alternatively, expressing the cycle in terms of tropical years yields: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= 25,825 \, a_{t} \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic|Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] ==== The Metonic cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23, 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp complete approximately three cycles per one Metonic cycle, as illustrated below: <div style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: inherit; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688; border-radius: 4px; line-height: 1.6; margin: 1em 0;"> '''July 23 New Moons:''' * July 23, 1998 — 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 — 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 — 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> * [[Bully Metric Metonic cycle|Learn More About The Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Anchoring Bully Timestamps == To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''. === The Bully Timestamp Duration === While 3,055 seconds may appear to be an arbitrary choice, the length of a single Bully timestamp is mathematically derived from solar, lunar, and deep-time orbital mechanics. {{Quote box| align = center| width = 100%| title = Bully Timestamp Duration | text = Justification: # The Sun orbits approximately one solar radius per Bully timestamp: [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics#Solar_Radius_Mnemonics|<math> t_{\odot} \equiv 3,055 \text{ seconds} </math>]] # The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year: [[Bully Mnemonic |31558150 s = 10330 × 3055 s]]. # Approximate divisor of the ratio of the speed of light with g_earth: [https://www.google.com/search?q=c+%2F+g_earth+in+megaseconds c / g_earth ≈ 30.55 Ms] # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of the Earth–Moon Metonic cycle: [https://www.google.com/search?q=3+*+16%5E4+*+3055+s 1 Metonic cycle ≈ 3 × 16⁴ × 3055 s] # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of Earth's Great Year: [https://www.google.com/search?q=16%5E7+*+3055+s 1 Great Year ≈ 16⁷ × 3055 s]. # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of the galactic year: [https://www.google.com/search?q=2+*+16%5E10+*+3055+s 1 galactic year ≈ 2 × 16¹⁰ × 3055 s] }} === The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 6a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]], where the plane intersects the Galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 6a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] ==== Bullies in the Bully System ==== A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in Figure 6a: * '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign. * '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left. * '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left. As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history: {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was “sweetheart”. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, “lover”. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}} Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of "excellent" or "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. {{Quote box| align = center | width = full | title = The "Bully" Name | text = The specific "bullies" in the "Bully" timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}} === A surrogate for the Sun === As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving. The path of the node can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°): <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4c''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 6b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}'''. (Note: Figure 4c assumes an idealized travel distance of exactly 52,000 parsecs (or 2^15.666224) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps, whereas Figure 6b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs (or 2^15.666040) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center;" |+ '''Figure 6b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 3px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled in parsecs |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B32}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5058}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.100 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|820A D4AD 4AD4}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1099.86''}}}} |} {{Quote box| align = center| width = full| title = Bully Timestamp Anchor| text = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 6b).}} ==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ==== In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 6c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days. The Earth's orbital speed varies throughout the year, moving slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Consequently, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season. As shown in Figure 6c, '''winter''' was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. It took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to '''spring''' being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to '''summer'''. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over '''21,000 years'''. [[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 6c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]] Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 6c. The transition from '''spring to summer''' is correlated with a large '''green dot''' and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large '''red dot''' appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from '''summer to autumn''', and a large '''blue dot''', back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from '''winter to spring'''. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,500 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly '''26,000 years''' (1 Great Year ≈ 25,824 sidereal years ≈ 25,825 tropical years). {{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | text = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred near the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. All of the Galactic crossings shown in Figure 6c, at 4495 BCE, 1998 CE, and 8329 CE, are roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE. }} == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 7a''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in Figure 7a, these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|'''Figure 7a''': Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of Figure 7a, follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. Ideally, all of the black lines in Figure 7a could be discontinued and replaced by Bully timestamps going forward. === Why do we need Bully timestamps? === All the timestamps in '''Figure 7b''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ '''Figure 7b''': UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of Figure 7b attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of Figure 7b, breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3,055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950s, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic timekeeping (1958 AD – present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Estimation == [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 8a: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 8a'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 8b'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|'''Figure 8b''': The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in '''Figure 8c''' contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8c''': Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in '''Figure 8d''' (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8d''': Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 8d) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in '''Figure 8e''' is the same as is shown in Figure 8d, but Figure 8e plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8e''': A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in '''Figure 8f''' is similar to the table in Figure 8c, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 8c was for large z values, Figure 8f shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8f''': Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] kgwh0hax0i7sgab49fchvon0qraqtif 2832643 2832636 2026-09-10T18:24:44Z Unitfreak 695864 /* The Metonic cycle */ 2832643 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the Sun's orbit around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp occurs each time the Sun advances by roughly one solar radius along its path through the cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|upright=2.2|center|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] == One Solar Radius == The Sun hurtles around the Milky Way Galaxy at a blistering 0.076% of the speed of light ([https://arxiv.org/abs/1810.09466 229.0 ± 0.2 kilometers per second]). Yet, even at this staggering pace, it takes about five-sixths of an hour for the Sun to traverse a distance equal to its own radius. This highlights the truly colossal size of our star, which boasts a radius of 2.3206 light-seconds (695,700 kilometers). '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. During each '''3,055-second''' period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over '''2.33 light-seconds''', which is slightly more than one solar radius (<math>R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 2.33 \text{ ls} \gtrapprox R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', it is a vast, oblong, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into surrounding space. While somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, the latter is a comparatively thin layer of gas held near the planetary surface, whereas the heliosphere is a plasma constantly blasted into space by the Sun's extreme heat and energy. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is so vast that if it were truly spherical, it would take the Sun roughly 6.344 years to travel a distance equivalent to the heliosphere's diameter. The digit in the '''fifth position''' of a Bully timestamp represents this orbital distance. Figure 2 illustrates the motion of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. Timestamp 8209 ED00 0000 is defined to have occurred at exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16, 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. During each 6.344-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 306 astronomical units, which is slightly more than 65,536 solar radii (<math>16^{4}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 306 \text{ AU} \gtrapprox 16^{4}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === Naked-Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (not to scale) across 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' corresponds to approximately 383,000 B.C., while timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., representing a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a cyan dashed line marking 100 parsecs. The Sun travels a little less than this distance during each 416,000-year interval, which is tracked by the digit in the '''ninth position''' of the Bully timestamp. Because a large percentage of naked-eye stars sit within this 100-parsec radius, the appearance of Earth's night sky changes completely over this timeframe. [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of naked-eye stars binned according to brightness and distance from the Sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the Sun than 100 parsecs, which is the distance the Sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of naked-eye stars are within this 100-parsec travel distance of the Sun.]] During each 415,792-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 97 parsecs, which is slightly more than 4,294,967,296 solar radii (<math>16^{8}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 97 \text{ pc} \gtrapprox 16^{8}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> ==== The Bully Milky Way ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3b''': Division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 3b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid). Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000'''. These represent the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D., respectively, assuming a full orbital path around the Milky Way of roughly 50,000 parsecs. In the lower half of the image, cyan lines further divide a single yellow sector into 16 equal subsectors. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center in Figure 3b, corresponding to the 6 o'clock position, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle of the Sun at Bully timestamp 820A 0000 0000, estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D. The nine cyan grid lines to the right of the red line mark the Sun's polar angle for Bully timestamps 8201 0000 0000 through 8209 0000 0000. Meanwhile, the five cyan grid lines to the left of the red line indicate the polar angle for timestamps 820B 0000 0000 through 820F 0000 0000. <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,t_{\odot} \approx 212.9 \text{ million years} </math> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \sim 50,000 \text{ parsecs} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> == The Galactic Calendar == [[File:Galactic centre orbits.svg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 4a''':Inferred orbits of 6 stars around the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* at the Milky Way's center<ref name="Eisenhauer">{{cite journal|last=Eisenhauer|first=F.|display-authors=et al. |title=SINFONI in the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares in the Central Light-Month|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=July 20, 2005|volume=628|issue=1|pages=246–259|doi=10.1086/430667|bibcode=2005ApJ...628..246E|arxiv=astro-ph/0502129|s2cid=122485461 }}</ref>]] [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, labeled S2 in '''Figure 4a''', completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance from the Sun to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: &hairsp; :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \\ \end{align}</math> &hairsp; If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. ==== Idealized Galactic Weeks ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Weeks_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 4b''': Division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks of solar travel (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 4b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks (yellow grid). Each week represents 1,000 parsecs of solar travel, which in this plot is assumed to be traversed by the Sun in roughly 4.09 million years. Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000''', respectively, indicating the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D. The cyan lines in the lower half of the image further divide one sector into 10 equal subsectors of 100 parsecs each. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 4b, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun had during Bully timestamp 8209 D89D 89D8 (approximately 31,000 B.C.), which is 1,000 parsecs of travel beyond the yellow line representing timestamp 8200 0000 0000. The nine cyan lines to the left of the red line represent the polar angles of the Sun after traveling 1,100 through 1,900 parsecs beyond timestamp 8200 0000 0000. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2⁴¹ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4c''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. It outlines the specific Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved across this idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4c:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. ==== Is the Galactic Calendar Realistic? ==== [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4d:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250-million-year time period.]] The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4d). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4d''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in Figure 4c states that the galactic week beginning on timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark. ==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ==== In Figure 3a and Figure 3b, the Sun is shown to travel less than 50,000 parsecs per galactic year. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar shown in Figure 4b assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per galactic year, introducing a distinct discrepancy in both galactic scale and calculated orbital velocity. Because the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to complex gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is neither perfectly uniform nor entirely predictable. Consequently, the Sun's true orbital velocity remains a subject of ongoing discovery and refinement. The conjectured values used in Figure 3b and Figure 4b should be viewed as '''practical assumptions''' rather than a reflection of a stable, long-term physical reality; the idealized Bully Calendar is a '''conceptual model''' designed to help visualize the immense scale of the galactic orbit. The table in '''Figure 4e''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp up to 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | '''Figure 4e''': Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 100 parsecs per 16⁸ Bully timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps</small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | <small>2^18.597453 ≈ 396,635 </small> | <small>2^18.6438562 ≈ 409,600 </small> | <small>2^18.666224 ≈ 416,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | <small>2^14.597453 ≈ 24,789.7 </small> | <small>2^14.6438562 ≈ 25,600.0 </small> | <small>2^14.666224 ≈ 26,000.0 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | <small>2^10.597453 ≈ 1,549.36 </small> | <small>2^10.6438562 ≈ 1,600.00 </small> | <small>2^10.666224 ≈ 1,625.00 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁸''' | <small>2^6.597453 ≈ 96.8348 </small> | <small>2^6.6438562 ≈ 100.0000 </small> | <small>2^6.666224 ≈ 101.5625 </small> |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off-Nominal Values |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | <small>2^15.597453 ≈ 49,579 </small> | <small>2^15.6438562 ≈ 51,200 </small> | <small>2^15.666224 ≈ 52,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2²⁶''' | <small>2^0.597453 ≈ 1.513043 </small> | <small>2^0.6438562 ≈ 1.562500 </small> | <small>2^0.666224 ≈ 1.586914 </small> |} == The Earth and Moon == The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep-time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics. ==== Earth's sidereal year ==== The duration of Earth's sidereal year is '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. While gravitational perturbations from neighboring planets cause this value to vary by 20 to 25 minutes annually, the averaged century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given this relative stability, using a clean divisor of the sidereal year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system offers significant utility. Specifically, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds, meaning Earth's sidereal year—rounded to the nearest second—equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's tropical year ==== Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of seasons between successive vernal equinoxes, spans '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp shorter than the sidereal year, coming in at '''10,329.6 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's Great Year ==== With Earth's sidereal year (<math>P</math>) spanning 10,330 timestamps and the tropical year (<math>a_{t}</math>) spanning 10,329.6 timestamps, a full precessional cycle requires a number of years ratio, <math>N</math>, where the cumulative annual difference equals exactly one year: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} N &= \frac{1\text{ Bully timestamp}}{P - a_{t}} \\ &= \frac{1}{10,330 - 10,329.6} \\ &= \frac{1}{0.4} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; Expressing this duration in terms of sidereal years yields: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= 25,824 \, P \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; Alternatively, expressing the cycle in terms of tropical years yields: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= 25,825 \, a_{t} \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic|Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] ==== The Metonic cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23, 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp complete approximately three cycles per one Metonic cycle, as illustrated below: <div style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: inherit; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688; border-radius: 4px; line-height: 1.6; margin: 1em 0;"> '''July 23 New Moons:''' * July 23, 1998 — 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 — 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 — 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> * [[Bully Metric Metonic cycle|Learn More About The Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] ==== Earth's gravity ==== Of all the planets in the cosmos, our Earth is unique in that the gravity on Earth's surface is approximately equal to the speed of light divided by one Earth year: :<math>g \approx \frac{c}{P}</math> (where <math>g</math> is surface gravity, <math>c</math> is the speed of light, and <math>P</math> is the orbital period). == Anchoring Bully Timestamps == To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''. === The Bully Timestamp Duration === While 3,055 seconds may appear to be an arbitrary choice, the length of a single Bully timestamp is mathematically derived from solar, lunar, and deep-time orbital mechanics. {{Quote box| align = center| width = 100%| title = Bully Timestamp Duration | text = Justification: # The Sun orbits approximately one solar radius per Bully timestamp: [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics#Solar_Radius_Mnemonics|<math> t_{\odot} \equiv 3,055 \text{ seconds} </math>]] # The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year: [[Bully Mnemonic |31558150 s = 10330 × 3055 s]]. # Approximate divisor of the ratio of the speed of light with g_earth: [https://www.google.com/search?q=c+%2F+g_earth+in+megaseconds c / g_earth ≈ 30.55 Ms] # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of the Earth–Moon Metonic cycle: [https://www.google.com/search?q=3+*+16%5E4+*+3055+s 1 Metonic cycle ≈ 3 × 16⁴ × 3055 s] # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of Earth's Great Year: [https://www.google.com/search?q=16%5E7+*+3055+s 1 Great Year ≈ 16⁷ × 3055 s]. # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of the galactic year: [https://www.google.com/search?q=2+*+16%5E10+*+3055+s 1 galactic year ≈ 2 × 16¹⁰ × 3055 s] }} === The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 6a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]], where the plane intersects the Galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 6a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] ==== Bullies in the Bully System ==== A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in Figure 6a: * '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign. * '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left. * '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left. As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history: {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was “sweetheart”. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, “lover”. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}} Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of "excellent" or "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. {{Quote box| align = center | width = full | title = The "Bully" Name | text = The specific "bullies" in the "Bully" timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}} === A surrogate for the Sun === As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving. The path of the node can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°): <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4c''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 6b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}'''. (Note: Figure 4c assumes an idealized travel distance of exactly 52,000 parsecs (or 2^15.666224) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps, whereas Figure 6b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs (or 2^15.666040) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center;" |+ '''Figure 6b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 3px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled in parsecs |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B32}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5058}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.100 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|820A D4AD 4AD4}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1099.86''}}}} |} {{Quote box| align = center| width = full| title = Bully Timestamp Anchor| text = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 6b).}} ==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ==== In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 6c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days. The Earth's orbital speed varies throughout the year, moving slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Consequently, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season. As shown in Figure 6c, '''winter''' was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. It took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to '''spring''' being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to '''summer'''. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over '''21,000 years'''. [[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 6c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]] Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 6c. The transition from '''spring to summer''' is correlated with a large '''green dot''' and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large '''red dot''' appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from '''summer to autumn''', and a large '''blue dot''', back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from '''winter to spring'''. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,500 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly '''26,000 years''' (1 Great Year ≈ 25,824 sidereal years ≈ 25,825 tropical years). {{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | text = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred near the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. All of the Galactic crossings shown in Figure 6c, at 4495 BCE, 1998 CE, and 8329 CE, are roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE. }} == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 7a''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in Figure 7a, these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|'''Figure 7a''': Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of Figure 7a, follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. Ideally, all of the black lines in Figure 7a could be discontinued and replaced by Bully timestamps going forward. === Why do we need Bully timestamps? === All the timestamps in '''Figure 7b''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ '''Figure 7b''': UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of Figure 7b attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of Figure 7b, breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3,055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950s, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic timekeeping (1958 AD – present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Estimation == [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 8a: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 8a'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 8b'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|'''Figure 8b''': The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in '''Figure 8c''' contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8c''': Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in '''Figure 8d''' (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8d''': Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 8d) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in '''Figure 8e''' is the same as is shown in Figure 8d, but Figure 8e plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8e''': A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in '''Figure 8f''' is similar to the table in Figure 8c, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 8c was for large z values, Figure 8f shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8f''': Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] sz4j9pg17gu4ea43trcgdoyvl39syw4 2832645 2832643 2026-09-10T18:25:26Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Earth's gravity */ 2832645 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the Sun's orbit around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp occurs each time the Sun advances by roughly one solar radius along its path through the cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|upright=2.2|center|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] == One Solar Radius == The Sun hurtles around the Milky Way Galaxy at a blistering 0.076% of the speed of light ([https://arxiv.org/abs/1810.09466 229.0 ± 0.2 kilometers per second]). Yet, even at this staggering pace, it takes about five-sixths of an hour for the Sun to traverse a distance equal to its own radius. This highlights the truly colossal size of our star, which boasts a radius of 2.3206 light-seconds (695,700 kilometers). '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. During each '''3,055-second''' period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over '''2.33 light-seconds''', which is slightly more than one solar radius (<math>R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 2.33 \text{ ls} \gtrapprox R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', it is a vast, oblong, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into surrounding space. While somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, the latter is a comparatively thin layer of gas held near the planetary surface, whereas the heliosphere is a plasma constantly blasted into space by the Sun's extreme heat and energy. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is so vast that if it were truly spherical, it would take the Sun roughly 6.344 years to travel a distance equivalent to the heliosphere's diameter. The digit in the '''fifth position''' of a Bully timestamp represents this orbital distance. Figure 2 illustrates the motion of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. Timestamp 8209 ED00 0000 is defined to have occurred at exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16, 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. During each 6.344-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 306 astronomical units, which is slightly more than 65,536 solar radii (<math>16^{4}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 306 \text{ AU} \gtrapprox 16^{4}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === Naked-Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (not to scale) across 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' corresponds to approximately 383,000 B.C., while timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., representing a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a cyan dashed line marking 100 parsecs. The Sun travels a little less than this distance during each 416,000-year interval, which is tracked by the digit in the '''ninth position''' of the Bully timestamp. Because a large percentage of naked-eye stars sit within this 100-parsec radius, the appearance of Earth's night sky changes completely over this timeframe. [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of naked-eye stars binned according to brightness and distance from the Sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the Sun than 100 parsecs, which is the distance the Sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of naked-eye stars are within this 100-parsec travel distance of the Sun.]] During each 415,792-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 97 parsecs, which is slightly more than 4,294,967,296 solar radii (<math>16^{8}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 97 \text{ pc} \gtrapprox 16^{8}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> ==== The Bully Milky Way ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3b''': Division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 3b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid). Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000'''. These represent the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D., respectively, assuming a full orbital path around the Milky Way of roughly 50,000 parsecs. In the lower half of the image, cyan lines further divide a single yellow sector into 16 equal subsectors. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center in Figure 3b, corresponding to the 6 o'clock position, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle of the Sun at Bully timestamp 820A 0000 0000, estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D. The nine cyan grid lines to the right of the red line mark the Sun's polar angle for Bully timestamps 8201 0000 0000 through 8209 0000 0000. Meanwhile, the five cyan grid lines to the left of the red line indicate the polar angle for timestamps 820B 0000 0000 through 820F 0000 0000. <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,t_{\odot} \approx 212.9 \text{ million years} </math> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \sim 50,000 \text{ parsecs} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> == The Galactic Calendar == [[File:Galactic centre orbits.svg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 4a''':Inferred orbits of 6 stars around the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* at the Milky Way's center<ref name="Eisenhauer">{{cite journal|last=Eisenhauer|first=F.|display-authors=et al. |title=SINFONI in the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares in the Central Light-Month|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=July 20, 2005|volume=628|issue=1|pages=246–259|doi=10.1086/430667|bibcode=2005ApJ...628..246E|arxiv=astro-ph/0502129|s2cid=122485461 }}</ref>]] [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, labeled S2 in '''Figure 4a''', completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance from the Sun to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: &hairsp; :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \\ \end{align}</math> &hairsp; If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. ==== Idealized Galactic Weeks ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Weeks_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 4b''': Division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks of solar travel (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 4b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks (yellow grid). Each week represents 1,000 parsecs of solar travel, which in this plot is assumed to be traversed by the Sun in roughly 4.09 million years. Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000''', respectively, indicating the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D. The cyan lines in the lower half of the image further divide one sector into 10 equal subsectors of 100 parsecs each. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 4b, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun had during Bully timestamp 8209 D89D 89D8 (approximately 31,000 B.C.), which is 1,000 parsecs of travel beyond the yellow line representing timestamp 8200 0000 0000. The nine cyan lines to the left of the red line represent the polar angles of the Sun after traveling 1,100 through 1,900 parsecs beyond timestamp 8200 0000 0000. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2⁴¹ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4c''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. It outlines the specific Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved across this idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4c:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. ==== Is the Galactic Calendar Realistic? ==== [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4d:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250-million-year time period.]] The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4d). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4d''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in Figure 4c states that the galactic week beginning on timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark. ==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ==== In Figure 3a and Figure 3b, the Sun is shown to travel less than 50,000 parsecs per galactic year. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar shown in Figure 4b assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per galactic year, introducing a distinct discrepancy in both galactic scale and calculated orbital velocity. Because the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to complex gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is neither perfectly uniform nor entirely predictable. Consequently, the Sun's true orbital velocity remains a subject of ongoing discovery and refinement. The conjectured values used in Figure 3b and Figure 4b should be viewed as '''practical assumptions''' rather than a reflection of a stable, long-term physical reality; the idealized Bully Calendar is a '''conceptual model''' designed to help visualize the immense scale of the galactic orbit. The table in '''Figure 4e''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp up to 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | '''Figure 4e''': Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 100 parsecs per 16⁸ Bully timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps</small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | <small>2^18.597453 ≈ 396,635 </small> | <small>2^18.6438562 ≈ 409,600 </small> | <small>2^18.666224 ≈ 416,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | <small>2^14.597453 ≈ 24,789.7 </small> | <small>2^14.6438562 ≈ 25,600.0 </small> | <small>2^14.666224 ≈ 26,000.0 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | <small>2^10.597453 ≈ 1,549.36 </small> | <small>2^10.6438562 ≈ 1,600.00 </small> | <small>2^10.666224 ≈ 1,625.00 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁸''' | <small>2^6.597453 ≈ 96.8348 </small> | <small>2^6.6438562 ≈ 100.0000 </small> | <small>2^6.666224 ≈ 101.5625 </small> |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off-Nominal Values |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | <small>2^15.597453 ≈ 49,579 </small> | <small>2^15.6438562 ≈ 51,200 </small> | <small>2^15.666224 ≈ 52,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2²⁶''' | <small>2^0.597453 ≈ 1.513043 </small> | <small>2^0.6438562 ≈ 1.562500 </small> | <small>2^0.666224 ≈ 1.586914 </small> |} == The Earth and Moon == The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep-time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics. ==== Earth's sidereal year ==== The duration of Earth's sidereal year is '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. While gravitational perturbations from neighboring planets cause this value to vary by 20 to 25 minutes annually, the averaged century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given this relative stability, using a clean divisor of the sidereal year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system offers significant utility. Specifically, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds, meaning Earth's sidereal year—rounded to the nearest second—equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's tropical year ==== Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of seasons between successive vernal equinoxes, spans '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp shorter than the sidereal year, coming in at '''10,329.6 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's Great Year ==== With Earth's sidereal year (<math>P</math>) spanning 10,330 timestamps and the tropical year (<math>a_{t}</math>) spanning 10,329.6 timestamps, a full precessional cycle requires a number of years ratio, <math>N</math>, where the cumulative annual difference equals exactly one year: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} N &= \frac{1\text{ Bully timestamp}}{P - a_{t}} \\ &= \frac{1}{10,330 - 10,329.6} \\ &= \frac{1}{0.4} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; Expressing this duration in terms of sidereal years yields: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= 25,824 \, P \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; Alternatively, expressing the cycle in terms of tropical years yields: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= 25,825 \, a_{t} \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic|Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] ==== The Metonic cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23, 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp complete approximately three cycles per one Metonic cycle, as illustrated below: <div style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: inherit; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688; border-radius: 4px; line-height: 1.6; margin: 1em 0;"> '''July 23 New Moons:''' * July 23, 1998 — 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 — 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 — 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> * [[Bully Metric Metonic cycle|Learn More About The Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] ==== Earth's gravity ==== Of all the planets in the cosmos, our Earth is unique in that the gravity on Earth's surface is approximately equal to the speed of light divided by one sidereal Earth year: :<math>g \approx \frac{c}{P}</math> (where <math>g</math> is surface gravity, <math>c</math> is the speed of light, and <math>P</math> is the orbital period). == Anchoring Bully Timestamps == To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''. === The Bully Timestamp Duration === While 3,055 seconds may appear to be an arbitrary choice, the length of a single Bully timestamp is mathematically derived from solar, lunar, and deep-time orbital mechanics. {{Quote box| align = center| width = 100%| title = Bully Timestamp Duration | text = Justification: # The Sun orbits approximately one solar radius per Bully timestamp: [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics#Solar_Radius_Mnemonics|<math> t_{\odot} \equiv 3,055 \text{ seconds} </math>]] # The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year: [[Bully Mnemonic |31558150 s = 10330 × 3055 s]]. # Approximate divisor of the ratio of the speed of light with g_earth: [https://www.google.com/search?q=c+%2F+g_earth+in+megaseconds c / g_earth ≈ 30.55 Ms] # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of the Earth–Moon Metonic cycle: [https://www.google.com/search?q=3+*+16%5E4+*+3055+s 1 Metonic cycle ≈ 3 × 16⁴ × 3055 s] # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of Earth's Great Year: [https://www.google.com/search?q=16%5E7+*+3055+s 1 Great Year ≈ 16⁷ × 3055 s]. # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of the galactic year: [https://www.google.com/search?q=2+*+16%5E10+*+3055+s 1 galactic year ≈ 2 × 16¹⁰ × 3055 s] }} === The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 6a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]], where the plane intersects the Galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 6a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] ==== Bullies in the Bully System ==== A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in Figure 6a: * '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign. * '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left. * '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left. As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history: {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was “sweetheart”. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, “lover”. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}} Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of "excellent" or "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. {{Quote box| align = center | width = full | title = The "Bully" Name | text = The specific "bullies" in the "Bully" timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}} === A surrogate for the Sun === As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving. The path of the node can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°): <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4c''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 6b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}'''. (Note: Figure 4c assumes an idealized travel distance of exactly 52,000 parsecs (or 2^15.666224) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps, whereas Figure 6b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs (or 2^15.666040) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center;" |+ '''Figure 6b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 3px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled in parsecs |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B32}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5058}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.100 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|820A D4AD 4AD4}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1099.86''}}}} |} {{Quote box| align = center| width = full| title = Bully Timestamp Anchor| text = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 6b).}} ==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ==== In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 6c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days. The Earth's orbital speed varies throughout the year, moving slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Consequently, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season. As shown in Figure 6c, '''winter''' was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. It took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to '''spring''' being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to '''summer'''. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over '''21,000 years'''. [[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 6c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]] Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 6c. The transition from '''spring to summer''' is correlated with a large '''green dot''' and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large '''red dot''' appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from '''summer to autumn''', and a large '''blue dot''', back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from '''winter to spring'''. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,500 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly '''26,000 years''' (1 Great Year ≈ 25,824 sidereal years ≈ 25,825 tropical years). {{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | text = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred near the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. All of the Galactic crossings shown in Figure 6c, at 4495 BCE, 1998 CE, and 8329 CE, are roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE. }} == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 7a''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in Figure 7a, these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|'''Figure 7a''': Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of Figure 7a, follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. Ideally, all of the black lines in Figure 7a could be discontinued and replaced by Bully timestamps going forward. === Why do we need Bully timestamps? === All the timestamps in '''Figure 7b''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ '''Figure 7b''': UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of Figure 7b attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of Figure 7b, breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3,055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950s, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic timekeeping (1958 AD – present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Estimation == [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 8a: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 8a'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 8b'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|'''Figure 8b''': The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in '''Figure 8c''' contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8c''': Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in '''Figure 8d''' (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8d''': Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 8d) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in '''Figure 8e''' is the same as is shown in Figure 8d, but Figure 8e plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8e''': A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in '''Figure 8f''' is similar to the table in Figure 8c, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 8c was for large z values, Figure 8f shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8f''': Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] gqlax7rx02zyl9yrcxth2jl43bm3vxj 2832646 2832645 2026-09-10T18:30:53Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Earth's gravity */ 2832646 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the Sun's orbit around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp occurs each time the Sun advances by roughly one solar radius along its path through the cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|upright=2.2|center|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] == One Solar Radius == The Sun hurtles around the Milky Way Galaxy at a blistering 0.076% of the speed of light ([https://arxiv.org/abs/1810.09466 229.0 ± 0.2 kilometers per second]). Yet, even at this staggering pace, it takes about five-sixths of an hour for the Sun to traverse a distance equal to its own radius. This highlights the truly colossal size of our star, which boasts a radius of 2.3206 light-seconds (695,700 kilometers). '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. During each '''3,055-second''' period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over '''2.33 light-seconds''', which is slightly more than one solar radius (<math>R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 2.33 \text{ ls} \gtrapprox R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', it is a vast, oblong, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into surrounding space. While somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, the latter is a comparatively thin layer of gas held near the planetary surface, whereas the heliosphere is a plasma constantly blasted into space by the Sun's extreme heat and energy. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is so vast that if it were truly spherical, it would take the Sun roughly 6.344 years to travel a distance equivalent to the heliosphere's diameter. The digit in the '''fifth position''' of a Bully timestamp represents this orbital distance. Figure 2 illustrates the motion of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. Timestamp 8209 ED00 0000 is defined to have occurred at exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16, 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. During each 6.344-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 306 astronomical units, which is slightly more than 65,536 solar radii (<math>16^{4}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 306 \text{ AU} \gtrapprox 16^{4}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === Naked-Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (not to scale) across 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' corresponds to approximately 383,000 B.C., while timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., representing a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a cyan dashed line marking 100 parsecs. The Sun travels a little less than this distance during each 416,000-year interval, which is tracked by the digit in the '''ninth position''' of the Bully timestamp. Because a large percentage of naked-eye stars sit within this 100-parsec radius, the appearance of Earth's night sky changes completely over this timeframe. [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of naked-eye stars binned according to brightness and distance from the Sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the Sun than 100 parsecs, which is the distance the Sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of naked-eye stars are within this 100-parsec travel distance of the Sun.]] During each 415,792-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 97 parsecs, which is slightly more than 4,294,967,296 solar radii (<math>16^{8}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 97 \text{ pc} \gtrapprox 16^{8}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> ==== The Bully Milky Way ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3b''': Division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 3b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid). Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000'''. These represent the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D., respectively, assuming a full orbital path around the Milky Way of roughly 50,000 parsecs. In the lower half of the image, cyan lines further divide a single yellow sector into 16 equal subsectors. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center in Figure 3b, corresponding to the 6 o'clock position, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle of the Sun at Bully timestamp 820A 0000 0000, estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D. The nine cyan grid lines to the right of the red line mark the Sun's polar angle for Bully timestamps 8201 0000 0000 through 8209 0000 0000. Meanwhile, the five cyan grid lines to the left of the red line indicate the polar angle for timestamps 820B 0000 0000 through 820F 0000 0000. <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,t_{\odot} \approx 212.9 \text{ million years} </math> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \sim 50,000 \text{ parsecs} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> == The Galactic Calendar == [[File:Galactic centre orbits.svg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 4a''':Inferred orbits of 6 stars around the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* at the Milky Way's center<ref name="Eisenhauer">{{cite journal|last=Eisenhauer|first=F.|display-authors=et al. |title=SINFONI in the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares in the Central Light-Month|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=July 20, 2005|volume=628|issue=1|pages=246–259|doi=10.1086/430667|bibcode=2005ApJ...628..246E|arxiv=astro-ph/0502129|s2cid=122485461 }}</ref>]] [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, labeled S2 in '''Figure 4a''', completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance from the Sun to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: &hairsp; :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \\ \end{align}</math> &hairsp; If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. ==== Idealized Galactic Weeks ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Weeks_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 4b''': Division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks of solar travel (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 4b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks (yellow grid). Each week represents 1,000 parsecs of solar travel, which in this plot is assumed to be traversed by the Sun in roughly 4.09 million years. Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000''', respectively, indicating the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D. The cyan lines in the lower half of the image further divide one sector into 10 equal subsectors of 100 parsecs each. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 4b, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun had during Bully timestamp 8209 D89D 89D8 (approximately 31,000 B.C.), which is 1,000 parsecs of travel beyond the yellow line representing timestamp 8200 0000 0000. The nine cyan lines to the left of the red line represent the polar angles of the Sun after traveling 1,100 through 1,900 parsecs beyond timestamp 8200 0000 0000. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2⁴¹ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4c''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. It outlines the specific Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved across this idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4c:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. ==== Is the Galactic Calendar Realistic? ==== [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4d:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250-million-year time period.]] The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4d). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4d''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in Figure 4c states that the galactic week beginning on timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark. ==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ==== In Figure 3a and Figure 3b, the Sun is shown to travel less than 50,000 parsecs per galactic year. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar shown in Figure 4b assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per galactic year, introducing a distinct discrepancy in both galactic scale and calculated orbital velocity. Because the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to complex gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is neither perfectly uniform nor entirely predictable. Consequently, the Sun's true orbital velocity remains a subject of ongoing discovery and refinement. The conjectured values used in Figure 3b and Figure 4b should be viewed as '''practical assumptions''' rather than a reflection of a stable, long-term physical reality; the idealized Bully Calendar is a '''conceptual model''' designed to help visualize the immense scale of the galactic orbit. The table in '''Figure 4e''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp up to 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | '''Figure 4e''': Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 100 parsecs per 16⁸ Bully timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps</small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | <small>2^18.597453 ≈ 396,635 </small> | <small>2^18.6438562 ≈ 409,600 </small> | <small>2^18.666224 ≈ 416,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | <small>2^14.597453 ≈ 24,789.7 </small> | <small>2^14.6438562 ≈ 25,600.0 </small> | <small>2^14.666224 ≈ 26,000.0 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | <small>2^10.597453 ≈ 1,549.36 </small> | <small>2^10.6438562 ≈ 1,600.00 </small> | <small>2^10.666224 ≈ 1,625.00 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁸''' | <small>2^6.597453 ≈ 96.8348 </small> | <small>2^6.6438562 ≈ 100.0000 </small> | <small>2^6.666224 ≈ 101.5625 </small> |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off-Nominal Values |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | <small>2^15.597453 ≈ 49,579 </small> | <small>2^15.6438562 ≈ 51,200 </small> | <small>2^15.666224 ≈ 52,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2²⁶''' | <small>2^0.597453 ≈ 1.513043 </small> | <small>2^0.6438562 ≈ 1.562500 </small> | <small>2^0.666224 ≈ 1.586914 </small> |} == The Earth and Moon == The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep-time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics. ==== Earth's sidereal year ==== The duration of Earth's sidereal year is '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. While gravitational perturbations from neighboring planets cause this value to vary by 20 to 25 minutes annually, the averaged century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given this relative stability, using a clean divisor of the sidereal year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system offers significant utility. Specifically, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds, meaning Earth's sidereal year—rounded to the nearest second—equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's tropical year ==== Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of seasons between successive vernal equinoxes, spans '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp shorter than the sidereal year, coming in at '''10,329.6 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's Great Year ==== With Earth's sidereal year (<math>P</math>) spanning 10,330 timestamps and the tropical year (<math>a_{t}</math>) spanning 10,329.6 timestamps, a full precessional cycle requires a number of years ratio, <math>N</math>, where the cumulative annual difference equals exactly one year: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} N &= \frac{1\text{ Bully timestamp}}{P - a_{t}} \\ &= \frac{1}{10,330 - 10,329.6} \\ &= \frac{1}{0.4} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; Expressing this duration in terms of sidereal years yields: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= 25,824 \, P \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; Alternatively, expressing the cycle in terms of tropical years yields: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= 25,825 \, a_{t} \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic|Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] ==== The Metonic cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23, 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp complete approximately three cycles per one Metonic cycle, as illustrated below: <div style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: inherit; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688; border-radius: 4px; line-height: 1.6; margin: 1em 0;"> '''July 23 New Moons:''' * July 23, 1998 — 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 — 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 — 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> * [[Bully Metric Metonic cycle|Learn More About The Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] ==== Earth's gravity ==== Of all the planets in the cosmos, our Earth is unique in that the gravity on Earth's surface is approximately equal to the speed of light divided by one sidereal year: :<math>g \approx \frac{c}{P}</math> (where <math>g</math> is surface gravity, <math>c</math> is the speed of light, and <math>P</math> is the orbital period). == Anchoring Bully Timestamps == To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''. === The Bully Timestamp Duration === While 3,055 seconds may appear to be an arbitrary choice, the length of a single Bully timestamp is mathematically derived from solar, lunar, and deep-time orbital mechanics. {{Quote box| align = center| width = 100%| title = Bully Timestamp Duration | text = Justification: # The Sun orbits approximately one solar radius per Bully timestamp: [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics#Solar_Radius_Mnemonics|<math> t_{\odot} \equiv 3,055 \text{ seconds} </math>]] # The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year: [[Bully Mnemonic |31558150 s = 10330 × 3055 s]]. # Approximate divisor of the ratio of the speed of light with g_earth: [https://www.google.com/search?q=c+%2F+g_earth+in+megaseconds c / g_earth ≈ 30.55 Ms] # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of the Earth–Moon Metonic cycle: [https://www.google.com/search?q=3+*+16%5E4+*+3055+s 1 Metonic cycle ≈ 3 × 16⁴ × 3055 s] # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of Earth's Great Year: [https://www.google.com/search?q=16%5E7+*+3055+s 1 Great Year ≈ 16⁷ × 3055 s]. # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of the galactic year: [https://www.google.com/search?q=2+*+16%5E10+*+3055+s 1 galactic year ≈ 2 × 16¹⁰ × 3055 s] }} === The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 6a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]], where the plane intersects the Galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 6a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] ==== Bullies in the Bully System ==== A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in Figure 6a: * '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign. * '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left. * '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left. As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history: {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was “sweetheart”. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, “lover”. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}} Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of "excellent" or "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. {{Quote box| align = center | width = full | title = The "Bully" Name | text = The specific "bullies" in the "Bully" timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}} === A surrogate for the Sun === As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving. The path of the node can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°): <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4c''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 6b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}'''. (Note: Figure 4c assumes an idealized travel distance of exactly 52,000 parsecs (or 2^15.666224) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps, whereas Figure 6b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs (or 2^15.666040) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center;" |+ '''Figure 6b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 3px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled in parsecs |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B32}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5058}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.100 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|820A D4AD 4AD4}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1099.86''}}}} |} {{Quote box| align = center| width = full| title = Bully Timestamp Anchor| text = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 6b).}} ==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ==== In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 6c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days. The Earth's orbital speed varies throughout the year, moving slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Consequently, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season. As shown in Figure 6c, '''winter''' was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. It took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to '''spring''' being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to '''summer'''. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over '''21,000 years'''. [[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 6c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]] Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 6c. The transition from '''spring to summer''' is correlated with a large '''green dot''' and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large '''red dot''' appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from '''summer to autumn''', and a large '''blue dot''', back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from '''winter to spring'''. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,500 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly '''26,000 years''' (1 Great Year ≈ 25,824 sidereal years ≈ 25,825 tropical years). {{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | text = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred near the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. All of the Galactic crossings shown in Figure 6c, at 4495 BCE, 1998 CE, and 8329 CE, are roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE. }} == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 7a''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in Figure 7a, these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|'''Figure 7a''': Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of Figure 7a, follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. Ideally, all of the black lines in Figure 7a could be discontinued and replaced by Bully timestamps going forward. === Why do we need Bully timestamps? === All the timestamps in '''Figure 7b''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ '''Figure 7b''': UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of Figure 7b attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of Figure 7b, breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3,055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950s, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic timekeeping (1958 AD – present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Estimation == [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 8a: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 8a'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 8b'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|'''Figure 8b''': The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in '''Figure 8c''' contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8c''': Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in '''Figure 8d''' (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8d''': Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 8d) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in '''Figure 8e''' is the same as is shown in Figure 8d, but Figure 8e plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8e''': A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in '''Figure 8f''' is similar to the table in Figure 8c, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 8c was for large z values, Figure 8f shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8f''': Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] n4xxsh568d00ofs2jjp38drvpxt4erf 2832647 2832646 2026-09-10T18:36:51Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Anchoring Bully Timestamps */ 2832647 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the Sun's orbit around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp occurs each time the Sun advances by roughly one solar radius along its path through the cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|upright=2.2|center|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] == One Solar Radius == The Sun hurtles around the Milky Way Galaxy at a blistering 0.076% of the speed of light ([https://arxiv.org/abs/1810.09466 229.0 ± 0.2 kilometers per second]). Yet, even at this staggering pace, it takes about five-sixths of an hour for the Sun to traverse a distance equal to its own radius. This highlights the truly colossal size of our star, which boasts a radius of 2.3206 light-seconds (695,700 kilometers). '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. During each '''3,055-second''' period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over '''2.33 light-seconds''', which is slightly more than one solar radius (<math>R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 2.33 \text{ ls} \gtrapprox R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', it is a vast, oblong, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into surrounding space. While somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, the latter is a comparatively thin layer of gas held near the planetary surface, whereas the heliosphere is a plasma constantly blasted into space by the Sun's extreme heat and energy. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is so vast that if it were truly spherical, it would take the Sun roughly 6.344 years to travel a distance equivalent to the heliosphere's diameter. The digit in the '''fifth position''' of a Bully timestamp represents this orbital distance. Figure 2 illustrates the motion of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. Timestamp 8209 ED00 0000 is defined to have occurred at exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16, 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. During each 6.344-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 306 astronomical units, which is slightly more than 65,536 solar radii (<math>16^{4}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 306 \text{ AU} \gtrapprox 16^{4}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === Naked-Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (not to scale) across 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' corresponds to approximately 383,000 B.C., while timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., representing a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a cyan dashed line marking 100 parsecs. The Sun travels a little less than this distance during each 416,000-year interval, which is tracked by the digit in the '''ninth position''' of the Bully timestamp. Because a large percentage of naked-eye stars sit within this 100-parsec radius, the appearance of Earth's night sky changes completely over this timeframe. [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of naked-eye stars binned according to brightness and distance from the Sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the Sun than 100 parsecs, which is the distance the Sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of naked-eye stars are within this 100-parsec travel distance of the Sun.]] During each 415,792-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 97 parsecs, which is slightly more than 4,294,967,296 solar radii (<math>16^{8}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 97 \text{ pc} \gtrapprox 16^{8}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> ==== The Bully Milky Way ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3b''': Division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 3b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid). Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000'''. These represent the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D., respectively, assuming a full orbital path around the Milky Way of roughly 50,000 parsecs. In the lower half of the image, cyan lines further divide a single yellow sector into 16 equal subsectors. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center in Figure 3b, corresponding to the 6 o'clock position, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle of the Sun at Bully timestamp 820A 0000 0000, estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D. The nine cyan grid lines to the right of the red line mark the Sun's polar angle for Bully timestamps 8201 0000 0000 through 8209 0000 0000. Meanwhile, the five cyan grid lines to the left of the red line indicate the polar angle for timestamps 820B 0000 0000 through 820F 0000 0000. <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,t_{\odot} \approx 212.9 \text{ million years} </math> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \sim 50,000 \text{ parsecs} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> == The Galactic Calendar == [[File:Galactic centre orbits.svg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 4a''':Inferred orbits of 6 stars around the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* at the Milky Way's center<ref name="Eisenhauer">{{cite journal|last=Eisenhauer|first=F.|display-authors=et al. |title=SINFONI in the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares in the Central Light-Month|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=July 20, 2005|volume=628|issue=1|pages=246–259|doi=10.1086/430667|bibcode=2005ApJ...628..246E|arxiv=astro-ph/0502129|s2cid=122485461 }}</ref>]] [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, labeled S2 in '''Figure 4a''', completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance from the Sun to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: &hairsp; :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \\ \end{align}</math> &hairsp; If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. ==== Idealized Galactic Weeks ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Weeks_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 4b''': Division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks of solar travel (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 4b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks (yellow grid). Each week represents 1,000 parsecs of solar travel, which in this plot is assumed to be traversed by the Sun in roughly 4.09 million years. Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000''', respectively, indicating the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D. The cyan lines in the lower half of the image further divide one sector into 10 equal subsectors of 100 parsecs each. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 4b, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun had during Bully timestamp 8209 D89D 89D8 (approximately 31,000 B.C.), which is 1,000 parsecs of travel beyond the yellow line representing timestamp 8200 0000 0000. The nine cyan lines to the left of the red line represent the polar angles of the Sun after traveling 1,100 through 1,900 parsecs beyond timestamp 8200 0000 0000. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2⁴¹ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4c''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. It outlines the specific Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved across this idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4c:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. ==== Is the Galactic Calendar Realistic? ==== [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4d:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250-million-year time period.]] The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4d). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4d''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in Figure 4c states that the galactic week beginning on timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark. ==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ==== In Figure 3a and Figure 3b, the Sun is shown to travel less than 50,000 parsecs per galactic year. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar shown in Figure 4b assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per galactic year, introducing a distinct discrepancy in both galactic scale and calculated orbital velocity. Because the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to complex gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is neither perfectly uniform nor entirely predictable. Consequently, the Sun's true orbital velocity remains a subject of ongoing discovery and refinement. The conjectured values used in Figure 3b and Figure 4b should be viewed as '''practical assumptions''' rather than a reflection of a stable, long-term physical reality; the idealized Bully Calendar is a '''conceptual model''' designed to help visualize the immense scale of the galactic orbit. The table in '''Figure 4e''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp up to 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | '''Figure 4e''': Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 100 parsecs per 16⁸ Bully timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps</small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | <small>2^18.597453 ≈ 396,635 </small> | <small>2^18.6438562 ≈ 409,600 </small> | <small>2^18.666224 ≈ 416,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | <small>2^14.597453 ≈ 24,789.7 </small> | <small>2^14.6438562 ≈ 25,600.0 </small> | <small>2^14.666224 ≈ 26,000.0 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | <small>2^10.597453 ≈ 1,549.36 </small> | <small>2^10.6438562 ≈ 1,600.00 </small> | <small>2^10.666224 ≈ 1,625.00 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁸''' | <small>2^6.597453 ≈ 96.8348 </small> | <small>2^6.6438562 ≈ 100.0000 </small> | <small>2^6.666224 ≈ 101.5625 </small> |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off-Nominal Values |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | <small>2^15.597453 ≈ 49,579 </small> | <small>2^15.6438562 ≈ 51,200 </small> | <small>2^15.666224 ≈ 52,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2²⁶''' | <small>2^0.597453 ≈ 1.513043 </small> | <small>2^0.6438562 ≈ 1.562500 </small> | <small>2^0.666224 ≈ 1.586914 </small> |} == The Earth and Moon == The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep-time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics. ==== Earth's sidereal year ==== The duration of Earth's sidereal year is '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. While gravitational perturbations from neighboring planets cause this value to vary by 20 to 25 minutes annually, the averaged century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given this relative stability, using a clean divisor of the sidereal year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system offers significant utility. Specifically, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds, meaning Earth's sidereal year—rounded to the nearest second—equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's tropical year ==== Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of seasons between successive vernal equinoxes, spans '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp shorter than the sidereal year, coming in at '''10,329.6 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's Great Year ==== With Earth's sidereal year (<math>P</math>) spanning 10,330 timestamps and the tropical year (<math>a_{t}</math>) spanning 10,329.6 timestamps, a full precessional cycle requires a number of years ratio, <math>N</math>, where the cumulative annual difference equals exactly one year: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} N &= \frac{1\text{ Bully timestamp}}{P - a_{t}} \\ &= \frac{1}{10,330 - 10,329.6} \\ &= \frac{1}{0.4} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; Expressing this duration in terms of sidereal years yields: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= 25,824 \, P \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; Alternatively, expressing the cycle in terms of tropical years yields: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= 25,825 \, a_{t} \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic|Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] ==== The Metonic cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23, 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp complete approximately three cycles per one Metonic cycle, as illustrated below: <div style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: inherit; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688; border-radius: 4px; line-height: 1.6; margin: 1em 0;"> '''July 23 New Moons:''' * July 23, 1998 — 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 — 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 — 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> * [[Bully Metric Metonic cycle|Learn More About The Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] ==== Earth's gravity ==== Of all the planets in the cosmos, our Earth is unique in that the gravity on Earth's surface is approximately equal to the speed of light divided by one sidereal year: :<math>g \approx \frac{c}{P}</math> (where <math>g</math> is surface gravity, <math>c</math> is the speed of light, and <math>P</math> is the orbital period). == Anchoring Bully Timestamps == To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''. === The Bully Timestamp Duration === While 3,055 seconds may appear to be an arbitrary choice, the length of a single Bully timestamp is mathematically derived from solar, lunar, and deep-time orbital mechanics. {{Quote box| align = center| width = 100%| title = Bully Timestamp Duration | text = Justification: # The Sun orbits approximately one solar radius per Bully timestamp: [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics#Solar_Radius_Mnemonics| t_☉ ≈ 3,055 seconds <math> t_{\odot} \equiv 3,055 \text{ seconds} </math>]] # The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year: [[Bully Mnemonic |31558150 s = 10330 × 3055 s]]. # Approximate divisor of the ratio of the speed of light with g_earth: [https://www.google.com/search?q=c+%2F+g_earth+in+megaseconds c / g_earth ≈ 30.55 Ms] # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of the Earth–Moon Metonic cycle: [https://www.google.com/search?q=3+*+16%5E4+*+3055+s 1 Metonic cycle ≈ 3 × 16⁴ × 3055 s] # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of Earth's Great Year: [https://www.google.com/search?q=16%5E7+*+3055+s 1 Great Year ≈ 16⁷ × 3055 s]. # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of the galactic year: [https://www.google.com/search?q=2+*+16%5E10+*+3055+s 1 galactic year ≈ 2 × 16¹⁰ × 3055 s] }} === The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 6a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]], where the plane intersects the Galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 6a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] ==== Bullies in the Bully System ==== A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in Figure 6a: * '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign. * '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left. * '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left. As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history: {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was “sweetheart”. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, “lover”. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}} Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of "excellent" or "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. {{Quote box| align = center | width = full | title = The "Bully" Name | text = The specific "bullies" in the "Bully" timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}} === A surrogate for the Sun === As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving. The path of the node can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°): <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4c''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 6b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}'''. (Note: Figure 4c assumes an idealized travel distance of exactly 52,000 parsecs (or 2^15.666224) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps, whereas Figure 6b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs (or 2^15.666040) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center;" |+ '''Figure 6b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 3px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled in parsecs |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B32}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5058}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.100 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|820A D4AD 4AD4}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1099.86''}}}} |} {{Quote box| align = center| width = full| title = Bully Timestamp Anchor| text = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 6b).}} ==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ==== In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 6c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days. The Earth's orbital speed varies throughout the year, moving slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Consequently, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season. As shown in Figure 6c, '''winter''' was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. It took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to '''spring''' being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to '''summer'''. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over '''21,000 years'''. [[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 6c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]] Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 6c. The transition from '''spring to summer''' is correlated with a large '''green dot''' and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large '''red dot''' appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from '''summer to autumn''', and a large '''blue dot''', back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from '''winter to spring'''. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,500 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly '''26,000 years''' (1 Great Year ≈ 25,824 sidereal years ≈ 25,825 tropical years). {{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | text = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred near the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. All of the Galactic crossings shown in Figure 6c, at 4495 BCE, 1998 CE, and 8329 CE, are roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE. }} == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 7a''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in Figure 7a, these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|'''Figure 7a''': Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of Figure 7a, follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. Ideally, all of the black lines in Figure 7a could be discontinued and replaced by Bully timestamps going forward. === Why do we need Bully timestamps? === All the timestamps in '''Figure 7b''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ '''Figure 7b''': UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of Figure 7b attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of Figure 7b, breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3,055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950s, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic timekeeping (1958 AD – present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Estimation == [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 8a: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 8a'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 8b'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|'''Figure 8b''': The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in '''Figure 8c''' contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8c''': Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in '''Figure 8d''' (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8d''': Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 8d) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in '''Figure 8e''' is the same as is shown in Figure 8d, but Figure 8e plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8e''': A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in '''Figure 8f''' is similar to the table in Figure 8c, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 8c was for large z values, Figure 8f shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8f''': Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] h96exulakwhe7qrbnkydrn7eleac7e6 2832648 2832647 2026-09-10T18:37:17Z Unitfreak 695864 /* The Bully Timestamp Duration */ 2832648 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the Sun's orbit around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp occurs each time the Sun advances by roughly one solar radius along its path through the cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|upright=2.2|center|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] == One Solar Radius == The Sun hurtles around the Milky Way Galaxy at a blistering 0.076% of the speed of light ([https://arxiv.org/abs/1810.09466 229.0 ± 0.2 kilometers per second]). Yet, even at this staggering pace, it takes about five-sixths of an hour for the Sun to traverse a distance equal to its own radius. This highlights the truly colossal size of our star, which boasts a radius of 2.3206 light-seconds (695,700 kilometers). '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. During each '''3,055-second''' period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over '''2.33 light-seconds''', which is slightly more than one solar radius (<math>R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 2.33 \text{ ls} \gtrapprox R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', it is a vast, oblong, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into surrounding space. While somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, the latter is a comparatively thin layer of gas held near the planetary surface, whereas the heliosphere is a plasma constantly blasted into space by the Sun's extreme heat and energy. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is so vast that if it were truly spherical, it would take the Sun roughly 6.344 years to travel a distance equivalent to the heliosphere's diameter. The digit in the '''fifth position''' of a Bully timestamp represents this orbital distance. Figure 2 illustrates the motion of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. Timestamp 8209 ED00 0000 is defined to have occurred at exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16, 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. During each 6.344-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 306 astronomical units, which is slightly more than 65,536 solar radii (<math>16^{4}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 306 \text{ AU} \gtrapprox 16^{4}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === Naked-Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (not to scale) across 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' corresponds to approximately 383,000 B.C., while timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., representing a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a cyan dashed line marking 100 parsecs. The Sun travels a little less than this distance during each 416,000-year interval, which is tracked by the digit in the '''ninth position''' of the Bully timestamp. Because a large percentage of naked-eye stars sit within this 100-parsec radius, the appearance of Earth's night sky changes completely over this timeframe. [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of naked-eye stars binned according to brightness and distance from the Sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the Sun than 100 parsecs, which is the distance the Sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of naked-eye stars are within this 100-parsec travel distance of the Sun.]] During each 415,792-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 97 parsecs, which is slightly more than 4,294,967,296 solar radii (<math>16^{8}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 97 \text{ pc} \gtrapprox 16^{8}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> ==== The Bully Milky Way ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3b''': Division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 3b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid). Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000'''. These represent the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D., respectively, assuming a full orbital path around the Milky Way of roughly 50,000 parsecs. In the lower half of the image, cyan lines further divide a single yellow sector into 16 equal subsectors. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center in Figure 3b, corresponding to the 6 o'clock position, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle of the Sun at Bully timestamp 820A 0000 0000, estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D. The nine cyan grid lines to the right of the red line mark the Sun's polar angle for Bully timestamps 8201 0000 0000 through 8209 0000 0000. Meanwhile, the five cyan grid lines to the left of the red line indicate the polar angle for timestamps 820B 0000 0000 through 820F 0000 0000. <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,t_{\odot} \approx 212.9 \text{ million years} </math> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \sim 50,000 \text{ parsecs} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> == The Galactic Calendar == [[File:Galactic centre orbits.svg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 4a''':Inferred orbits of 6 stars around the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* at the Milky Way's center<ref name="Eisenhauer">{{cite journal|last=Eisenhauer|first=F.|display-authors=et al. |title=SINFONI in the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares in the Central Light-Month|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=July 20, 2005|volume=628|issue=1|pages=246–259|doi=10.1086/430667|bibcode=2005ApJ...628..246E|arxiv=astro-ph/0502129|s2cid=122485461 }}</ref>]] [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, labeled S2 in '''Figure 4a''', completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance from the Sun to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: &hairsp; :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \\ \end{align}</math> &hairsp; If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. ==== Idealized Galactic Weeks ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Weeks_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 4b''': Division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks of solar travel (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 4b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks (yellow grid). Each week represents 1,000 parsecs of solar travel, which in this plot is assumed to be traversed by the Sun in roughly 4.09 million years. Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000''', respectively, indicating the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D. The cyan lines in the lower half of the image further divide one sector into 10 equal subsectors of 100 parsecs each. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 4b, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun had during Bully timestamp 8209 D89D 89D8 (approximately 31,000 B.C.), which is 1,000 parsecs of travel beyond the yellow line representing timestamp 8200 0000 0000. The nine cyan lines to the left of the red line represent the polar angles of the Sun after traveling 1,100 through 1,900 parsecs beyond timestamp 8200 0000 0000. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2⁴¹ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4c''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. It outlines the specific Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved across this idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4c:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. ==== Is the Galactic Calendar Realistic? ==== [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4d:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250-million-year time period.]] The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4d). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4d''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in Figure 4c states that the galactic week beginning on timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark. ==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ==== In Figure 3a and Figure 3b, the Sun is shown to travel less than 50,000 parsecs per galactic year. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar shown in Figure 4b assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per galactic year, introducing a distinct discrepancy in both galactic scale and calculated orbital velocity. Because the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to complex gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is neither perfectly uniform nor entirely predictable. Consequently, the Sun's true orbital velocity remains a subject of ongoing discovery and refinement. The conjectured values used in Figure 3b and Figure 4b should be viewed as '''practical assumptions''' rather than a reflection of a stable, long-term physical reality; the idealized Bully Calendar is a '''conceptual model''' designed to help visualize the immense scale of the galactic orbit. The table in '''Figure 4e''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp up to 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | '''Figure 4e''': Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 100 parsecs per 16⁸ Bully timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps</small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | <small>2^18.597453 ≈ 396,635 </small> | <small>2^18.6438562 ≈ 409,600 </small> | <small>2^18.666224 ≈ 416,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | <small>2^14.597453 ≈ 24,789.7 </small> | <small>2^14.6438562 ≈ 25,600.0 </small> | <small>2^14.666224 ≈ 26,000.0 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | <small>2^10.597453 ≈ 1,549.36 </small> | <small>2^10.6438562 ≈ 1,600.00 </small> | <small>2^10.666224 ≈ 1,625.00 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁸''' | <small>2^6.597453 ≈ 96.8348 </small> | <small>2^6.6438562 ≈ 100.0000 </small> | <small>2^6.666224 ≈ 101.5625 </small> |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off-Nominal Values |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | <small>2^15.597453 ≈ 49,579 </small> | <small>2^15.6438562 ≈ 51,200 </small> | <small>2^15.666224 ≈ 52,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2²⁶''' | <small>2^0.597453 ≈ 1.513043 </small> | <small>2^0.6438562 ≈ 1.562500 </small> | <small>2^0.666224 ≈ 1.586914 </small> |} == The Earth and Moon == The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep-time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics. ==== Earth's sidereal year ==== The duration of Earth's sidereal year is '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. While gravitational perturbations from neighboring planets cause this value to vary by 20 to 25 minutes annually, the averaged century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given this relative stability, using a clean divisor of the sidereal year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system offers significant utility. Specifically, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds, meaning Earth's sidereal year—rounded to the nearest second—equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's tropical year ==== Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of seasons between successive vernal equinoxes, spans '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp shorter than the sidereal year, coming in at '''10,329.6 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's Great Year ==== With Earth's sidereal year (<math>P</math>) spanning 10,330 timestamps and the tropical year (<math>a_{t}</math>) spanning 10,329.6 timestamps, a full precessional cycle requires a number of years ratio, <math>N</math>, where the cumulative annual difference equals exactly one year: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} N &= \frac{1\text{ Bully timestamp}}{P - a_{t}} \\ &= \frac{1}{10,330 - 10,329.6} \\ &= \frac{1}{0.4} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; Expressing this duration in terms of sidereal years yields: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= 25,824 \, P \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; Alternatively, expressing the cycle in terms of tropical years yields: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= 25,825 \, a_{t} \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic|Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] ==== The Metonic cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23, 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp complete approximately three cycles per one Metonic cycle, as illustrated below: <div style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: inherit; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688; border-radius: 4px; line-height: 1.6; margin: 1em 0;"> '''July 23 New Moons:''' * July 23, 1998 — 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 — 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 — 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> * [[Bully Metric Metonic cycle|Learn More About The Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] ==== Earth's gravity ==== Of all the planets in the cosmos, our Earth is unique in that the gravity on Earth's surface is approximately equal to the speed of light divided by one sidereal year: :<math>g \approx \frac{c}{P}</math> (where <math>g</math> is surface gravity, <math>c</math> is the speed of light, and <math>P</math> is the orbital period). == Anchoring Bully Timestamps == To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''. === The Bully Timestamp Duration === While 3,055 seconds may appear to be an arbitrary choice, the length of a single Bully timestamp is mathematically derived from solar, lunar, and deep-time orbital mechanics. {{Quote box| align = center| width = 100%| title = Bully Timestamp Duration | text = Justification: # The Sun orbits approximately one solar radius per Bully timestamp: [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics#Solar_Radius_Mnemonics| t_☉ ≈ 3,055 seconds]] # The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year: [[Bully Mnemonic |31558150 s = 10330 × 3055 s]]. # Approximate divisor of the ratio of the speed of light with g_earth: [https://www.google.com/search?q=c+%2F+g_earth+in+megaseconds c / g_earth ≈ 30.55 Ms] # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of the Earth–Moon Metonic cycle: [https://www.google.com/search?q=3+*+16%5E4+*+3055+s 1 Metonic cycle ≈ 3 × 16⁴ × 3055 s] # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of Earth's Great Year: [https://www.google.com/search?q=16%5E7+*+3055+s 1 Great Year ≈ 16⁷ × 3055 s]. # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of the galactic year: [https://www.google.com/search?q=2+*+16%5E10+*+3055+s 1 galactic year ≈ 2 × 16¹⁰ × 3055 s] }} === The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 6a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]], where the plane intersects the Galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 6a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] ==== Bullies in the Bully System ==== A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in Figure 6a: * '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign. * '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left. * '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left. As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history: {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was “sweetheart”. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, “lover”. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}} Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of "excellent" or "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. {{Quote box| align = center | width = full | title = The "Bully" Name | text = The specific "bullies" in the "Bully" timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}} === A surrogate for the Sun === As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving. The path of the node can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°): <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4c''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 6b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}'''. (Note: Figure 4c assumes an idealized travel distance of exactly 52,000 parsecs (or 2^15.666224) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps, whereas Figure 6b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs (or 2^15.666040) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center;" |+ '''Figure 6b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 3px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled in parsecs |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B32}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5058}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.100 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|820A D4AD 4AD4}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1099.86''}}}} |} {{Quote box| align = center| width = full| title = Bully Timestamp Anchor| text = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 6b).}} ==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ==== In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 6c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days. The Earth's orbital speed varies throughout the year, moving slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Consequently, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season. As shown in Figure 6c, '''winter''' was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. It took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to '''spring''' being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to '''summer'''. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over '''21,000 years'''. [[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 6c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]] Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 6c. The transition from '''spring to summer''' is correlated with a large '''green dot''' and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large '''red dot''' appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from '''summer to autumn''', and a large '''blue dot''', back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from '''winter to spring'''. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,500 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly '''26,000 years''' (1 Great Year ≈ 25,824 sidereal years ≈ 25,825 tropical years). {{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | text = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred near the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. All of the Galactic crossings shown in Figure 6c, at 4495 BCE, 1998 CE, and 8329 CE, are roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE. }} == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 7a''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in Figure 7a, these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|'''Figure 7a''': Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of Figure 7a, follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. Ideally, all of the black lines in Figure 7a could be discontinued and replaced by Bully timestamps going forward. === Why do we need Bully timestamps? === All the timestamps in '''Figure 7b''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ '''Figure 7b''': UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of Figure 7b attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of Figure 7b, breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3,055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950s, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic timekeeping (1958 AD – present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Estimation == [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 8a: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 8a'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 8b'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|'''Figure 8b''': The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in '''Figure 8c''' contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8c''': Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in '''Figure 8d''' (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8d''': Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 8d) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in '''Figure 8e''' is the same as is shown in Figure 8d, but Figure 8e plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8e''': A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in '''Figure 8f''' is similar to the table in Figure 8c, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 8c was for large z values, Figure 8f shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8f''': Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] i2schbwoe3pxpg61zts0rm3oshmh4eo 2832649 2832648 2026-09-10T18:42:27Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Earth's gravity */ 2832649 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the Sun's orbit around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp occurs each time the Sun advances by roughly one solar radius along its path through the cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|upright=2.2|center|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] == One Solar Radius == The Sun hurtles around the Milky Way Galaxy at a blistering 0.076% of the speed of light ([https://arxiv.org/abs/1810.09466 229.0 ± 0.2 kilometers per second]). Yet, even at this staggering pace, it takes about five-sixths of an hour for the Sun to traverse a distance equal to its own radius. This highlights the truly colossal size of our star, which boasts a radius of 2.3206 light-seconds (695,700 kilometers). '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. During each '''3,055-second''' period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over '''2.33 light-seconds''', which is slightly more than one solar radius (<math>R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 2.33 \text{ ls} \gtrapprox R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', it is a vast, oblong, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into surrounding space. While somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, the latter is a comparatively thin layer of gas held near the planetary surface, whereas the heliosphere is a plasma constantly blasted into space by the Sun's extreme heat and energy. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is so vast that if it were truly spherical, it would take the Sun roughly 6.344 years to travel a distance equivalent to the heliosphere's diameter. The digit in the '''fifth position''' of a Bully timestamp represents this orbital distance. Figure 2 illustrates the motion of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. Timestamp 8209 ED00 0000 is defined to have occurred at exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16, 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. During each 6.344-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 306 astronomical units, which is slightly more than 65,536 solar radii (<math>16^{4}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 306 \text{ AU} \gtrapprox 16^{4}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === Naked-Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (not to scale) across 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' corresponds to approximately 383,000 B.C., while timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., representing a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a cyan dashed line marking 100 parsecs. The Sun travels a little less than this distance during each 416,000-year interval, which is tracked by the digit in the '''ninth position''' of the Bully timestamp. Because a large percentage of naked-eye stars sit within this 100-parsec radius, the appearance of Earth's night sky changes completely over this timeframe. [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of naked-eye stars binned according to brightness and distance from the Sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the Sun than 100 parsecs, which is the distance the Sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of naked-eye stars are within this 100-parsec travel distance of the Sun.]] During each 415,792-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 97 parsecs, which is slightly more than 4,294,967,296 solar radii (<math>16^{8}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 97 \text{ pc} \gtrapprox 16^{8}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> ==== The Bully Milky Way ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3b''': Division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 3b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid). Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000'''. These represent the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D., respectively, assuming a full orbital path around the Milky Way of roughly 50,000 parsecs. In the lower half of the image, cyan lines further divide a single yellow sector into 16 equal subsectors. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center in Figure 3b, corresponding to the 6 o'clock position, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle of the Sun at Bully timestamp 820A 0000 0000, estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D. The nine cyan grid lines to the right of the red line mark the Sun's polar angle for Bully timestamps 8201 0000 0000 through 8209 0000 0000. Meanwhile, the five cyan grid lines to the left of the red line indicate the polar angle for timestamps 820B 0000 0000 through 820F 0000 0000. <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,t_{\odot} \approx 212.9 \text{ million years} </math> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \sim 50,000 \text{ parsecs} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> == The Galactic Calendar == [[File:Galactic centre orbits.svg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 4a''':Inferred orbits of 6 stars around the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* at the Milky Way's center<ref name="Eisenhauer">{{cite journal|last=Eisenhauer|first=F.|display-authors=et al. |title=SINFONI in the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares in the Central Light-Month|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=July 20, 2005|volume=628|issue=1|pages=246–259|doi=10.1086/430667|bibcode=2005ApJ...628..246E|arxiv=astro-ph/0502129|s2cid=122485461 }}</ref>]] [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, labeled S2 in '''Figure 4a''', completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance from the Sun to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: &hairsp; :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \\ \end{align}</math> &hairsp; If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. ==== Idealized Galactic Weeks ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Weeks_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 4b''': Division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks of solar travel (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 4b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks (yellow grid). Each week represents 1,000 parsecs of solar travel, which in this plot is assumed to be traversed by the Sun in roughly 4.09 million years. Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000''', respectively, indicating the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D. The cyan lines in the lower half of the image further divide one sector into 10 equal subsectors of 100 parsecs each. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 4b, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun had during Bully timestamp 8209 D89D 89D8 (approximately 31,000 B.C.), which is 1,000 parsecs of travel beyond the yellow line representing timestamp 8200 0000 0000. The nine cyan lines to the left of the red line represent the polar angles of the Sun after traveling 1,100 through 1,900 parsecs beyond timestamp 8200 0000 0000. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2⁴¹ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4c''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. It outlines the specific Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved across this idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4c:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. ==== Is the Galactic Calendar Realistic? ==== [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4d:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250-million-year time period.]] The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4d). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4d''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in Figure 4c states that the galactic week beginning on timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark. ==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ==== In Figure 3a and Figure 3b, the Sun is shown to travel less than 50,000 parsecs per galactic year. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar shown in Figure 4b assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per galactic year, introducing a distinct discrepancy in both galactic scale and calculated orbital velocity. Because the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to complex gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is neither perfectly uniform nor entirely predictable. Consequently, the Sun's true orbital velocity remains a subject of ongoing discovery and refinement. The conjectured values used in Figure 3b and Figure 4b should be viewed as '''practical assumptions''' rather than a reflection of a stable, long-term physical reality; the idealized Bully Calendar is a '''conceptual model''' designed to help visualize the immense scale of the galactic orbit. The table in '''Figure 4e''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp up to 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | '''Figure 4e''': Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 100 parsecs per 16⁸ Bully timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps</small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | <small>2^18.597453 ≈ 396,635 </small> | <small>2^18.6438562 ≈ 409,600 </small> | <small>2^18.666224 ≈ 416,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | <small>2^14.597453 ≈ 24,789.7 </small> | <small>2^14.6438562 ≈ 25,600.0 </small> | <small>2^14.666224 ≈ 26,000.0 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | <small>2^10.597453 ≈ 1,549.36 </small> | <small>2^10.6438562 ≈ 1,600.00 </small> | <small>2^10.666224 ≈ 1,625.00 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁸''' | <small>2^6.597453 ≈ 96.8348 </small> | <small>2^6.6438562 ≈ 100.0000 </small> | <small>2^6.666224 ≈ 101.5625 </small> |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off-Nominal Values |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | <small>2^15.597453 ≈ 49,579 </small> | <small>2^15.6438562 ≈ 51,200 </small> | <small>2^15.666224 ≈ 52,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2²⁶''' | <small>2^0.597453 ≈ 1.513043 </small> | <small>2^0.6438562 ≈ 1.562500 </small> | <small>2^0.666224 ≈ 1.586914 </small> |} == The Earth and Moon == The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep-time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics. ==== Earth's sidereal year ==== The duration of Earth's sidereal year is '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. While gravitational perturbations from neighboring planets cause this value to vary by 20 to 25 minutes annually, the averaged century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given this relative stability, using a clean divisor of the sidereal year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system offers significant utility. Specifically, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds, meaning Earth's sidereal year—rounded to the nearest second—equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's tropical year ==== Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of seasons between successive vernal equinoxes, spans '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp shorter than the sidereal year, coming in at '''10,329.6 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's Great Year ==== With Earth's sidereal year (<math>P</math>) spanning 10,330 timestamps and the tropical year (<math>a_{t}</math>) spanning 10,329.6 timestamps, a full precessional cycle requires a number of years ratio, <math>N</math>, where the cumulative annual difference equals exactly one year: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} N &= \frac{1\text{ Bully timestamp}}{P - a_{t}} \\ &= \frac{1}{10,330 - 10,329.6} \\ &= \frac{1}{0.4} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; Expressing this duration in terms of sidereal years yields: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= 25,824 \, P \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; Alternatively, expressing the cycle in terms of tropical years yields: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= 25,825 \, a_{t} \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic|Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] ==== The Metonic cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23, 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp complete approximately three cycles per one Metonic cycle, as illustrated below: <div style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: inherit; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688; border-radius: 4px; line-height: 1.6; margin: 1em 0;"> '''July 23 New Moons:''' * July 23, 1998 — 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 — 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 — 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> * [[Bully Metric Metonic cycle|Learn More About The Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] ==== Earth's gravity ==== Of all the planets in the cosmos, our Earth is unique in that the gravity on Earth's surface is approximately equal to the speed of light divided by one sidereal year: :<math>g \approx \frac{c}{P}</math> :<math>10^4\text{ Bully timestamps} \approx \frac{c}{g}</math> (where <math>g</math> is surface gravity, <math>c</math> is the speed of light, and <math>P</math> is the orbital period). == Anchoring Bully Timestamps == To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''. === The Bully Timestamp Duration === While 3,055 seconds may appear to be an arbitrary choice, the length of a single Bully timestamp is mathematically derived from solar, lunar, and deep-time orbital mechanics. {{Quote box| align = center| width = 100%| title = Bully Timestamp Duration | text = Justification: # The Sun orbits approximately one solar radius per Bully timestamp: [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics#Solar_Radius_Mnemonics| t_☉ ≈ 3,055 seconds]] # The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year: [[Bully Mnemonic |31558150 s = 10330 × 3055 s]]. # Approximate divisor of the ratio of the speed of light with g_earth: [https://www.google.com/search?q=c+%2F+g_earth+in+megaseconds c / g_earth ≈ 30.55 Ms] # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of the Earth–Moon Metonic cycle: [https://www.google.com/search?q=3+*+16%5E4+*+3055+s 1 Metonic cycle ≈ 3 × 16⁴ × 3055 s] # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of Earth's Great Year: [https://www.google.com/search?q=16%5E7+*+3055+s 1 Great Year ≈ 16⁷ × 3055 s]. # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of the galactic year: [https://www.google.com/search?q=2+*+16%5E10+*+3055+s 1 galactic year ≈ 2 × 16¹⁰ × 3055 s] }} === The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 6a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]], where the plane intersects the Galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 6a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] ==== Bullies in the Bully System ==== A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in Figure 6a: * '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign. * '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left. * '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left. As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history: {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was “sweetheart”. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, “lover”. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}} Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of "excellent" or "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. {{Quote box| align = center | width = full | title = The "Bully" Name | text = The specific "bullies" in the "Bully" timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}} === A surrogate for the Sun === As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving. The path of the node can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°): <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4c''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 6b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}'''. (Note: Figure 4c assumes an idealized travel distance of exactly 52,000 parsecs (or 2^15.666224) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps, whereas Figure 6b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs (or 2^15.666040) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center;" |+ '''Figure 6b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 3px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled in parsecs |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B32}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5058}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.100 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|820A D4AD 4AD4}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1099.86''}}}} |} {{Quote box| align = center| width = full| title = Bully Timestamp Anchor| text = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 6b).}} ==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ==== In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 6c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days. The Earth's orbital speed varies throughout the year, moving slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Consequently, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season. As shown in Figure 6c, '''winter''' was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. It took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to '''spring''' being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to '''summer'''. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over '''21,000 years'''. [[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 6c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]] Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 6c. The transition from '''spring to summer''' is correlated with a large '''green dot''' and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large '''red dot''' appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from '''summer to autumn''', and a large '''blue dot''', back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from '''winter to spring'''. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,500 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly '''26,000 years''' (1 Great Year ≈ 25,824 sidereal years ≈ 25,825 tropical years). {{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | text = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred near the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. All of the Galactic crossings shown in Figure 6c, at 4495 BCE, 1998 CE, and 8329 CE, are roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE. }} == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 7a''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in Figure 7a, these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|'''Figure 7a''': Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of Figure 7a, follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. Ideally, all of the black lines in Figure 7a could be discontinued and replaced by Bully timestamps going forward. === Why do we need Bully timestamps? === All the timestamps in '''Figure 7b''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ '''Figure 7b''': UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of Figure 7b attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of Figure 7b, breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3,055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950s, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic timekeeping (1958 AD – present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Estimation == [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 8a: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 8a'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 8b'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|'''Figure 8b''': The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in '''Figure 8c''' contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8c''': Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in '''Figure 8d''' (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8d''': Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 8d) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in '''Figure 8e''' is the same as is shown in Figure 8d, but Figure 8e plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8e''': A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in '''Figure 8f''' is similar to the table in Figure 8c, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 8c was for large z values, Figure 8f shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8f''': Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] rtqde5s8bb1hkptaajuadu24wfehilm 2832650 2832649 2026-09-10T18:43:13Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Earth's gravity */ 2832650 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the Sun's orbit around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp occurs each time the Sun advances by roughly one solar radius along its path through the cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|upright=2.2|center|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] == One Solar Radius == The Sun hurtles around the Milky Way Galaxy at a blistering 0.076% of the speed of light ([https://arxiv.org/abs/1810.09466 229.0 ± 0.2 kilometers per second]). Yet, even at this staggering pace, it takes about five-sixths of an hour for the Sun to traverse a distance equal to its own radius. This highlights the truly colossal size of our star, which boasts a radius of 2.3206 light-seconds (695,700 kilometers). '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. During each '''3,055-second''' period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over '''2.33 light-seconds''', which is slightly more than one solar radius (<math>R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 2.33 \text{ ls} \gtrapprox R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', it is a vast, oblong, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into surrounding space. While somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, the latter is a comparatively thin layer of gas held near the planetary surface, whereas the heliosphere is a plasma constantly blasted into space by the Sun's extreme heat and energy. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is so vast that if it were truly spherical, it would take the Sun roughly 6.344 years to travel a distance equivalent to the heliosphere's diameter. The digit in the '''fifth position''' of a Bully timestamp represents this orbital distance. Figure 2 illustrates the motion of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. Timestamp 8209 ED00 0000 is defined to have occurred at exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16, 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. During each 6.344-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 306 astronomical units, which is slightly more than 65,536 solar radii (<math>16^{4}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 306 \text{ AU} \gtrapprox 16^{4}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === Naked-Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (not to scale) across 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' corresponds to approximately 383,000 B.C., while timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., representing a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a cyan dashed line marking 100 parsecs. The Sun travels a little less than this distance during each 416,000-year interval, which is tracked by the digit in the '''ninth position''' of the Bully timestamp. Because a large percentage of naked-eye stars sit within this 100-parsec radius, the appearance of Earth's night sky changes completely over this timeframe. [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of naked-eye stars binned according to brightness and distance from the Sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the Sun than 100 parsecs, which is the distance the Sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of naked-eye stars are within this 100-parsec travel distance of the Sun.]] During each 415,792-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 97 parsecs, which is slightly more than 4,294,967,296 solar radii (<math>16^{8}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 97 \text{ pc} \gtrapprox 16^{8}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> ==== The Bully Milky Way ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3b''': Division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 3b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid). Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000'''. These represent the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D., respectively, assuming a full orbital path around the Milky Way of roughly 50,000 parsecs. In the lower half of the image, cyan lines further divide a single yellow sector into 16 equal subsectors. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center in Figure 3b, corresponding to the 6 o'clock position, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle of the Sun at Bully timestamp 820A 0000 0000, estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D. The nine cyan grid lines to the right of the red line mark the Sun's polar angle for Bully timestamps 8201 0000 0000 through 8209 0000 0000. Meanwhile, the five cyan grid lines to the left of the red line indicate the polar angle for timestamps 820B 0000 0000 through 820F 0000 0000. <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,t_{\odot} \approx 212.9 \text{ million years} </math> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \sim 50,000 \text{ parsecs} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> == The Galactic Calendar == [[File:Galactic centre orbits.svg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 4a''':Inferred orbits of 6 stars around the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* at the Milky Way's center<ref name="Eisenhauer">{{cite journal|last=Eisenhauer|first=F.|display-authors=et al. |title=SINFONI in the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares in the Central Light-Month|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=July 20, 2005|volume=628|issue=1|pages=246–259|doi=10.1086/430667|bibcode=2005ApJ...628..246E|arxiv=astro-ph/0502129|s2cid=122485461 }}</ref>]] [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, labeled S2 in '''Figure 4a''', completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance from the Sun to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: &hairsp; :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \\ \end{align}</math> &hairsp; If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. ==== Idealized Galactic Weeks ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Weeks_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 4b''': Division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks of solar travel (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 4b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks (yellow grid). Each week represents 1,000 parsecs of solar travel, which in this plot is assumed to be traversed by the Sun in roughly 4.09 million years. Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000''', respectively, indicating the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D. The cyan lines in the lower half of the image further divide one sector into 10 equal subsectors of 100 parsecs each. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 4b, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun had during Bully timestamp 8209 D89D 89D8 (approximately 31,000 B.C.), which is 1,000 parsecs of travel beyond the yellow line representing timestamp 8200 0000 0000. The nine cyan lines to the left of the red line represent the polar angles of the Sun after traveling 1,100 through 1,900 parsecs beyond timestamp 8200 0000 0000. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2⁴¹ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4c''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. It outlines the specific Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved across this idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4c:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. ==== Is the Galactic Calendar Realistic? ==== [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4d:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250-million-year time period.]] The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4d). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4d''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in Figure 4c states that the galactic week beginning on timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark. ==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ==== In Figure 3a and Figure 3b, the Sun is shown to travel less than 50,000 parsecs per galactic year. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar shown in Figure 4b assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per galactic year, introducing a distinct discrepancy in both galactic scale and calculated orbital velocity. Because the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to complex gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is neither perfectly uniform nor entirely predictable. Consequently, the Sun's true orbital velocity remains a subject of ongoing discovery and refinement. The conjectured values used in Figure 3b and Figure 4b should be viewed as '''practical assumptions''' rather than a reflection of a stable, long-term physical reality; the idealized Bully Calendar is a '''conceptual model''' designed to help visualize the immense scale of the galactic orbit. The table in '''Figure 4e''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp up to 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | '''Figure 4e''': Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 100 parsecs per 16⁸ Bully timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps</small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | <small>2^18.597453 ≈ 396,635 </small> | <small>2^18.6438562 ≈ 409,600 </small> | <small>2^18.666224 ≈ 416,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | <small>2^14.597453 ≈ 24,789.7 </small> | <small>2^14.6438562 ≈ 25,600.0 </small> | <small>2^14.666224 ≈ 26,000.0 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | <small>2^10.597453 ≈ 1,549.36 </small> | <small>2^10.6438562 ≈ 1,600.00 </small> | <small>2^10.666224 ≈ 1,625.00 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁸''' | <small>2^6.597453 ≈ 96.8348 </small> | <small>2^6.6438562 ≈ 100.0000 </small> | <small>2^6.666224 ≈ 101.5625 </small> |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off-Nominal Values |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | <small>2^15.597453 ≈ 49,579 </small> | <small>2^15.6438562 ≈ 51,200 </small> | <small>2^15.666224 ≈ 52,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2²⁶''' | <small>2^0.597453 ≈ 1.513043 </small> | <small>2^0.6438562 ≈ 1.562500 </small> | <small>2^0.666224 ≈ 1.586914 </small> |} == The Earth and Moon == The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep-time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics. ==== Earth's sidereal year ==== The duration of Earth's sidereal year is '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. While gravitational perturbations from neighboring planets cause this value to vary by 20 to 25 minutes annually, the averaged century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given this relative stability, using a clean divisor of the sidereal year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system offers significant utility. Specifically, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds, meaning Earth's sidereal year—rounded to the nearest second—equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's tropical year ==== Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of seasons between successive vernal equinoxes, spans '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp shorter than the sidereal year, coming in at '''10,329.6 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's Great Year ==== With Earth's sidereal year (<math>P</math>) spanning 10,330 timestamps and the tropical year (<math>a_{t}</math>) spanning 10,329.6 timestamps, a full precessional cycle requires a number of years ratio, <math>N</math>, where the cumulative annual difference equals exactly one year: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} N &= \frac{1\text{ Bully timestamp}}{P - a_{t}} \\ &= \frac{1}{10,330 - 10,329.6} \\ &= \frac{1}{0.4} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; Expressing this duration in terms of sidereal years yields: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= 25,824 \, P \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; Alternatively, expressing the cycle in terms of tropical years yields: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= 25,825 \, a_{t} \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic|Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] ==== The Metonic cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23, 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp complete approximately three cycles per one Metonic cycle, as illustrated below: <div style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: inherit; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688; border-radius: 4px; line-height: 1.6; margin: 1em 0;"> '''July 23 New Moons:''' * July 23, 1998 — 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 — 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 — 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> * [[Bully Metric Metonic cycle|Learn More About The Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] ==== Earth's gravity ==== Of all the planets in the cosmos, our Earth is unique in that the gravity on Earth's surface is approximately equal to the speed of light divided by one sidereal year: :<math>g \approx \frac{c}{P}</math> Or equivalently: :<math>10^4\text{ Bully timestamps} \approx \frac{c}{g}</math> (where <math>g</math> is surface gravity, <math>c</math> is the speed of light, and <math>P</math> is the orbital period). == Anchoring Bully Timestamps == To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''. === The Bully Timestamp Duration === While 3,055 seconds may appear to be an arbitrary choice, the length of a single Bully timestamp is mathematically derived from solar, lunar, and deep-time orbital mechanics. {{Quote box| align = center| width = 100%| title = Bully Timestamp Duration | text = Justification: # The Sun orbits approximately one solar radius per Bully timestamp: [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics#Solar_Radius_Mnemonics| t_☉ ≈ 3,055 seconds]] # The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year: [[Bully Mnemonic |31558150 s = 10330 × 3055 s]]. # Approximate divisor of the ratio of the speed of light with g_earth: [https://www.google.com/search?q=c+%2F+g_earth+in+megaseconds c / g_earth ≈ 30.55 Ms] # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of the Earth–Moon Metonic cycle: [https://www.google.com/search?q=3+*+16%5E4+*+3055+s 1 Metonic cycle ≈ 3 × 16⁴ × 3055 s] # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of Earth's Great Year: [https://www.google.com/search?q=16%5E7+*+3055+s 1 Great Year ≈ 16⁷ × 3055 s]. # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of the galactic year: [https://www.google.com/search?q=2+*+16%5E10+*+3055+s 1 galactic year ≈ 2 × 16¹⁰ × 3055 s] }} === The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 6a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]], where the plane intersects the Galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 6a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] ==== Bullies in the Bully System ==== A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in Figure 6a: * '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign. * '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left. * '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left. As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history: {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was “sweetheart”. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, “lover”. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}} Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of "excellent" or "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. {{Quote box| align = center | width = full | title = The "Bully" Name | text = The specific "bullies" in the "Bully" timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}} === A surrogate for the Sun === As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving. The path of the node can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°): <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4c''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 6b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}'''. (Note: Figure 4c assumes an idealized travel distance of exactly 52,000 parsecs (or 2^15.666224) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps, whereas Figure 6b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs (or 2^15.666040) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center;" |+ '''Figure 6b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 3px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled in parsecs |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B32}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5058}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.100 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|820A D4AD 4AD4}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1099.86''}}}} |} {{Quote box| align = center| width = full| title = Bully Timestamp Anchor| text = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 6b).}} ==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ==== In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 6c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days. The Earth's orbital speed varies throughout the year, moving slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Consequently, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season. As shown in Figure 6c, '''winter''' was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. It took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to '''spring''' being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to '''summer'''. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over '''21,000 years'''. [[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 6c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]] Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 6c. The transition from '''spring to summer''' is correlated with a large '''green dot''' and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large '''red dot''' appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from '''summer to autumn''', and a large '''blue dot''', back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from '''winter to spring'''. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,500 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly '''26,000 years''' (1 Great Year ≈ 25,824 sidereal years ≈ 25,825 tropical years). {{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | text = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred near the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. All of the Galactic crossings shown in Figure 6c, at 4495 BCE, 1998 CE, and 8329 CE, are roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE. }} == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 7a''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in Figure 7a, these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|'''Figure 7a''': Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of Figure 7a, follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. Ideally, all of the black lines in Figure 7a could be discontinued and replaced by Bully timestamps going forward. === Why do we need Bully timestamps? === All the timestamps in '''Figure 7b''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ '''Figure 7b''': UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of Figure 7b attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of Figure 7b, breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3,055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950s, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic timekeeping (1958 AD – present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Estimation == [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 8a: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 8a'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 8b'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|'''Figure 8b''': The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in '''Figure 8c''' contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8c''': Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in '''Figure 8d''' (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8d''': Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 8d) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in '''Figure 8e''' is the same as is shown in Figure 8d, but Figure 8e plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8e''': A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in '''Figure 8f''' is similar to the table in Figure 8c, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 8c was for large z values, Figure 8f shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8f''': Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] hs18yi35pji1d8kwrdrqvqmd72trg7c 2832651 2832650 2026-09-10T18:45:29Z Unitfreak 695864 /* The Earth and Moon */ 2832651 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the Sun's orbit around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp occurs each time the Sun advances by roughly one solar radius along its path through the cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|upright=2.2|center|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] == One Solar Radius == The Sun hurtles around the Milky Way Galaxy at a blistering 0.076% of the speed of light ([https://arxiv.org/abs/1810.09466 229.0 ± 0.2 kilometers per second]). Yet, even at this staggering pace, it takes about five-sixths of an hour for the Sun to traverse a distance equal to its own radius. This highlights the truly colossal size of our star, which boasts a radius of 2.3206 light-seconds (695,700 kilometers). '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. During each '''3,055-second''' period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over '''2.33 light-seconds''', which is slightly more than one solar radius (<math>R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 2.33 \text{ ls} \gtrapprox R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', it is a vast, oblong, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into surrounding space. While somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, the latter is a comparatively thin layer of gas held near the planetary surface, whereas the heliosphere is a plasma constantly blasted into space by the Sun's extreme heat and energy. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is so vast that if it were truly spherical, it would take the Sun roughly 6.344 years to travel a distance equivalent to the heliosphere's diameter. The digit in the '''fifth position''' of a Bully timestamp represents this orbital distance. Figure 2 illustrates the motion of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. Timestamp 8209 ED00 0000 is defined to have occurred at exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16, 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. During each 6.344-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 306 astronomical units, which is slightly more than 65,536 solar radii (<math>16^{4}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 306 \text{ AU} \gtrapprox 16^{4}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === Naked-Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (not to scale) across 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' corresponds to approximately 383,000 B.C., while timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., representing a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a cyan dashed line marking 100 parsecs. The Sun travels a little less than this distance during each 416,000-year interval, which is tracked by the digit in the '''ninth position''' of the Bully timestamp. Because a large percentage of naked-eye stars sit within this 100-parsec radius, the appearance of Earth's night sky changes completely over this timeframe. [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of naked-eye stars binned according to brightness and distance from the Sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the Sun than 100 parsecs, which is the distance the Sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of naked-eye stars are within this 100-parsec travel distance of the Sun.]] During each 415,792-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 97 parsecs, which is slightly more than 4,294,967,296 solar radii (<math>16^{8}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 97 \text{ pc} \gtrapprox 16^{8}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> ==== The Bully Milky Way ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3b''': Division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 3b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid). Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000'''. These represent the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D., respectively, assuming a full orbital path around the Milky Way of roughly 50,000 parsecs. In the lower half of the image, cyan lines further divide a single yellow sector into 16 equal subsectors. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center in Figure 3b, corresponding to the 6 o'clock position, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle of the Sun at Bully timestamp 820A 0000 0000, estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D. The nine cyan grid lines to the right of the red line mark the Sun's polar angle for Bully timestamps 8201 0000 0000 through 8209 0000 0000. Meanwhile, the five cyan grid lines to the left of the red line indicate the polar angle for timestamps 820B 0000 0000 through 820F 0000 0000. <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,t_{\odot} \approx 212.9 \text{ million years} </math> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \sim 50,000 \text{ parsecs} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> == The Galactic Calendar == [[File:Galactic centre orbits.svg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 4a''':Inferred orbits of 6 stars around the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* at the Milky Way's center<ref name="Eisenhauer">{{cite journal|last=Eisenhauer|first=F.|display-authors=et al. |title=SINFONI in the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares in the Central Light-Month|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=July 20, 2005|volume=628|issue=1|pages=246–259|doi=10.1086/430667|bibcode=2005ApJ...628..246E|arxiv=astro-ph/0502129|s2cid=122485461 }}</ref>]] [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, labeled S2 in '''Figure 4a''', completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance from the Sun to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: &hairsp; :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \\ \end{align}</math> &hairsp; If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. ==== Idealized Galactic Weeks ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Weeks_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 4b''': Division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks of solar travel (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 4b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks (yellow grid). Each week represents 1,000 parsecs of solar travel, which in this plot is assumed to be traversed by the Sun in roughly 4.09 million years. Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000''', respectively, indicating the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D. The cyan lines in the lower half of the image further divide one sector into 10 equal subsectors of 100 parsecs each. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 4b, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun had during Bully timestamp 8209 D89D 89D8 (approximately 31,000 B.C.), which is 1,000 parsecs of travel beyond the yellow line representing timestamp 8200 0000 0000. The nine cyan lines to the left of the red line represent the polar angles of the Sun after traveling 1,100 through 1,900 parsecs beyond timestamp 8200 0000 0000. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2⁴¹ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4c''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. It outlines the specific Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved across this idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4c:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. ==== Is the Galactic Calendar Realistic? ==== [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4d:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250-million-year time period.]] The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4d). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4d''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in Figure 4c states that the galactic week beginning on timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark. ==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ==== In Figure 3a and Figure 3b, the Sun is shown to travel less than 50,000 parsecs per galactic year. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar shown in Figure 4b assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per galactic year, introducing a distinct discrepancy in both galactic scale and calculated orbital velocity. Because the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to complex gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is neither perfectly uniform nor entirely predictable. Consequently, the Sun's true orbital velocity remains a subject of ongoing discovery and refinement. The conjectured values used in Figure 3b and Figure 4b should be viewed as '''practical assumptions''' rather than a reflection of a stable, long-term physical reality; the idealized Bully Calendar is a '''conceptual model''' designed to help visualize the immense scale of the galactic orbit. The table in '''Figure 4e''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp up to 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | '''Figure 4e''': Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 100 parsecs per 16⁸ Bully timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps</small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | <small>2^18.597453 ≈ 396,635 </small> | <small>2^18.6438562 ≈ 409,600 </small> | <small>2^18.666224 ≈ 416,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | <small>2^14.597453 ≈ 24,789.7 </small> | <small>2^14.6438562 ≈ 25,600.0 </small> | <small>2^14.666224 ≈ 26,000.0 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | <small>2^10.597453 ≈ 1,549.36 </small> | <small>2^10.6438562 ≈ 1,600.00 </small> | <small>2^10.666224 ≈ 1,625.00 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁸''' | <small>2^6.597453 ≈ 96.8348 </small> | <small>2^6.6438562 ≈ 100.0000 </small> | <small>2^6.666224 ≈ 101.5625 </small> |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off-Nominal Values |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | <small>2^15.597453 ≈ 49,579 </small> | <small>2^15.6438562 ≈ 51,200 </small> | <small>2^15.666224 ≈ 52,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2²⁶''' | <small>2^0.597453 ≈ 1.513043 </small> | <small>2^0.6438562 ≈ 1.562500 </small> | <small>2^0.666224 ≈ 1.586914 </small> |} == The Earth and Moon == The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep-time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics. ==== Earth's sidereal year ==== The duration of Earth's sidereal year is '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. While gravitational perturbations from neighboring planets cause this value to vary by 20 to 25 minutes annually, the averaged century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given this relative stability, using a clean divisor of the sidereal year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system offers significant utility. Specifically, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds, meaning Earth's sidereal year—rounded to the nearest second—equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's tropical year ==== Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of seasons between successive vernal equinoxes, spans '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp shorter than the sidereal year, coming in at '''10,329.6 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's Great Year ==== With Earth's sidereal year (<math>P</math>) spanning 10,330 timestamps and the tropical year (<math>a_{t}</math>) spanning 10,329.6 timestamps, a full precessional cycle requires a number of years ratio, <math>N</math>, where the cumulative annual difference equals exactly one year: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} N &= \frac{1\text{ Bully timestamp}}{P - a_{t}} \\ &= \frac{1}{10,330 - 10,329.6} \\ &= \frac{1}{0.4} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; Expressing this duration in terms of sidereal years yields: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= 25,824 \, P \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; Alternatively, expressing the cycle in terms of tropical years yields: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= 25,825 \, a_{t} \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic|Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] ==== Earth's gravity ==== Of all the planets in the cosmos, our Earth is unique in that the gravity on Earth's surface is approximately equal to the speed of light divided by one sidereal year: :<math>g \approx \frac{c}{P}</math> Or equivalently: :<math>10^4\text{ Bully timestamps} \approx \frac{c}{g}</math> (where <math>g</math> is surface gravity, <math>c</math> is the speed of light, and <math>P</math> is the orbital period). ==== The Metonic cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23, 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp complete approximately three cycles per one Metonic cycle, as illustrated below: <div style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: inherit; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688; border-radius: 4px; line-height: 1.6; margin: 1em 0;"> '''July 23 New Moons:''' * July 23, 1998 — 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 — 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 — 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> * [[Bully Metric Metonic cycle|Learn More About The Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Anchoring Bully Timestamps == To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''. === The Bully Timestamp Duration === While 3,055 seconds may appear to be an arbitrary choice, the length of a single Bully timestamp is mathematically derived from solar, lunar, and deep-time orbital mechanics. {{Quote box| align = center| width = 100%| title = Bully Timestamp Duration | text = Justification: # The Sun orbits approximately one solar radius per Bully timestamp: [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics#Solar_Radius_Mnemonics| t_☉ ≈ 3,055 seconds]] # The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year: [[Bully Mnemonic |31558150 s = 10330 × 3055 s]]. # Approximate divisor of the ratio of the speed of light with g_earth: [https://www.google.com/search?q=c+%2F+g_earth+in+megaseconds c / g_earth ≈ 30.55 Ms] # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of the Earth–Moon Metonic cycle: [https://www.google.com/search?q=3+*+16%5E4+*+3055+s 1 Metonic cycle ≈ 3 × 16⁴ × 3055 s] # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of Earth's Great Year: [https://www.google.com/search?q=16%5E7+*+3055+s 1 Great Year ≈ 16⁷ × 3055 s]. # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of the galactic year: [https://www.google.com/search?q=2+*+16%5E10+*+3055+s 1 galactic year ≈ 2 × 16¹⁰ × 3055 s] }} === The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 6a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]], where the plane intersects the Galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 6a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] ==== Bullies in the Bully System ==== A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in Figure 6a: * '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign. * '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left. * '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left. As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history: {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was “sweetheart”. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, “lover”. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}} Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of "excellent" or "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. {{Quote box| align = center | width = full | title = The "Bully" Name | text = The specific "bullies" in the "Bully" timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}} === A surrogate for the Sun === As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving. The path of the node can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°): <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4c''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 6b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}'''. (Note: Figure 4c assumes an idealized travel distance of exactly 52,000 parsecs (or 2^15.666224) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps, whereas Figure 6b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs (or 2^15.666040) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center;" |+ '''Figure 6b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 3px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled in parsecs |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B32}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5058}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.100 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|820A D4AD 4AD4}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1099.86''}}}} |} {{Quote box| align = center| width = full| title = Bully Timestamp Anchor| text = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 6b).}} ==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ==== In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 6c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days. The Earth's orbital speed varies throughout the year, moving slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Consequently, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season. As shown in Figure 6c, '''winter''' was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. It took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to '''spring''' being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to '''summer'''. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over '''21,000 years'''. [[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 6c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]] Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 6c. The transition from '''spring to summer''' is correlated with a large '''green dot''' and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large '''red dot''' appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from '''summer to autumn''', and a large '''blue dot''', back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from '''winter to spring'''. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,500 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly '''26,000 years''' (1 Great Year ≈ 25,824 sidereal years ≈ 25,825 tropical years). {{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | text = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred near the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. All of the Galactic crossings shown in Figure 6c, at 4495 BCE, 1998 CE, and 8329 CE, are roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE. }} == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 7a''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in Figure 7a, these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|'''Figure 7a''': Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of Figure 7a, follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. Ideally, all of the black lines in Figure 7a could be discontinued and replaced by Bully timestamps going forward. === Why do we need Bully timestamps? === All the timestamps in '''Figure 7b''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ '''Figure 7b''': UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of Figure 7b attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of Figure 7b, breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3,055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950s, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic timekeeping (1958 AD – present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Estimation == [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 8a: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 8a'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 8b'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|'''Figure 8b''': The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in '''Figure 8c''' contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8c''': Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in '''Figure 8d''' (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8d''': Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 8d) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in '''Figure 8e''' is the same as is shown in Figure 8d, but Figure 8e plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8e''': A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in '''Figure 8f''' is similar to the table in Figure 8c, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 8c was for large z values, Figure 8f shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8f''': Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] 4wxdwmzehcxfhv6omb1vnit76bk8mf5 2832652 2832651 2026-09-10T18:47:59Z Unitfreak 695864 /* The Earth and Moon */ 2832652 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the Sun's orbit around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp occurs each time the Sun advances by roughly one solar radius along its path through the cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|upright=2.2|center|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] == One Solar Radius == The Sun hurtles around the Milky Way Galaxy at a blistering 0.076% of the speed of light ([https://arxiv.org/abs/1810.09466 229.0 ± 0.2 kilometers per second]). Yet, even at this staggering pace, it takes about five-sixths of an hour for the Sun to traverse a distance equal to its own radius. This highlights the truly colossal size of our star, which boasts a radius of 2.3206 light-seconds (695,700 kilometers). '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. During each '''3,055-second''' period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over '''2.33 light-seconds''', which is slightly more than one solar radius (<math>R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 2.33 \text{ ls} \gtrapprox R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', it is a vast, oblong, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into surrounding space. While somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, the latter is a comparatively thin layer of gas held near the planetary surface, whereas the heliosphere is a plasma constantly blasted into space by the Sun's extreme heat and energy. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is so vast that if it were truly spherical, it would take the Sun roughly 6.344 years to travel a distance equivalent to the heliosphere's diameter. The digit in the '''fifth position''' of a Bully timestamp represents this orbital distance. Figure 2 illustrates the motion of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. Timestamp 8209 ED00 0000 is defined to have occurred at exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16, 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. During each 6.344-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 306 astronomical units, which is slightly more than 65,536 solar radii (<math>16^{4}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 306 \text{ AU} \gtrapprox 16^{4}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === Naked-Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (not to scale) across 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' corresponds to approximately 383,000 B.C., while timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., representing a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a cyan dashed line marking 100 parsecs. The Sun travels a little less than this distance during each 416,000-year interval, which is tracked by the digit in the '''ninth position''' of the Bully timestamp. Because a large percentage of naked-eye stars sit within this 100-parsec radius, the appearance of Earth's night sky changes completely over this timeframe. [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of naked-eye stars binned according to brightness and distance from the Sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the Sun than 100 parsecs, which is the distance the Sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of naked-eye stars are within this 100-parsec travel distance of the Sun.]] During each 415,792-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 97 parsecs, which is slightly more than 4,294,967,296 solar radii (<math>16^{8}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 97 \text{ pc} \gtrapprox 16^{8}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> ==== The Bully Milky Way ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3b''': Division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 3b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid). Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000'''. These represent the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D., respectively, assuming a full orbital path around the Milky Way of roughly 50,000 parsecs. In the lower half of the image, cyan lines further divide a single yellow sector into 16 equal subsectors. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center in Figure 3b, corresponding to the 6 o'clock position, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle of the Sun at Bully timestamp 820A 0000 0000, estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D. The nine cyan grid lines to the right of the red line mark the Sun's polar angle for Bully timestamps 8201 0000 0000 through 8209 0000 0000. Meanwhile, the five cyan grid lines to the left of the red line indicate the polar angle for timestamps 820B 0000 0000 through 820F 0000 0000. <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,t_{\odot} \approx 212.9 \text{ million years} </math> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \sim 50,000 \text{ parsecs} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> == The Galactic Calendar == [[File:Galactic centre orbits.svg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 4a''':Inferred orbits of 6 stars around the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* at the Milky Way's center<ref name="Eisenhauer">{{cite journal|last=Eisenhauer|first=F.|display-authors=et al. |title=SINFONI in the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares in the Central Light-Month|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=July 20, 2005|volume=628|issue=1|pages=246–259|doi=10.1086/430667|bibcode=2005ApJ...628..246E|arxiv=astro-ph/0502129|s2cid=122485461 }}</ref>]] [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, labeled S2 in '''Figure 4a''', completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance from the Sun to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: &hairsp; :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \\ \end{align}</math> &hairsp; If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. ==== Idealized Galactic Weeks ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Weeks_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 4b''': Division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks of solar travel (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 4b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks (yellow grid). Each week represents 1,000 parsecs of solar travel, which in this plot is assumed to be traversed by the Sun in roughly 4.09 million years. Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000''', respectively, indicating the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D. The cyan lines in the lower half of the image further divide one sector into 10 equal subsectors of 100 parsecs each. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 4b, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun had during Bully timestamp 8209 D89D 89D8 (approximately 31,000 B.C.), which is 1,000 parsecs of travel beyond the yellow line representing timestamp 8200 0000 0000. The nine cyan lines to the left of the red line represent the polar angles of the Sun after traveling 1,100 through 1,900 parsecs beyond timestamp 8200 0000 0000. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2⁴¹ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4c''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. It outlines the specific Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved across this idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4c:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. ==== Is the Galactic Calendar Realistic? ==== [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4d:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250-million-year time period.]] The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4d). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4d''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in Figure 4c states that the galactic week beginning on timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark. ==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ==== In Figure 3a and Figure 3b, the Sun is shown to travel less than 50,000 parsecs per galactic year. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar shown in Figure 4b assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per galactic year, introducing a distinct discrepancy in both galactic scale and calculated orbital velocity. Because the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to complex gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is neither perfectly uniform nor entirely predictable. Consequently, the Sun's true orbital velocity remains a subject of ongoing discovery and refinement. The conjectured values used in Figure 3b and Figure 4b should be viewed as '''practical assumptions''' rather than a reflection of a stable, long-term physical reality; the idealized Bully Calendar is a '''conceptual model''' designed to help visualize the immense scale of the galactic orbit. The table in '''Figure 4e''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp up to 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | '''Figure 4e''': Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 100 parsecs per 16⁸ Bully timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps</small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | <small>2^18.597453 ≈ 396,635 </small> | <small>2^18.6438562 ≈ 409,600 </small> | <small>2^18.666224 ≈ 416,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | <small>2^14.597453 ≈ 24,789.7 </small> | <small>2^14.6438562 ≈ 25,600.0 </small> | <small>2^14.666224 ≈ 26,000.0 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | <small>2^10.597453 ≈ 1,549.36 </small> | <small>2^10.6438562 ≈ 1,600.00 </small> | <small>2^10.666224 ≈ 1,625.00 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁸''' | <small>2^6.597453 ≈ 96.8348 </small> | <small>2^6.6438562 ≈ 100.0000 </small> | <small>2^6.666224 ≈ 101.5625 </small> |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off-Nominal Values |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | <small>2^15.597453 ≈ 49,579 </small> | <small>2^15.6438562 ≈ 51,200 </small> | <small>2^15.666224 ≈ 52,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2²⁶''' | <small>2^0.597453 ≈ 1.513043 </small> | <small>2^0.6438562 ≈ 1.562500 </small> | <small>2^0.666224 ≈ 1.586914 </small> |} == The Earth and Moon == The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep-time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics. ==== Earth's sidereal year ==== The duration of Earth's sidereal year is '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. While gravitational perturbations from neighboring planets cause this value to vary by 20 to 25 minutes annually, the averaged century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given this relative stability, using a clean divisor of the sidereal year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system offers significant utility. Specifically, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds, meaning Earth's sidereal year—rounded to the nearest second—equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's tropical year ==== Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of seasons between successive vernal equinoxes, spans '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp shorter than the sidereal year, coming in at '''10,329.6 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's Great Year ==== With Earth's sidereal year (<math>P</math>) spanning 10,330 timestamps and the tropical year (<math>a_{t}</math>) spanning 10,329.6 timestamps, a full precessional cycle requires a number of years ratio, <math>N</math>, where the cumulative annual difference equals exactly one year: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} N &= \frac{1\text{ Bully timestamp}}{P - a_{t}} \\ &= \frac{1}{10,330 - 10,329.6} \\ &= \frac{1}{0.4} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; Expressing this duration in terms of sidereal years yields: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= 25,824 \, P \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; Alternatively, expressing the cycle in terms of tropical years yields: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= 25,825 \, a_{t} \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; ==== Earth's gravity ==== Of all the planets in the cosmos, our Earth is unique in that the gravity on Earth's surface is approximately equal to the speed of light divided by one sidereal year: :<math>g \approx \frac{c}{P}</math> Or equivalently: :<math>10^4\text{ Bully timestamps} \approx \frac{c}{g}</math> (where <math>g</math> is surface gravity, <math>c</math> is the speed of light, and <math>P</math> is the orbital period). ==== The Bully Mnemonic ==== The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic|Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] ==== The Metonic cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23, 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp complete approximately three cycles per one Metonic cycle, as illustrated below: <div style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: inherit; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688; border-radius: 4px; line-height: 1.6; margin: 1em 0;"> '''July 23 New Moons:''' * July 23, 1998 — 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 — 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 — 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> * [[Bully Metric Metonic cycle|Learn More About The Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Anchoring Bully Timestamps == To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''. === The Bully Timestamp Duration === While 3,055 seconds may appear to be an arbitrary choice, the length of a single Bully timestamp is mathematically derived from solar, lunar, and deep-time orbital mechanics. {{Quote box| align = center| width = 100%| title = Bully Timestamp Duration | text = Justification: # The Sun orbits approximately one solar radius per Bully timestamp: [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics#Solar_Radius_Mnemonics| t_☉ ≈ 3,055 seconds]] # The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year: [[Bully Mnemonic |31558150 s = 10330 × 3055 s]]. # Approximate divisor of the ratio of the speed of light with g_earth: [https://www.google.com/search?q=c+%2F+g_earth+in+megaseconds c / g_earth ≈ 30.55 Ms] # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of the Earth–Moon Metonic cycle: [https://www.google.com/search?q=3+*+16%5E4+*+3055+s 1 Metonic cycle ≈ 3 × 16⁴ × 3055 s] # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of Earth's Great Year: [https://www.google.com/search?q=16%5E7+*+3055+s 1 Great Year ≈ 16⁷ × 3055 s]. # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of the galactic year: [https://www.google.com/search?q=2+*+16%5E10+*+3055+s 1 galactic year ≈ 2 × 16¹⁰ × 3055 s] }} === The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 6a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]], where the plane intersects the Galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 6a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] ==== Bullies in the Bully System ==== A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in Figure 6a: * '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign. * '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left. * '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left. As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history: {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was “sweetheart”. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, “lover”. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}} Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of "excellent" or "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. {{Quote box| align = center | width = full | title = The "Bully" Name | text = The specific "bullies" in the "Bully" timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}} === A surrogate for the Sun === As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving. The path of the node can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°): <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4c''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 6b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}'''. (Note: Figure 4c assumes an idealized travel distance of exactly 52,000 parsecs (or 2^15.666224) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps, whereas Figure 6b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs (or 2^15.666040) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center;" |+ '''Figure 6b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 3px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled in parsecs |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B32}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5058}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.100 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|820A D4AD 4AD4}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1099.86''}}}} |} {{Quote box| align = center| width = full| title = Bully Timestamp Anchor| text = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 6b).}} ==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ==== In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 6c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days. The Earth's orbital speed varies throughout the year, moving slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Consequently, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season. As shown in Figure 6c, '''winter''' was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. It took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to '''spring''' being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to '''summer'''. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over '''21,000 years'''. [[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 6c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]] Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 6c. The transition from '''spring to summer''' is correlated with a large '''green dot''' and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large '''red dot''' appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from '''summer to autumn''', and a large '''blue dot''', back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from '''winter to spring'''. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,500 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly '''26,000 years''' (1 Great Year ≈ 25,824 sidereal years ≈ 25,825 tropical years). {{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | text = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred near the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. All of the Galactic crossings shown in Figure 6c, at 4495 BCE, 1998 CE, and 8329 CE, are roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE. }} == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 7a''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in Figure 7a, these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|'''Figure 7a''': Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of Figure 7a, follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. Ideally, all of the black lines in Figure 7a could be discontinued and replaced by Bully timestamps going forward. === Why do we need Bully timestamps? === All the timestamps in '''Figure 7b''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ '''Figure 7b''': UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of Figure 7b attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of Figure 7b, breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3,055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950s, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic timekeeping (1958 AD – present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Estimation == [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 8a: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 8a'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 8b'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|'''Figure 8b''': The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in '''Figure 8c''' contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8c''': Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in '''Figure 8d''' (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8d''': Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 8d) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in '''Figure 8e''' is the same as is shown in Figure 8d, but Figure 8e plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8e''': A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in '''Figure 8f''' is similar to the table in Figure 8c, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 8c was for large z values, Figure 8f shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8f''': Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] bvsvi70esn2w31pga7h7lwcrtdejnhd 2832654 2832652 2026-09-10T18:52:15Z Unitfreak 695864 /* The Earth and Moon */ 2832654 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the Sun's orbit around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp occurs each time the Sun advances by roughly one solar radius along its path through the cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|upright=2.2|center|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] == One Solar Radius == The Sun hurtles around the Milky Way Galaxy at a blistering 0.076% of the speed of light ([https://arxiv.org/abs/1810.09466 229.0 ± 0.2 kilometers per second]). Yet, even at this staggering pace, it takes about five-sixths of an hour for the Sun to traverse a distance equal to its own radius. This highlights the truly colossal size of our star, which boasts a radius of 2.3206 light-seconds (695,700 kilometers). '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. During each '''3,055-second''' period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over '''2.33 light-seconds''', which is slightly more than one solar radius (<math>R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 2.33 \text{ ls} \gtrapprox R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', it is a vast, oblong, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into surrounding space. While somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, the latter is a comparatively thin layer of gas held near the planetary surface, whereas the heliosphere is a plasma constantly blasted into space by the Sun's extreme heat and energy. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is so vast that if it were truly spherical, it would take the Sun roughly 6.344 years to travel a distance equivalent to the heliosphere's diameter. The digit in the '''fifth position''' of a Bully timestamp represents this orbital distance. Figure 2 illustrates the motion of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. Timestamp 8209 ED00 0000 is defined to have occurred at exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16, 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. During each 6.344-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 306 astronomical units, which is slightly more than 65,536 solar radii (<math>16^{4}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 306 \text{ AU} \gtrapprox 16^{4}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === Naked-Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (not to scale) across 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' corresponds to approximately 383,000 B.C., while timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., representing a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a cyan dashed line marking 100 parsecs. The Sun travels a little less than this distance during each 416,000-year interval, which is tracked by the digit in the '''ninth position''' of the Bully timestamp. Because a large percentage of naked-eye stars sit within this 100-parsec radius, the appearance of Earth's night sky changes completely over this timeframe. [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of naked-eye stars binned according to brightness and distance from the Sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the Sun than 100 parsecs, which is the distance the Sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of naked-eye stars are within this 100-parsec travel distance of the Sun.]] During each 415,792-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 97 parsecs, which is slightly more than 4,294,967,296 solar radii (<math>16^{8}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 97 \text{ pc} \gtrapprox 16^{8}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> ==== The Bully Milky Way ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3b''': Division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 3b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid). Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000'''. These represent the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D., respectively, assuming a full orbital path around the Milky Way of roughly 50,000 parsecs. In the lower half of the image, cyan lines further divide a single yellow sector into 16 equal subsectors. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center in Figure 3b, corresponding to the 6 o'clock position, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle of the Sun at Bully timestamp 820A 0000 0000, estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D. The nine cyan grid lines to the right of the red line mark the Sun's polar angle for Bully timestamps 8201 0000 0000 through 8209 0000 0000. Meanwhile, the five cyan grid lines to the left of the red line indicate the polar angle for timestamps 820B 0000 0000 through 820F 0000 0000. <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,t_{\odot} \approx 212.9 \text{ million years} </math> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \sim 50,000 \text{ parsecs} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> == The Galactic Calendar == [[File:Galactic centre orbits.svg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 4a''':Inferred orbits of 6 stars around the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* at the Milky Way's center<ref name="Eisenhauer">{{cite journal|last=Eisenhauer|first=F.|display-authors=et al. |title=SINFONI in the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares in the Central Light-Month|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=July 20, 2005|volume=628|issue=1|pages=246–259|doi=10.1086/430667|bibcode=2005ApJ...628..246E|arxiv=astro-ph/0502129|s2cid=122485461 }}</ref>]] [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, labeled S2 in '''Figure 4a''', completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance from the Sun to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: &hairsp; :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \\ \end{align}</math> &hairsp; If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. ==== Idealized Galactic Weeks ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Weeks_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 4b''': Division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks of solar travel (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 4b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks (yellow grid). Each week represents 1,000 parsecs of solar travel, which in this plot is assumed to be traversed by the Sun in roughly 4.09 million years. Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000''', respectively, indicating the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D. The cyan lines in the lower half of the image further divide one sector into 10 equal subsectors of 100 parsecs each. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 4b, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun had during Bully timestamp 8209 D89D 89D8 (approximately 31,000 B.C.), which is 1,000 parsecs of travel beyond the yellow line representing timestamp 8200 0000 0000. The nine cyan lines to the left of the red line represent the polar angles of the Sun after traveling 1,100 through 1,900 parsecs beyond timestamp 8200 0000 0000. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2⁴¹ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4c''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. It outlines the specific Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved across this idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4c:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. ==== Is the Galactic Calendar Realistic? ==== [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4d:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250-million-year time period.]] The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4d). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4d''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in Figure 4c states that the galactic week beginning on timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark. ==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ==== In Figure 3a and Figure 3b, the Sun is shown to travel less than 50,000 parsecs per galactic year. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar shown in Figure 4b assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per galactic year, introducing a distinct discrepancy in both galactic scale and calculated orbital velocity. Because the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to complex gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is neither perfectly uniform nor entirely predictable. Consequently, the Sun's true orbital velocity remains a subject of ongoing discovery and refinement. The conjectured values used in Figure 3b and Figure 4b should be viewed as '''practical assumptions''' rather than a reflection of a stable, long-term physical reality; the idealized Bully Calendar is a '''conceptual model''' designed to help visualize the immense scale of the galactic orbit. The table in '''Figure 4e''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp up to 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | '''Figure 4e''': Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 100 parsecs per 16⁸ Bully timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps</small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | <small>2^18.597453 ≈ 396,635 </small> | <small>2^18.6438562 ≈ 409,600 </small> | <small>2^18.666224 ≈ 416,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | <small>2^14.597453 ≈ 24,789.7 </small> | <small>2^14.6438562 ≈ 25,600.0 </small> | <small>2^14.666224 ≈ 26,000.0 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | <small>2^10.597453 ≈ 1,549.36 </small> | <small>2^10.6438562 ≈ 1,600.00 </small> | <small>2^10.666224 ≈ 1,625.00 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁸''' | <small>2^6.597453 ≈ 96.8348 </small> | <small>2^6.6438562 ≈ 100.0000 </small> | <small>2^6.666224 ≈ 101.5625 </small> |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off-Nominal Values |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | <small>2^15.597453 ≈ 49,579 </small> | <small>2^15.6438562 ≈ 51,200 </small> | <small>2^15.666224 ≈ 52,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2²⁶''' | <small>2^0.597453 ≈ 1.513043 </small> | <small>2^0.6438562 ≈ 1.562500 </small> | <small>2^0.666224 ≈ 1.586914 </small> |} == The Earth and Moon == The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep-time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics. The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic|Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] ==== Earth's sidereal year ==== The duration of Earth's sidereal year is '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. While gravitational perturbations from neighboring planets cause this value to vary by 20 to 25 minutes annually, the averaged century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given this relative stability, using a clean divisor of the sidereal year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system offers significant utility. Specifically, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds, meaning Earth's sidereal year—rounded to the nearest second—equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's tropical year ==== Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of seasons between successive vernal equinoxes, spans '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp shorter than the sidereal year, coming in at '''10,329.6 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's Great Year ==== With Earth's sidereal year (<math>P</math>) spanning 10,330 timestamps and the tropical year (<math>a_{t}</math>) spanning 10,329.6 timestamps, a full precessional cycle requires a number of years ratio, <math>N</math>, where the cumulative annual difference equals exactly one year: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} N &= \frac{1\text{ Bully timestamp}}{P - a_{t}} \\ &= \frac{1}{10,330 - 10,329.6} \\ &= \frac{1}{0.4} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; Expressing this duration in terms of sidereal years yields: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= 25,824 \, P \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; Alternatively, expressing the cycle in terms of tropical years yields: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= 25,825 \, a_{t} \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; ==== Earth's gravity ==== Of all the planets in the cosmos, our Earth is unique in that the gravity on Earth's surface is approximately equal to the speed of light divided by one sidereal year: :<math>g \approx \frac{c}{P}</math> Or equivalently: :<math>10^4\text{ Bully timestamps} \approx \frac{c}{g}</math> (where <math>g</math> is surface gravity, <math>c</math> is the speed of light, and <math>P</math> is the orbital period). ==== The Metonic cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23, 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp complete approximately three cycles per one Metonic cycle, as illustrated below: <div style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: inherit; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688; border-radius: 4px; line-height: 1.6; margin: 1em 0;"> '''July 23 New Moons:''' * July 23, 1998 — 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 — 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 — 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> * [[Bully Metric Metonic cycle|Learn More About The Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Anchoring Bully Timestamps == To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''. === The Bully Timestamp Duration === While 3,055 seconds may appear to be an arbitrary choice, the length of a single Bully timestamp is mathematically derived from solar, lunar, and deep-time orbital mechanics. {{Quote box| align = center| width = 100%| title = Bully Timestamp Duration | text = Justification: # The Sun orbits approximately one solar radius per Bully timestamp: [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics#Solar_Radius_Mnemonics| t_☉ ≈ 3,055 seconds]] # The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year: [[Bully Mnemonic |31558150 s = 10330 × 3055 s]]. # Approximate divisor of the ratio of the speed of light with g_earth: [https://www.google.com/search?q=c+%2F+g_earth+in+megaseconds c / g_earth ≈ 30.55 Ms] # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of the Earth–Moon Metonic cycle: [https://www.google.com/search?q=3+*+16%5E4+*+3055+s 1 Metonic cycle ≈ 3 × 16⁴ × 3055 s] # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of Earth's Great Year: [https://www.google.com/search?q=16%5E7+*+3055+s 1 Great Year ≈ 16⁷ × 3055 s]. # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of the galactic year: [https://www.google.com/search?q=2+*+16%5E10+*+3055+s 1 galactic year ≈ 2 × 16¹⁰ × 3055 s] }} === The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 6a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]], where the plane intersects the Galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 6a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] ==== Bullies in the Bully System ==== A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in Figure 6a: * '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign. * '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left. * '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left. As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history: {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was “sweetheart”. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, “lover”. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}} Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of "excellent" or "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. {{Quote box| align = center | width = full | title = The "Bully" Name | text = The specific "bullies" in the "Bully" timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}} === A surrogate for the Sun === As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving. The path of the node can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°): <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4c''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 6b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}'''. (Note: Figure 4c assumes an idealized travel distance of exactly 52,000 parsecs (or 2^15.666224) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps, whereas Figure 6b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs (or 2^15.666040) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center;" |+ '''Figure 6b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 3px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled in parsecs |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B32}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5058}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.100 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|820A D4AD 4AD4}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1099.86''}}}} |} {{Quote box| align = center| width = full| title = Bully Timestamp Anchor| text = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 6b).}} ==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ==== In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 6c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days. The Earth's orbital speed varies throughout the year, moving slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Consequently, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season. As shown in Figure 6c, '''winter''' was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. It took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to '''spring''' being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to '''summer'''. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over '''21,000 years'''. [[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 6c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]] Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 6c. The transition from '''spring to summer''' is correlated with a large '''green dot''' and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large '''red dot''' appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from '''summer to autumn''', and a large '''blue dot''', back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from '''winter to spring'''. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,500 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly '''26,000 years''' (1 Great Year ≈ 25,824 sidereal years ≈ 25,825 tropical years). {{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | text = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred near the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. All of the Galactic crossings shown in Figure 6c, at 4495 BCE, 1998 CE, and 8329 CE, are roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE. }} == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 7a''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in Figure 7a, these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|'''Figure 7a''': Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of Figure 7a, follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. Ideally, all of the black lines in Figure 7a could be discontinued and replaced by Bully timestamps going forward. === Why do we need Bully timestamps? === All the timestamps in '''Figure 7b''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ '''Figure 7b''': UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of Figure 7b attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of Figure 7b, breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3,055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950s, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic timekeeping (1958 AD – present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Estimation == [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 8a: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 8a'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 8b'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|'''Figure 8b''': The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in '''Figure 8c''' contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8c''': Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in '''Figure 8d''' (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8d''': Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 8d) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in '''Figure 8e''' is the same as is shown in Figure 8d, but Figure 8e plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8e''': A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in '''Figure 8f''' is similar to the table in Figure 8c, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 8c was for large z values, Figure 8f shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8f''': Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] 0tu6mnnes56ynkgahdbnhk1hleju8jj 2832655 2832654 2026-09-10T18:55:36Z Unitfreak 695864 /* The Earth and Moon */ 2832655 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the Sun's orbit around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp occurs each time the Sun advances by roughly one solar radius along its path through the cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|upright=2.2|center|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] == One Solar Radius == The Sun hurtles around the Milky Way Galaxy at a blistering 0.076% of the speed of light ([https://arxiv.org/abs/1810.09466 229.0 ± 0.2 kilometers per second]). Yet, even at this staggering pace, it takes about five-sixths of an hour for the Sun to traverse a distance equal to its own radius. This highlights the truly colossal size of our star, which boasts a radius of 2.3206 light-seconds (695,700 kilometers). '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. During each '''3,055-second''' period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over '''2.33 light-seconds''', which is slightly more than one solar radius (<math>R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 2.33 \text{ ls} \gtrapprox R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', it is a vast, oblong, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into surrounding space. While somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, the latter is a comparatively thin layer of gas held near the planetary surface, whereas the heliosphere is a plasma constantly blasted into space by the Sun's extreme heat and energy. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is so vast that if it were truly spherical, it would take the Sun roughly 6.344 years to travel a distance equivalent to the heliosphere's diameter. The digit in the '''fifth position''' of a Bully timestamp represents this orbital distance. Figure 2 illustrates the motion of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. Timestamp 8209 ED00 0000 is defined to have occurred at exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16, 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. During each 6.344-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 306 astronomical units, which is slightly more than 65,536 solar radii (<math>16^{4}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 306 \text{ AU} \gtrapprox 16^{4}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === Naked-Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (not to scale) across 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' corresponds to approximately 383,000 B.C., while timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., representing a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a cyan dashed line marking 100 parsecs. The Sun travels a little less than this distance during each 416,000-year interval, which is tracked by the digit in the '''ninth position''' of the Bully timestamp. Because a large percentage of naked-eye stars sit within this 100-parsec radius, the appearance of Earth's night sky changes completely over this timeframe. [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of naked-eye stars binned according to brightness and distance from the Sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the Sun than 100 parsecs, which is the distance the Sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of naked-eye stars are within this 100-parsec travel distance of the Sun.]] During each 415,792-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 97 parsecs, which is slightly more than 4,294,967,296 solar radii (<math>16^{8}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 97 \text{ pc} \gtrapprox 16^{8}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> ==== The Bully Milky Way ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3b''': Division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 3b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid). Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000'''. These represent the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D., respectively, assuming a full orbital path around the Milky Way of roughly 50,000 parsecs. In the lower half of the image, cyan lines further divide a single yellow sector into 16 equal subsectors. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center in Figure 3b, corresponding to the 6 o'clock position, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle of the Sun at Bully timestamp 820A 0000 0000, estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D. The nine cyan grid lines to the right of the red line mark the Sun's polar angle for Bully timestamps 8201 0000 0000 through 8209 0000 0000. Meanwhile, the five cyan grid lines to the left of the red line indicate the polar angle for timestamps 820B 0000 0000 through 820F 0000 0000. <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,t_{\odot} \approx 212.9 \text{ million years} </math> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \sim 50,000 \text{ parsecs} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> == The Galactic Calendar == [[File:Galactic centre orbits.svg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 4a''':Inferred orbits of 6 stars around the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* at the Milky Way's center<ref name="Eisenhauer">{{cite journal|last=Eisenhauer|first=F.|display-authors=et al. |title=SINFONI in the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares in the Central Light-Month|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=July 20, 2005|volume=628|issue=1|pages=246–259|doi=10.1086/430667|bibcode=2005ApJ...628..246E|arxiv=astro-ph/0502129|s2cid=122485461 }}</ref>]] [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, labeled S2 in '''Figure 4a''', completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance from the Sun to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: &hairsp; :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \\ \end{align}</math> &hairsp; If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. ==== Idealized Galactic Weeks ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Weeks_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 4b''': Division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks of solar travel (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 4b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks (yellow grid). Each week represents 1,000 parsecs of solar travel, which in this plot is assumed to be traversed by the Sun in roughly 4.09 million years. Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000''', respectively, indicating the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D. The cyan lines in the lower half of the image further divide one sector into 10 equal subsectors of 100 parsecs each. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 4b, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun had during Bully timestamp 8209 D89D 89D8 (approximately 31,000 B.C.), which is 1,000 parsecs of travel beyond the yellow line representing timestamp 8200 0000 0000. The nine cyan lines to the left of the red line represent the polar angles of the Sun after traveling 1,100 through 1,900 parsecs beyond timestamp 8200 0000 0000. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2⁴¹ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4c''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. It outlines the specific Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved across this idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4c:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. ==== Is the Galactic Calendar Realistic? ==== [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4d:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250-million-year time period.]] The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4d). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4d''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in Figure 4c states that the galactic week beginning on timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark. ==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ==== In Figure 3a and Figure 3b, the Sun is shown to travel less than 50,000 parsecs per galactic year. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar shown in Figure 4b assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per galactic year, introducing a distinct discrepancy in both galactic scale and calculated orbital velocity. Because the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to complex gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is neither perfectly uniform nor entirely predictable. Consequently, the Sun's true orbital velocity remains a subject of ongoing discovery and refinement. The conjectured values used in Figure 3b and Figure 4b should be viewed as '''practical assumptions''' rather than a reflection of a stable, long-term physical reality; the idealized Bully Calendar is a '''conceptual model''' designed to help visualize the immense scale of the galactic orbit. The table in '''Figure 4e''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp up to 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | '''Figure 4e''': Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 100 parsecs per 16⁸ Bully timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps</small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | <small>2^18.597453 ≈ 396,635 </small> | <small>2^18.6438562 ≈ 409,600 </small> | <small>2^18.666224 ≈ 416,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | <small>2^14.597453 ≈ 24,789.7 </small> | <small>2^14.6438562 ≈ 25,600.0 </small> | <small>2^14.666224 ≈ 26,000.0 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | <small>2^10.597453 ≈ 1,549.36 </small> | <small>2^10.6438562 ≈ 1,600.00 </small> | <small>2^10.666224 ≈ 1,625.00 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁸''' | <small>2^6.597453 ≈ 96.8348 </small> | <small>2^6.6438562 ≈ 100.0000 </small> | <small>2^6.666224 ≈ 101.5625 </small> |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off-Nominal Values |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | <small>2^15.597453 ≈ 49,579 </small> | <small>2^15.6438562 ≈ 51,200 </small> | <small>2^15.666224 ≈ 52,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2²⁶''' | <small>2^0.597453 ≈ 1.513043 </small> | <small>2^0.6438562 ≈ 1.562500 </small> | <small>2^0.666224 ≈ 1.586914 </small> |} == The Earth and Moon == The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep-time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique values as identified in the '''Bully Mnemonic'''. The Bully Mnemonic is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic|Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] ==== Earth's sidereal year ==== The duration of Earth's sidereal year is '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. While gravitational perturbations from neighboring planets cause this value to vary by 20 to 25 minutes annually, the averaged century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given this relative stability, using a clean divisor of the sidereal year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system offers significant utility. Specifically, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds, meaning Earth's sidereal year—rounded to the nearest second—equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's tropical year ==== Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of seasons between successive vernal equinoxes, spans '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp shorter than the sidereal year, coming in at '''10,329.6 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's Great Year ==== With Earth's sidereal year (<math>P</math>) spanning 10,330 timestamps and the tropical year (<math>a_{t}</math>) spanning 10,329.6 timestamps, a full precessional cycle requires a number of years ratio, <math>N</math>, where the cumulative annual difference equals exactly one year: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} N &= \frac{1\text{ Bully timestamp}}{P - a_{t}} \\ &= \frac{1}{10,330 - 10,329.6} \\ &= \frac{1}{0.4} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; Expressing this duration in terms of sidereal years yields: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= 25,824 \, P \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; Alternatively, expressing the cycle in terms of tropical years yields: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= 25,825 \, a_{t} \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; ==== Earth's gravity ==== Of all the planets in the cosmos, our Earth is unique in that the gravity on Earth's surface is approximately equal to the speed of light divided by one sidereal year: :<math>g \approx \frac{c}{P}</math> Or equivalently: :<math>10^4\text{ Bully timestamps} \approx \frac{c}{g}</math> (where <math>g</math> is surface gravity, <math>c</math> is the speed of light, and <math>P</math> is the orbital period). ==== The Metonic cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23, 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp complete approximately three cycles per one Metonic cycle, as illustrated below: <div style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: inherit; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688; border-radius: 4px; line-height: 1.6; margin: 1em 0;"> '''July 23 New Moons:''' * July 23, 1998 — 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 — 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 — 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> * [[Bully Metric Metonic cycle|Learn More About The Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Anchoring Bully Timestamps == To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''. === The Bully Timestamp Duration === While 3,055 seconds may appear to be an arbitrary choice, the length of a single Bully timestamp is mathematically derived from solar, lunar, and deep-time orbital mechanics. {{Quote box| align = center| width = 100%| title = Bully Timestamp Duration | text = Justification: # The Sun orbits approximately one solar radius per Bully timestamp: [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics#Solar_Radius_Mnemonics| t_☉ ≈ 3,055 seconds]] # The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year: [[Bully Mnemonic |31558150 s = 10330 × 3055 s]]. # Approximate divisor of the ratio of the speed of light with g_earth: [https://www.google.com/search?q=c+%2F+g_earth+in+megaseconds c / g_earth ≈ 30.55 Ms] # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of the Earth–Moon Metonic cycle: [https://www.google.com/search?q=3+*+16%5E4+*+3055+s 1 Metonic cycle ≈ 3 × 16⁴ × 3055 s] # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of Earth's Great Year: [https://www.google.com/search?q=16%5E7+*+3055+s 1 Great Year ≈ 16⁷ × 3055 s]. # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of the galactic year: [https://www.google.com/search?q=2+*+16%5E10+*+3055+s 1 galactic year ≈ 2 × 16¹⁰ × 3055 s] }} === The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 6a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]], where the plane intersects the Galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 6a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] ==== Bullies in the Bully System ==== A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in Figure 6a: * '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign. * '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left. * '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left. As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history: {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was “sweetheart”. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, “lover”. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}} Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of "excellent" or "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. {{Quote box| align = center | width = full | title = The "Bully" Name | text = The specific "bullies" in the "Bully" timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}} === A surrogate for the Sun === As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving. The path of the node can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°): <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4c''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 6b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}'''. (Note: Figure 4c assumes an idealized travel distance of exactly 52,000 parsecs (or 2^15.666224) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps, whereas Figure 6b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs (or 2^15.666040) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center;" |+ '''Figure 6b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 3px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled in parsecs |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B32}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5058}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.100 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|820A D4AD 4AD4}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1099.86''}}}} |} {{Quote box| align = center| width = full| title = Bully Timestamp Anchor| text = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 6b).}} ==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ==== In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 6c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days. The Earth's orbital speed varies throughout the year, moving slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Consequently, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season. As shown in Figure 6c, '''winter''' was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. It took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to '''spring''' being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to '''summer'''. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over '''21,000 years'''. [[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 6c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]] Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 6c. The transition from '''spring to summer''' is correlated with a large '''green dot''' and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large '''red dot''' appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from '''summer to autumn''', and a large '''blue dot''', back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from '''winter to spring'''. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,500 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly '''26,000 years''' (1 Great Year ≈ 25,824 sidereal years ≈ 25,825 tropical years). {{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | text = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred near the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. All of the Galactic crossings shown in Figure 6c, at 4495 BCE, 1998 CE, and 8329 CE, are roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE. }} == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 7a''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in Figure 7a, these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|'''Figure 7a''': Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of Figure 7a, follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. Ideally, all of the black lines in Figure 7a could be discontinued and replaced by Bully timestamps going forward. === Why do we need Bully timestamps? === All the timestamps in '''Figure 7b''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ '''Figure 7b''': UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of Figure 7b attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of Figure 7b, breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3,055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950s, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic timekeeping (1958 AD – present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Estimation == [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 8a: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 8a'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 8b'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|'''Figure 8b''': The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in '''Figure 8c''' contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8c''': Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in '''Figure 8d''' (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8d''': Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 8d) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in '''Figure 8e''' is the same as is shown in Figure 8d, but Figure 8e plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8e''': A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in '''Figure 8f''' is similar to the table in Figure 8c, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 8c was for large z values, Figure 8f shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8f''': Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] sixu4ntumhrxbpp2ru4okvwmcw61k30 2832656 2832655 2026-09-10T18:58:20Z Unitfreak 695864 /* The Earth and Moon */ 2832656 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the Sun's orbit around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp occurs each time the Sun advances by roughly one solar radius along its path through the cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|upright=2.2|center|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] == One Solar Radius == The Sun hurtles around the Milky Way Galaxy at a blistering 0.076% of the speed of light ([https://arxiv.org/abs/1810.09466 229.0 ± 0.2 kilometers per second]). Yet, even at this staggering pace, it takes about five-sixths of an hour for the Sun to traverse a distance equal to its own radius. This highlights the truly colossal size of our star, which boasts a radius of 2.3206 light-seconds (695,700 kilometers). '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. During each '''3,055-second''' period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over '''2.33 light-seconds''', which is slightly more than one solar radius (<math>R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 2.33 \text{ ls} \gtrapprox R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', it is a vast, oblong, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into surrounding space. While somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, the latter is a comparatively thin layer of gas held near the planetary surface, whereas the heliosphere is a plasma constantly blasted into space by the Sun's extreme heat and energy. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is so vast that if it were truly spherical, it would take the Sun roughly 6.344 years to travel a distance equivalent to the heliosphere's diameter. The digit in the '''fifth position''' of a Bully timestamp represents this orbital distance. Figure 2 illustrates the motion of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. Timestamp 8209 ED00 0000 is defined to have occurred at exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16, 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. During each 6.344-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 306 astronomical units, which is slightly more than 65,536 solar radii (<math>16^{4}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 306 \text{ AU} \gtrapprox 16^{4}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === Naked-Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (not to scale) across 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' corresponds to approximately 383,000 B.C., while timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., representing a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a cyan dashed line marking 100 parsecs. The Sun travels a little less than this distance during each 416,000-year interval, which is tracked by the digit in the '''ninth position''' of the Bully timestamp. Because a large percentage of naked-eye stars sit within this 100-parsec radius, the appearance of Earth's night sky changes completely over this timeframe. [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of naked-eye stars binned according to brightness and distance from the Sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the Sun than 100 parsecs, which is the distance the Sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of naked-eye stars are within this 100-parsec travel distance of the Sun.]] During each 415,792-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 97 parsecs, which is slightly more than 4,294,967,296 solar radii (<math>16^{8}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 97 \text{ pc} \gtrapprox 16^{8}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> ==== The Bully Milky Way ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3b''': Division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 3b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid). Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000'''. These represent the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D., respectively, assuming a full orbital path around the Milky Way of roughly 50,000 parsecs. In the lower half of the image, cyan lines further divide a single yellow sector into 16 equal subsectors. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center in Figure 3b, corresponding to the 6 o'clock position, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle of the Sun at Bully timestamp 820A 0000 0000, estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D. The nine cyan grid lines to the right of the red line mark the Sun's polar angle for Bully timestamps 8201 0000 0000 through 8209 0000 0000. Meanwhile, the five cyan grid lines to the left of the red line indicate the polar angle for timestamps 820B 0000 0000 through 820F 0000 0000. <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,t_{\odot} \approx 212.9 \text{ million years} </math> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \sim 50,000 \text{ parsecs} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> == The Galactic Calendar == [[File:Galactic centre orbits.svg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 4a''':Inferred orbits of 6 stars around the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* at the Milky Way's center<ref name="Eisenhauer">{{cite journal|last=Eisenhauer|first=F.|display-authors=et al. |title=SINFONI in the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares in the Central Light-Month|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=July 20, 2005|volume=628|issue=1|pages=246–259|doi=10.1086/430667|bibcode=2005ApJ...628..246E|arxiv=astro-ph/0502129|s2cid=122485461 }}</ref>]] [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, labeled S2 in '''Figure 4a''', completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance from the Sun to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: &hairsp; :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \\ \end{align}</math> &hairsp; If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. ==== Idealized Galactic Weeks ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Weeks_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 4b''': Division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks of solar travel (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 4b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks (yellow grid). Each week represents 1,000 parsecs of solar travel, which in this plot is assumed to be traversed by the Sun in roughly 4.09 million years. Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000''', respectively, indicating the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D. The cyan lines in the lower half of the image further divide one sector into 10 equal subsectors of 100 parsecs each. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 4b, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun had during Bully timestamp 8209 D89D 89D8 (approximately 31,000 B.C.), which is 1,000 parsecs of travel beyond the yellow line representing timestamp 8200 0000 0000. The nine cyan lines to the left of the red line represent the polar angles of the Sun after traveling 1,100 through 1,900 parsecs beyond timestamp 8200 0000 0000. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2⁴¹ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4c''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. It outlines the specific Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved across this idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4c:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. ==== Is the Galactic Calendar Realistic? ==== [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4d:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250-million-year time period.]] The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4d). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4d''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in Figure 4c states that the galactic week beginning on timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark. ==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ==== In Figure 3a and Figure 3b, the Sun is shown to travel less than 50,000 parsecs per galactic year. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar shown in Figure 4b assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per galactic year, introducing a distinct discrepancy in both galactic scale and calculated orbital velocity. Because the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to complex gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is neither perfectly uniform nor entirely predictable. Consequently, the Sun's true orbital velocity remains a subject of ongoing discovery and refinement. The conjectured values used in Figure 3b and Figure 4b should be viewed as '''practical assumptions''' rather than a reflection of a stable, long-term physical reality; the idealized Bully Calendar is a '''conceptual model''' designed to help visualize the immense scale of the galactic orbit. The table in '''Figure 4e''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp up to 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | '''Figure 4e''': Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 100 parsecs per 16⁸ Bully timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps</small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | <small>2^18.597453 ≈ 396,635 </small> | <small>2^18.6438562 ≈ 409,600 </small> | <small>2^18.666224 ≈ 416,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | <small>2^14.597453 ≈ 24,789.7 </small> | <small>2^14.6438562 ≈ 25,600.0 </small> | <small>2^14.666224 ≈ 26,000.0 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | <small>2^10.597453 ≈ 1,549.36 </small> | <small>2^10.6438562 ≈ 1,600.00 </small> | <small>2^10.666224 ≈ 1,625.00 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁸''' | <small>2^6.597453 ≈ 96.8348 </small> | <small>2^6.6438562 ≈ 100.0000 </small> | <small>2^6.666224 ≈ 101.5625 </small> |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off-Nominal Values |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | <small>2^15.597453 ≈ 49,579 </small> | <small>2^15.6438562 ≈ 51,200 </small> | <small>2^15.666224 ≈ 52,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2²⁶''' | <small>2^0.597453 ≈ 1.513043 </small> | <small>2^0.6438562 ≈ 1.562500 </small> | <small>2^0.666224 ≈ 1.586914 </small> |} == The Earth and Moon == The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep-time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these movements in mind and incorporates a few of their unique values as identified in the '''Bully Mnemonic'''. The Bully Mnemonic is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds in Earth's [[w:Sidereal year|sidereal year]] and [[w:Tropical year|tropical year]], a good approximation of the Earth's [[w:Great Year|Great Year]], and an approximation of the Solar System's [[w:Galactic year|galactic year]]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic|Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] ==== Earth's sidereal year ==== The duration of Earth's sidereal year is '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. While gravitational perturbations from neighboring planets cause this value to vary by 20 to 25 minutes annually, the averaged century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given this relative stability, using a clean divisor of the sidereal year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system offers significant utility. Specifically, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds, meaning Earth's sidereal year—rounded to the nearest second—equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's tropical year ==== Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of seasons between successive vernal equinoxes, spans '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp shorter than the sidereal year, coming in at '''10,329.6 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's Great Year ==== With Earth's sidereal year (<math>P</math>) spanning 10,330 timestamps and the tropical year (<math>a_{t}</math>) spanning 10,329.6 timestamps, a full precessional cycle requires a number of years ratio, <math>N</math>, where the cumulative annual difference equals exactly one year: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} N &= \frac{1\text{ Bully timestamp}}{P - a_{t}} \\ &= \frac{1}{10,330 - 10,329.6} \\ &= \frac{1}{0.4} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; Expressing this duration in terms of sidereal years yields: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= 25,824 \, P \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; Alternatively, expressing the cycle in terms of tropical years yields: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= 25,825 \, a_{t} \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; ==== Earth's gravity ==== Of all the planets in the cosmos, our Earth is unique in that the gravity on Earth's surface is approximately equal to the speed of light divided by one sidereal year: :<math>g \approx \frac{c}{P}</math> Or equivalently: :<math>10^4\text{ Bully timestamps} \approx \frac{c}{g}</math> (where <math>g</math> is surface gravity, <math>c</math> is the speed of light, and <math>P</math> is the orbital period). ==== The Metonic cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23, 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp complete approximately three cycles per one Metonic cycle, as illustrated below: <div style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: inherit; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688; border-radius: 4px; line-height: 1.6; margin: 1em 0;"> '''July 23 New Moons:''' * July 23, 1998 — 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 — 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 — 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> * [[Bully Metric Metonic cycle|Learn More About The Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Anchoring Bully Timestamps == To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''. === The Bully Timestamp Duration === While 3,055 seconds may appear to be an arbitrary choice, the length of a single Bully timestamp is mathematically derived from solar, lunar, and deep-time orbital mechanics. {{Quote box| align = center| width = 100%| title = Bully Timestamp Duration | text = Justification: # The Sun orbits approximately one solar radius per Bully timestamp: [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics#Solar_Radius_Mnemonics| t_☉ ≈ 3,055 seconds]] # The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year: [[Bully Mnemonic |31558150 s = 10330 × 3055 s]]. # Approximate divisor of the ratio of the speed of light with g_earth: [https://www.google.com/search?q=c+%2F+g_earth+in+megaseconds c / g_earth ≈ 30.55 Ms] # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of the Earth–Moon Metonic cycle: [https://www.google.com/search?q=3+*+16%5E4+*+3055+s 1 Metonic cycle ≈ 3 × 16⁴ × 3055 s] # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of Earth's Great Year: [https://www.google.com/search?q=16%5E7+*+3055+s 1 Great Year ≈ 16⁷ × 3055 s]. # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of the galactic year: [https://www.google.com/search?q=2+*+16%5E10+*+3055+s 1 galactic year ≈ 2 × 16¹⁰ × 3055 s] }} === The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 6a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]], where the plane intersects the Galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 6a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] ==== Bullies in the Bully System ==== A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in Figure 6a: * '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign. * '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left. * '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left. As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history: {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was “sweetheart”. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, “lover”. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}} Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of "excellent" or "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. {{Quote box| align = center | width = full | title = The "Bully" Name | text = The specific "bullies" in the "Bully" timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}} === A surrogate for the Sun === As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving. The path of the node can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°): <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4c''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 6b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}'''. (Note: Figure 4c assumes an idealized travel distance of exactly 52,000 parsecs (or 2^15.666224) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps, whereas Figure 6b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs (or 2^15.666040) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center;" |+ '''Figure 6b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 3px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled in parsecs |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B32}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5058}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.100 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|820A D4AD 4AD4}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1099.86''}}}} |} {{Quote box| align = center| width = full| title = Bully Timestamp Anchor| text = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 6b).}} ==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ==== In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 6c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days. The Earth's orbital speed varies throughout the year, moving slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Consequently, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season. As shown in Figure 6c, '''winter''' was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. It took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to '''spring''' being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to '''summer'''. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over '''21,000 years'''. [[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 6c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]] Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 6c. The transition from '''spring to summer''' is correlated with a large '''green dot''' and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large '''red dot''' appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from '''summer to autumn''', and a large '''blue dot''', back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from '''winter to spring'''. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,500 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly '''26,000 years''' (1 Great Year ≈ 25,824 sidereal years ≈ 25,825 tropical years). {{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | text = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred near the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. All of the Galactic crossings shown in Figure 6c, at 4495 BCE, 1998 CE, and 8329 CE, are roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE. }} == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 7a''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in Figure 7a, these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|'''Figure 7a''': Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of Figure 7a, follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. Ideally, all of the black lines in Figure 7a could be discontinued and replaced by Bully timestamps going forward. === Why do we need Bully timestamps? === All the timestamps in '''Figure 7b''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ '''Figure 7b''': UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of Figure 7b attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of Figure 7b, breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3,055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950s, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic timekeeping (1958 AD – present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Estimation == [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 8a: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 8a'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 8b'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|'''Figure 8b''': The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in '''Figure 8c''' contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8c''': Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in '''Figure 8d''' (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8d''': Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 8d) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in '''Figure 8e''' is the same as is shown in Figure 8d, but Figure 8e plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8e''': A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in '''Figure 8f''' is similar to the table in Figure 8c, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 8c was for large z values, Figure 8f shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8f''': Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] jmkl2g5jtypylonlv4tere017utxami 2832657 2832656 2026-09-10T19:03:03Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Earth's sidereal year */ 2832657 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the Sun's orbit around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp occurs each time the Sun advances by roughly one solar radius along its path through the cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|upright=2.2|center|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] == One Solar Radius == The Sun hurtles around the Milky Way Galaxy at a blistering 0.076% of the speed of light ([https://arxiv.org/abs/1810.09466 229.0 ± 0.2 kilometers per second]). Yet, even at this staggering pace, it takes about five-sixths of an hour for the Sun to traverse a distance equal to its own radius. This highlights the truly colossal size of our star, which boasts a radius of 2.3206 light-seconds (695,700 kilometers). '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. During each '''3,055-second''' period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over '''2.33 light-seconds''', which is slightly more than one solar radius (<math>R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 2.33 \text{ ls} \gtrapprox R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', it is a vast, oblong, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into surrounding space. While somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, the latter is a comparatively thin layer of gas held near the planetary surface, whereas the heliosphere is a plasma constantly blasted into space by the Sun's extreme heat and energy. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is so vast that if it were truly spherical, it would take the Sun roughly 6.344 years to travel a distance equivalent to the heliosphere's diameter. The digit in the '''fifth position''' of a Bully timestamp represents this orbital distance. Figure 2 illustrates the motion of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. Timestamp 8209 ED00 0000 is defined to have occurred at exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16, 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. During each 6.344-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 306 astronomical units, which is slightly more than 65,536 solar radii (<math>16^{4}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 306 \text{ AU} \gtrapprox 16^{4}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === Naked-Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (not to scale) across 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' corresponds to approximately 383,000 B.C., while timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., representing a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a cyan dashed line marking 100 parsecs. The Sun travels a little less than this distance during each 416,000-year interval, which is tracked by the digit in the '''ninth position''' of the Bully timestamp. Because a large percentage of naked-eye stars sit within this 100-parsec radius, the appearance of Earth's night sky changes completely over this timeframe. [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of naked-eye stars binned according to brightness and distance from the Sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the Sun than 100 parsecs, which is the distance the Sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of naked-eye stars are within this 100-parsec travel distance of the Sun.]] During each 415,792-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 97 parsecs, which is slightly more than 4,294,967,296 solar radii (<math>16^{8}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 97 \text{ pc} \gtrapprox 16^{8}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> ==== The Bully Milky Way ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3b''': Division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 3b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid). Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000'''. These represent the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D., respectively, assuming a full orbital path around the Milky Way of roughly 50,000 parsecs. In the lower half of the image, cyan lines further divide a single yellow sector into 16 equal subsectors. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center in Figure 3b, corresponding to the 6 o'clock position, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle of the Sun at Bully timestamp 820A 0000 0000, estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D. The nine cyan grid lines to the right of the red line mark the Sun's polar angle for Bully timestamps 8201 0000 0000 through 8209 0000 0000. Meanwhile, the five cyan grid lines to the left of the red line indicate the polar angle for timestamps 820B 0000 0000 through 820F 0000 0000. <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,t_{\odot} \approx 212.9 \text{ million years} </math> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \sim 50,000 \text{ parsecs} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> == The Galactic Calendar == [[File:Galactic centre orbits.svg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 4a''':Inferred orbits of 6 stars around the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* at the Milky Way's center<ref name="Eisenhauer">{{cite journal|last=Eisenhauer|first=F.|display-authors=et al. |title=SINFONI in the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares in the Central Light-Month|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=July 20, 2005|volume=628|issue=1|pages=246–259|doi=10.1086/430667|bibcode=2005ApJ...628..246E|arxiv=astro-ph/0502129|s2cid=122485461 }}</ref>]] [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, labeled S2 in '''Figure 4a''', completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance from the Sun to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: &hairsp; :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \\ \end{align}</math> &hairsp; If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. ==== Idealized Galactic Weeks ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Weeks_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 4b''': Division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks of solar travel (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 4b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks (yellow grid). Each week represents 1,000 parsecs of solar travel, which in this plot is assumed to be traversed by the Sun in roughly 4.09 million years. Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000''', respectively, indicating the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D. The cyan lines in the lower half of the image further divide one sector into 10 equal subsectors of 100 parsecs each. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 4b, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun had during Bully timestamp 8209 D89D 89D8 (approximately 31,000 B.C.), which is 1,000 parsecs of travel beyond the yellow line representing timestamp 8200 0000 0000. The nine cyan lines to the left of the red line represent the polar angles of the Sun after traveling 1,100 through 1,900 parsecs beyond timestamp 8200 0000 0000. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2⁴¹ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4c''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. It outlines the specific Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved across this idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4c:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. ==== Is the Galactic Calendar Realistic? ==== [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4d:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250-million-year time period.]] The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4d). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4d''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in Figure 4c states that the galactic week beginning on timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark. ==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ==== In Figure 3a and Figure 3b, the Sun is shown to travel less than 50,000 parsecs per galactic year. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar shown in Figure 4b assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per galactic year, introducing a distinct discrepancy in both galactic scale and calculated orbital velocity. Because the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to complex gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is neither perfectly uniform nor entirely predictable. Consequently, the Sun's true orbital velocity remains a subject of ongoing discovery and refinement. The conjectured values used in Figure 3b and Figure 4b should be viewed as '''practical assumptions''' rather than a reflection of a stable, long-term physical reality; the idealized Bully Calendar is a '''conceptual model''' designed to help visualize the immense scale of the galactic orbit. The table in '''Figure 4e''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp up to 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | '''Figure 4e''': Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 100 parsecs per 16⁸ Bully timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps</small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | <small>2^18.597453 ≈ 396,635 </small> | <small>2^18.6438562 ≈ 409,600 </small> | <small>2^18.666224 ≈ 416,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | <small>2^14.597453 ≈ 24,789.7 </small> | <small>2^14.6438562 ≈ 25,600.0 </small> | <small>2^14.666224 ≈ 26,000.0 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | <small>2^10.597453 ≈ 1,549.36 </small> | <small>2^10.6438562 ≈ 1,600.00 </small> | <small>2^10.666224 ≈ 1,625.00 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁸''' | <small>2^6.597453 ≈ 96.8348 </small> | <small>2^6.6438562 ≈ 100.0000 </small> | <small>2^6.666224 ≈ 101.5625 </small> |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off-Nominal Values |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | <small>2^15.597453 ≈ 49,579 </small> | <small>2^15.6438562 ≈ 51,200 </small> | <small>2^15.666224 ≈ 52,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2²⁶''' | <small>2^0.597453 ≈ 1.513043 </small> | <small>2^0.6438562 ≈ 1.562500 </small> | <small>2^0.666224 ≈ 1.586914 </small> |} == The Earth and Moon == The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep-time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these movements in mind and incorporates a few of their unique values as identified in the '''Bully Mnemonic'''. The Bully Mnemonic is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds in Earth's [[w:Sidereal year|sidereal year]] and [[w:Tropical year|tropical year]], a good approximation of the Earth's [[w:Great Year|Great Year]], and an approximation of the Solar System's [[w:Galactic year|galactic year]]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic|Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] ==== Earth's sidereal year ==== The duration of Earth's sidereal year is '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. While gravitational perturbations from neighboring planets cause this value to vary by a few seconds annually, the averaged century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given this relative stability, using a whole-number divisor of the sidereal year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system offers significant utility. Specifically, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds, meaning Earth's sidereal year—rounded to the nearest second—equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's tropical year ==== Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of seasons between successive vernal equinoxes, spans '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp shorter than the sidereal year, coming in at '''10,329.6 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's Great Year ==== With Earth's sidereal year (<math>P</math>) spanning 10,330 timestamps and the tropical year (<math>a_{t}</math>) spanning 10,329.6 timestamps, a full precessional cycle requires a number of years ratio, <math>N</math>, where the cumulative annual difference equals exactly one year: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} N &= \frac{1\text{ Bully timestamp}}{P - a_{t}} \\ &= \frac{1}{10,330 - 10,329.6} \\ &= \frac{1}{0.4} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; Expressing this duration in terms of sidereal years yields: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= 25,824 \, P \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; Alternatively, expressing the cycle in terms of tropical years yields: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= 25,825 \, a_{t} \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; ==== Earth's gravity ==== Of all the planets in the cosmos, our Earth is unique in that the gravity on Earth's surface is approximately equal to the speed of light divided by one sidereal year: :<math>g \approx \frac{c}{P}</math> Or equivalently: :<math>10^4\text{ Bully timestamps} \approx \frac{c}{g}</math> (where <math>g</math> is surface gravity, <math>c</math> is the speed of light, and <math>P</math> is the orbital period). ==== The Metonic cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23, 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp complete approximately three cycles per one Metonic cycle, as illustrated below: <div style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: inherit; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688; border-radius: 4px; line-height: 1.6; margin: 1em 0;"> '''July 23 New Moons:''' * July 23, 1998 — 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 — 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 — 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> * [[Bully Metric Metonic cycle|Learn More About The Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Anchoring Bully Timestamps == To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''. === The Bully Timestamp Duration === While 3,055 seconds may appear to be an arbitrary choice, the length of a single Bully timestamp is mathematically derived from solar, lunar, and deep-time orbital mechanics. {{Quote box| align = center| width = 100%| title = Bully Timestamp Duration | text = Justification: # The Sun orbits approximately one solar radius per Bully timestamp: [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics#Solar_Radius_Mnemonics| t_☉ ≈ 3,055 seconds]] # The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year: [[Bully Mnemonic |31558150 s = 10330 × 3055 s]]. # Approximate divisor of the ratio of the speed of light with g_earth: [https://www.google.com/search?q=c+%2F+g_earth+in+megaseconds c / g_earth ≈ 30.55 Ms] # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of the Earth–Moon Metonic cycle: [https://www.google.com/search?q=3+*+16%5E4+*+3055+s 1 Metonic cycle ≈ 3 × 16⁴ × 3055 s] # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of Earth's Great Year: [https://www.google.com/search?q=16%5E7+*+3055+s 1 Great Year ≈ 16⁷ × 3055 s]. # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of the galactic year: [https://www.google.com/search?q=2+*+16%5E10+*+3055+s 1 galactic year ≈ 2 × 16¹⁰ × 3055 s] }} === The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 6a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]], where the plane intersects the Galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 6a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] ==== Bullies in the Bully System ==== A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in Figure 6a: * '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign. * '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left. * '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left. As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history: {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was “sweetheart”. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, “lover”. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}} Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of "excellent" or "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. {{Quote box| align = center | width = full | title = The "Bully" Name | text = The specific "bullies" in the "Bully" timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}} === A surrogate for the Sun === As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving. The path of the node can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°): <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4c''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 6b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}'''. (Note: Figure 4c assumes an idealized travel distance of exactly 52,000 parsecs (or 2^15.666224) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps, whereas Figure 6b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs (or 2^15.666040) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center;" |+ '''Figure 6b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 3px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled in parsecs |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B32}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5058}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.100 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|820A D4AD 4AD4}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1099.86''}}}} |} {{Quote box| align = center| width = full| title = Bully Timestamp Anchor| text = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 6b).}} ==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ==== In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 6c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days. The Earth's orbital speed varies throughout the year, moving slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Consequently, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season. As shown in Figure 6c, '''winter''' was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. It took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to '''spring''' being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to '''summer'''. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over '''21,000 years'''. [[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 6c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]] Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 6c. The transition from '''spring to summer''' is correlated with a large '''green dot''' and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large '''red dot''' appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from '''summer to autumn''', and a large '''blue dot''', back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from '''winter to spring'''. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,500 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly '''26,000 years''' (1 Great Year ≈ 25,824 sidereal years ≈ 25,825 tropical years). {{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | text = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred near the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. All of the Galactic crossings shown in Figure 6c, at 4495 BCE, 1998 CE, and 8329 CE, are roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE. }} == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 7a''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in Figure 7a, these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|'''Figure 7a''': Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of Figure 7a, follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. Ideally, all of the black lines in Figure 7a could be discontinued and replaced by Bully timestamps going forward. === Why do we need Bully timestamps? === All the timestamps in '''Figure 7b''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ '''Figure 7b''': UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of Figure 7b attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of Figure 7b, breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3,055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950s, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic timekeeping (1958 AD – present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Estimation == [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 8a: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 8a'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 8b'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|'''Figure 8b''': The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in '''Figure 8c''' contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8c''': Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in '''Figure 8d''' (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8d''': Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 8d) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in '''Figure 8e''' is the same as is shown in Figure 8d, but Figure 8e plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8e''': A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in '''Figure 8f''' is similar to the table in Figure 8c, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 8c was for large z values, Figure 8f shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8f''': Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] lu9py12arlx89p9bu1b2x4lr5bgv0kv 2832658 2832657 2026-09-10T19:04:19Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Earth's tropical year */ 2832658 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the Sun's orbit around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp occurs each time the Sun advances by roughly one solar radius along its path through the cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|upright=2.2|center|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] == One Solar Radius == The Sun hurtles around the Milky Way Galaxy at a blistering 0.076% of the speed of light ([https://arxiv.org/abs/1810.09466 229.0 ± 0.2 kilometers per second]). Yet, even at this staggering pace, it takes about five-sixths of an hour for the Sun to traverse a distance equal to its own radius. This highlights the truly colossal size of our star, which boasts a radius of 2.3206 light-seconds (695,700 kilometers). '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. During each '''3,055-second''' period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over '''2.33 light-seconds''', which is slightly more than one solar radius (<math>R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 2.33 \text{ ls} \gtrapprox R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', it is a vast, oblong, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into surrounding space. While somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, the latter is a comparatively thin layer of gas held near the planetary surface, whereas the heliosphere is a plasma constantly blasted into space by the Sun's extreme heat and energy. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is so vast that if it were truly spherical, it would take the Sun roughly 6.344 years to travel a distance equivalent to the heliosphere's diameter. The digit in the '''fifth position''' of a Bully timestamp represents this orbital distance. Figure 2 illustrates the motion of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. Timestamp 8209 ED00 0000 is defined to have occurred at exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16, 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. During each 6.344-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 306 astronomical units, which is slightly more than 65,536 solar radii (<math>16^{4}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 306 \text{ AU} \gtrapprox 16^{4}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === Naked-Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (not to scale) across 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' corresponds to approximately 383,000 B.C., while timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., representing a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a cyan dashed line marking 100 parsecs. The Sun travels a little less than this distance during each 416,000-year interval, which is tracked by the digit in the '''ninth position''' of the Bully timestamp. Because a large percentage of naked-eye stars sit within this 100-parsec radius, the appearance of Earth's night sky changes completely over this timeframe. [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of naked-eye stars binned according to brightness and distance from the Sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the Sun than 100 parsecs, which is the distance the Sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of naked-eye stars are within this 100-parsec travel distance of the Sun.]] During each 415,792-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 97 parsecs, which is slightly more than 4,294,967,296 solar radii (<math>16^{8}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 97 \text{ pc} \gtrapprox 16^{8}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> ==== The Bully Milky Way ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3b''': Division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 3b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid). Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000'''. These represent the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D., respectively, assuming a full orbital path around the Milky Way of roughly 50,000 parsecs. In the lower half of the image, cyan lines further divide a single yellow sector into 16 equal subsectors. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center in Figure 3b, corresponding to the 6 o'clock position, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle of the Sun at Bully timestamp 820A 0000 0000, estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D. The nine cyan grid lines to the right of the red line mark the Sun's polar angle for Bully timestamps 8201 0000 0000 through 8209 0000 0000. Meanwhile, the five cyan grid lines to the left of the red line indicate the polar angle for timestamps 820B 0000 0000 through 820F 0000 0000. <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,t_{\odot} \approx 212.9 \text{ million years} </math> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \sim 50,000 \text{ parsecs} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> == The Galactic Calendar == [[File:Galactic centre orbits.svg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 4a''':Inferred orbits of 6 stars around the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* at the Milky Way's center<ref name="Eisenhauer">{{cite journal|last=Eisenhauer|first=F.|display-authors=et al. |title=SINFONI in the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares in the Central Light-Month|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=July 20, 2005|volume=628|issue=1|pages=246–259|doi=10.1086/430667|bibcode=2005ApJ...628..246E|arxiv=astro-ph/0502129|s2cid=122485461 }}</ref>]] [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, labeled S2 in '''Figure 4a''', completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance from the Sun to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: &hairsp; :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \\ \end{align}</math> &hairsp; If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. ==== Idealized Galactic Weeks ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Weeks_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 4b''': Division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks of solar travel (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 4b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks (yellow grid). Each week represents 1,000 parsecs of solar travel, which in this plot is assumed to be traversed by the Sun in roughly 4.09 million years. Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000''', respectively, indicating the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D. The cyan lines in the lower half of the image further divide one sector into 10 equal subsectors of 100 parsecs each. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 4b, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun had during Bully timestamp 8209 D89D 89D8 (approximately 31,000 B.C.), which is 1,000 parsecs of travel beyond the yellow line representing timestamp 8200 0000 0000. The nine cyan lines to the left of the red line represent the polar angles of the Sun after traveling 1,100 through 1,900 parsecs beyond timestamp 8200 0000 0000. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2⁴¹ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4c''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. It outlines the specific Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved across this idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4c:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. ==== Is the Galactic Calendar Realistic? ==== [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4d:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250-million-year time period.]] The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4d). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4d''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in Figure 4c states that the galactic week beginning on timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark. ==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ==== In Figure 3a and Figure 3b, the Sun is shown to travel less than 50,000 parsecs per galactic year. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar shown in Figure 4b assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per galactic year, introducing a distinct discrepancy in both galactic scale and calculated orbital velocity. Because the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to complex gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is neither perfectly uniform nor entirely predictable. Consequently, the Sun's true orbital velocity remains a subject of ongoing discovery and refinement. The conjectured values used in Figure 3b and Figure 4b should be viewed as '''practical assumptions''' rather than a reflection of a stable, long-term physical reality; the idealized Bully Calendar is a '''conceptual model''' designed to help visualize the immense scale of the galactic orbit. The table in '''Figure 4e''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp up to 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | '''Figure 4e''': Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 100 parsecs per 16⁸ Bully timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps</small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | <small>2^18.597453 ≈ 396,635 </small> | <small>2^18.6438562 ≈ 409,600 </small> | <small>2^18.666224 ≈ 416,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | <small>2^14.597453 ≈ 24,789.7 </small> | <small>2^14.6438562 ≈ 25,600.0 </small> | <small>2^14.666224 ≈ 26,000.0 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | <small>2^10.597453 ≈ 1,549.36 </small> | <small>2^10.6438562 ≈ 1,600.00 </small> | <small>2^10.666224 ≈ 1,625.00 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁸''' | <small>2^6.597453 ≈ 96.8348 </small> | <small>2^6.6438562 ≈ 100.0000 </small> | <small>2^6.666224 ≈ 101.5625 </small> |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off-Nominal Values |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | <small>2^15.597453 ≈ 49,579 </small> | <small>2^15.6438562 ≈ 51,200 </small> | <small>2^15.666224 ≈ 52,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2²⁶''' | <small>2^0.597453 ≈ 1.513043 </small> | <small>2^0.6438562 ≈ 1.562500 </small> | <small>2^0.666224 ≈ 1.586914 </small> |} == The Earth and Moon == The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep-time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these movements in mind and incorporates a few of their unique values as identified in the '''Bully Mnemonic'''. The Bully Mnemonic is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds in Earth's [[w:Sidereal year|sidereal year]] and [[w:Tropical year|tropical year]], a good approximation of the Earth's [[w:Great Year|Great Year]], and an approximation of the Solar System's [[w:Galactic year|galactic year]]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic|Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] ==== Earth's sidereal year ==== The duration of Earth's sidereal year is '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. While gravitational perturbations from neighboring planets cause this value to vary by a few seconds annually, the averaged century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given this relative stability, using a whole-number divisor of the sidereal year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system offers significant utility. Specifically, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds, meaning Earth's sidereal year—rounded to the nearest second—equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's tropical year ==== Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of seasons between successive vernal equinoxes, spans '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp shorter than the sidereal year, measuring exactly '''10,329.6 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's Great Year ==== With Earth's sidereal year (<math>P</math>) spanning 10,330 timestamps and the tropical year (<math>a_{t}</math>) spanning 10,329.6 timestamps, a full precessional cycle requires a number of years ratio, <math>N</math>, where the cumulative annual difference equals exactly one year: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} N &= \frac{1\text{ Bully timestamp}}{P - a_{t}} \\ &= \frac{1}{10,330 - 10,329.6} \\ &= \frac{1}{0.4} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; Expressing this duration in terms of sidereal years yields: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= 25,824 \, P \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; Alternatively, expressing the cycle in terms of tropical years yields: &hairsp; <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= 25,825 \, a_{t} \end{aligned} </math> &hairsp; ==== Earth's gravity ==== Of all the planets in the cosmos, our Earth is unique in that the gravity on Earth's surface is approximately equal to the speed of light divided by one sidereal year: :<math>g \approx \frac{c}{P}</math> Or equivalently: :<math>10^4\text{ Bully timestamps} \approx \frac{c}{g}</math> (where <math>g</math> is surface gravity, <math>c</math> is the speed of light, and <math>P</math> is the orbital period). ==== The Metonic cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23, 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp complete approximately three cycles per one Metonic cycle, as illustrated below: <div style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: inherit; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688; border-radius: 4px; line-height: 1.6; margin: 1em 0;"> '''July 23 New Moons:''' * July 23, 1998 — 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 — 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 — 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> * [[Bully Metric Metonic cycle|Learn More About The Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Anchoring Bully Timestamps == To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''. === The Bully Timestamp Duration === While 3,055 seconds may appear to be an arbitrary choice, the length of a single Bully timestamp is mathematically derived from solar, lunar, and deep-time orbital mechanics. {{Quote box| align = center| width = 100%| title = Bully Timestamp Duration | text = Justification: # The Sun orbits approximately one solar radius per Bully timestamp: [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics#Solar_Radius_Mnemonics| t_☉ ≈ 3,055 seconds]] # The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year: [[Bully Mnemonic |31558150 s = 10330 × 3055 s]]. # Approximate divisor of the ratio of the speed of light with g_earth: [https://www.google.com/search?q=c+%2F+g_earth+in+megaseconds c / g_earth ≈ 30.55 Ms] # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of the Earth–Moon Metonic cycle: [https://www.google.com/search?q=3+*+16%5E4+*+3055+s 1 Metonic cycle ≈ 3 × 16⁴ × 3055 s] # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of Earth's Great Year: [https://www.google.com/search?q=16%5E7+*+3055+s 1 Great Year ≈ 16⁷ × 3055 s]. # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of the galactic year: [https://www.google.com/search?q=2+*+16%5E10+*+3055+s 1 galactic year ≈ 2 × 16¹⁰ × 3055 s] }} === The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 6a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]], where the plane intersects the Galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 6a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] ==== Bullies in the Bully System ==== A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in Figure 6a: * '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign. * '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left. * '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left. As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history: {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was “sweetheart”. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, “lover”. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}} Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of "excellent" or "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. {{Quote box| align = center | width = full | title = The "Bully" Name | text = The specific "bullies" in the "Bully" timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}} === A surrogate for the Sun === As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving. The path of the node can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°): <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4c''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 6b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}'''. (Note: Figure 4c assumes an idealized travel distance of exactly 52,000 parsecs (or 2^15.666224) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps, whereas Figure 6b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs (or 2^15.666040) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center;" |+ '''Figure 6b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 3px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled in parsecs |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B32}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5058}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.100 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|820A D4AD 4AD4}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1099.86''}}}} |} {{Quote box| align = center| width = full| title = Bully Timestamp Anchor| text = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 6b).}} ==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ==== In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 6c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days. The Earth's orbital speed varies throughout the year, moving slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Consequently, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season. As shown in Figure 6c, '''winter''' was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. It took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to '''spring''' being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to '''summer'''. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over '''21,000 years'''. [[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 6c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]] Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 6c. The transition from '''spring to summer''' is correlated with a large '''green dot''' and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large '''red dot''' appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from '''summer to autumn''', and a large '''blue dot''', back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from '''winter to spring'''. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,500 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly '''26,000 years''' (1 Great Year ≈ 25,824 sidereal years ≈ 25,825 tropical years). {{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | text = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred near the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. All of the Galactic crossings shown in Figure 6c, at 4495 BCE, 1998 CE, and 8329 CE, are roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE. }} == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 7a''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in Figure 7a, these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|'''Figure 7a''': Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of Figure 7a, follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. Ideally, all of the black lines in Figure 7a could be discontinued and replaced by Bully timestamps going forward. === Why do we need Bully timestamps? === All the timestamps in '''Figure 7b''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ '''Figure 7b''': UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of Figure 7b attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of Figure 7b, breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3,055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950s, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic timekeeping (1958 AD – present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Estimation == [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 8a: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 8a'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 8b'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|'''Figure 8b''': The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in '''Figure 8c''' contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8c''': Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in '''Figure 8d''' (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8d''': Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 8d) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in '''Figure 8e''' is the same as is shown in Figure 8d, but Figure 8e plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8e''': A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in '''Figure 8f''' is similar to the table in Figure 8c, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 8c was for large z values, Figure 8f shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8f''': Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] n1g5e0yllzlb6ay271vjacskjkteqni 2832659 2832658 2026-09-10T19:07:21Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Earth's Great Year */ 2832659 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the Sun's orbit around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp occurs each time the Sun advances by roughly one solar radius along its path through the cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|upright=2.2|center|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] == One Solar Radius == The Sun hurtles around the Milky Way Galaxy at a blistering 0.076% of the speed of light ([https://arxiv.org/abs/1810.09466 229.0 ± 0.2 kilometers per second]). Yet, even at this staggering pace, it takes about five-sixths of an hour for the Sun to traverse a distance equal to its own radius. This highlights the truly colossal size of our star, which boasts a radius of 2.3206 light-seconds (695,700 kilometers). '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. During each '''3,055-second''' period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over '''2.33 light-seconds''', which is slightly more than one solar radius (<math>R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 2.33 \text{ ls} \gtrapprox R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', it is a vast, oblong, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into surrounding space. While somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, the latter is a comparatively thin layer of gas held near the planetary surface, whereas the heliosphere is a plasma constantly blasted into space by the Sun's extreme heat and energy. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is so vast that if it were truly spherical, it would take the Sun roughly 6.344 years to travel a distance equivalent to the heliosphere's diameter. The digit in the '''fifth position''' of a Bully timestamp represents this orbital distance. Figure 2 illustrates the motion of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. Timestamp 8209 ED00 0000 is defined to have occurred at exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16, 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. During each 6.344-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 306 astronomical units, which is slightly more than 65,536 solar radii (<math>16^{4}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 306 \text{ AU} \gtrapprox 16^{4}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === Naked-Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (not to scale) across 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' corresponds to approximately 383,000 B.C., while timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., representing a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a cyan dashed line marking 100 parsecs. The Sun travels a little less than this distance during each 416,000-year interval, which is tracked by the digit in the '''ninth position''' of the Bully timestamp. Because a large percentage of naked-eye stars sit within this 100-parsec radius, the appearance of Earth's night sky changes completely over this timeframe. [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of naked-eye stars binned according to brightness and distance from the Sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the Sun than 100 parsecs, which is the distance the Sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of naked-eye stars are within this 100-parsec travel distance of the Sun.]] During each 415,792-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 97 parsecs, which is slightly more than 4,294,967,296 solar radii (<math>16^{8}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 97 \text{ pc} \gtrapprox 16^{8}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> ==== The Bully Milky Way ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3b''': Division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 3b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid). Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000'''. These represent the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D., respectively, assuming a full orbital path around the Milky Way of roughly 50,000 parsecs. In the lower half of the image, cyan lines further divide a single yellow sector into 16 equal subsectors. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center in Figure 3b, corresponding to the 6 o'clock position, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle of the Sun at Bully timestamp 820A 0000 0000, estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D. The nine cyan grid lines to the right of the red line mark the Sun's polar angle for Bully timestamps 8201 0000 0000 through 8209 0000 0000. Meanwhile, the five cyan grid lines to the left of the red line indicate the polar angle for timestamps 820B 0000 0000 through 820F 0000 0000. <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,t_{\odot} \approx 212.9 \text{ million years} </math> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \sim 50,000 \text{ parsecs} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> == The Galactic Calendar == [[File:Galactic centre orbits.svg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 4a''':Inferred orbits of 6 stars around the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* at the Milky Way's center<ref name="Eisenhauer">{{cite journal|last=Eisenhauer|first=F.|display-authors=et al. |title=SINFONI in the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares in the Central Light-Month|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=July 20, 2005|volume=628|issue=1|pages=246–259|doi=10.1086/430667|bibcode=2005ApJ...628..246E|arxiv=astro-ph/0502129|s2cid=122485461 }}</ref>]] [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, labeled S2 in '''Figure 4a''', completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance from the Sun to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: &hairsp; :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \\ \end{align}</math> &hairsp; If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. ==== Idealized Galactic Weeks ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Weeks_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 4b''': Division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks of solar travel (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 4b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks (yellow grid). Each week represents 1,000 parsecs of solar travel, which in this plot is assumed to be traversed by the Sun in roughly 4.09 million years. Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000''', respectively, indicating the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D. The cyan lines in the lower half of the image further divide one sector into 10 equal subsectors of 100 parsecs each. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 4b, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun had during Bully timestamp 8209 D89D 89D8 (approximately 31,000 B.C.), which is 1,000 parsecs of travel beyond the yellow line representing timestamp 8200 0000 0000. The nine cyan lines to the left of the red line represent the polar angles of the Sun after traveling 1,100 through 1,900 parsecs beyond timestamp 8200 0000 0000. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2⁴¹ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4c''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. It outlines the specific Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved across this idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4c:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. ==== Is the Galactic Calendar Realistic? ==== [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4d:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250-million-year time period.]] The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4d). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4d''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in Figure 4c states that the galactic week beginning on timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark. ==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ==== In Figure 3a and Figure 3b, the Sun is shown to travel less than 50,000 parsecs per galactic year. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar shown in Figure 4b assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per galactic year, introducing a distinct discrepancy in both galactic scale and calculated orbital velocity. Because the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to complex gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is neither perfectly uniform nor entirely predictable. Consequently, the Sun's true orbital velocity remains a subject of ongoing discovery and refinement. The conjectured values used in Figure 3b and Figure 4b should be viewed as '''practical assumptions''' rather than a reflection of a stable, long-term physical reality; the idealized Bully Calendar is a '''conceptual model''' designed to help visualize the immense scale of the galactic orbit. The table in '''Figure 4e''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp up to 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | '''Figure 4e''': Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 100 parsecs per 16⁸ Bully timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps</small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | <small>2^18.597453 ≈ 396,635 </small> | <small>2^18.6438562 ≈ 409,600 </small> | <small>2^18.666224 ≈ 416,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | <small>2^14.597453 ≈ 24,789.7 </small> | <small>2^14.6438562 ≈ 25,600.0 </small> | <small>2^14.666224 ≈ 26,000.0 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | <small>2^10.597453 ≈ 1,549.36 </small> | <small>2^10.6438562 ≈ 1,600.00 </small> | <small>2^10.666224 ≈ 1,625.00 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁸''' | <small>2^6.597453 ≈ 96.8348 </small> | <small>2^6.6438562 ≈ 100.0000 </small> | <small>2^6.666224 ≈ 101.5625 </small> |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off-Nominal Values |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | <small>2^15.597453 ≈ 49,579 </small> | <small>2^15.6438562 ≈ 51,200 </small> | <small>2^15.666224 ≈ 52,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2²⁶''' | <small>2^0.597453 ≈ 1.513043 </small> | <small>2^0.6438562 ≈ 1.562500 </small> | <small>2^0.666224 ≈ 1.586914 </small> |} == The Earth and Moon == The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep-time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these movements in mind and incorporates a few of their unique values as identified in the '''Bully Mnemonic'''. The Bully Mnemonic is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds in Earth's [[w:Sidereal year|sidereal year]] and [[w:Tropical year|tropical year]], a good approximation of the Earth's [[w:Great Year|Great Year]], and an approximation of the Solar System's [[w:Galactic year|galactic year]]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic|Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] ==== Earth's sidereal year ==== The duration of Earth's sidereal year is '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. While gravitational perturbations from neighboring planets cause this value to vary by a few seconds annually, the averaged century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given this relative stability, using a whole-number divisor of the sidereal year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system offers significant utility. Specifically, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds, meaning Earth's sidereal year—rounded to the nearest second—equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's tropical year ==== Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of seasons between successive vernal equinoxes, spans '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp shorter than the sidereal year, measuring exactly '''10,329.6 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's Great Year ==== With Earth's sidereal year (<math>P</math>) spanning 10,330 timestamps and the tropical year (<math>a_{t}</math>) spanning 10,329.6 timestamps, a full precessional cycle requires a number of years ratio, <math>N</math>, where the cumulative annual difference equals exactly one year: <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> <math> \begin{aligned} N &= \frac{1\text{ Bully timestamp}}{P - a_{t}} \\ &= \frac{1}{10,330 - 10,329.6} \\ &= \frac{1}{0.4} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \end{aligned} </math> </div> Expressing this duration in terms of sidereal years yields: <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= 25,824 \, P \end{aligned} </math> </div> Alternatively, expressing the cycle in terms of tropical years yields: <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= 25,825 \, a_{t} \end{aligned} </math> </div> ==== Earth's gravity ==== Of all the planets in the cosmos, our Earth is unique in that the gravity on Earth's surface is approximately equal to the speed of light divided by one sidereal year: :<math>g \approx \frac{c}{P}</math> Or equivalently: :<math>10^4\text{ Bully timestamps} \approx \frac{c}{g}</math> (where <math>g</math> is surface gravity, <math>c</math> is the speed of light, and <math>P</math> is the orbital period). ==== The Metonic cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23, 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp complete approximately three cycles per one Metonic cycle, as illustrated below: <div style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: inherit; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688; border-radius: 4px; line-height: 1.6; margin: 1em 0;"> '''July 23 New Moons:''' * July 23, 1998 — 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 — 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 — 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> * [[Bully Metric Metonic cycle|Learn More About The Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Anchoring Bully Timestamps == To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''. === The Bully Timestamp Duration === While 3,055 seconds may appear to be an arbitrary choice, the length of a single Bully timestamp is mathematically derived from solar, lunar, and deep-time orbital mechanics. {{Quote box| align = center| width = 100%| title = Bully Timestamp Duration | text = Justification: # The Sun orbits approximately one solar radius per Bully timestamp: [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics#Solar_Radius_Mnemonics| t_☉ ≈ 3,055 seconds]] # The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year: [[Bully Mnemonic |31558150 s = 10330 × 3055 s]]. # Approximate divisor of the ratio of the speed of light with g_earth: [https://www.google.com/search?q=c+%2F+g_earth+in+megaseconds c / g_earth ≈ 30.55 Ms] # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of the Earth–Moon Metonic cycle: [https://www.google.com/search?q=3+*+16%5E4+*+3055+s 1 Metonic cycle ≈ 3 × 16⁴ × 3055 s] # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of Earth's Great Year: [https://www.google.com/search?q=16%5E7+*+3055+s 1 Great Year ≈ 16⁷ × 3055 s]. # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of the galactic year: [https://www.google.com/search?q=2+*+16%5E10+*+3055+s 1 galactic year ≈ 2 × 16¹⁰ × 3055 s] }} === The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 6a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]], where the plane intersects the Galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 6a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] ==== Bullies in the Bully System ==== A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in Figure 6a: * '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign. * '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left. * '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left. As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history: {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was “sweetheart”. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, “lover”. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}} Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of "excellent" or "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. {{Quote box| align = center | width = full | title = The "Bully" Name | text = The specific "bullies" in the "Bully" timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}} === A surrogate for the Sun === As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving. The path of the node can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°): <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4c''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 6b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}'''. (Note: Figure 4c assumes an idealized travel distance of exactly 52,000 parsecs (or 2^15.666224) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps, whereas Figure 6b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs (or 2^15.666040) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center;" |+ '''Figure 6b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 3px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled in parsecs |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B32}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5058}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.100 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|820A D4AD 4AD4}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1099.86''}}}} |} {{Quote box| align = center| width = full| title = Bully Timestamp Anchor| text = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 6b).}} ==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ==== In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 6c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days. The Earth's orbital speed varies throughout the year, moving slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Consequently, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season. As shown in Figure 6c, '''winter''' was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. It took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to '''spring''' being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to '''summer'''. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over '''21,000 years'''. [[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 6c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]] Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 6c. The transition from '''spring to summer''' is correlated with a large '''green dot''' and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large '''red dot''' appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from '''summer to autumn''', and a large '''blue dot''', back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from '''winter to spring'''. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,500 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly '''26,000 years''' (1 Great Year ≈ 25,824 sidereal years ≈ 25,825 tropical years). {{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | text = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred near the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. All of the Galactic crossings shown in Figure 6c, at 4495 BCE, 1998 CE, and 8329 CE, are roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE. }} == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 7a''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in Figure 7a, these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|'''Figure 7a''': Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of Figure 7a, follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. Ideally, all of the black lines in Figure 7a could be discontinued and replaced by Bully timestamps going forward. === Why do we need Bully timestamps? === All the timestamps in '''Figure 7b''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ '''Figure 7b''': UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of Figure 7b attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of Figure 7b, breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3,055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950s, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic timekeeping (1958 AD – present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Estimation == [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 8a: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 8a'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 8b'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|'''Figure 8b''': The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in '''Figure 8c''' contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8c''': Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in '''Figure 8d''' (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8d''': Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 8d) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in '''Figure 8e''' is the same as is shown in Figure 8d, but Figure 8e plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8e''': A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in '''Figure 8f''' is similar to the table in Figure 8c, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 8c was for large z values, Figure 8f shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8f''': Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] 6u8dfj7urcevdhe91sxody0am0mr38e 2832660 2832659 2026-09-10T19:08:36Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Earth's gravity */ 2832660 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the Sun's orbit around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp occurs each time the Sun advances by roughly one solar radius along its path through the cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|upright=2.2|center|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] == One Solar Radius == The Sun hurtles around the Milky Way Galaxy at a blistering 0.076% of the speed of light ([https://arxiv.org/abs/1810.09466 229.0 ± 0.2 kilometers per second]). Yet, even at this staggering pace, it takes about five-sixths of an hour for the Sun to traverse a distance equal to its own radius. This highlights the truly colossal size of our star, which boasts a radius of 2.3206 light-seconds (695,700 kilometers). '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. During each '''3,055-second''' period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over '''2.33 light-seconds''', which is slightly more than one solar radius (<math>R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 2.33 \text{ ls} \gtrapprox R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', it is a vast, oblong, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into surrounding space. While somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, the latter is a comparatively thin layer of gas held near the planetary surface, whereas the heliosphere is a plasma constantly blasted into space by the Sun's extreme heat and energy. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is so vast that if it were truly spherical, it would take the Sun roughly 6.344 years to travel a distance equivalent to the heliosphere's diameter. The digit in the '''fifth position''' of a Bully timestamp represents this orbital distance. Figure 2 illustrates the motion of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. Timestamp 8209 ED00 0000 is defined to have occurred at exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16, 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. During each 6.344-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 306 astronomical units, which is slightly more than 65,536 solar radii (<math>16^{4}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 306 \text{ AU} \gtrapprox 16^{4}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === Naked-Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (not to scale) across 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' corresponds to approximately 383,000 B.C., while timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., representing a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a cyan dashed line marking 100 parsecs. The Sun travels a little less than this distance during each 416,000-year interval, which is tracked by the digit in the '''ninth position''' of the Bully timestamp. Because a large percentage of naked-eye stars sit within this 100-parsec radius, the appearance of Earth's night sky changes completely over this timeframe. [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of naked-eye stars binned according to brightness and distance from the Sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the Sun than 100 parsecs, which is the distance the Sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of naked-eye stars are within this 100-parsec travel distance of the Sun.]] During each 415,792-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 97 parsecs, which is slightly more than 4,294,967,296 solar radii (<math>16^{8}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 97 \text{ pc} \gtrapprox 16^{8}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> ==== The Bully Milky Way ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3b''': Division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 3b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid). Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000'''. These represent the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D., respectively, assuming a full orbital path around the Milky Way of roughly 50,000 parsecs. In the lower half of the image, cyan lines further divide a single yellow sector into 16 equal subsectors. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center in Figure 3b, corresponding to the 6 o'clock position, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle of the Sun at Bully timestamp 820A 0000 0000, estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D. The nine cyan grid lines to the right of the red line mark the Sun's polar angle for Bully timestamps 8201 0000 0000 through 8209 0000 0000. Meanwhile, the five cyan grid lines to the left of the red line indicate the polar angle for timestamps 820B 0000 0000 through 820F 0000 0000. <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,t_{\odot} \approx 212.9 \text{ million years} </math> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \sim 50,000 \text{ parsecs} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> == The Galactic Calendar == [[File:Galactic centre orbits.svg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 4a''':Inferred orbits of 6 stars around the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* at the Milky Way's center<ref name="Eisenhauer">{{cite journal|last=Eisenhauer|first=F.|display-authors=et al. |title=SINFONI in the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares in the Central Light-Month|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=July 20, 2005|volume=628|issue=1|pages=246–259|doi=10.1086/430667|bibcode=2005ApJ...628..246E|arxiv=astro-ph/0502129|s2cid=122485461 }}</ref>]] [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, labeled S2 in '''Figure 4a''', completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance from the Sun to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: &hairsp; :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \\ \end{align}</math> &hairsp; If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. ==== Idealized Galactic Weeks ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Weeks_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 4b''': Division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks of solar travel (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 4b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks (yellow grid). Each week represents 1,000 parsecs of solar travel, which in this plot is assumed to be traversed by the Sun in roughly 4.09 million years. Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000''', respectively, indicating the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D. The cyan lines in the lower half of the image further divide one sector into 10 equal subsectors of 100 parsecs each. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 4b, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun had during Bully timestamp 8209 D89D 89D8 (approximately 31,000 B.C.), which is 1,000 parsecs of travel beyond the yellow line representing timestamp 8200 0000 0000. The nine cyan lines to the left of the red line represent the polar angles of the Sun after traveling 1,100 through 1,900 parsecs beyond timestamp 8200 0000 0000. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2⁴¹ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4c''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. It outlines the specific Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved across this idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4c:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. ==== Is the Galactic Calendar Realistic? ==== [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4d:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250-million-year time period.]] The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4d). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4d''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in Figure 4c states that the galactic week beginning on timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark. ==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ==== In Figure 3a and Figure 3b, the Sun is shown to travel less than 50,000 parsecs per galactic year. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar shown in Figure 4b assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per galactic year, introducing a distinct discrepancy in both galactic scale and calculated orbital velocity. Because the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to complex gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is neither perfectly uniform nor entirely predictable. Consequently, the Sun's true orbital velocity remains a subject of ongoing discovery and refinement. The conjectured values used in Figure 3b and Figure 4b should be viewed as '''practical assumptions''' rather than a reflection of a stable, long-term physical reality; the idealized Bully Calendar is a '''conceptual model''' designed to help visualize the immense scale of the galactic orbit. The table in '''Figure 4e''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp up to 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | '''Figure 4e''': Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 100 parsecs per 16⁸ Bully timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps</small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | <small>2^18.597453 ≈ 396,635 </small> | <small>2^18.6438562 ≈ 409,600 </small> | <small>2^18.666224 ≈ 416,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | <small>2^14.597453 ≈ 24,789.7 </small> | <small>2^14.6438562 ≈ 25,600.0 </small> | <small>2^14.666224 ≈ 26,000.0 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | <small>2^10.597453 ≈ 1,549.36 </small> | <small>2^10.6438562 ≈ 1,600.00 </small> | <small>2^10.666224 ≈ 1,625.00 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁸''' | <small>2^6.597453 ≈ 96.8348 </small> | <small>2^6.6438562 ≈ 100.0000 </small> | <small>2^6.666224 ≈ 101.5625 </small> |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off-Nominal Values |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | <small>2^15.597453 ≈ 49,579 </small> | <small>2^15.6438562 ≈ 51,200 </small> | <small>2^15.666224 ≈ 52,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2²⁶''' | <small>2^0.597453 ≈ 1.513043 </small> | <small>2^0.6438562 ≈ 1.562500 </small> | <small>2^0.666224 ≈ 1.586914 </small> |} == The Earth and Moon == The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep-time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these movements in mind and incorporates a few of their unique values as identified in the '''Bully Mnemonic'''. The Bully Mnemonic is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds in Earth's [[w:Sidereal year|sidereal year]] and [[w:Tropical year|tropical year]], a good approximation of the Earth's [[w:Great Year|Great Year]], and an approximation of the Solar System's [[w:Galactic year|galactic year]]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic|Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] ==== Earth's sidereal year ==== The duration of Earth's sidereal year is '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. While gravitational perturbations from neighboring planets cause this value to vary by a few seconds annually, the averaged century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given this relative stability, using a whole-number divisor of the sidereal year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system offers significant utility. Specifically, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds, meaning Earth's sidereal year—rounded to the nearest second—equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's tropical year ==== Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of seasons between successive vernal equinoxes, spans '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp shorter than the sidereal year, measuring exactly '''10,329.6 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's Great Year ==== With Earth's sidereal year (<math>P</math>) spanning 10,330 timestamps and the tropical year (<math>a_{t}</math>) spanning 10,329.6 timestamps, a full precessional cycle requires a number of years ratio, <math>N</math>, where the cumulative annual difference equals exactly one year: <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> <math> \begin{aligned} N &= \frac{1\text{ Bully timestamp}}{P - a_{t}} \\ &= \frac{1}{10,330 - 10,329.6} \\ &= \frac{1}{0.4} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \end{aligned} </math> </div> Expressing this duration in terms of sidereal years yields: <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= 25,824 \, P \end{aligned} </math> </div> Alternatively, expressing the cycle in terms of tropical years yields: <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= 25,825 \, a_{t} \end{aligned} </math> </div> ==== Earth's gravity ==== Of all the planets in the cosmos, our Earth is unique in that the gravity on Earth's surface is approximately equal to the speed of light divided by one sidereal year: <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>g \approx \frac{c}{P}</math> Or equivalently: :<math>10^4\text{ Bully timestamps} \approx \frac{c}{g}</math> </div> (where <math>g</math> is surface gravity, <math>c</math> is the speed of light, and <math>P</math> is the orbital period). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> </div> ==== The Metonic cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23, 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp complete approximately three cycles per one Metonic cycle, as illustrated below: <div style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: inherit; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688; border-radius: 4px; line-height: 1.6; margin: 1em 0;"> '''July 23 New Moons:''' * July 23, 1998 — 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 — 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 — 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> * [[Bully Metric Metonic cycle|Learn More About The Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Anchoring Bully Timestamps == To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''. === The Bully Timestamp Duration === While 3,055 seconds may appear to be an arbitrary choice, the length of a single Bully timestamp is mathematically derived from solar, lunar, and deep-time orbital mechanics. {{Quote box| align = center| width = 100%| title = Bully Timestamp Duration | text = Justification: # The Sun orbits approximately one solar radius per Bully timestamp: [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics#Solar_Radius_Mnemonics| t_☉ ≈ 3,055 seconds]] # The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year: [[Bully Mnemonic |31558150 s = 10330 × 3055 s]]. # Approximate divisor of the ratio of the speed of light with g_earth: [https://www.google.com/search?q=c+%2F+g_earth+in+megaseconds c / g_earth ≈ 30.55 Ms] # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of the Earth–Moon Metonic cycle: [https://www.google.com/search?q=3+*+16%5E4+*+3055+s 1 Metonic cycle ≈ 3 × 16⁴ × 3055 s] # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of Earth's Great Year: [https://www.google.com/search?q=16%5E7+*+3055+s 1 Great Year ≈ 16⁷ × 3055 s]. # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of the galactic year: [https://www.google.com/search?q=2+*+16%5E10+*+3055+s 1 galactic year ≈ 2 × 16¹⁰ × 3055 s] }} === The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 6a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]], where the plane intersects the Galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 6a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] ==== Bullies in the Bully System ==== A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in Figure 6a: * '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign. * '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left. * '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left. As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history: {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was “sweetheart”. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, “lover”. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}} Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of "excellent" or "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. {{Quote box| align = center | width = full | title = The "Bully" Name | text = The specific "bullies" in the "Bully" timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}} === A surrogate for the Sun === As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving. The path of the node can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°): <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4c''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 6b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}'''. (Note: Figure 4c assumes an idealized travel distance of exactly 52,000 parsecs (or 2^15.666224) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps, whereas Figure 6b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs (or 2^15.666040) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center;" |+ '''Figure 6b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 3px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled in parsecs |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B32}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5058}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.100 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|820A D4AD 4AD4}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1099.86''}}}} |} {{Quote box| align = center| width = full| title = Bully Timestamp Anchor| text = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 6b).}} ==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ==== In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 6c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days. The Earth's orbital speed varies throughout the year, moving slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Consequently, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season. As shown in Figure 6c, '''winter''' was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. It took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to '''spring''' being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to '''summer'''. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over '''21,000 years'''. [[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 6c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]] Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 6c. The transition from '''spring to summer''' is correlated with a large '''green dot''' and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large '''red dot''' appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from '''summer to autumn''', and a large '''blue dot''', back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from '''winter to spring'''. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,500 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly '''26,000 years''' (1 Great Year ≈ 25,824 sidereal years ≈ 25,825 tropical years). {{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | text = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred near the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. All of the Galactic crossings shown in Figure 6c, at 4495 BCE, 1998 CE, and 8329 CE, are roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE. }} == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 7a''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in Figure 7a, these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|'''Figure 7a''': Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of Figure 7a, follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. Ideally, all of the black lines in Figure 7a could be discontinued and replaced by Bully timestamps going forward. === Why do we need Bully timestamps? === All the timestamps in '''Figure 7b''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ '''Figure 7b''': UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of Figure 7b attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of Figure 7b, breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3,055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950s, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic timekeeping (1958 AD – present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Estimation == [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 8a: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 8a'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 8b'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|'''Figure 8b''': The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in '''Figure 8c''' contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8c''': Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in '''Figure 8d''' (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8d''': Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 8d) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in '''Figure 8e''' is the same as is shown in Figure 8d, but Figure 8e plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8e''': A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in '''Figure 8f''' is similar to the table in Figure 8c, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 8c was for large z values, Figure 8f shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8f''': Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] egaenbpcmcrkz4ebxc3ccqyxl7zhmmp 2832661 2832660 2026-09-10T19:10:42Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Earth's Great Year */ 2832661 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the Sun's orbit around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp occurs each time the Sun advances by roughly one solar radius along its path through the cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|upright=2.2|center|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] == One Solar Radius == The Sun hurtles around the Milky Way Galaxy at a blistering 0.076% of the speed of light ([https://arxiv.org/abs/1810.09466 229.0 ± 0.2 kilometers per second]). Yet, even at this staggering pace, it takes about five-sixths of an hour for the Sun to traverse a distance equal to its own radius. This highlights the truly colossal size of our star, which boasts a radius of 2.3206 light-seconds (695,700 kilometers). '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. During each '''3,055-second''' period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over '''2.33 light-seconds''', which is slightly more than one solar radius (<math>R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 2.33 \text{ ls} \gtrapprox R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', it is a vast, oblong, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into surrounding space. While somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, the latter is a comparatively thin layer of gas held near the planetary surface, whereas the heliosphere is a plasma constantly blasted into space by the Sun's extreme heat and energy. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is so vast that if it were truly spherical, it would take the Sun roughly 6.344 years to travel a distance equivalent to the heliosphere's diameter. The digit in the '''fifth position''' of a Bully timestamp represents this orbital distance. Figure 2 illustrates the motion of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. Timestamp 8209 ED00 0000 is defined to have occurred at exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16, 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. During each 6.344-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 306 astronomical units, which is slightly more than 65,536 solar radii (<math>16^{4}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 306 \text{ AU} \gtrapprox 16^{4}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === Naked-Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (not to scale) across 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' corresponds to approximately 383,000 B.C., while timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., representing a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a cyan dashed line marking 100 parsecs. The Sun travels a little less than this distance during each 416,000-year interval, which is tracked by the digit in the '''ninth position''' of the Bully timestamp. Because a large percentage of naked-eye stars sit within this 100-parsec radius, the appearance of Earth's night sky changes completely over this timeframe. [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of naked-eye stars binned according to brightness and distance from the Sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the Sun than 100 parsecs, which is the distance the Sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of naked-eye stars are within this 100-parsec travel distance of the Sun.]] During each 415,792-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 97 parsecs, which is slightly more than 4,294,967,296 solar radii (<math>16^{8}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 97 \text{ pc} \gtrapprox 16^{8}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> ==== The Bully Milky Way ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3b''': Division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 3b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid). Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000'''. These represent the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D., respectively, assuming a full orbital path around the Milky Way of roughly 50,000 parsecs. In the lower half of the image, cyan lines further divide a single yellow sector into 16 equal subsectors. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center in Figure 3b, corresponding to the 6 o'clock position, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle of the Sun at Bully timestamp 820A 0000 0000, estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D. The nine cyan grid lines to the right of the red line mark the Sun's polar angle for Bully timestamps 8201 0000 0000 through 8209 0000 0000. Meanwhile, the five cyan grid lines to the left of the red line indicate the polar angle for timestamps 820B 0000 0000 through 820F 0000 0000. <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,t_{\odot} \approx 212.9 \text{ million years} </math> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \sim 50,000 \text{ parsecs} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> == The Galactic Calendar == [[File:Galactic centre orbits.svg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 4a''':Inferred orbits of 6 stars around the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* at the Milky Way's center<ref name="Eisenhauer">{{cite journal|last=Eisenhauer|first=F.|display-authors=et al. |title=SINFONI in the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares in the Central Light-Month|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=July 20, 2005|volume=628|issue=1|pages=246–259|doi=10.1086/430667|bibcode=2005ApJ...628..246E|arxiv=astro-ph/0502129|s2cid=122485461 }}</ref>]] [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, labeled S2 in '''Figure 4a''', completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance from the Sun to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: &hairsp; :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \\ \end{align}</math> &hairsp; If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. ==== Idealized Galactic Weeks ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Weeks_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 4b''': Division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks of solar travel (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 4b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks (yellow grid). Each week represents 1,000 parsecs of solar travel, which in this plot is assumed to be traversed by the Sun in roughly 4.09 million years. Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000''', respectively, indicating the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D. The cyan lines in the lower half of the image further divide one sector into 10 equal subsectors of 100 parsecs each. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 4b, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun had during Bully timestamp 8209 D89D 89D8 (approximately 31,000 B.C.), which is 1,000 parsecs of travel beyond the yellow line representing timestamp 8200 0000 0000. The nine cyan lines to the left of the red line represent the polar angles of the Sun after traveling 1,100 through 1,900 parsecs beyond timestamp 8200 0000 0000. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2⁴¹ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4c''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. It outlines the specific Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved across this idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4c:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. ==== Is the Galactic Calendar Realistic? ==== [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4d:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250-million-year time period.]] The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4d). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4d''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in Figure 4c states that the galactic week beginning on timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark. ==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ==== In Figure 3a and Figure 3b, the Sun is shown to travel less than 50,000 parsecs per galactic year. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar shown in Figure 4b assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per galactic year, introducing a distinct discrepancy in both galactic scale and calculated orbital velocity. Because the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to complex gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is neither perfectly uniform nor entirely predictable. Consequently, the Sun's true orbital velocity remains a subject of ongoing discovery and refinement. The conjectured values used in Figure 3b and Figure 4b should be viewed as '''practical assumptions''' rather than a reflection of a stable, long-term physical reality; the idealized Bully Calendar is a '''conceptual model''' designed to help visualize the immense scale of the galactic orbit. The table in '''Figure 4e''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp up to 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | '''Figure 4e''': Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 100 parsecs per 16⁸ Bully timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps</small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | <small>2^18.597453 ≈ 396,635 </small> | <small>2^18.6438562 ≈ 409,600 </small> | <small>2^18.666224 ≈ 416,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | <small>2^14.597453 ≈ 24,789.7 </small> | <small>2^14.6438562 ≈ 25,600.0 </small> | <small>2^14.666224 ≈ 26,000.0 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | <small>2^10.597453 ≈ 1,549.36 </small> | <small>2^10.6438562 ≈ 1,600.00 </small> | <small>2^10.666224 ≈ 1,625.00 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁸''' | <small>2^6.597453 ≈ 96.8348 </small> | <small>2^6.6438562 ≈ 100.0000 </small> | <small>2^6.666224 ≈ 101.5625 </small> |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off-Nominal Values |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | <small>2^15.597453 ≈ 49,579 </small> | <small>2^15.6438562 ≈ 51,200 </small> | <small>2^15.666224 ≈ 52,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2²⁶''' | <small>2^0.597453 ≈ 1.513043 </small> | <small>2^0.6438562 ≈ 1.562500 </small> | <small>2^0.666224 ≈ 1.586914 </small> |} == The Earth and Moon == The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep-time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these movements in mind and incorporates a few of their unique values as identified in the '''Bully Mnemonic'''. The Bully Mnemonic is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds in Earth's [[w:Sidereal year|sidereal year]] and [[w:Tropical year|tropical year]], a good approximation of the Earth's [[w:Great Year|Great Year]], and an approximation of the Solar System's [[w:Galactic year|galactic year]]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic|Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] ==== Earth's sidereal year ==== The duration of Earth's sidereal year is '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. While gravitational perturbations from neighboring planets cause this value to vary by a few seconds annually, the averaged century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given this relative stability, using a whole-number divisor of the sidereal year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system offers significant utility. Specifically, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds, meaning Earth's sidereal year—rounded to the nearest second—equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's tropical year ==== Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of seasons between successive vernal equinoxes, spans '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp shorter than the sidereal year, measuring exactly '''10,329.6 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's Great Year ==== With Earth's sidereal year (<math>P</math>) spanning 10,330 timestamps and the tropical year (<math>a_{t}</math>) spanning 10,329.6 timestamps, a full precessional cycle requires a ratio of years, <math>N</math>, where the cumulative annual difference equals exactly one year: :<math> \begin{aligned} N &= \frac{1\text{ Bully timestamp}}{P - a_{t}} \\ &= \frac{1}{10,330 - 10,329.6} \\ &= \frac{1}{0.4} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \end{aligned} </math> Expressing this duration in terms of sidereal years yields: :<math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= 25,824 \, P \end{aligned} </math> Alternatively, expressing the cycle in terms of tropical years yields: :<math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= 25,825 \, a_{t} \end{aligned} </math> ==== Earth's Great Year ==== With Earth's sidereal year (<math>P</math>) spanning 10,330 timestamps and the tropical year (<math>a_{t}</math>) spanning 10,329.6 timestamps, a full precessional cycle requires a number of years ratio, <math>N</math>, where the cumulative annual difference equals exactly one year: <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> <math> \begin{aligned} N &= \frac{1\text{ Bully timestamp}}{P - a_{t}} \\ &= \frac{1}{10,330 - 10,329.6} \\ &= \frac{1}{0.4} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \end{aligned} </math> </div> Expressing this duration in terms of sidereal years yields: <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= 25,824 \, P \end{aligned} </math> </div> Alternatively, expressing the cycle in terms of tropical years yields: <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= 25,825 \, a_{t} \end{aligned} </math> </div> ==== Earth's gravity ==== Of all the planets in the cosmos, our Earth is unique in that the gravity on Earth's surface is approximately equal to the speed of light divided by one sidereal year: <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>g \approx \frac{c}{P}</math> Or equivalently: :<math>10^4\text{ Bully timestamps} \approx \frac{c}{g}</math> </div> (where <math>g</math> is surface gravity, <math>c</math> is the speed of light, and <math>P</math> is the orbital period). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> </div> ==== The Metonic cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23, 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp complete approximately three cycles per one Metonic cycle, as illustrated below: <div style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: inherit; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688; border-radius: 4px; line-height: 1.6; margin: 1em 0;"> '''July 23 New Moons:''' * July 23, 1998 — 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 — 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 — 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> * [[Bully Metric Metonic cycle|Learn More About The Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Anchoring Bully Timestamps == To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''. === The Bully Timestamp Duration === While 3,055 seconds may appear to be an arbitrary choice, the length of a single Bully timestamp is mathematically derived from solar, lunar, and deep-time orbital mechanics. {{Quote box| align = center| width = 100%| title = Bully Timestamp Duration | text = Justification: # The Sun orbits approximately one solar radius per Bully timestamp: [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics#Solar_Radius_Mnemonics| t_☉ ≈ 3,055 seconds]] # The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year: [[Bully Mnemonic |31558150 s = 10330 × 3055 s]]. # Approximate divisor of the ratio of the speed of light with g_earth: [https://www.google.com/search?q=c+%2F+g_earth+in+megaseconds c / g_earth ≈ 30.55 Ms] # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of the Earth–Moon Metonic cycle: [https://www.google.com/search?q=3+*+16%5E4+*+3055+s 1 Metonic cycle ≈ 3 × 16⁴ × 3055 s] # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of Earth's Great Year: [https://www.google.com/search?q=16%5E7+*+3055+s 1 Great Year ≈ 16⁷ × 3055 s]. # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of the galactic year: [https://www.google.com/search?q=2+*+16%5E10+*+3055+s 1 galactic year ≈ 2 × 16¹⁰ × 3055 s] }} === The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 6a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]], where the plane intersects the Galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 6a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] ==== Bullies in the Bully System ==== A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in Figure 6a: * '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign. * '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left. * '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left. As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history: {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was “sweetheart”. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, “lover”. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}} Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of "excellent" or "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. {{Quote box| align = center | width = full | title = The "Bully" Name | text = The specific "bullies" in the "Bully" timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}} === A surrogate for the Sun === As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving. The path of the node can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°): <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4c''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 6b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}'''. (Note: Figure 4c assumes an idealized travel distance of exactly 52,000 parsecs (or 2^15.666224) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps, whereas Figure 6b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs (or 2^15.666040) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center;" |+ '''Figure 6b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 3px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled in parsecs |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B32}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5058}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.100 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|820A D4AD 4AD4}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1099.86''}}}} |} {{Quote box| align = center| width = full| title = Bully Timestamp Anchor| text = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 6b).}} ==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ==== In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 6c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days. The Earth's orbital speed varies throughout the year, moving slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Consequently, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season. As shown in Figure 6c, '''winter''' was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. It took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to '''spring''' being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to '''summer'''. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over '''21,000 years'''. [[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 6c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]] Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 6c. The transition from '''spring to summer''' is correlated with a large '''green dot''' and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large '''red dot''' appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from '''summer to autumn''', and a large '''blue dot''', back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from '''winter to spring'''. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,500 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly '''26,000 years''' (1 Great Year ≈ 25,824 sidereal years ≈ 25,825 tropical years). {{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | text = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred near the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. All of the Galactic crossings shown in Figure 6c, at 4495 BCE, 1998 CE, and 8329 CE, are roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE. }} == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 7a''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in Figure 7a, these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|'''Figure 7a''': Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of Figure 7a, follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. Ideally, all of the black lines in Figure 7a could be discontinued and replaced by Bully timestamps going forward. === Why do we need Bully timestamps? === All the timestamps in '''Figure 7b''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ '''Figure 7b''': UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of Figure 7b attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of Figure 7b, breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3,055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950s, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic timekeeping (1958 AD – present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Estimation == [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 8a: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 8a'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 8b'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|'''Figure 8b''': The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in '''Figure 8c''' contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8c''': Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in '''Figure 8d''' (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8d''': Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 8d) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in '''Figure 8e''' is the same as is shown in Figure 8d, but Figure 8e plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8e''': A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in '''Figure 8f''' is similar to the table in Figure 8c, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 8c was for large z values, Figure 8f shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8f''': Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] 9ts2x4e0g3ammp853cjspb55xj9eey4 2832662 2832661 2026-09-10T19:11:07Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Earth's Great Year */ 2832662 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the Sun's orbit around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp occurs each time the Sun advances by roughly one solar radius along its path through the cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|upright=2.2|center|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] == One Solar Radius == The Sun hurtles around the Milky Way Galaxy at a blistering 0.076% of the speed of light ([https://arxiv.org/abs/1810.09466 229.0 ± 0.2 kilometers per second]). Yet, even at this staggering pace, it takes about five-sixths of an hour for the Sun to traverse a distance equal to its own radius. This highlights the truly colossal size of our star, which boasts a radius of 2.3206 light-seconds (695,700 kilometers). '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. During each '''3,055-second''' period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over '''2.33 light-seconds''', which is slightly more than one solar radius (<math>R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 2.33 \text{ ls} \gtrapprox R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', it is a vast, oblong, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into surrounding space. While somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, the latter is a comparatively thin layer of gas held near the planetary surface, whereas the heliosphere is a plasma constantly blasted into space by the Sun's extreme heat and energy. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is so vast that if it were truly spherical, it would take the Sun roughly 6.344 years to travel a distance equivalent to the heliosphere's diameter. The digit in the '''fifth position''' of a Bully timestamp represents this orbital distance. Figure 2 illustrates the motion of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. Timestamp 8209 ED00 0000 is defined to have occurred at exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16, 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. During each 6.344-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 306 astronomical units, which is slightly more than 65,536 solar radii (<math>16^{4}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 306 \text{ AU} \gtrapprox 16^{4}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === Naked-Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (not to scale) across 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' corresponds to approximately 383,000 B.C., while timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., representing a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a cyan dashed line marking 100 parsecs. The Sun travels a little less than this distance during each 416,000-year interval, which is tracked by the digit in the '''ninth position''' of the Bully timestamp. Because a large percentage of naked-eye stars sit within this 100-parsec radius, the appearance of Earth's night sky changes completely over this timeframe. [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of naked-eye stars binned according to brightness and distance from the Sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the Sun than 100 parsecs, which is the distance the Sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of naked-eye stars are within this 100-parsec travel distance of the Sun.]] During each 415,792-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 97 parsecs, which is slightly more than 4,294,967,296 solar radii (<math>16^{8}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 97 \text{ pc} \gtrapprox 16^{8}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> ==== The Bully Milky Way ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3b''': Division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 3b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid). Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000'''. These represent the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D., respectively, assuming a full orbital path around the Milky Way of roughly 50,000 parsecs. In the lower half of the image, cyan lines further divide a single yellow sector into 16 equal subsectors. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center in Figure 3b, corresponding to the 6 o'clock position, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle of the Sun at Bully timestamp 820A 0000 0000, estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D. The nine cyan grid lines to the right of the red line mark the Sun's polar angle for Bully timestamps 8201 0000 0000 through 8209 0000 0000. Meanwhile, the five cyan grid lines to the left of the red line indicate the polar angle for timestamps 820B 0000 0000 through 820F 0000 0000. <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,t_{\odot} \approx 212.9 \text{ million years} </math> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \sim 50,000 \text{ parsecs} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> == The Galactic Calendar == [[File:Galactic centre orbits.svg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 4a''':Inferred orbits of 6 stars around the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* at the Milky Way's center<ref name="Eisenhauer">{{cite journal|last=Eisenhauer|first=F.|display-authors=et al. |title=SINFONI in the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares in the Central Light-Month|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=July 20, 2005|volume=628|issue=1|pages=246–259|doi=10.1086/430667|bibcode=2005ApJ...628..246E|arxiv=astro-ph/0502129|s2cid=122485461 }}</ref>]] [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, labeled S2 in '''Figure 4a''', completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance from the Sun to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: &hairsp; :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \\ \end{align}</math> &hairsp; If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. ==== Idealized Galactic Weeks ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Weeks_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 4b''': Division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks of solar travel (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 4b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks (yellow grid). Each week represents 1,000 parsecs of solar travel, which in this plot is assumed to be traversed by the Sun in roughly 4.09 million years. Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000''', respectively, indicating the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D. The cyan lines in the lower half of the image further divide one sector into 10 equal subsectors of 100 parsecs each. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 4b, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun had during Bully timestamp 8209 D89D 89D8 (approximately 31,000 B.C.), which is 1,000 parsecs of travel beyond the yellow line representing timestamp 8200 0000 0000. The nine cyan lines to the left of the red line represent the polar angles of the Sun after traveling 1,100 through 1,900 parsecs beyond timestamp 8200 0000 0000. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2⁴¹ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4c''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. It outlines the specific Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved across this idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4c:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. ==== Is the Galactic Calendar Realistic? ==== [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4d:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250-million-year time period.]] The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4d). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4d''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in Figure 4c states that the galactic week beginning on timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark. ==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ==== In Figure 3a and Figure 3b, the Sun is shown to travel less than 50,000 parsecs per galactic year. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar shown in Figure 4b assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per galactic year, introducing a distinct discrepancy in both galactic scale and calculated orbital velocity. Because the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to complex gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is neither perfectly uniform nor entirely predictable. Consequently, the Sun's true orbital velocity remains a subject of ongoing discovery and refinement. The conjectured values used in Figure 3b and Figure 4b should be viewed as '''practical assumptions''' rather than a reflection of a stable, long-term physical reality; the idealized Bully Calendar is a '''conceptual model''' designed to help visualize the immense scale of the galactic orbit. The table in '''Figure 4e''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp up to 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | '''Figure 4e''': Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 100 parsecs per 16⁸ Bully timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps</small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | <small>2^18.597453 ≈ 396,635 </small> | <small>2^18.6438562 ≈ 409,600 </small> | <small>2^18.666224 ≈ 416,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | <small>2^14.597453 ≈ 24,789.7 </small> | <small>2^14.6438562 ≈ 25,600.0 </small> | <small>2^14.666224 ≈ 26,000.0 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | <small>2^10.597453 ≈ 1,549.36 </small> | <small>2^10.6438562 ≈ 1,600.00 </small> | <small>2^10.666224 ≈ 1,625.00 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁸''' | <small>2^6.597453 ≈ 96.8348 </small> | <small>2^6.6438562 ≈ 100.0000 </small> | <small>2^6.666224 ≈ 101.5625 </small> |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off-Nominal Values |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | <small>2^15.597453 ≈ 49,579 </small> | <small>2^15.6438562 ≈ 51,200 </small> | <small>2^15.666224 ≈ 52,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2²⁶''' | <small>2^0.597453 ≈ 1.513043 </small> | <small>2^0.6438562 ≈ 1.562500 </small> | <small>2^0.666224 ≈ 1.586914 </small> |} == The Earth and Moon == The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep-time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these movements in mind and incorporates a few of their unique values as identified in the '''Bully Mnemonic'''. The Bully Mnemonic is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds in Earth's [[w:Sidereal year|sidereal year]] and [[w:Tropical year|tropical year]], a good approximation of the Earth's [[w:Great Year|Great Year]], and an approximation of the Solar System's [[w:Galactic year|galactic year]]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic|Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] ==== Earth's sidereal year ==== The duration of Earth's sidereal year is '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. While gravitational perturbations from neighboring planets cause this value to vary by a few seconds annually, the averaged century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given this relative stability, using a whole-number divisor of the sidereal year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system offers significant utility. Specifically, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds, meaning Earth's sidereal year—rounded to the nearest second—equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's tropical year ==== Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of seasons between successive vernal equinoxes, spans '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp shorter than the sidereal year, measuring exactly '''10,329.6 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's Great Year ==== With Earth's sidereal year (<math>P</math>) spanning 10,330 timestamps and the tropical year (<math>a_{t}</math>) spanning 10,329.6 timestamps, a full precessional cycle requires a number of years ratio, <math>N</math>, where the cumulative annual difference equals exactly one year: <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> <math> \begin{aligned} N &= \frac{1\text{ Bully timestamp}}{P - a_{t}} \\ &= \frac{1}{10,330 - 10,329.6} \\ &= \frac{1}{0.4} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \end{aligned} </math> </div> Expressing this duration in terms of sidereal years yields: <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= 25,824 \, P \end{aligned} </math> </div> Alternatively, expressing the cycle in terms of tropical years yields: <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= 25,825 \, a_{t} \end{aligned} </math> </div> ==== Earth's gravity ==== Of all the planets in the cosmos, our Earth is unique in that the gravity on Earth's surface is approximately equal to the speed of light divided by one sidereal year: <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>g \approx \frac{c}{P}</math> Or equivalently: :<math>10^4\text{ Bully timestamps} \approx \frac{c}{g}</math> </div> (where <math>g</math> is surface gravity, <math>c</math> is the speed of light, and <math>P</math> is the orbital period). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> </div> ==== The Metonic cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23, 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp complete approximately three cycles per one Metonic cycle, as illustrated below: <div style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: inherit; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688; border-radius: 4px; line-height: 1.6; margin: 1em 0;"> '''July 23 New Moons:''' * July 23, 1998 — 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 — 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 — 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> * [[Bully Metric Metonic cycle|Learn More About The Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Anchoring Bully Timestamps == To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''. === The Bully Timestamp Duration === While 3,055 seconds may appear to be an arbitrary choice, the length of a single Bully timestamp is mathematically derived from solar, lunar, and deep-time orbital mechanics. {{Quote box| align = center| width = 100%| title = Bully Timestamp Duration | text = Justification: # The Sun orbits approximately one solar radius per Bully timestamp: [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics#Solar_Radius_Mnemonics| t_☉ ≈ 3,055 seconds]] # The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year: [[Bully Mnemonic |31558150 s = 10330 × 3055 s]]. # Approximate divisor of the ratio of the speed of light with g_earth: [https://www.google.com/search?q=c+%2F+g_earth+in+megaseconds c / g_earth ≈ 30.55 Ms] # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of the Earth–Moon Metonic cycle: [https://www.google.com/search?q=3+*+16%5E4+*+3055+s 1 Metonic cycle ≈ 3 × 16⁴ × 3055 s] # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of Earth's Great Year: [https://www.google.com/search?q=16%5E7+*+3055+s 1 Great Year ≈ 16⁷ × 3055 s]. # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of the galactic year: [https://www.google.com/search?q=2+*+16%5E10+*+3055+s 1 galactic year ≈ 2 × 16¹⁰ × 3055 s] }} === The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 6a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]], where the plane intersects the Galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 6a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] ==== Bullies in the Bully System ==== A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in Figure 6a: * '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign. * '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left. * '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left. As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history: {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was “sweetheart”. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, “lover”. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}} Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of "excellent" or "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. {{Quote box| align = center | width = full | title = The "Bully" Name | text = The specific "bullies" in the "Bully" timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}} === A surrogate for the Sun === As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving. The path of the node can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°): <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4c''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 6b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}'''. (Note: Figure 4c assumes an idealized travel distance of exactly 52,000 parsecs (or 2^15.666224) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps, whereas Figure 6b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs (or 2^15.666040) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center;" |+ '''Figure 6b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 3px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled in parsecs |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B32}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5058}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.100 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|820A D4AD 4AD4}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1099.86''}}}} |} {{Quote box| align = center| width = full| title = Bully Timestamp Anchor| text = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 6b).}} ==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ==== In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 6c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days. The Earth's orbital speed varies throughout the year, moving slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Consequently, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season. As shown in Figure 6c, '''winter''' was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. It took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to '''spring''' being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to '''summer'''. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over '''21,000 years'''. [[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 6c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]] Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 6c. The transition from '''spring to summer''' is correlated with a large '''green dot''' and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large '''red dot''' appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from '''summer to autumn''', and a large '''blue dot''', back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from '''winter to spring'''. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,500 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly '''26,000 years''' (1 Great Year ≈ 25,824 sidereal years ≈ 25,825 tropical years). {{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | text = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred near the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. All of the Galactic crossings shown in Figure 6c, at 4495 BCE, 1998 CE, and 8329 CE, are roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE. }} == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 7a''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in Figure 7a, these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|'''Figure 7a''': Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of Figure 7a, follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. Ideally, all of the black lines in Figure 7a could be discontinued and replaced by Bully timestamps going forward. === Why do we need Bully timestamps? === All the timestamps in '''Figure 7b''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ '''Figure 7b''': UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of Figure 7b attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of Figure 7b, breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3,055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950s, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic timekeeping (1958 AD – present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Estimation == [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 8a: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 8a'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 8b'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|'''Figure 8b''': The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in '''Figure 8c''' contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8c''': Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in '''Figure 8d''' (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8d''': Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 8d) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in '''Figure 8e''' is the same as is shown in Figure 8d, but Figure 8e plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8e''': A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in '''Figure 8f''' is similar to the table in Figure 8c, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 8c was for large z values, Figure 8f shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8f''': Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] egaenbpcmcrkz4ebxc3ccqyxl7zhmmp 2832663 2832662 2026-09-10T19:11:56Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Earth's Great Year */ 2832663 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the Sun's orbit around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp occurs each time the Sun advances by roughly one solar radius along its path through the cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|upright=2.2|center|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] == One Solar Radius == The Sun hurtles around the Milky Way Galaxy at a blistering 0.076% of the speed of light ([https://arxiv.org/abs/1810.09466 229.0 ± 0.2 kilometers per second]). Yet, even at this staggering pace, it takes about five-sixths of an hour for the Sun to traverse a distance equal to its own radius. This highlights the truly colossal size of our star, which boasts a radius of 2.3206 light-seconds (695,700 kilometers). '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. During each '''3,055-second''' period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over '''2.33 light-seconds''', which is slightly more than one solar radius (<math>R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 2.33 \text{ ls} \gtrapprox R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', it is a vast, oblong, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into surrounding space. While somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, the latter is a comparatively thin layer of gas held near the planetary surface, whereas the heliosphere is a plasma constantly blasted into space by the Sun's extreme heat and energy. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is so vast that if it were truly spherical, it would take the Sun roughly 6.344 years to travel a distance equivalent to the heliosphere's diameter. The digit in the '''fifth position''' of a Bully timestamp represents this orbital distance. Figure 2 illustrates the motion of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. Timestamp 8209 ED00 0000 is defined to have occurred at exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16, 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. During each 6.344-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 306 astronomical units, which is slightly more than 65,536 solar radii (<math>16^{4}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 306 \text{ AU} \gtrapprox 16^{4}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === Naked-Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (not to scale) across 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' corresponds to approximately 383,000 B.C., while timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., representing a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a cyan dashed line marking 100 parsecs. The Sun travels a little less than this distance during each 416,000-year interval, which is tracked by the digit in the '''ninth position''' of the Bully timestamp. Because a large percentage of naked-eye stars sit within this 100-parsec radius, the appearance of Earth's night sky changes completely over this timeframe. [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of naked-eye stars binned according to brightness and distance from the Sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the Sun than 100 parsecs, which is the distance the Sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of naked-eye stars are within this 100-parsec travel distance of the Sun.]] During each 415,792-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 97 parsecs, which is slightly more than 4,294,967,296 solar radii (<math>16^{8}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 97 \text{ pc} \gtrapprox 16^{8}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> ==== The Bully Milky Way ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3b''': Division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 3b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid). Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000'''. These represent the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D., respectively, assuming a full orbital path around the Milky Way of roughly 50,000 parsecs. In the lower half of the image, cyan lines further divide a single yellow sector into 16 equal subsectors. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center in Figure 3b, corresponding to the 6 o'clock position, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle of the Sun at Bully timestamp 820A 0000 0000, estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D. The nine cyan grid lines to the right of the red line mark the Sun's polar angle for Bully timestamps 8201 0000 0000 through 8209 0000 0000. Meanwhile, the five cyan grid lines to the left of the red line indicate the polar angle for timestamps 820B 0000 0000 through 820F 0000 0000. <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,t_{\odot} \approx 212.9 \text{ million years} </math> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \sim 50,000 \text{ parsecs} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> == The Galactic Calendar == [[File:Galactic centre orbits.svg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 4a''':Inferred orbits of 6 stars around the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* at the Milky Way's center<ref name="Eisenhauer">{{cite journal|last=Eisenhauer|first=F.|display-authors=et al. |title=SINFONI in the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares in the Central Light-Month|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=July 20, 2005|volume=628|issue=1|pages=246–259|doi=10.1086/430667|bibcode=2005ApJ...628..246E|arxiv=astro-ph/0502129|s2cid=122485461 }}</ref>]] [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, labeled S2 in '''Figure 4a''', completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance from the Sun to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: &hairsp; :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \\ \end{align}</math> &hairsp; If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. ==== Idealized Galactic Weeks ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Weeks_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 4b''': Division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks of solar travel (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 4b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks (yellow grid). Each week represents 1,000 parsecs of solar travel, which in this plot is assumed to be traversed by the Sun in roughly 4.09 million years. Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000''', respectively, indicating the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D. The cyan lines in the lower half of the image further divide one sector into 10 equal subsectors of 100 parsecs each. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 4b, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun had during Bully timestamp 8209 D89D 89D8 (approximately 31,000 B.C.), which is 1,000 parsecs of travel beyond the yellow line representing timestamp 8200 0000 0000. The nine cyan lines to the left of the red line represent the polar angles of the Sun after traveling 1,100 through 1,900 parsecs beyond timestamp 8200 0000 0000. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2⁴¹ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4c''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. It outlines the specific Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved across this idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4c:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. ==== Is the Galactic Calendar Realistic? ==== [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4d:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250-million-year time period.]] The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4d). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4d''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in Figure 4c states that the galactic week beginning on timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark. ==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ==== In Figure 3a and Figure 3b, the Sun is shown to travel less than 50,000 parsecs per galactic year. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar shown in Figure 4b assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per galactic year, introducing a distinct discrepancy in both galactic scale and calculated orbital velocity. Because the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to complex gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is neither perfectly uniform nor entirely predictable. Consequently, the Sun's true orbital velocity remains a subject of ongoing discovery and refinement. The conjectured values used in Figure 3b and Figure 4b should be viewed as '''practical assumptions''' rather than a reflection of a stable, long-term physical reality; the idealized Bully Calendar is a '''conceptual model''' designed to help visualize the immense scale of the galactic orbit. The table in '''Figure 4e''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp up to 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | '''Figure 4e''': Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 100 parsecs per 16⁸ Bully timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps</small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | <small>2^18.597453 ≈ 396,635 </small> | <small>2^18.6438562 ≈ 409,600 </small> | <small>2^18.666224 ≈ 416,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | <small>2^14.597453 ≈ 24,789.7 </small> | <small>2^14.6438562 ≈ 25,600.0 </small> | <small>2^14.666224 ≈ 26,000.0 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | <small>2^10.597453 ≈ 1,549.36 </small> | <small>2^10.6438562 ≈ 1,600.00 </small> | <small>2^10.666224 ≈ 1,625.00 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁸''' | <small>2^6.597453 ≈ 96.8348 </small> | <small>2^6.6438562 ≈ 100.0000 </small> | <small>2^6.666224 ≈ 101.5625 </small> |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off-Nominal Values |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | <small>2^15.597453 ≈ 49,579 </small> | <small>2^15.6438562 ≈ 51,200 </small> | <small>2^15.666224 ≈ 52,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2²⁶''' | <small>2^0.597453 ≈ 1.513043 </small> | <small>2^0.6438562 ≈ 1.562500 </small> | <small>2^0.666224 ≈ 1.586914 </small> |} == The Earth and Moon == The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep-time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these movements in mind and incorporates a few of their unique values as identified in the '''Bully Mnemonic'''. The Bully Mnemonic is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds in Earth's [[w:Sidereal year|sidereal year]] and [[w:Tropical year|tropical year]], a good approximation of the Earth's [[w:Great Year|Great Year]], and an approximation of the Solar System's [[w:Galactic year|galactic year]]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic|Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] ==== Earth's sidereal year ==== The duration of Earth's sidereal year is '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. While gravitational perturbations from neighboring planets cause this value to vary by a few seconds annually, the averaged century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given this relative stability, using a whole-number divisor of the sidereal year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system offers significant utility. Specifically, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds, meaning Earth's sidereal year—rounded to the nearest second—equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's tropical year ==== Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of seasons between successive vernal equinoxes, spans '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp shorter than the sidereal year, measuring exactly '''10,329.6 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's Great Year ==== With Earth's sidereal year (<math>P</math>) spanning 10,330 timestamps and the tropical year (<math>a_{t}</math>) spanning 10,329.6 timestamps, a full precessional cycle requires a ratio of years, <math>N</math>, where the cumulative annual difference equals exactly one year: <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> <math> \begin{aligned} N &= \frac{1\text{ Bully timestamp}}{P - a_{t}} \\ &= \frac{1}{10,330 - 10,329.6} \\ &= \frac{1}{0.4} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \end{aligned} </math> </div> Expressing this duration in terms of sidereal years yields: <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= 25,824 \, P \end{aligned} </math> </div> Alternatively, expressing the cycle in terms of tropical years yields: <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= 25,825 \, a_{t} \end{aligned} </math> </div> ==== Earth's gravity ==== Of all the planets in the cosmos, our Earth is unique in that the gravity on Earth's surface is approximately equal to the speed of light divided by one sidereal year: <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>g \approx \frac{c}{P}</math> Or equivalently: :<math>10^4\text{ Bully timestamps} \approx \frac{c}{g}</math> </div> (where <math>g</math> is surface gravity, <math>c</math> is the speed of light, and <math>P</math> is the orbital period). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> </div> ==== The Metonic cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23, 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp complete approximately three cycles per one Metonic cycle, as illustrated below: <div style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: inherit; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688; border-radius: 4px; line-height: 1.6; margin: 1em 0;"> '''July 23 New Moons:''' * July 23, 1998 — 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 — 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 — 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> * [[Bully Metric Metonic cycle|Learn More About The Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Anchoring Bully Timestamps == To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''. === The Bully Timestamp Duration === While 3,055 seconds may appear to be an arbitrary choice, the length of a single Bully timestamp is mathematically derived from solar, lunar, and deep-time orbital mechanics. {{Quote box| align = center| width = 100%| title = Bully Timestamp Duration | text = Justification: # The Sun orbits approximately one solar radius per Bully timestamp: [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics#Solar_Radius_Mnemonics| t_☉ ≈ 3,055 seconds]] # The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year: [[Bully Mnemonic |31558150 s = 10330 × 3055 s]]. # Approximate divisor of the ratio of the speed of light with g_earth: [https://www.google.com/search?q=c+%2F+g_earth+in+megaseconds c / g_earth ≈ 30.55 Ms] # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of the Earth–Moon Metonic cycle: [https://www.google.com/search?q=3+*+16%5E4+*+3055+s 1 Metonic cycle ≈ 3 × 16⁴ × 3055 s] # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of Earth's Great Year: [https://www.google.com/search?q=16%5E7+*+3055+s 1 Great Year ≈ 16⁷ × 3055 s]. # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of the galactic year: [https://www.google.com/search?q=2+*+16%5E10+*+3055+s 1 galactic year ≈ 2 × 16¹⁰ × 3055 s] }} === The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 6a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]], where the plane intersects the Galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 6a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] ==== Bullies in the Bully System ==== A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in Figure 6a: * '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign. * '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left. * '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left. As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history: {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was “sweetheart”. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, “lover”. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}} Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of "excellent" or "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. {{Quote box| align = center | width = full | title = The "Bully" Name | text = The specific "bullies" in the "Bully" timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}} === A surrogate for the Sun === As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving. The path of the node can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°): <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4c''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 6b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}'''. (Note: Figure 4c assumes an idealized travel distance of exactly 52,000 parsecs (or 2^15.666224) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps, whereas Figure 6b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs (or 2^15.666040) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center;" |+ '''Figure 6b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 3px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled in parsecs |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B32}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5058}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.100 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|820A D4AD 4AD4}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1099.86''}}}} |} {{Quote box| align = center| width = full| title = Bully Timestamp Anchor| text = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 6b).}} ==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ==== In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 6c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days. The Earth's orbital speed varies throughout the year, moving slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Consequently, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season. As shown in Figure 6c, '''winter''' was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. It took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to '''spring''' being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to '''summer'''. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over '''21,000 years'''. [[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 6c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]] Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 6c. The transition from '''spring to summer''' is correlated with a large '''green dot''' and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large '''red dot''' appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from '''summer to autumn''', and a large '''blue dot''', back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from '''winter to spring'''. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,500 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly '''26,000 years''' (1 Great Year ≈ 25,824 sidereal years ≈ 25,825 tropical years). {{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | text = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred near the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. All of the Galactic crossings shown in Figure 6c, at 4495 BCE, 1998 CE, and 8329 CE, are roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE. }} == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 7a''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in Figure 7a, these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|'''Figure 7a''': Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of Figure 7a, follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. Ideally, all of the black lines in Figure 7a could be discontinued and replaced by Bully timestamps going forward. === Why do we need Bully timestamps? === All the timestamps in '''Figure 7b''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ '''Figure 7b''': UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of Figure 7b attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of Figure 7b, breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3,055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950s, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic timekeeping (1958 AD – present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Estimation == [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 8a: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 8a'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 8b'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|'''Figure 8b''': The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in '''Figure 8c''' contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8c''': Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in '''Figure 8d''' (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8d''': Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 8d) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in '''Figure 8e''' is the same as is shown in Figure 8d, but Figure 8e plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8e''': A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in '''Figure 8f''' is similar to the table in Figure 8c, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 8c was for large z values, Figure 8f shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8f''': Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] aozuqrccmerfa1tizmenw7ooec2sz0d 2832664 2832663 2026-09-10T19:14:33Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Earth's gravity */ 2832664 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the Sun's orbit around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp occurs each time the Sun advances by roughly one solar radius along its path through the cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|upright=2.2|center|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] == One Solar Radius == The Sun hurtles around the Milky Way Galaxy at a blistering 0.076% of the speed of light ([https://arxiv.org/abs/1810.09466 229.0 ± 0.2 kilometers per second]). Yet, even at this staggering pace, it takes about five-sixths of an hour for the Sun to traverse a distance equal to its own radius. This highlights the truly colossal size of our star, which boasts a radius of 2.3206 light-seconds (695,700 kilometers). '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. During each '''3,055-second''' period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over '''2.33 light-seconds''', which is slightly more than one solar radius (<math>R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 2.33 \text{ ls} \gtrapprox R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', it is a vast, oblong, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into surrounding space. While somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, the latter is a comparatively thin layer of gas held near the planetary surface, whereas the heliosphere is a plasma constantly blasted into space by the Sun's extreme heat and energy. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is so vast that if it were truly spherical, it would take the Sun roughly 6.344 years to travel a distance equivalent to the heliosphere's diameter. The digit in the '''fifth position''' of a Bully timestamp represents this orbital distance. Figure 2 illustrates the motion of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. Timestamp 8209 ED00 0000 is defined to have occurred at exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16, 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. During each 6.344-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 306 astronomical units, which is slightly more than 65,536 solar radii (<math>16^{4}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 306 \text{ AU} \gtrapprox 16^{4}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === Naked-Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (not to scale) across 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' corresponds to approximately 383,000 B.C., while timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., representing a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a cyan dashed line marking 100 parsecs. The Sun travels a little less than this distance during each 416,000-year interval, which is tracked by the digit in the '''ninth position''' of the Bully timestamp. Because a large percentage of naked-eye stars sit within this 100-parsec radius, the appearance of Earth's night sky changes completely over this timeframe. [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of naked-eye stars binned according to brightness and distance from the Sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the Sun than 100 parsecs, which is the distance the Sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of naked-eye stars are within this 100-parsec travel distance of the Sun.]] During each 415,792-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 97 parsecs, which is slightly more than 4,294,967,296 solar radii (<math>16^{8}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 97 \text{ pc} \gtrapprox 16^{8}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> ==== The Bully Milky Way ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3b''': Division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 3b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid). Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000'''. These represent the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D., respectively, assuming a full orbital path around the Milky Way of roughly 50,000 parsecs. In the lower half of the image, cyan lines further divide a single yellow sector into 16 equal subsectors. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center in Figure 3b, corresponding to the 6 o'clock position, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle of the Sun at Bully timestamp 820A 0000 0000, estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D. The nine cyan grid lines to the right of the red line mark the Sun's polar angle for Bully timestamps 8201 0000 0000 through 8209 0000 0000. Meanwhile, the five cyan grid lines to the left of the red line indicate the polar angle for timestamps 820B 0000 0000 through 820F 0000 0000. <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,t_{\odot} \approx 212.9 \text{ million years} </math> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \sim 50,000 \text{ parsecs} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> == The Galactic Calendar == [[File:Galactic centre orbits.svg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 4a''':Inferred orbits of 6 stars around the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* at the Milky Way's center<ref name="Eisenhauer">{{cite journal|last=Eisenhauer|first=F.|display-authors=et al. |title=SINFONI in the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares in the Central Light-Month|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=July 20, 2005|volume=628|issue=1|pages=246–259|doi=10.1086/430667|bibcode=2005ApJ...628..246E|arxiv=astro-ph/0502129|s2cid=122485461 }}</ref>]] [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, labeled S2 in '''Figure 4a''', completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance from the Sun to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: &hairsp; :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \\ \end{align}</math> &hairsp; If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. ==== Idealized Galactic Weeks ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Weeks_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 4b''': Division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks of solar travel (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 4b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks (yellow grid). Each week represents 1,000 parsecs of solar travel, which in this plot is assumed to be traversed by the Sun in roughly 4.09 million years. Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000''', respectively, indicating the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D. The cyan lines in the lower half of the image further divide one sector into 10 equal subsectors of 100 parsecs each. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 4b, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun had during Bully timestamp 8209 D89D 89D8 (approximately 31,000 B.C.), which is 1,000 parsecs of travel beyond the yellow line representing timestamp 8200 0000 0000. The nine cyan lines to the left of the red line represent the polar angles of the Sun after traveling 1,100 through 1,900 parsecs beyond timestamp 8200 0000 0000. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2⁴¹ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4c''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. It outlines the specific Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved across this idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4c:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. ==== Is the Galactic Calendar Realistic? ==== [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4d:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250-million-year time period.]] The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4d). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4d''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in Figure 4c states that the galactic week beginning on timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark. ==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ==== In Figure 3a and Figure 3b, the Sun is shown to travel less than 50,000 parsecs per galactic year. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar shown in Figure 4b assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per galactic year, introducing a distinct discrepancy in both galactic scale and calculated orbital velocity. Because the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to complex gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is neither perfectly uniform nor entirely predictable. Consequently, the Sun's true orbital velocity remains a subject of ongoing discovery and refinement. The conjectured values used in Figure 3b and Figure 4b should be viewed as '''practical assumptions''' rather than a reflection of a stable, long-term physical reality; the idealized Bully Calendar is a '''conceptual model''' designed to help visualize the immense scale of the galactic orbit. The table in '''Figure 4e''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp up to 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | '''Figure 4e''': Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 100 parsecs per 16⁸ Bully timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps</small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | <small>2^18.597453 ≈ 396,635 </small> | <small>2^18.6438562 ≈ 409,600 </small> | <small>2^18.666224 ≈ 416,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | <small>2^14.597453 ≈ 24,789.7 </small> | <small>2^14.6438562 ≈ 25,600.0 </small> | <small>2^14.666224 ≈ 26,000.0 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | <small>2^10.597453 ≈ 1,549.36 </small> | <small>2^10.6438562 ≈ 1,600.00 </small> | <small>2^10.666224 ≈ 1,625.00 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁸''' | <small>2^6.597453 ≈ 96.8348 </small> | <small>2^6.6438562 ≈ 100.0000 </small> | <small>2^6.666224 ≈ 101.5625 </small> |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off-Nominal Values |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | <small>2^15.597453 ≈ 49,579 </small> | <small>2^15.6438562 ≈ 51,200 </small> | <small>2^15.666224 ≈ 52,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2²⁶''' | <small>2^0.597453 ≈ 1.513043 </small> | <small>2^0.6438562 ≈ 1.562500 </small> | <small>2^0.666224 ≈ 1.586914 </small> |} == The Earth and Moon == The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep-time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these movements in mind and incorporates a few of their unique values as identified in the '''Bully Mnemonic'''. The Bully Mnemonic is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds in Earth's [[w:Sidereal year|sidereal year]] and [[w:Tropical year|tropical year]], a good approximation of the Earth's [[w:Great Year|Great Year]], and an approximation of the Solar System's [[w:Galactic year|galactic year]]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic|Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] ==== Earth's sidereal year ==== The duration of Earth's sidereal year is '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. While gravitational perturbations from neighboring planets cause this value to vary by a few seconds annually, the averaged century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given this relative stability, using a whole-number divisor of the sidereal year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system offers significant utility. Specifically, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds, meaning Earth's sidereal year—rounded to the nearest second—equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's tropical year ==== Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of seasons between successive vernal equinoxes, spans '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp shorter than the sidereal year, measuring exactly '''10,329.6 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's Great Year ==== With Earth's sidereal year (<math>P</math>) spanning 10,330 timestamps and the tropical year (<math>a_{t}</math>) spanning 10,329.6 timestamps, a full precessional cycle requires a ratio of years, <math>N</math>, where the cumulative annual difference equals exactly one year: <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> <math> \begin{aligned} N &= \frac{1\text{ Bully timestamp}}{P - a_{t}} \\ &= \frac{1}{10,330 - 10,329.6} \\ &= \frac{1}{0.4} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \end{aligned} </math> </div> Expressing this duration in terms of sidereal years yields: <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= 25,824 \, P \end{aligned} </math> </div> Alternatively, expressing the cycle in terms of tropical years yields: <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= 25,825 \, a_{t} \end{aligned} </math> </div> ==== Earth's gravity ==== :<math>g \approx \frac{c}{P}</math> Or equivalently: :<math>10^4\text{ Bully timestamps} \approx \frac{c}{g}</math> :where: :* <math>g</math> is Surface gravity :* <math>c</math> is the Speed of light :* <math>P</math> is the orbital period ==== Earth's gravity ==== Of all the planets in the cosmos, our Earth is unique in that the gravity on Earth's surface is approximately equal to the speed of light divided by one sidereal year: <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>g \approx \frac{c}{P}</math> Or equivalently: :<math>10^4\text{ Bully timestamps} \approx \frac{c}{g}</math> </div> (where <math>g</math> is surface gravity, <math>c</math> is the speed of light, and <math>P</math> is the orbital period). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> </div> ==== The Metonic cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23, 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp complete approximately three cycles per one Metonic cycle, as illustrated below: <div style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: inherit; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688; border-radius: 4px; line-height: 1.6; margin: 1em 0;"> '''July 23 New Moons:''' * July 23, 1998 — 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 — 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 — 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> * [[Bully Metric Metonic cycle|Learn More About The Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Anchoring Bully Timestamps == To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''. === The Bully Timestamp Duration === While 3,055 seconds may appear to be an arbitrary choice, the length of a single Bully timestamp is mathematically derived from solar, lunar, and deep-time orbital mechanics. {{Quote box| align = center| width = 100%| title = Bully Timestamp Duration | text = Justification: # The Sun orbits approximately one solar radius per Bully timestamp: [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics#Solar_Radius_Mnemonics| t_☉ ≈ 3,055 seconds]] # The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year: [[Bully Mnemonic |31558150 s = 10330 × 3055 s]]. # Approximate divisor of the ratio of the speed of light with g_earth: [https://www.google.com/search?q=c+%2F+g_earth+in+megaseconds c / g_earth ≈ 30.55 Ms] # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of the Earth–Moon Metonic cycle: [https://www.google.com/search?q=3+*+16%5E4+*+3055+s 1 Metonic cycle ≈ 3 × 16⁴ × 3055 s] # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of Earth's Great Year: [https://www.google.com/search?q=16%5E7+*+3055+s 1 Great Year ≈ 16⁷ × 3055 s]. # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of the galactic year: [https://www.google.com/search?q=2+*+16%5E10+*+3055+s 1 galactic year ≈ 2 × 16¹⁰ × 3055 s] }} === The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 6a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]], where the plane intersects the Galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 6a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] ==== Bullies in the Bully System ==== A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in Figure 6a: * '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign. * '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left. * '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left. As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history: {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was “sweetheart”. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, “lover”. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}} Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of "excellent" or "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. {{Quote box| align = center | width = full | title = The "Bully" Name | text = The specific "bullies" in the "Bully" timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}} === A surrogate for the Sun === As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving. The path of the node can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°): <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4c''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 6b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}'''. (Note: Figure 4c assumes an idealized travel distance of exactly 52,000 parsecs (or 2^15.666224) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps, whereas Figure 6b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs (or 2^15.666040) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center;" |+ '''Figure 6b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 3px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled in parsecs |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B32}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5058}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.100 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|820A D4AD 4AD4}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1099.86''}}}} |} {{Quote box| align = center| width = full| title = Bully Timestamp Anchor| text = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 6b).}} ==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ==== In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 6c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days. The Earth's orbital speed varies throughout the year, moving slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Consequently, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season. As shown in Figure 6c, '''winter''' was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. It took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to '''spring''' being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to '''summer'''. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over '''21,000 years'''. [[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 6c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]] Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 6c. The transition from '''spring to summer''' is correlated with a large '''green dot''' and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large '''red dot''' appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from '''summer to autumn''', and a large '''blue dot''', back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from '''winter to spring'''. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,500 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly '''26,000 years''' (1 Great Year ≈ 25,824 sidereal years ≈ 25,825 tropical years). {{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | text = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred near the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. All of the Galactic crossings shown in Figure 6c, at 4495 BCE, 1998 CE, and 8329 CE, are roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE. }} == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 7a''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in Figure 7a, these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|'''Figure 7a''': Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of Figure 7a, follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. Ideally, all of the black lines in Figure 7a could be discontinued and replaced by Bully timestamps going forward. === Why do we need Bully timestamps? === All the timestamps in '''Figure 7b''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ '''Figure 7b''': UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of Figure 7b attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of Figure 7b, breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3,055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950s, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic timekeeping (1958 AD – present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Estimation == [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 8a: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 8a'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 8b'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|'''Figure 8b''': The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in '''Figure 8c''' contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8c''': Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in '''Figure 8d''' (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8d''': Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 8d) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in '''Figure 8e''' is the same as is shown in Figure 8d, but Figure 8e plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8e''': A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in '''Figure 8f''' is similar to the table in Figure 8c, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 8c was for large z values, Figure 8f shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8f''': Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] qe2765o84gexqcjptbte3iolfu9h4yy 2832665 2832664 2026-09-10T19:15:49Z Unitfreak 695864 /* The Earth and Moon */ 2832665 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the Sun's orbit around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp occurs each time the Sun advances by roughly one solar radius along its path through the cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|upright=2.2|center|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] == One Solar Radius == The Sun hurtles around the Milky Way Galaxy at a blistering 0.076% of the speed of light ([https://arxiv.org/abs/1810.09466 229.0 ± 0.2 kilometers per second]). Yet, even at this staggering pace, it takes about five-sixths of an hour for the Sun to traverse a distance equal to its own radius. This highlights the truly colossal size of our star, which boasts a radius of 2.3206 light-seconds (695,700 kilometers). '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. During each '''3,055-second''' period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over '''2.33 light-seconds''', which is slightly more than one solar radius (<math>R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 2.33 \text{ ls} \gtrapprox R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', it is a vast, oblong, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into surrounding space. While somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, the latter is a comparatively thin layer of gas held near the planetary surface, whereas the heliosphere is a plasma constantly blasted into space by the Sun's extreme heat and energy. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is so vast that if it were truly spherical, it would take the Sun roughly 6.344 years to travel a distance equivalent to the heliosphere's diameter. The digit in the '''fifth position''' of a Bully timestamp represents this orbital distance. Figure 2 illustrates the motion of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. Timestamp 8209 ED00 0000 is defined to have occurred at exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16, 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. During each 6.344-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 306 astronomical units, which is slightly more than 65,536 solar radii (<math>16^{4}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 306 \text{ AU} \gtrapprox 16^{4}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === Naked-Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (not to scale) across 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' corresponds to approximately 383,000 B.C., while timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., representing a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a cyan dashed line marking 100 parsecs. The Sun travels a little less than this distance during each 416,000-year interval, which is tracked by the digit in the '''ninth position''' of the Bully timestamp. Because a large percentage of naked-eye stars sit within this 100-parsec radius, the appearance of Earth's night sky changes completely over this timeframe. [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of naked-eye stars binned according to brightness and distance from the Sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the Sun than 100 parsecs, which is the distance the Sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of naked-eye stars are within this 100-parsec travel distance of the Sun.]] During each 415,792-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 97 parsecs, which is slightly more than 4,294,967,296 solar radii (<math>16^{8}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 97 \text{ pc} \gtrapprox 16^{8}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> ==== The Bully Milky Way ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3b''': Division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 3b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid). Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000'''. These represent the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D., respectively, assuming a full orbital path around the Milky Way of roughly 50,000 parsecs. In the lower half of the image, cyan lines further divide a single yellow sector into 16 equal subsectors. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center in Figure 3b, corresponding to the 6 o'clock position, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle of the Sun at Bully timestamp 820A 0000 0000, estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D. The nine cyan grid lines to the right of the red line mark the Sun's polar angle for Bully timestamps 8201 0000 0000 through 8209 0000 0000. Meanwhile, the five cyan grid lines to the left of the red line indicate the polar angle for timestamps 820B 0000 0000 through 820F 0000 0000. <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,t_{\odot} \approx 212.9 \text{ million years} </math> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \sim 50,000 \text{ parsecs} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> == The Galactic Calendar == [[File:Galactic centre orbits.svg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 4a''':Inferred orbits of 6 stars around the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* at the Milky Way's center<ref name="Eisenhauer">{{cite journal|last=Eisenhauer|first=F.|display-authors=et al. |title=SINFONI in the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares in the Central Light-Month|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=July 20, 2005|volume=628|issue=1|pages=246–259|doi=10.1086/430667|bibcode=2005ApJ...628..246E|arxiv=astro-ph/0502129|s2cid=122485461 }}</ref>]] [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, labeled S2 in '''Figure 4a''', completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance from the Sun to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: &hairsp; :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \\ \end{align}</math> &hairsp; If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. ==== Idealized Galactic Weeks ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Weeks_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 4b''': Division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks of solar travel (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 4b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks (yellow grid). Each week represents 1,000 parsecs of solar travel, which in this plot is assumed to be traversed by the Sun in roughly 4.09 million years. Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000''', respectively, indicating the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D. The cyan lines in the lower half of the image further divide one sector into 10 equal subsectors of 100 parsecs each. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 4b, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun had during Bully timestamp 8209 D89D 89D8 (approximately 31,000 B.C.), which is 1,000 parsecs of travel beyond the yellow line representing timestamp 8200 0000 0000. The nine cyan lines to the left of the red line represent the polar angles of the Sun after traveling 1,100 through 1,900 parsecs beyond timestamp 8200 0000 0000. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2⁴¹ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4c''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. It outlines the specific Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved across this idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4c:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. ==== Is the Galactic Calendar Realistic? ==== [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4d:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250-million-year time period.]] The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4d). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4d''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in Figure 4c states that the galactic week beginning on timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark. ==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ==== In Figure 3a and Figure 3b, the Sun is shown to travel less than 50,000 parsecs per galactic year. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar shown in Figure 4b assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per galactic year, introducing a distinct discrepancy in both galactic scale and calculated orbital velocity. Because the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to complex gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is neither perfectly uniform nor entirely predictable. Consequently, the Sun's true orbital velocity remains a subject of ongoing discovery and refinement. The conjectured values used in Figure 3b and Figure 4b should be viewed as '''practical assumptions''' rather than a reflection of a stable, long-term physical reality; the idealized Bully Calendar is a '''conceptual model''' designed to help visualize the immense scale of the galactic orbit. The table in '''Figure 4e''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp up to 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | '''Figure 4e''': Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 100 parsecs per 16⁸ Bully timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps</small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | <small>2^18.597453 ≈ 396,635 </small> | <small>2^18.6438562 ≈ 409,600 </small> | <small>2^18.666224 ≈ 416,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | <small>2^14.597453 ≈ 24,789.7 </small> | <small>2^14.6438562 ≈ 25,600.0 </small> | <small>2^14.666224 ≈ 26,000.0 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | <small>2^10.597453 ≈ 1,549.36 </small> | <small>2^10.6438562 ≈ 1,600.00 </small> | <small>2^10.666224 ≈ 1,625.00 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁸''' | <small>2^6.597453 ≈ 96.8348 </small> | <small>2^6.6438562 ≈ 100.0000 </small> | <small>2^6.666224 ≈ 101.5625 </small> |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off-Nominal Values |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | <small>2^15.597453 ≈ 49,579 </small> | <small>2^15.6438562 ≈ 51,200 </small> | <small>2^15.666224 ≈ 52,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2²⁶''' | <small>2^0.597453 ≈ 1.513043 </small> | <small>2^0.6438562 ≈ 1.562500 </small> | <small>2^0.666224 ≈ 1.586914 </small> |} == The Earth and Moon == The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep-time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these movements in mind and incorporates a few of their unique values as identified in the '''Bully Mnemonic'''. The Bully Mnemonic is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds in Earth's [[w:Sidereal year|sidereal year]] and [[w:Tropical year|tropical year]], a good approximation of the Earth's [[w:Great Year|Great Year]], and an approximation of the Solar System's [[w:Galactic year|galactic year]]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic|Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] ==== Earth's sidereal year ==== The duration of Earth's sidereal year is '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. While gravitational perturbations from neighboring planets cause this value to vary by a few seconds annually, the averaged century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given this relative stability, using a whole-number divisor of the sidereal year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system offers significant utility. Specifically, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds, meaning Earth's sidereal year—rounded to the nearest second—equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's tropical year ==== Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of seasons between successive vernal equinoxes, spans '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp shorter than the sidereal year, measuring exactly '''10,329.6 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's Great Year ==== With Earth's sidereal year (<math>P</math>) spanning 10,330 timestamps and the tropical year (<math>a_{t}</math>) spanning 10,329.6 timestamps, a full precessional cycle requires a ratio of years, <math>N</math>, where the cumulative annual difference equals exactly one year: <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> <math> \begin{aligned} N &= \frac{1\text{ Bully timestamp}}{P - a_{t}} \\ &= \frac{1}{10,330 - 10,329.6} \\ &= \frac{1}{0.4} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \end{aligned} </math> </div> Expressing this duration in terms of sidereal years yields: <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= 25,824 \, P \end{aligned} </math> </div> Alternatively, expressing the cycle in terms of tropical years yields: <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= 25,825 \, a_{t} \end{aligned} </math> </div> ==== Earth's gravity ==== Of all the planets in the cosmos, our Earth is unique in that the gravity on Earth's surface is approximately equal to the speed of light divided by one sidereal year: <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>g \approx \frac{c}{P}</math> Or equivalently: :<math>10^4\text{ Bully timestamps} \approx \frac{c}{g}</math> </div> :where: :* <math>g</math> is Surface gravity :* <math>c</math> is the Speed of light :* <math>P</math> is the orbital period ==== The Metonic cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23, 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp complete approximately three cycles per one Metonic cycle, as illustrated below: <div style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: inherit; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688; border-radius: 4px; line-height: 1.6; margin: 1em 0;"> '''July 23 New Moons:''' * July 23, 1998 — 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 — 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 — 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> * [[Bully Metric Metonic cycle|Learn More About The Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Anchoring Bully Timestamps == To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''. === The Bully Timestamp Duration === While 3,055 seconds may appear to be an arbitrary choice, the length of a single Bully timestamp is mathematically derived from solar, lunar, and deep-time orbital mechanics. {{Quote box| align = center| width = 100%| title = Bully Timestamp Duration | text = Justification: # The Sun orbits approximately one solar radius per Bully timestamp: [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics#Solar_Radius_Mnemonics| t_☉ ≈ 3,055 seconds]] # The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year: [[Bully Mnemonic |31558150 s = 10330 × 3055 s]]. # Approximate divisor of the ratio of the speed of light with g_earth: [https://www.google.com/search?q=c+%2F+g_earth+in+megaseconds c / g_earth ≈ 30.55 Ms] # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of the Earth–Moon Metonic cycle: [https://www.google.com/search?q=3+*+16%5E4+*+3055+s 1 Metonic cycle ≈ 3 × 16⁴ × 3055 s] # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of Earth's Great Year: [https://www.google.com/search?q=16%5E7+*+3055+s 1 Great Year ≈ 16⁷ × 3055 s]. # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of the galactic year: [https://www.google.com/search?q=2+*+16%5E10+*+3055+s 1 galactic year ≈ 2 × 16¹⁰ × 3055 s] }} === The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 6a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]], where the plane intersects the Galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 6a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] ==== Bullies in the Bully System ==== A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in Figure 6a: * '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign. * '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left. * '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left. As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history: {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was “sweetheart”. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, “lover”. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}} Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of "excellent" or "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. {{Quote box| align = center | width = full | title = The "Bully" Name | text = The specific "bullies" in the "Bully" timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}} === A surrogate for the Sun === As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving. The path of the node can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°): <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4c''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 6b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}'''. (Note: Figure 4c assumes an idealized travel distance of exactly 52,000 parsecs (or 2^15.666224) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps, whereas Figure 6b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs (or 2^15.666040) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center;" |+ '''Figure 6b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 3px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled in parsecs |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B32}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5058}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.100 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|820A D4AD 4AD4}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1099.86''}}}} |} {{Quote box| align = center| width = full| title = Bully Timestamp Anchor| text = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 6b).}} ==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ==== In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 6c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days. The Earth's orbital speed varies throughout the year, moving slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Consequently, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season. As shown in Figure 6c, '''winter''' was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. It took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to '''spring''' being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to '''summer'''. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over '''21,000 years'''. [[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 6c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]] Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 6c. The transition from '''spring to summer''' is correlated with a large '''green dot''' and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large '''red dot''' appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from '''summer to autumn''', and a large '''blue dot''', back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from '''winter to spring'''. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,500 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly '''26,000 years''' (1 Great Year ≈ 25,824 sidereal years ≈ 25,825 tropical years). {{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | text = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred near the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. All of the Galactic crossings shown in Figure 6c, at 4495 BCE, 1998 CE, and 8329 CE, are roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE. }} == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 7a''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in Figure 7a, these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|'''Figure 7a''': Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of Figure 7a, follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. Ideally, all of the black lines in Figure 7a could be discontinued and replaced by Bully timestamps going forward. === Why do we need Bully timestamps? === All the timestamps in '''Figure 7b''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ '''Figure 7b''': UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of Figure 7b attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of Figure 7b, breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3,055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950s, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic timekeeping (1958 AD – present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Estimation == [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 8a: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 8a'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 8b'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|'''Figure 8b''': The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in '''Figure 8c''' contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8c''': Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in '''Figure 8d''' (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8d''': Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 8d) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in '''Figure 8e''' is the same as is shown in Figure 8d, but Figure 8e plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8e''': A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in '''Figure 8f''' is similar to the table in Figure 8c, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 8c was for large z values, Figure 8f shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8f''': Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] espqhj7t3sb3gu7wyz4k2b8f5bnbx1f 2832666 2832665 2026-09-10T19:17:31Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Earth's gravity */ 2832666 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the Sun's orbit around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp occurs each time the Sun advances by roughly one solar radius along its path through the cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|upright=2.2|center|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] == One Solar Radius == The Sun hurtles around the Milky Way Galaxy at a blistering 0.076% of the speed of light ([https://arxiv.org/abs/1810.09466 229.0 ± 0.2 kilometers per second]). Yet, even at this staggering pace, it takes about five-sixths of an hour for the Sun to traverse a distance equal to its own radius. This highlights the truly colossal size of our star, which boasts a radius of 2.3206 light-seconds (695,700 kilometers). '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. During each '''3,055-second''' period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over '''2.33 light-seconds''', which is slightly more than one solar radius (<math>R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 2.33 \text{ ls} \gtrapprox R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', it is a vast, oblong, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into surrounding space. While somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, the latter is a comparatively thin layer of gas held near the planetary surface, whereas the heliosphere is a plasma constantly blasted into space by the Sun's extreme heat and energy. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is so vast that if it were truly spherical, it would take the Sun roughly 6.344 years to travel a distance equivalent to the heliosphere's diameter. The digit in the '''fifth position''' of a Bully timestamp represents this orbital distance. Figure 2 illustrates the motion of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. Timestamp 8209 ED00 0000 is defined to have occurred at exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16, 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. During each 6.344-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 306 astronomical units, which is slightly more than 65,536 solar radii (<math>16^{4}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 306 \text{ AU} \gtrapprox 16^{4}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === Naked-Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (not to scale) across 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' corresponds to approximately 383,000 B.C., while timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., representing a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a cyan dashed line marking 100 parsecs. The Sun travels a little less than this distance during each 416,000-year interval, which is tracked by the digit in the '''ninth position''' of the Bully timestamp. Because a large percentage of naked-eye stars sit within this 100-parsec radius, the appearance of Earth's night sky changes completely over this timeframe. [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of naked-eye stars binned according to brightness and distance from the Sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the Sun than 100 parsecs, which is the distance the Sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of naked-eye stars are within this 100-parsec travel distance of the Sun.]] During each 415,792-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 97 parsecs, which is slightly more than 4,294,967,296 solar radii (<math>16^{8}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 97 \text{ pc} \gtrapprox 16^{8}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> ==== The Bully Milky Way ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3b''': Division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 3b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid). Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000'''. These represent the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D., respectively, assuming a full orbital path around the Milky Way of roughly 50,000 parsecs. In the lower half of the image, cyan lines further divide a single yellow sector into 16 equal subsectors. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center in Figure 3b, corresponding to the 6 o'clock position, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle of the Sun at Bully timestamp 820A 0000 0000, estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D. The nine cyan grid lines to the right of the red line mark the Sun's polar angle for Bully timestamps 8201 0000 0000 through 8209 0000 0000. Meanwhile, the five cyan grid lines to the left of the red line indicate the polar angle for timestamps 820B 0000 0000 through 820F 0000 0000. <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,t_{\odot} \approx 212.9 \text{ million years} </math> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \sim 50,000 \text{ parsecs} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> == The Galactic Calendar == [[File:Galactic centre orbits.svg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 4a''':Inferred orbits of 6 stars around the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* at the Milky Way's center<ref name="Eisenhauer">{{cite journal|last=Eisenhauer|first=F.|display-authors=et al. |title=SINFONI in the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares in the Central Light-Month|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=July 20, 2005|volume=628|issue=1|pages=246–259|doi=10.1086/430667|bibcode=2005ApJ...628..246E|arxiv=astro-ph/0502129|s2cid=122485461 }}</ref>]] [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, labeled S2 in '''Figure 4a''', completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance from the Sun to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: &hairsp; :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \\ \end{align}</math> &hairsp; If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. ==== Idealized Galactic Weeks ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Weeks_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 4b''': Division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks of solar travel (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 4b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks (yellow grid). Each week represents 1,000 parsecs of solar travel, which in this plot is assumed to be traversed by the Sun in roughly 4.09 million years. Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000''', respectively, indicating the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D. The cyan lines in the lower half of the image further divide one sector into 10 equal subsectors of 100 parsecs each. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 4b, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun had during Bully timestamp 8209 D89D 89D8 (approximately 31,000 B.C.), which is 1,000 parsecs of travel beyond the yellow line representing timestamp 8200 0000 0000. The nine cyan lines to the left of the red line represent the polar angles of the Sun after traveling 1,100 through 1,900 parsecs beyond timestamp 8200 0000 0000. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2⁴¹ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4c''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. It outlines the specific Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved across this idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4c:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. ==== Is the Galactic Calendar Realistic? ==== [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4d:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250-million-year time period.]] The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4d). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4d''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in Figure 4c states that the galactic week beginning on timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark. ==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ==== In Figure 3a and Figure 3b, the Sun is shown to travel less than 50,000 parsecs per galactic year. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar shown in Figure 4b assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per galactic year, introducing a distinct discrepancy in both galactic scale and calculated orbital velocity. Because the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to complex gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is neither perfectly uniform nor entirely predictable. Consequently, the Sun's true orbital velocity remains a subject of ongoing discovery and refinement. The conjectured values used in Figure 3b and Figure 4b should be viewed as '''practical assumptions''' rather than a reflection of a stable, long-term physical reality; the idealized Bully Calendar is a '''conceptual model''' designed to help visualize the immense scale of the galactic orbit. The table in '''Figure 4e''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp up to 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | '''Figure 4e''': Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 100 parsecs per 16⁸ Bully timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps</small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | <small>2^18.597453 ≈ 396,635 </small> | <small>2^18.6438562 ≈ 409,600 </small> | <small>2^18.666224 ≈ 416,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | <small>2^14.597453 ≈ 24,789.7 </small> | <small>2^14.6438562 ≈ 25,600.0 </small> | <small>2^14.666224 ≈ 26,000.0 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | <small>2^10.597453 ≈ 1,549.36 </small> | <small>2^10.6438562 ≈ 1,600.00 </small> | <small>2^10.666224 ≈ 1,625.00 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁸''' | <small>2^6.597453 ≈ 96.8348 </small> | <small>2^6.6438562 ≈ 100.0000 </small> | <small>2^6.666224 ≈ 101.5625 </small> |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off-Nominal Values |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | <small>2^15.597453 ≈ 49,579 </small> | <small>2^15.6438562 ≈ 51,200 </small> | <small>2^15.666224 ≈ 52,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2²⁶''' | <small>2^0.597453 ≈ 1.513043 </small> | <small>2^0.6438562 ≈ 1.562500 </small> | <small>2^0.666224 ≈ 1.586914 </small> |} == The Earth and Moon == The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep-time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these movements in mind and incorporates a few of their unique values as identified in the '''Bully Mnemonic'''. The Bully Mnemonic is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds in Earth's [[w:Sidereal year|sidereal year]] and [[w:Tropical year|tropical year]], a good approximation of the Earth's [[w:Great Year|Great Year]], and an approximation of the Solar System's [[w:Galactic year|galactic year]]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic|Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] ==== Earth's sidereal year ==== The duration of Earth's sidereal year is '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. While gravitational perturbations from neighboring planets cause this value to vary by a few seconds annually, the averaged century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given this relative stability, using a whole-number divisor of the sidereal year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system offers significant utility. Specifically, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds, meaning Earth's sidereal year—rounded to the nearest second—equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's tropical year ==== Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of seasons between successive vernal equinoxes, spans '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp shorter than the sidereal year, measuring exactly '''10,329.6 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's Great Year ==== With Earth's sidereal year (<math>P</math>) spanning 10,330 timestamps and the tropical year (<math>a_{t}</math>) spanning 10,329.6 timestamps, a full precessional cycle requires a ratio of years, <math>N</math>, where the cumulative annual difference equals exactly one year: <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> <math> \begin{aligned} N &= \frac{1\text{ Bully timestamp}}{P - a_{t}} \\ &= \frac{1}{10,330 - 10,329.6} \\ &= \frac{1}{0.4} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \end{aligned} </math> </div> Expressing this duration in terms of sidereal years yields: <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= 25,824 \, P \end{aligned} </math> </div> Alternatively, expressing the cycle in terms of tropical years yields: <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= 25,825 \, a_{t} \end{aligned} </math> </div> ==== Earth's gravity ==== Of all the planets in the cosmos, our Earth is unique in that the gravity on Earth's surface is approximately equal to the speed of light divided by one sidereal year: <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>g \approx \frac{c}{P}</math> </div> Or equivalently: <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>10^4\text{ Bully timestamps} \approx \frac{c}{g}</math> </div> :where: :* <math>g</math> is Surface gravity :* <math>c</math> is the Speed of light :* <math>P</math> is the orbital period ==== The Metonic cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23, 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp complete approximately three cycles per one Metonic cycle, as illustrated below: <div style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: inherit; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688; border-radius: 4px; line-height: 1.6; margin: 1em 0;"> '''July 23 New Moons:''' * July 23, 1998 — 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 — 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 — 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> * [[Bully Metric Metonic cycle|Learn More About The Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Anchoring Bully Timestamps == To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''. === The Bully Timestamp Duration === While 3,055 seconds may appear to be an arbitrary choice, the length of a single Bully timestamp is mathematically derived from solar, lunar, and deep-time orbital mechanics. {{Quote box| align = center| width = 100%| title = Bully Timestamp Duration | text = Justification: # The Sun orbits approximately one solar radius per Bully timestamp: [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics#Solar_Radius_Mnemonics| t_☉ ≈ 3,055 seconds]] # The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year: [[Bully Mnemonic |31558150 s = 10330 × 3055 s]]. # Approximate divisor of the ratio of the speed of light with g_earth: [https://www.google.com/search?q=c+%2F+g_earth+in+megaseconds c / g_earth ≈ 30.55 Ms] # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of the Earth–Moon Metonic cycle: [https://www.google.com/search?q=3+*+16%5E4+*+3055+s 1 Metonic cycle ≈ 3 × 16⁴ × 3055 s] # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of Earth's Great Year: [https://www.google.com/search?q=16%5E7+*+3055+s 1 Great Year ≈ 16⁷ × 3055 s]. # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of the galactic year: [https://www.google.com/search?q=2+*+16%5E10+*+3055+s 1 galactic year ≈ 2 × 16¹⁰ × 3055 s] }} === The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 6a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]], where the plane intersects the Galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 6a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] ==== Bullies in the Bully System ==== A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in Figure 6a: * '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign. * '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left. * '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left. As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history: {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was “sweetheart”. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, “lover”. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}} Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of "excellent" or "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. {{Quote box| align = center | width = full | title = The "Bully" Name | text = The specific "bullies" in the "Bully" timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}} === A surrogate for the Sun === As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving. The path of the node can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°): <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4c''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 6b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}'''. (Note: Figure 4c assumes an idealized travel distance of exactly 52,000 parsecs (or 2^15.666224) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps, whereas Figure 6b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs (or 2^15.666040) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center;" |+ '''Figure 6b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 3px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled in parsecs |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B32}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5058}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.100 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|820A D4AD 4AD4}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1099.86''}}}} |} {{Quote box| align = center| width = full| title = Bully Timestamp Anchor| text = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 6b).}} ==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ==== In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 6c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days. The Earth's orbital speed varies throughout the year, moving slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Consequently, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season. As shown in Figure 6c, '''winter''' was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. It took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to '''spring''' being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to '''summer'''. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over '''21,000 years'''. [[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 6c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]] Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 6c. The transition from '''spring to summer''' is correlated with a large '''green dot''' and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large '''red dot''' appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from '''summer to autumn''', and a large '''blue dot''', back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from '''winter to spring'''. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,500 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly '''26,000 years''' (1 Great Year ≈ 25,824 sidereal years ≈ 25,825 tropical years). {{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | text = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred near the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. All of the Galactic crossings shown in Figure 6c, at 4495 BCE, 1998 CE, and 8329 CE, are roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE. }} == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 7a''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in Figure 7a, these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|'''Figure 7a''': Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of Figure 7a, follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. Ideally, all of the black lines in Figure 7a could be discontinued and replaced by Bully timestamps going forward. === Why do we need Bully timestamps? === All the timestamps in '''Figure 7b''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ '''Figure 7b''': UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of Figure 7b attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of Figure 7b, breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3,055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950s, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic timekeeping (1958 AD – present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Estimation == [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 8a: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 8a'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 8b'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|'''Figure 8b''': The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in '''Figure 8c''' contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8c''': Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in '''Figure 8d''' (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8d''': Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 8d) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in '''Figure 8e''' is the same as is shown in Figure 8d, but Figure 8e plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8e''': A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in '''Figure 8f''' is similar to the table in Figure 8c, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 8c was for large z values, Figure 8f shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8f''': Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] st4drmu632w4ad67ac53ttkqhtyo988 2832667 2832666 2026-09-10T19:18:14Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Earth's gravity */ 2832667 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the Sun's orbit around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp occurs each time the Sun advances by roughly one solar radius along its path through the cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|upright=2.2|center|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] == One Solar Radius == The Sun hurtles around the Milky Way Galaxy at a blistering 0.076% of the speed of light ([https://arxiv.org/abs/1810.09466 229.0 ± 0.2 kilometers per second]). Yet, even at this staggering pace, it takes about five-sixths of an hour for the Sun to traverse a distance equal to its own radius. This highlights the truly colossal size of our star, which boasts a radius of 2.3206 light-seconds (695,700 kilometers). '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. During each '''3,055-second''' period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over '''2.33 light-seconds''', which is slightly more than one solar radius (<math>R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 2.33 \text{ ls} \gtrapprox R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', it is a vast, oblong, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into surrounding space. While somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, the latter is a comparatively thin layer of gas held near the planetary surface, whereas the heliosphere is a plasma constantly blasted into space by the Sun's extreme heat and energy. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is so vast that if it were truly spherical, it would take the Sun roughly 6.344 years to travel a distance equivalent to the heliosphere's diameter. The digit in the '''fifth position''' of a Bully timestamp represents this orbital distance. Figure 2 illustrates the motion of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. Timestamp 8209 ED00 0000 is defined to have occurred at exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16, 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. During each 6.344-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 306 astronomical units, which is slightly more than 65,536 solar radii (<math>16^{4}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 306 \text{ AU} \gtrapprox 16^{4}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === Naked-Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (not to scale) across 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' corresponds to approximately 383,000 B.C., while timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., representing a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a cyan dashed line marking 100 parsecs. The Sun travels a little less than this distance during each 416,000-year interval, which is tracked by the digit in the '''ninth position''' of the Bully timestamp. Because a large percentage of naked-eye stars sit within this 100-parsec radius, the appearance of Earth's night sky changes completely over this timeframe. [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of naked-eye stars binned according to brightness and distance from the Sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the Sun than 100 parsecs, which is the distance the Sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of naked-eye stars are within this 100-parsec travel distance of the Sun.]] During each 415,792-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 97 parsecs, which is slightly more than 4,294,967,296 solar radii (<math>16^{8}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 97 \text{ pc} \gtrapprox 16^{8}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> ==== The Bully Milky Way ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3b''': Division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 3b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid). Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000'''. These represent the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D., respectively, assuming a full orbital path around the Milky Way of roughly 50,000 parsecs. In the lower half of the image, cyan lines further divide a single yellow sector into 16 equal subsectors. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center in Figure 3b, corresponding to the 6 o'clock position, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle of the Sun at Bully timestamp 820A 0000 0000, estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D. The nine cyan grid lines to the right of the red line mark the Sun's polar angle for Bully timestamps 8201 0000 0000 through 8209 0000 0000. Meanwhile, the five cyan grid lines to the left of the red line indicate the polar angle for timestamps 820B 0000 0000 through 820F 0000 0000. <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,t_{\odot} \approx 212.9 \text{ million years} </math> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \sim 50,000 \text{ parsecs} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> == The Galactic Calendar == [[File:Galactic centre orbits.svg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 4a''':Inferred orbits of 6 stars around the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* at the Milky Way's center<ref name="Eisenhauer">{{cite journal|last=Eisenhauer|first=F.|display-authors=et al. |title=SINFONI in the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares in the Central Light-Month|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=July 20, 2005|volume=628|issue=1|pages=246–259|doi=10.1086/430667|bibcode=2005ApJ...628..246E|arxiv=astro-ph/0502129|s2cid=122485461 }}</ref>]] [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, labeled S2 in '''Figure 4a''', completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance from the Sun to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: &hairsp; :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \\ \end{align}</math> &hairsp; If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. ==== Idealized Galactic Weeks ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Weeks_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 4b''': Division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks of solar travel (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 4b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks (yellow grid). Each week represents 1,000 parsecs of solar travel, which in this plot is assumed to be traversed by the Sun in roughly 4.09 million years. Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000''', respectively, indicating the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D. The cyan lines in the lower half of the image further divide one sector into 10 equal subsectors of 100 parsecs each. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 4b, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun had during Bully timestamp 8209 D89D 89D8 (approximately 31,000 B.C.), which is 1,000 parsecs of travel beyond the yellow line representing timestamp 8200 0000 0000. The nine cyan lines to the left of the red line represent the polar angles of the Sun after traveling 1,100 through 1,900 parsecs beyond timestamp 8200 0000 0000. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2⁴¹ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4c''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. It outlines the specific Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved across this idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4c:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. ==== Is the Galactic Calendar Realistic? ==== [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4d:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250-million-year time period.]] The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4d). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4d''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in Figure 4c states that the galactic week beginning on timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark. ==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ==== In Figure 3a and Figure 3b, the Sun is shown to travel less than 50,000 parsecs per galactic year. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar shown in Figure 4b assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per galactic year, introducing a distinct discrepancy in both galactic scale and calculated orbital velocity. Because the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to complex gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is neither perfectly uniform nor entirely predictable. Consequently, the Sun's true orbital velocity remains a subject of ongoing discovery and refinement. The conjectured values used in Figure 3b and Figure 4b should be viewed as '''practical assumptions''' rather than a reflection of a stable, long-term physical reality; the idealized Bully Calendar is a '''conceptual model''' designed to help visualize the immense scale of the galactic orbit. The table in '''Figure 4e''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp up to 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | '''Figure 4e''': Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 100 parsecs per 16⁸ Bully timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps</small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | <small>2^18.597453 ≈ 396,635 </small> | <small>2^18.6438562 ≈ 409,600 </small> | <small>2^18.666224 ≈ 416,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | <small>2^14.597453 ≈ 24,789.7 </small> | <small>2^14.6438562 ≈ 25,600.0 </small> | <small>2^14.666224 ≈ 26,000.0 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | <small>2^10.597453 ≈ 1,549.36 </small> | <small>2^10.6438562 ≈ 1,600.00 </small> | <small>2^10.666224 ≈ 1,625.00 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁸''' | <small>2^6.597453 ≈ 96.8348 </small> | <small>2^6.6438562 ≈ 100.0000 </small> | <small>2^6.666224 ≈ 101.5625 </small> |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off-Nominal Values |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | <small>2^15.597453 ≈ 49,579 </small> | <small>2^15.6438562 ≈ 51,200 </small> | <small>2^15.666224 ≈ 52,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2²⁶''' | <small>2^0.597453 ≈ 1.513043 </small> | <small>2^0.6438562 ≈ 1.562500 </small> | <small>2^0.666224 ≈ 1.586914 </small> |} == The Earth and Moon == The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep-time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these movements in mind and incorporates a few of their unique values as identified in the '''Bully Mnemonic'''. The Bully Mnemonic is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds in Earth's [[w:Sidereal year|sidereal year]] and [[w:Tropical year|tropical year]], a good approximation of the Earth's [[w:Great Year|Great Year]], and an approximation of the Solar System's [[w:Galactic year|galactic year]]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic|Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] ==== Earth's sidereal year ==== The duration of Earth's sidereal year is '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. While gravitational perturbations from neighboring planets cause this value to vary by a few seconds annually, the averaged century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given this relative stability, using a whole-number divisor of the sidereal year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system offers significant utility. Specifically, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds, meaning Earth's sidereal year—rounded to the nearest second—equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's tropical year ==== Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of seasons between successive vernal equinoxes, spans '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp shorter than the sidereal year, measuring exactly '''10,329.6 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's Great Year ==== With Earth's sidereal year (<math>P</math>) spanning 10,330 timestamps and the tropical year (<math>a_{t}</math>) spanning 10,329.6 timestamps, a full precessional cycle requires a ratio of years, <math>N</math>, where the cumulative annual difference equals exactly one year: <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> <math> \begin{aligned} N &= \frac{1\text{ Bully timestamp}}{P - a_{t}} \\ &= \frac{1}{10,330 - 10,329.6} \\ &= \frac{1}{0.4} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \end{aligned} </math> </div> Expressing this duration in terms of sidereal years yields: <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= 25,824 \, P \end{aligned} </math> </div> Alternatively, expressing the cycle in terms of tropical years yields: <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= 25,825 \, a_{t} \end{aligned} </math> </div> ==== Earth's gravity ==== Of all the planets in the cosmos, our Earth is unique in that the gravity on Earth's surface is approximately equal to the speed of light divided by one sidereal year: <div style="margin-top: 1em;margin-bottom: 1em; "> :<math>g \approx \frac{c}{P}</math> </div> Or equivalently: <div style="margin-top: 1em;margin-bottom: 1em; "> :<math>10^4\text{ Bully timestamps} \approx \frac{c}{g}</math> </div> :where: :* <math>g</math> is Surface gravity :* <math>c</math> is the Speed of light :* <math>P</math> is the orbital period ==== The Metonic cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23, 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp complete approximately three cycles per one Metonic cycle, as illustrated below: <div style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: inherit; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688; border-radius: 4px; line-height: 1.6; margin: 1em 0;"> '''July 23 New Moons:''' * July 23, 1998 — 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 — 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 — 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> * [[Bully Metric Metonic cycle|Learn More About The Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Anchoring Bully Timestamps == To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''. === The Bully Timestamp Duration === While 3,055 seconds may appear to be an arbitrary choice, the length of a single Bully timestamp is mathematically derived from solar, lunar, and deep-time orbital mechanics. {{Quote box| align = center| width = 100%| title = Bully Timestamp Duration | text = Justification: # The Sun orbits approximately one solar radius per Bully timestamp: [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics#Solar_Radius_Mnemonics| t_☉ ≈ 3,055 seconds]] # The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year: [[Bully Mnemonic |31558150 s = 10330 × 3055 s]]. # Approximate divisor of the ratio of the speed of light with g_earth: [https://www.google.com/search?q=c+%2F+g_earth+in+megaseconds c / g_earth ≈ 30.55 Ms] # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of the Earth–Moon Metonic cycle: [https://www.google.com/search?q=3+*+16%5E4+*+3055+s 1 Metonic cycle ≈ 3 × 16⁴ × 3055 s] # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of Earth's Great Year: [https://www.google.com/search?q=16%5E7+*+3055+s 1 Great Year ≈ 16⁷ × 3055 s]. # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of the galactic year: [https://www.google.com/search?q=2+*+16%5E10+*+3055+s 1 galactic year ≈ 2 × 16¹⁰ × 3055 s] }} === The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 6a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]], where the plane intersects the Galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 6a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] ==== Bullies in the Bully System ==== A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in Figure 6a: * '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign. * '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left. * '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left. As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history: {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was “sweetheart”. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, “lover”. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}} Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of "excellent" or "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. {{Quote box| align = center | width = full | title = The "Bully" Name | text = The specific "bullies" in the "Bully" timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}} === A surrogate for the Sun === As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving. The path of the node can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°): <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4c''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 6b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}'''. (Note: Figure 4c assumes an idealized travel distance of exactly 52,000 parsecs (or 2^15.666224) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps, whereas Figure 6b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs (or 2^15.666040) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center;" |+ '''Figure 6b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 3px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled in parsecs |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B32}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5058}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.100 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|820A D4AD 4AD4}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1099.86''}}}} |} {{Quote box| align = center| width = full| title = Bully Timestamp Anchor| text = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 6b).}} ==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ==== In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 6c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days. The Earth's orbital speed varies throughout the year, moving slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Consequently, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season. As shown in Figure 6c, '''winter''' was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. It took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to '''spring''' being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to '''summer'''. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over '''21,000 years'''. [[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 6c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]] Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 6c. The transition from '''spring to summer''' is correlated with a large '''green dot''' and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large '''red dot''' appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from '''summer to autumn''', and a large '''blue dot''', back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from '''winter to spring'''. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,500 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly '''26,000 years''' (1 Great Year ≈ 25,824 sidereal years ≈ 25,825 tropical years). {{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | text = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred near the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. All of the Galactic crossings shown in Figure 6c, at 4495 BCE, 1998 CE, and 8329 CE, are roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE. }} == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 7a''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in Figure 7a, these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|'''Figure 7a''': Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of Figure 7a, follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. Ideally, all of the black lines in Figure 7a could be discontinued and replaced by Bully timestamps going forward. === Why do we need Bully timestamps? === All the timestamps in '''Figure 7b''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ '''Figure 7b''': UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of Figure 7b attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of Figure 7b, breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3,055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950s, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic timekeeping (1958 AD – present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Estimation == [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 8a: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 8a'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 8b'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|'''Figure 8b''': The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in '''Figure 8c''' contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8c''': Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in '''Figure 8d''' (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8d''': Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 8d) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in '''Figure 8e''' is the same as is shown in Figure 8d, but Figure 8e plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8e''': A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in '''Figure 8f''' is similar to the table in Figure 8c, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 8c was for large z values, Figure 8f shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8f''': Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] 0akr1al63n08tev5ifiaijnwjkty8zn 2832668 2832667 2026-09-10T19:22:30Z Unitfreak 695864 /* The Bully Timestamp Duration */ 2832668 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the Sun's orbit around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp occurs each time the Sun advances by roughly one solar radius along its path through the cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|upright=2.2|center|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] == One Solar Radius == The Sun hurtles around the Milky Way Galaxy at a blistering 0.076% of the speed of light ([https://arxiv.org/abs/1810.09466 229.0 ± 0.2 kilometers per second]). Yet, even at this staggering pace, it takes about five-sixths of an hour for the Sun to traverse a distance equal to its own radius. This highlights the truly colossal size of our star, which boasts a radius of 2.3206 light-seconds (695,700 kilometers). '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. During each '''3,055-second''' period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over '''2.33 light-seconds''', which is slightly more than one solar radius (<math>R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 2.33 \text{ ls} \gtrapprox R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', it is a vast, oblong, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into surrounding space. While somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, the latter is a comparatively thin layer of gas held near the planetary surface, whereas the heliosphere is a plasma constantly blasted into space by the Sun's extreme heat and energy. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is so vast that if it were truly spherical, it would take the Sun roughly 6.344 years to travel a distance equivalent to the heliosphere's diameter. The digit in the '''fifth position''' of a Bully timestamp represents this orbital distance. Figure 2 illustrates the motion of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. Timestamp 8209 ED00 0000 is defined to have occurred at exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16, 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. During each 6.344-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 306 astronomical units, which is slightly more than 65,536 solar radii (<math>16^{4}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 306 \text{ AU} \gtrapprox 16^{4}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === Naked-Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (not to scale) across 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' corresponds to approximately 383,000 B.C., while timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., representing a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a cyan dashed line marking 100 parsecs. The Sun travels a little less than this distance during each 416,000-year interval, which is tracked by the digit in the '''ninth position''' of the Bully timestamp. Because a large percentage of naked-eye stars sit within this 100-parsec radius, the appearance of Earth's night sky changes completely over this timeframe. [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of naked-eye stars binned according to brightness and distance from the Sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the Sun than 100 parsecs, which is the distance the Sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of naked-eye stars are within this 100-parsec travel distance of the Sun.]] During each 415,792-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 97 parsecs, which is slightly more than 4,294,967,296 solar radii (<math>16^{8}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 97 \text{ pc} \gtrapprox 16^{8}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> ==== The Bully Milky Way ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3b''': Division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 3b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid). Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000'''. These represent the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D., respectively, assuming a full orbital path around the Milky Way of roughly 50,000 parsecs. In the lower half of the image, cyan lines further divide a single yellow sector into 16 equal subsectors. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center in Figure 3b, corresponding to the 6 o'clock position, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle of the Sun at Bully timestamp 820A 0000 0000, estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D. The nine cyan grid lines to the right of the red line mark the Sun's polar angle for Bully timestamps 8201 0000 0000 through 8209 0000 0000. Meanwhile, the five cyan grid lines to the left of the red line indicate the polar angle for timestamps 820B 0000 0000 through 820F 0000 0000. <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,t_{\odot} \approx 212.9 \text{ million years} </math> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \sim 50,000 \text{ parsecs} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> == The Galactic Calendar == [[File:Galactic centre orbits.svg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 4a''':Inferred orbits of 6 stars around the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* at the Milky Way's center<ref name="Eisenhauer">{{cite journal|last=Eisenhauer|first=F.|display-authors=et al. |title=SINFONI in the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares in the Central Light-Month|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=July 20, 2005|volume=628|issue=1|pages=246–259|doi=10.1086/430667|bibcode=2005ApJ...628..246E|arxiv=astro-ph/0502129|s2cid=122485461 }}</ref>]] [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, labeled S2 in '''Figure 4a''', completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance from the Sun to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: &hairsp; :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \\ \end{align}</math> &hairsp; If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. ==== Idealized Galactic Weeks ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Weeks_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 4b''': Division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks of solar travel (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 4b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks (yellow grid). Each week represents 1,000 parsecs of solar travel, which in this plot is assumed to be traversed by the Sun in roughly 4.09 million years. Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000''', respectively, indicating the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D. The cyan lines in the lower half of the image further divide one sector into 10 equal subsectors of 100 parsecs each. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 4b, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun had during Bully timestamp 8209 D89D 89D8 (approximately 31,000 B.C.), which is 1,000 parsecs of travel beyond the yellow line representing timestamp 8200 0000 0000. The nine cyan lines to the left of the red line represent the polar angles of the Sun after traveling 1,100 through 1,900 parsecs beyond timestamp 8200 0000 0000. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2⁴¹ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4c''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. It outlines the specific Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved across this idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4c:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. ==== Is the Galactic Calendar Realistic? ==== [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4d:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250-million-year time period.]] The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4d). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4d''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in Figure 4c states that the galactic week beginning on timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark. ==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ==== In Figure 3a and Figure 3b, the Sun is shown to travel less than 50,000 parsecs per galactic year. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar shown in Figure 4b assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per galactic year, introducing a distinct discrepancy in both galactic scale and calculated orbital velocity. Because the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to complex gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is neither perfectly uniform nor entirely predictable. Consequently, the Sun's true orbital velocity remains a subject of ongoing discovery and refinement. The conjectured values used in Figure 3b and Figure 4b should be viewed as '''practical assumptions''' rather than a reflection of a stable, long-term physical reality; the idealized Bully Calendar is a '''conceptual model''' designed to help visualize the immense scale of the galactic orbit. The table in '''Figure 4e''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp up to 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | '''Figure 4e''': Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 100 parsecs per 16⁸ Bully timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps</small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | <small>2^18.597453 ≈ 396,635 </small> | <small>2^18.6438562 ≈ 409,600 </small> | <small>2^18.666224 ≈ 416,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | <small>2^14.597453 ≈ 24,789.7 </small> | <small>2^14.6438562 ≈ 25,600.0 </small> | <small>2^14.666224 ≈ 26,000.0 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | <small>2^10.597453 ≈ 1,549.36 </small> | <small>2^10.6438562 ≈ 1,600.00 </small> | <small>2^10.666224 ≈ 1,625.00 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁸''' | <small>2^6.597453 ≈ 96.8348 </small> | <small>2^6.6438562 ≈ 100.0000 </small> | <small>2^6.666224 ≈ 101.5625 </small> |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off-Nominal Values |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | <small>2^15.597453 ≈ 49,579 </small> | <small>2^15.6438562 ≈ 51,200 </small> | <small>2^15.666224 ≈ 52,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2²⁶''' | <small>2^0.597453 ≈ 1.513043 </small> | <small>2^0.6438562 ≈ 1.562500 </small> | <small>2^0.666224 ≈ 1.586914 </small> |} == The Earth and Moon == The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep-time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these movements in mind and incorporates a few of their unique values as identified in the '''Bully Mnemonic'''. The Bully Mnemonic is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds in Earth's [[w:Sidereal year|sidereal year]] and [[w:Tropical year|tropical year]], a good approximation of the Earth's [[w:Great Year|Great Year]], and an approximation of the Solar System's [[w:Galactic year|galactic year]]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic|Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] ==== Earth's sidereal year ==== The duration of Earth's sidereal year is '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. While gravitational perturbations from neighboring planets cause this value to vary by a few seconds annually, the averaged century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given this relative stability, using a whole-number divisor of the sidereal year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system offers significant utility. Specifically, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds, meaning Earth's sidereal year—rounded to the nearest second—equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's tropical year ==== Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of seasons between successive vernal equinoxes, spans '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp shorter than the sidereal year, measuring exactly '''10,329.6 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's Great Year ==== With Earth's sidereal year (<math>P</math>) spanning 10,330 timestamps and the tropical year (<math>a_{t}</math>) spanning 10,329.6 timestamps, a full precessional cycle requires a ratio of years, <math>N</math>, where the cumulative annual difference equals exactly one year: <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> <math> \begin{aligned} N &= \frac{1\text{ Bully timestamp}}{P - a_{t}} \\ &= \frac{1}{10,330 - 10,329.6} \\ &= \frac{1}{0.4} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \end{aligned} </math> </div> Expressing this duration in terms of sidereal years yields: <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= 25,824 \, P \end{aligned} </math> </div> Alternatively, expressing the cycle in terms of tropical years yields: <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= 25,825 \, a_{t} \end{aligned} </math> </div> ==== Earth's gravity ==== Of all the planets in the cosmos, our Earth is unique in that the gravity on Earth's surface is approximately equal to the speed of light divided by one sidereal year: <div style="margin-top: 1em;margin-bottom: 1em; "> :<math>g \approx \frac{c}{P}</math> </div> Or equivalently: <div style="margin-top: 1em;margin-bottom: 1em; "> :<math>10^4\text{ Bully timestamps} \approx \frac{c}{g}</math> </div> :where: :* <math>g</math> is Surface gravity :* <math>c</math> is the Speed of light :* <math>P</math> is the orbital period ==== The Metonic cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23, 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp complete approximately three cycles per one Metonic cycle, as illustrated below: <div style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: inherit; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688; border-radius: 4px; line-height: 1.6; margin: 1em 0;"> '''July 23 New Moons:''' * July 23, 1998 — 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 — 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 — 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> * [[Bully Metric Metonic cycle|Learn More About The Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Anchoring Bully Timestamps == To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''. === The Bully Timestamp Duration === While 3,055 seconds may appear to be an arbitrary choice, the length of a single Bully timestamp is mathematically derived from solar, lunar, and deep-time orbital mechanics. {{Quote box| align = center| width = 100%| title = Bully Timestamp Duration | text = Justification: # The Sun orbits approximately one solar radius per Bully timestamp: [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics#Solar_Radius_Mnemonics| t_☉ ≈ 3,055 seconds]] # The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year: [[Bully Mnemonic |31558150 s = 10330 × 3055 s]]. # Approximate divisor of the ratio of the speed of light with g_earth: [https://www.google.com/search?q=c+%2F+g_earth+in+megaseconds c / g_earth ≈ 10⁴ × 3055 s] # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of the Earth–Moon Metonic cycle: [https://www.google.com/search?q=3+*+16%5E4+*+3055+s 1 Metonic cycle ≈ 3 × 16⁴ × 3055 s] # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of Earth's Great Year: [https://www.google.com/search?q=16%5E7+*+3055+s 1 Great Year ≈ 16⁷ × 3055 s]. # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of the galactic year: [https://www.google.com/search?q=2+*+16%5E10+*+3055+s 1 galactic year ≈ 2 × 16¹⁰ × 3055 s] }} === The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 6a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]], where the plane intersects the Galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 6a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] ==== Bullies in the Bully System ==== A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in Figure 6a: * '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign. * '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left. * '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left. As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history: {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was “sweetheart”. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, “lover”. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}} Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of "excellent" or "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. {{Quote box| align = center | width = full | title = The "Bully" Name | text = The specific "bullies" in the "Bully" timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}} === A surrogate for the Sun === As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving. The path of the node can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°): <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4c''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 6b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}'''. (Note: Figure 4c assumes an idealized travel distance of exactly 52,000 parsecs (or 2^15.666224) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps, whereas Figure 6b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs (or 2^15.666040) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center;" |+ '''Figure 6b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 3px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled in parsecs |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B32}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5058}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.100 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|820A D4AD 4AD4}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1099.86''}}}} |} {{Quote box| align = center| width = full| title = Bully Timestamp Anchor| text = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 6b).}} ==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ==== In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 6c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days. The Earth's orbital speed varies throughout the year, moving slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Consequently, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season. As shown in Figure 6c, '''winter''' was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. It took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to '''spring''' being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to '''summer'''. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over '''21,000 years'''. [[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 6c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]] Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 6c. The transition from '''spring to summer''' is correlated with a large '''green dot''' and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large '''red dot''' appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from '''summer to autumn''', and a large '''blue dot''', back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from '''winter to spring'''. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,500 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly '''26,000 years''' (1 Great Year ≈ 25,824 sidereal years ≈ 25,825 tropical years). {{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | text = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred near the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. All of the Galactic crossings shown in Figure 6c, at 4495 BCE, 1998 CE, and 8329 CE, are roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE. }} == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 7a''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in Figure 7a, these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|'''Figure 7a''': Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of Figure 7a, follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. Ideally, all of the black lines in Figure 7a could be discontinued and replaced by Bully timestamps going forward. === Why do we need Bully timestamps? === All the timestamps in '''Figure 7b''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ '''Figure 7b''': UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of Figure 7b attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of Figure 7b, breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3,055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950s, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic timekeeping (1958 AD – present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Estimation == [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 8a: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 8a'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 8b'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|'''Figure 8b''': The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in '''Figure 8c''' contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8c''': Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in '''Figure 8d''' (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8d''': Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 8d) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in '''Figure 8e''' is the same as is shown in Figure 8d, but Figure 8e plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8e''': A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in '''Figure 8f''' is similar to the table in Figure 8c, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 8c was for large z values, Figure 8f shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8f''': Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] bfam91fs7glvpcdmlc8kijvfxjb80qj 2832670 2832668 2026-09-10T19:23:05Z Unitfreak 695864 /* The Bully Timestamp Duration */ 2832670 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the Sun's orbit around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp occurs each time the Sun advances by roughly one solar radius along its path through the cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|upright=2.2|center|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] == One Solar Radius == The Sun hurtles around the Milky Way Galaxy at a blistering 0.076% of the speed of light ([https://arxiv.org/abs/1810.09466 229.0 ± 0.2 kilometers per second]). Yet, even at this staggering pace, it takes about five-sixths of an hour for the Sun to traverse a distance equal to its own radius. This highlights the truly colossal size of our star, which boasts a radius of 2.3206 light-seconds (695,700 kilometers). '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. During each '''3,055-second''' period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over '''2.33 light-seconds''', which is slightly more than one solar radius (<math>R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 2.33 \text{ ls} \gtrapprox R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', it is a vast, oblong, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into surrounding space. While somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, the latter is a comparatively thin layer of gas held near the planetary surface, whereas the heliosphere is a plasma constantly blasted into space by the Sun's extreme heat and energy. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is so vast that if it were truly spherical, it would take the Sun roughly 6.344 years to travel a distance equivalent to the heliosphere's diameter. The digit in the '''fifth position''' of a Bully timestamp represents this orbital distance. Figure 2 illustrates the motion of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. Timestamp 8209 ED00 0000 is defined to have occurred at exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16, 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. During each 6.344-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 306 astronomical units, which is slightly more than 65,536 solar radii (<math>16^{4}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 306 \text{ AU} \gtrapprox 16^{4}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === Naked-Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (not to scale) across 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' corresponds to approximately 383,000 B.C., while timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., representing a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a cyan dashed line marking 100 parsecs. The Sun travels a little less than this distance during each 416,000-year interval, which is tracked by the digit in the '''ninth position''' of the Bully timestamp. Because a large percentage of naked-eye stars sit within this 100-parsec radius, the appearance of Earth's night sky changes completely over this timeframe. [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of naked-eye stars binned according to brightness and distance from the Sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the Sun than 100 parsecs, which is the distance the Sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of naked-eye stars are within this 100-parsec travel distance of the Sun.]] During each 415,792-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 97 parsecs, which is slightly more than 4,294,967,296 solar radii (<math>16^{8}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 97 \text{ pc} \gtrapprox 16^{8}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> ==== The Bully Milky Way ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3b''': Division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 3b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid). Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000'''. These represent the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D., respectively, assuming a full orbital path around the Milky Way of roughly 50,000 parsecs. In the lower half of the image, cyan lines further divide a single yellow sector into 16 equal subsectors. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center in Figure 3b, corresponding to the 6 o'clock position, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle of the Sun at Bully timestamp 820A 0000 0000, estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D. The nine cyan grid lines to the right of the red line mark the Sun's polar angle for Bully timestamps 8201 0000 0000 through 8209 0000 0000. Meanwhile, the five cyan grid lines to the left of the red line indicate the polar angle for timestamps 820B 0000 0000 through 820F 0000 0000. <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,t_{\odot} \approx 212.9 \text{ million years} </math> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \sim 50,000 \text{ parsecs} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> == The Galactic Calendar == [[File:Galactic centre orbits.svg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 4a''':Inferred orbits of 6 stars around the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* at the Milky Way's center<ref name="Eisenhauer">{{cite journal|last=Eisenhauer|first=F.|display-authors=et al. |title=SINFONI in the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares in the Central Light-Month|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=July 20, 2005|volume=628|issue=1|pages=246–259|doi=10.1086/430667|bibcode=2005ApJ...628..246E|arxiv=astro-ph/0502129|s2cid=122485461 }}</ref>]] [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, labeled S2 in '''Figure 4a''', completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance from the Sun to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: &hairsp; :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \\ \end{align}</math> &hairsp; If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. ==== Idealized Galactic Weeks ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Weeks_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 4b''': Division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks of solar travel (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 4b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks (yellow grid). Each week represents 1,000 parsecs of solar travel, which in this plot is assumed to be traversed by the Sun in roughly 4.09 million years. Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000''', respectively, indicating the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D. The cyan lines in the lower half of the image further divide one sector into 10 equal subsectors of 100 parsecs each. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 4b, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun had during Bully timestamp 8209 D89D 89D8 (approximately 31,000 B.C.), which is 1,000 parsecs of travel beyond the yellow line representing timestamp 8200 0000 0000. The nine cyan lines to the left of the red line represent the polar angles of the Sun after traveling 1,100 through 1,900 parsecs beyond timestamp 8200 0000 0000. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2⁴¹ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4c''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. It outlines the specific Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved across this idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4c:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. ==== Is the Galactic Calendar Realistic? ==== [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4d:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250-million-year time period.]] The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4d). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4d''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in Figure 4c states that the galactic week beginning on timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark. ==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ==== In Figure 3a and Figure 3b, the Sun is shown to travel less than 50,000 parsecs per galactic year. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar shown in Figure 4b assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per galactic year, introducing a distinct discrepancy in both galactic scale and calculated orbital velocity. Because the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to complex gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is neither perfectly uniform nor entirely predictable. Consequently, the Sun's true orbital velocity remains a subject of ongoing discovery and refinement. The conjectured values used in Figure 3b and Figure 4b should be viewed as '''practical assumptions''' rather than a reflection of a stable, long-term physical reality; the idealized Bully Calendar is a '''conceptual model''' designed to help visualize the immense scale of the galactic orbit. The table in '''Figure 4e''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp up to 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | '''Figure 4e''': Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 100 parsecs per 16⁸ Bully timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps</small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | <small>2^18.597453 ≈ 396,635 </small> | <small>2^18.6438562 ≈ 409,600 </small> | <small>2^18.666224 ≈ 416,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | <small>2^14.597453 ≈ 24,789.7 </small> | <small>2^14.6438562 ≈ 25,600.0 </small> | <small>2^14.666224 ≈ 26,000.0 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | <small>2^10.597453 ≈ 1,549.36 </small> | <small>2^10.6438562 ≈ 1,600.00 </small> | <small>2^10.666224 ≈ 1,625.00 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁸''' | <small>2^6.597453 ≈ 96.8348 </small> | <small>2^6.6438562 ≈ 100.0000 </small> | <small>2^6.666224 ≈ 101.5625 </small> |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off-Nominal Values |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | <small>2^15.597453 ≈ 49,579 </small> | <small>2^15.6438562 ≈ 51,200 </small> | <small>2^15.666224 ≈ 52,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2²⁶''' | <small>2^0.597453 ≈ 1.513043 </small> | <small>2^0.6438562 ≈ 1.562500 </small> | <small>2^0.666224 ≈ 1.586914 </small> |} == The Earth and Moon == The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep-time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these movements in mind and incorporates a few of their unique values as identified in the '''Bully Mnemonic'''. The Bully Mnemonic is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds in Earth's [[w:Sidereal year|sidereal year]] and [[w:Tropical year|tropical year]], a good approximation of the Earth's [[w:Great Year|Great Year]], and an approximation of the Solar System's [[w:Galactic year|galactic year]]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic|Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] ==== Earth's sidereal year ==== The duration of Earth's sidereal year is '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. While gravitational perturbations from neighboring planets cause this value to vary by a few seconds annually, the averaged century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given this relative stability, using a whole-number divisor of the sidereal year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system offers significant utility. Specifically, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds, meaning Earth's sidereal year—rounded to the nearest second—equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's tropical year ==== Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of seasons between successive vernal equinoxes, spans '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp shorter than the sidereal year, measuring exactly '''10,329.6 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's Great Year ==== With Earth's sidereal year (<math>P</math>) spanning 10,330 timestamps and the tropical year (<math>a_{t}</math>) spanning 10,329.6 timestamps, a full precessional cycle requires a ratio of years, <math>N</math>, where the cumulative annual difference equals exactly one year: <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> <math> \begin{aligned} N &= \frac{1\text{ Bully timestamp}}{P - a_{t}} \\ &= \frac{1}{10,330 - 10,329.6} \\ &= \frac{1}{0.4} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \end{aligned} </math> </div> Expressing this duration in terms of sidereal years yields: <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= 25,824 \, P \end{aligned} </math> </div> Alternatively, expressing the cycle in terms of tropical years yields: <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= 25,825 \, a_{t} \end{aligned} </math> </div> ==== Earth's gravity ==== Of all the planets in the cosmos, our Earth is unique in that the gravity on Earth's surface is approximately equal to the speed of light divided by one sidereal year: <div style="margin-top: 1em;margin-bottom: 1em; "> :<math>g \approx \frac{c}{P}</math> </div> Or equivalently: <div style="margin-top: 1em;margin-bottom: 1em; "> :<math>10^4\text{ Bully timestamps} \approx \frac{c}{g}</math> </div> :where: :* <math>g</math> is Surface gravity :* <math>c</math> is the Speed of light :* <math>P</math> is the orbital period ==== The Metonic cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23, 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp complete approximately three cycles per one Metonic cycle, as illustrated below: <div style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: inherit; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688; border-radius: 4px; line-height: 1.6; margin: 1em 0;"> '''July 23 New Moons:''' * July 23, 1998 — 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 — 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 — 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> * [[Bully Metric Metonic cycle|Learn More About The Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Anchoring Bully Timestamps == To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''. === The Bully Timestamp Duration === While 3,055 seconds may appear to be an arbitrary choice, the length of a single Bully timestamp is mathematically derived from solar, lunar, and deep-time orbital mechanics. {{Quote box| align = center| width = 100%| title = Bully Timestamp Duration | text = Justification: # The Sun orbits approximately one solar radius per Bully timestamp: [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics#Solar_Radius_Mnemonics| t_☉ ≈ 3,055 seconds]] # The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year: [[Bully Mnemonic |31558150 s = 10330 × 3055 s]]. # Approximate divisor of the ratio of the speed of light with Earth's gravity (g_earth): [https://www.google.com/search?q=c+%2F+g_earth+in+megaseconds c / g_earth ≈ 10⁴ × 3055 s] # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of the Earth–Moon Metonic cycle: [https://www.google.com/search?q=3+*+16%5E4+*+3055+s 1 Metonic cycle ≈ 3 × 16⁴ × 3055 s] # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of Earth's Great Year: [https://www.google.com/search?q=16%5E7+*+3055+s 1 Great Year ≈ 16⁷ × 3055 s]. # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of the galactic year: [https://www.google.com/search?q=2+*+16%5E10+*+3055+s 1 galactic year ≈ 2 × 16¹⁰ × 3055 s] }} === The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 6a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]], where the plane intersects the Galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 6a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] ==== Bullies in the Bully System ==== A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in Figure 6a: * '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign. * '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left. * '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left. As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history: {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was “sweetheart”. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, “lover”. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}} Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of "excellent" or "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. {{Quote box| align = center | width = full | title = The "Bully" Name | text = The specific "bullies" in the "Bully" timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}} === A surrogate for the Sun === As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving. The path of the node can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°): <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4c''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 6b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}'''. (Note: Figure 4c assumes an idealized travel distance of exactly 52,000 parsecs (or 2^15.666224) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps, whereas Figure 6b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs (or 2^15.666040) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center;" |+ '''Figure 6b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 3px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled in parsecs |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B32}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5058}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.100 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|820A D4AD 4AD4}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1099.86''}}}} |} {{Quote box| align = center| width = full| title = Bully Timestamp Anchor| text = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 6b).}} ==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ==== In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 6c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days. The Earth's orbital speed varies throughout the year, moving slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Consequently, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season. As shown in Figure 6c, '''winter''' was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. It took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to '''spring''' being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to '''summer'''. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over '''21,000 years'''. [[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 6c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]] Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 6c. The transition from '''spring to summer''' is correlated with a large '''green dot''' and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large '''red dot''' appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from '''summer to autumn''', and a large '''blue dot''', back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from '''winter to spring'''. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,500 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly '''26,000 years''' (1 Great Year ≈ 25,824 sidereal years ≈ 25,825 tropical years). {{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | text = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred near the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. All of the Galactic crossings shown in Figure 6c, at 4495 BCE, 1998 CE, and 8329 CE, are roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE. }} == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 7a''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in Figure 7a, these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|'''Figure 7a''': Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of Figure 7a, follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. Ideally, all of the black lines in Figure 7a could be discontinued and replaced by Bully timestamps going forward. === Why do we need Bully timestamps? === All the timestamps in '''Figure 7b''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ '''Figure 7b''': UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of Figure 7b attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of Figure 7b, breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3,055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950s, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic timekeeping (1958 AD – present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Estimation == [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 8a: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 8a'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 8b'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|'''Figure 8b''': The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in '''Figure 8c''' contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8c''': Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in '''Figure 8d''' (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8d''': Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 8d) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in '''Figure 8e''' is the same as is shown in Figure 8d, but Figure 8e plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8e''': A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in '''Figure 8f''' is similar to the table in Figure 8c, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 8c was for large z values, Figure 8f shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8f''': Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] ejp5tm9q64disztoyn0whitb37accci 2832671 2832670 2026-09-10T19:23:24Z Unitfreak 695864 /* The Bully Timestamp Duration */ 2832671 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the Sun's orbit around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp occurs each time the Sun advances by roughly one solar radius along its path through the cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|upright=2.2|center|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] == One Solar Radius == The Sun hurtles around the Milky Way Galaxy at a blistering 0.076% of the speed of light ([https://arxiv.org/abs/1810.09466 229.0 ± 0.2 kilometers per second]). Yet, even at this staggering pace, it takes about five-sixths of an hour for the Sun to traverse a distance equal to its own radius. This highlights the truly colossal size of our star, which boasts a radius of 2.3206 light-seconds (695,700 kilometers). '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. During each '''3,055-second''' period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over '''2.33 light-seconds''', which is slightly more than one solar radius (<math>R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 2.33 \text{ ls} \gtrapprox R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', it is a vast, oblong, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into surrounding space. While somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, the latter is a comparatively thin layer of gas held near the planetary surface, whereas the heliosphere is a plasma constantly blasted into space by the Sun's extreme heat and energy. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is so vast that if it were truly spherical, it would take the Sun roughly 6.344 years to travel a distance equivalent to the heliosphere's diameter. The digit in the '''fifth position''' of a Bully timestamp represents this orbital distance. Figure 2 illustrates the motion of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. Timestamp 8209 ED00 0000 is defined to have occurred at exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16, 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. During each 6.344-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 306 astronomical units, which is slightly more than 65,536 solar radii (<math>16^{4}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 306 \text{ AU} \gtrapprox 16^{4}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === Naked-Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (not to scale) across 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' corresponds to approximately 383,000 B.C., while timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., representing a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a cyan dashed line marking 100 parsecs. The Sun travels a little less than this distance during each 416,000-year interval, which is tracked by the digit in the '''ninth position''' of the Bully timestamp. Because a large percentage of naked-eye stars sit within this 100-parsec radius, the appearance of Earth's night sky changes completely over this timeframe. [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of naked-eye stars binned according to brightness and distance from the Sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the Sun than 100 parsecs, which is the distance the Sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of naked-eye stars are within this 100-parsec travel distance of the Sun.]] During each 415,792-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 97 parsecs, which is slightly more than 4,294,967,296 solar radii (<math>16^{8}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 97 \text{ pc} \gtrapprox 16^{8}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> ==== The Bully Milky Way ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3b''': Division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 3b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid). Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000'''. These represent the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D., respectively, assuming a full orbital path around the Milky Way of roughly 50,000 parsecs. In the lower half of the image, cyan lines further divide a single yellow sector into 16 equal subsectors. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center in Figure 3b, corresponding to the 6 o'clock position, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle of the Sun at Bully timestamp 820A 0000 0000, estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D. The nine cyan grid lines to the right of the red line mark the Sun's polar angle for Bully timestamps 8201 0000 0000 through 8209 0000 0000. Meanwhile, the five cyan grid lines to the left of the red line indicate the polar angle for timestamps 820B 0000 0000 through 820F 0000 0000. <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,t_{\odot} \approx 212.9 \text{ million years} </math> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \sim 50,000 \text{ parsecs} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> == The Galactic Calendar == [[File:Galactic centre orbits.svg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 4a''':Inferred orbits of 6 stars around the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* at the Milky Way's center<ref name="Eisenhauer">{{cite journal|last=Eisenhauer|first=F.|display-authors=et al. |title=SINFONI in the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares in the Central Light-Month|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=July 20, 2005|volume=628|issue=1|pages=246–259|doi=10.1086/430667|bibcode=2005ApJ...628..246E|arxiv=astro-ph/0502129|s2cid=122485461 }}</ref>]] [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, labeled S2 in '''Figure 4a''', completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance from the Sun to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: &hairsp; :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \\ \end{align}</math> &hairsp; If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. ==== Idealized Galactic Weeks ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Weeks_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 4b''': Division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks of solar travel (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 4b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks (yellow grid). Each week represents 1,000 parsecs of solar travel, which in this plot is assumed to be traversed by the Sun in roughly 4.09 million years. Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000''', respectively, indicating the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D. The cyan lines in the lower half of the image further divide one sector into 10 equal subsectors of 100 parsecs each. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 4b, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun had during Bully timestamp 8209 D89D 89D8 (approximately 31,000 B.C.), which is 1,000 parsecs of travel beyond the yellow line representing timestamp 8200 0000 0000. The nine cyan lines to the left of the red line represent the polar angles of the Sun after traveling 1,100 through 1,900 parsecs beyond timestamp 8200 0000 0000. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2⁴¹ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4c''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. It outlines the specific Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved across this idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4c:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. ==== Is the Galactic Calendar Realistic? ==== [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4d:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250-million-year time period.]] The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4d). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4d''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in Figure 4c states that the galactic week beginning on timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark. ==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ==== In Figure 3a and Figure 3b, the Sun is shown to travel less than 50,000 parsecs per galactic year. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar shown in Figure 4b assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per galactic year, introducing a distinct discrepancy in both galactic scale and calculated orbital velocity. Because the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to complex gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is neither perfectly uniform nor entirely predictable. Consequently, the Sun's true orbital velocity remains a subject of ongoing discovery and refinement. The conjectured values used in Figure 3b and Figure 4b should be viewed as '''practical assumptions''' rather than a reflection of a stable, long-term physical reality; the idealized Bully Calendar is a '''conceptual model''' designed to help visualize the immense scale of the galactic orbit. The table in '''Figure 4e''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp up to 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | '''Figure 4e''': Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 100 parsecs per 16⁸ Bully timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps</small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | <small>2^18.597453 ≈ 396,635 </small> | <small>2^18.6438562 ≈ 409,600 </small> | <small>2^18.666224 ≈ 416,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | <small>2^14.597453 ≈ 24,789.7 </small> | <small>2^14.6438562 ≈ 25,600.0 </small> | <small>2^14.666224 ≈ 26,000.0 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | <small>2^10.597453 ≈ 1,549.36 </small> | <small>2^10.6438562 ≈ 1,600.00 </small> | <small>2^10.666224 ≈ 1,625.00 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁸''' | <small>2^6.597453 ≈ 96.8348 </small> | <small>2^6.6438562 ≈ 100.0000 </small> | <small>2^6.666224 ≈ 101.5625 </small> |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off-Nominal Values |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | <small>2^15.597453 ≈ 49,579 </small> | <small>2^15.6438562 ≈ 51,200 </small> | <small>2^15.666224 ≈ 52,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2²⁶''' | <small>2^0.597453 ≈ 1.513043 </small> | <small>2^0.6438562 ≈ 1.562500 </small> | <small>2^0.666224 ≈ 1.586914 </small> |} == The Earth and Moon == The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep-time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these movements in mind and incorporates a few of their unique values as identified in the '''Bully Mnemonic'''. The Bully Mnemonic is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds in Earth's [[w:Sidereal year|sidereal year]] and [[w:Tropical year|tropical year]], a good approximation of the Earth's [[w:Great Year|Great Year]], and an approximation of the Solar System's [[w:Galactic year|galactic year]]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic|Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] ==== Earth's sidereal year ==== The duration of Earth's sidereal year is '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. While gravitational perturbations from neighboring planets cause this value to vary by a few seconds annually, the averaged century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given this relative stability, using a whole-number divisor of the sidereal year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system offers significant utility. Specifically, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds, meaning Earth's sidereal year—rounded to the nearest second—equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's tropical year ==== Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of seasons between successive vernal equinoxes, spans '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp shorter than the sidereal year, measuring exactly '''10,329.6 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's Great Year ==== With Earth's sidereal year (<math>P</math>) spanning 10,330 timestamps and the tropical year (<math>a_{t}</math>) spanning 10,329.6 timestamps, a full precessional cycle requires a ratio of years, <math>N</math>, where the cumulative annual difference equals exactly one year: <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> <math> \begin{aligned} N &= \frac{1\text{ Bully timestamp}}{P - a_{t}} \\ &= \frac{1}{10,330 - 10,329.6} \\ &= \frac{1}{0.4} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \end{aligned} </math> </div> Expressing this duration in terms of sidereal years yields: <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= 25,824 \, P \end{aligned} </math> </div> Alternatively, expressing the cycle in terms of tropical years yields: <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= 25,825 \, a_{t} \end{aligned} </math> </div> ==== Earth's gravity ==== Of all the planets in the cosmos, our Earth is unique in that the gravity on Earth's surface is approximately equal to the speed of light divided by one sidereal year: <div style="margin-top: 1em;margin-bottom: 1em; "> :<math>g \approx \frac{c}{P}</math> </div> Or equivalently: <div style="margin-top: 1em;margin-bottom: 1em; "> :<math>10^4\text{ Bully timestamps} \approx \frac{c}{g}</math> </div> :where: :* <math>g</math> is Surface gravity :* <math>c</math> is the Speed of light :* <math>P</math> is the orbital period ==== The Metonic cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23, 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp complete approximately three cycles per one Metonic cycle, as illustrated below: <div style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: inherit; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688; border-radius: 4px; line-height: 1.6; margin: 1em 0;"> '''July 23 New Moons:''' * July 23, 1998 — 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 — 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 — 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> * [[Bully Metric Metonic cycle|Learn More About The Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Anchoring Bully Timestamps == To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''. === The Bully Timestamp Duration === While 3,055 seconds may appear to be an arbitrary choice, the length of a single Bully timestamp is mathematically derived from solar, lunar, and deep-time orbital mechanics. {{Quote box| align = center| width = 100%| title = Bully Timestamp Duration | text = Justification: # The Sun orbits approximately one solar radius per Bully timestamp: [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics#Solar_Radius_Mnemonics| t_☉ ≈ 3,055 seconds]] # The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year: [[Bully Mnemonic |31558150 s = 10330 × 3055 s]]. # Approximate divisor of the ratio of the speed of light with Earth's gravity: [https://www.google.com/search?q=c+%2F+g_earth+in+megaseconds c / g_earth ≈ 10⁴ × 3055 s] # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of the Earth–Moon Metonic cycle: [https://www.google.com/search?q=3+*+16%5E4+*+3055+s 1 Metonic cycle ≈ 3 × 16⁴ × 3055 s] # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of Earth's Great Year: [https://www.google.com/search?q=16%5E7+*+3055+s 1 Great Year ≈ 16⁷ × 3055 s]. # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of the galactic year: [https://www.google.com/search?q=2+*+16%5E10+*+3055+s 1 galactic year ≈ 2 × 16¹⁰ × 3055 s] }} === The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 6a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]], where the plane intersects the Galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 6a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] ==== Bullies in the Bully System ==== A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in Figure 6a: * '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign. * '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left. * '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left. As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history: {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was “sweetheart”. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, “lover”. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}} Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of "excellent" or "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. {{Quote box| align = center | width = full | title = The "Bully" Name | text = The specific "bullies" in the "Bully" timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}} === A surrogate for the Sun === As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving. The path of the node can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°): <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4c''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 6b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}'''. (Note: Figure 4c assumes an idealized travel distance of exactly 52,000 parsecs (or 2^15.666224) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps, whereas Figure 6b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs (or 2^15.666040) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center;" |+ '''Figure 6b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 3px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled in parsecs |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B32}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5058}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.100 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|820A D4AD 4AD4}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1099.86''}}}} |} {{Quote box| align = center| width = full| title = Bully Timestamp Anchor| text = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 6b).}} ==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ==== In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 6c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days. The Earth's orbital speed varies throughout the year, moving slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Consequently, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season. As shown in Figure 6c, '''winter''' was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. It took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to '''spring''' being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to '''summer'''. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over '''21,000 years'''. [[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 6c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]] Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 6c. The transition from '''spring to summer''' is correlated with a large '''green dot''' and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large '''red dot''' appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from '''summer to autumn''', and a large '''blue dot''', back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from '''winter to spring'''. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,500 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly '''26,000 years''' (1 Great Year ≈ 25,824 sidereal years ≈ 25,825 tropical years). {{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | text = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred near the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. All of the Galactic crossings shown in Figure 6c, at 4495 BCE, 1998 CE, and 8329 CE, are roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE. }} == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 7a''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in Figure 7a, these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|'''Figure 7a''': Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of Figure 7a, follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. Ideally, all of the black lines in Figure 7a could be discontinued and replaced by Bully timestamps going forward. === Why do we need Bully timestamps? === All the timestamps in '''Figure 7b''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ '''Figure 7b''': UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of Figure 7b attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of Figure 7b, breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3,055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950s, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic timekeeping (1958 AD – present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Estimation == [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 8a: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 8a'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 8b'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|'''Figure 8b''': The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in '''Figure 8c''' contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8c''': Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in '''Figure 8d''' (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8d''': Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 8d) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in '''Figure 8e''' is the same as is shown in Figure 8d, but Figure 8e plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8e''': A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in '''Figure 8f''' is similar to the table in Figure 8c, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 8c was for large z values, Figure 8f shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8f''': Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] ppt5umyw36m94aqrtv354aozzvvggmg 2832672 2832671 2026-09-10T19:34:03Z Unitfreak 695864 /* The Bully Timestamp Duration */ 2832672 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the Sun's orbit around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp occurs each time the Sun advances by roughly one solar radius along its path through the cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|upright=2.2|center|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] == One Solar Radius == The Sun hurtles around the Milky Way Galaxy at a blistering 0.076% of the speed of light ([https://arxiv.org/abs/1810.09466 229.0 ± 0.2 kilometers per second]). Yet, even at this staggering pace, it takes about five-sixths of an hour for the Sun to traverse a distance equal to its own radius. This highlights the truly colossal size of our star, which boasts a radius of 2.3206 light-seconds (695,700 kilometers). '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. During each '''3,055-second''' period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over '''2.33 light-seconds''', which is slightly more than one solar radius (<math>R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 2.33 \text{ ls} \gtrapprox R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', it is a vast, oblong, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into surrounding space. While somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, the latter is a comparatively thin layer of gas held near the planetary surface, whereas the heliosphere is a plasma constantly blasted into space by the Sun's extreme heat and energy. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is so vast that if it were truly spherical, it would take the Sun roughly 6.344 years to travel a distance equivalent to the heliosphere's diameter. The digit in the '''fifth position''' of a Bully timestamp represents this orbital distance. Figure 2 illustrates the motion of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. Timestamp 8209 ED00 0000 is defined to have occurred at exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16, 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. During each 6.344-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 306 astronomical units, which is slightly more than 65,536 solar radii (<math>16^{4}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 306 \text{ AU} \gtrapprox 16^{4}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === Naked-Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (not to scale) across 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' corresponds to approximately 383,000 B.C., while timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., representing a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a cyan dashed line marking 100 parsecs. The Sun travels a little less than this distance during each 416,000-year interval, which is tracked by the digit in the '''ninth position''' of the Bully timestamp. Because a large percentage of naked-eye stars sit within this 100-parsec radius, the appearance of Earth's night sky changes completely over this timeframe. [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of naked-eye stars binned according to brightness and distance from the Sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the Sun than 100 parsecs, which is the distance the Sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of naked-eye stars are within this 100-parsec travel distance of the Sun.]] During each 415,792-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 97 parsecs, which is slightly more than 4,294,967,296 solar radii (<math>16^{8}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 97 \text{ pc} \gtrapprox 16^{8}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> ==== The Bully Milky Way ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3b''': Division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 3b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid). Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000'''. These represent the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D., respectively, assuming a full orbital path around the Milky Way of roughly 50,000 parsecs. In the lower half of the image, cyan lines further divide a single yellow sector into 16 equal subsectors. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center in Figure 3b, corresponding to the 6 o'clock position, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle of the Sun at Bully timestamp 820A 0000 0000, estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D. The nine cyan grid lines to the right of the red line mark the Sun's polar angle for Bully timestamps 8201 0000 0000 through 8209 0000 0000. Meanwhile, the five cyan grid lines to the left of the red line indicate the polar angle for timestamps 820B 0000 0000 through 820F 0000 0000. <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,t_{\odot} \approx 212.9 \text{ million years} </math> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \sim 50,000 \text{ parsecs} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> == The Galactic Calendar == [[File:Galactic centre orbits.svg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 4a''':Inferred orbits of 6 stars around the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* at the Milky Way's center<ref name="Eisenhauer">{{cite journal|last=Eisenhauer|first=F.|display-authors=et al. |title=SINFONI in the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares in the Central Light-Month|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=July 20, 2005|volume=628|issue=1|pages=246–259|doi=10.1086/430667|bibcode=2005ApJ...628..246E|arxiv=astro-ph/0502129|s2cid=122485461 }}</ref>]] [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, labeled S2 in '''Figure 4a''', completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance from the Sun to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: &hairsp; :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \\ \end{align}</math> &hairsp; If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. ==== Idealized Galactic Weeks ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Weeks_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 4b''': Division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks of solar travel (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 4b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks (yellow grid). Each week represents 1,000 parsecs of solar travel, which in this plot is assumed to be traversed by the Sun in roughly 4.09 million years. Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000''', respectively, indicating the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D. The cyan lines in the lower half of the image further divide one sector into 10 equal subsectors of 100 parsecs each. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 4b, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun had during Bully timestamp 8209 D89D 89D8 (approximately 31,000 B.C.), which is 1,000 parsecs of travel beyond the yellow line representing timestamp 8200 0000 0000. The nine cyan lines to the left of the red line represent the polar angles of the Sun after traveling 1,100 through 1,900 parsecs beyond timestamp 8200 0000 0000. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2⁴¹ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4c''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. It outlines the specific Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved across this idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4c:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. ==== Is the Galactic Calendar Realistic? ==== [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4d:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250-million-year time period.]] The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4d). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4d''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in Figure 4c states that the galactic week beginning on timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark. ==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ==== In Figure 3a and Figure 3b, the Sun is shown to travel less than 50,000 parsecs per galactic year. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar shown in Figure 4b assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per galactic year, introducing a distinct discrepancy in both galactic scale and calculated orbital velocity. Because the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to complex gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is neither perfectly uniform nor entirely predictable. Consequently, the Sun's true orbital velocity remains a subject of ongoing discovery and refinement. The conjectured values used in Figure 3b and Figure 4b should be viewed as '''practical assumptions''' rather than a reflection of a stable, long-term physical reality; the idealized Bully Calendar is a '''conceptual model''' designed to help visualize the immense scale of the galactic orbit. The table in '''Figure 4e''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp up to 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | '''Figure 4e''': Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 100 parsecs per 16⁸ Bully timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps</small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | <small>2^18.597453 ≈ 396,635 </small> | <small>2^18.6438562 ≈ 409,600 </small> | <small>2^18.666224 ≈ 416,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | <small>2^14.597453 ≈ 24,789.7 </small> | <small>2^14.6438562 ≈ 25,600.0 </small> | <small>2^14.666224 ≈ 26,000.0 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | <small>2^10.597453 ≈ 1,549.36 </small> | <small>2^10.6438562 ≈ 1,600.00 </small> | <small>2^10.666224 ≈ 1,625.00 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁸''' | <small>2^6.597453 ≈ 96.8348 </small> | <small>2^6.6438562 ≈ 100.0000 </small> | <small>2^6.666224 ≈ 101.5625 </small> |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off-Nominal Values |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | <small>2^15.597453 ≈ 49,579 </small> | <small>2^15.6438562 ≈ 51,200 </small> | <small>2^15.666224 ≈ 52,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2²⁶''' | <small>2^0.597453 ≈ 1.513043 </small> | <small>2^0.6438562 ≈ 1.562500 </small> | <small>2^0.666224 ≈ 1.586914 </small> |} == The Earth and Moon == The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep-time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these movements in mind and incorporates a few of their unique values as identified in the '''Bully Mnemonic'''. The Bully Mnemonic is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds in Earth's [[w:Sidereal year|sidereal year]] and [[w:Tropical year|tropical year]], a good approximation of the Earth's [[w:Great Year|Great Year]], and an approximation of the Solar System's [[w:Galactic year|galactic year]]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic|Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] ==== Earth's sidereal year ==== The duration of Earth's sidereal year is '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. While gravitational perturbations from neighboring planets cause this value to vary by a few seconds annually, the averaged century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given this relative stability, using a whole-number divisor of the sidereal year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system offers significant utility. Specifically, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds, meaning Earth's sidereal year—rounded to the nearest second—equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's tropical year ==== Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of seasons between successive vernal equinoxes, spans '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp shorter than the sidereal year, measuring exactly '''10,329.6 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's Great Year ==== With Earth's sidereal year (<math>P</math>) spanning 10,330 timestamps and the tropical year (<math>a_{t}</math>) spanning 10,329.6 timestamps, a full precessional cycle requires a ratio of years, <math>N</math>, where the cumulative annual difference equals exactly one year: <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> <math> \begin{aligned} N &= \frac{1\text{ Bully timestamp}}{P - a_{t}} \\ &= \frac{1}{10,330 - 10,329.6} \\ &= \frac{1}{0.4} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \end{aligned} </math> </div> Expressing this duration in terms of sidereal years yields: <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= 25,824 \, P \end{aligned} </math> </div> Alternatively, expressing the cycle in terms of tropical years yields: <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= 25,825 \, a_{t} \end{aligned} </math> </div> ==== Earth's gravity ==== Of all the planets in the cosmos, our Earth is unique in that the gravity on Earth's surface is approximately equal to the speed of light divided by one sidereal year: <div style="margin-top: 1em;margin-bottom: 1em; "> :<math>g \approx \frac{c}{P}</math> </div> Or equivalently: <div style="margin-top: 1em;margin-bottom: 1em; "> :<math>10^4\text{ Bully timestamps} \approx \frac{c}{g}</math> </div> :where: :* <math>g</math> is Surface gravity :* <math>c</math> is the Speed of light :* <math>P</math> is the orbital period ==== The Metonic cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23, 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp complete approximately three cycles per one Metonic cycle, as illustrated below: <div style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: inherit; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688; border-radius: 4px; line-height: 1.6; margin: 1em 0;"> '''July 23 New Moons:''' * July 23, 1998 — 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 — 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 — 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> * [[Bully Metric Metonic cycle|Learn More About The Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Anchoring Bully Timestamps == To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''. === The Bully Timestamp Duration === While 3,055 seconds may appear to be an arbitrary choice, the length of a single Bully timestamp is mathematically derived from solar, lunar, and deep-time orbital mechanics. {{Quote box| align = center| width = 100%| title = Bully Timestamp Duration | text = Justification: # The Sun orbits approximately one solar radius per Bully timestamp: [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics#Solar_Radius_Mnemonics| t_☉ ≈ 3,055 seconds]] # The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year: [[Bully Mnemonic |31,558,150 s = 10,330 × 3,055 s]]. # Approximate divisor of the ratio of the speed of light with Earth's gravity: [https://www.google.com/search?q=c+%2F+g_earth+in+megaseconds c / g_earth ≈ 10,330 × 3,055 s] # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of the Earth–Moon Metonic cycle: [https://www.google.com/search?q=3+*+16%5E4+*+3055+s 1 Metonic cycle ≈ 3 × 16⁴ × 3,055 s] # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of Earth's Great Year: [https://www.google.com/search?q=16%5E7+*+3055+s 1 Great Year ≈ 16⁷ × 3,055 s]. # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of the galactic year: [https://www.google.com/search?q=2+*+16%5E10+*+3055+s 1 galactic year ≈ 2 × 16¹⁰ × 3,055 s] }} === The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 6a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]], where the plane intersects the Galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 6a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] ==== Bullies in the Bully System ==== A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in Figure 6a: * '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign. * '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left. * '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left. As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history: {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was “sweetheart”. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, “lover”. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}} Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of "excellent" or "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. {{Quote box| align = center | width = full | title = The "Bully" Name | text = The specific "bullies" in the "Bully" timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}} === A surrogate for the Sun === As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving. The path of the node can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°): <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4c''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 6b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}'''. (Note: Figure 4c assumes an idealized travel distance of exactly 52,000 parsecs (or 2^15.666224) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps, whereas Figure 6b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs (or 2^15.666040) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center;" |+ '''Figure 6b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 3px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled in parsecs |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B32}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5058}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.100 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|820A D4AD 4AD4}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1099.86''}}}} |} {{Quote box| align = center| width = full| title = Bully Timestamp Anchor| text = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 6b).}} ==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ==== In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 6c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days. The Earth's orbital speed varies throughout the year, moving slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Consequently, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season. As shown in Figure 6c, '''winter''' was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. It took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to '''spring''' being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to '''summer'''. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over '''21,000 years'''. [[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 6c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]] Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 6c. The transition from '''spring to summer''' is correlated with a large '''green dot''' and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large '''red dot''' appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from '''summer to autumn''', and a large '''blue dot''', back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from '''winter to spring'''. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,500 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly '''26,000 years''' (1 Great Year ≈ 25,824 sidereal years ≈ 25,825 tropical years). {{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | text = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred near the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. All of the Galactic crossings shown in Figure 6c, at 4495 BCE, 1998 CE, and 8329 CE, are roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE. }} == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 7a''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in Figure 7a, these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|'''Figure 7a''': Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of Figure 7a, follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. Ideally, all of the black lines in Figure 7a could be discontinued and replaced by Bully timestamps going forward. === Why do we need Bully timestamps? === All the timestamps in '''Figure 7b''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ '''Figure 7b''': UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of Figure 7b attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of Figure 7b, breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3,055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950s, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic timekeeping (1958 AD – present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Estimation == [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 8a: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 8a'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 8b'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|'''Figure 8b''': The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in '''Figure 8c''' contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8c''': Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in '''Figure 8d''' (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8d''': Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 8d) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in '''Figure 8e''' is the same as is shown in Figure 8d, but Figure 8e plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8e''': A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in '''Figure 8f''' is similar to the table in Figure 8c, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 8c was for large z values, Figure 8f shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8f''': Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] cgplurlzqhtepciy0j3jf956898bri5 2832673 2832672 2026-09-10T19:34:50Z Unitfreak 695864 /* The Bully Timestamp Duration */ 2832673 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the Sun's orbit around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp occurs each time the Sun advances by roughly one solar radius along its path through the cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|upright=2.2|center|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] == One Solar Radius == The Sun hurtles around the Milky Way Galaxy at a blistering 0.076% of the speed of light ([https://arxiv.org/abs/1810.09466 229.0 ± 0.2 kilometers per second]). Yet, even at this staggering pace, it takes about five-sixths of an hour for the Sun to traverse a distance equal to its own radius. This highlights the truly colossal size of our star, which boasts a radius of 2.3206 light-seconds (695,700 kilometers). '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. During each '''3,055-second''' period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over '''2.33 light-seconds''', which is slightly more than one solar radius (<math>R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 2.33 \text{ ls} \gtrapprox R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', it is a vast, oblong, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into surrounding space. While somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, the latter is a comparatively thin layer of gas held near the planetary surface, whereas the heliosphere is a plasma constantly blasted into space by the Sun's extreme heat and energy. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is so vast that if it were truly spherical, it would take the Sun roughly 6.344 years to travel a distance equivalent to the heliosphere's diameter. The digit in the '''fifth position''' of a Bully timestamp represents this orbital distance. Figure 2 illustrates the motion of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. Timestamp 8209 ED00 0000 is defined to have occurred at exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16, 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. During each 6.344-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 306 astronomical units, which is slightly more than 65,536 solar radii (<math>16^{4}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 306 \text{ AU} \gtrapprox 16^{4}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === Naked-Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (not to scale) across 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' corresponds to approximately 383,000 B.C., while timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., representing a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a cyan dashed line marking 100 parsecs. The Sun travels a little less than this distance during each 416,000-year interval, which is tracked by the digit in the '''ninth position''' of the Bully timestamp. Because a large percentage of naked-eye stars sit within this 100-parsec radius, the appearance of Earth's night sky changes completely over this timeframe. [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of naked-eye stars binned according to brightness and distance from the Sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the Sun than 100 parsecs, which is the distance the Sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of naked-eye stars are within this 100-parsec travel distance of the Sun.]] During each 415,792-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 97 parsecs, which is slightly more than 4,294,967,296 solar radii (<math>16^{8}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 97 \text{ pc} \gtrapprox 16^{8}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> ==== The Bully Milky Way ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3b''': Division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 3b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid). Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000'''. These represent the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D., respectively, assuming a full orbital path around the Milky Way of roughly 50,000 parsecs. In the lower half of the image, cyan lines further divide a single yellow sector into 16 equal subsectors. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center in Figure 3b, corresponding to the 6 o'clock position, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle of the Sun at Bully timestamp 820A 0000 0000, estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D. The nine cyan grid lines to the right of the red line mark the Sun's polar angle for Bully timestamps 8201 0000 0000 through 8209 0000 0000. Meanwhile, the five cyan grid lines to the left of the red line indicate the polar angle for timestamps 820B 0000 0000 through 820F 0000 0000. <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,t_{\odot} \approx 212.9 \text{ million years} </math> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \sim 50,000 \text{ parsecs} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> == The Galactic Calendar == [[File:Galactic centre orbits.svg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 4a''':Inferred orbits of 6 stars around the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* at the Milky Way's center<ref name="Eisenhauer">{{cite journal|last=Eisenhauer|first=F.|display-authors=et al. |title=SINFONI in the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares in the Central Light-Month|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=July 20, 2005|volume=628|issue=1|pages=246–259|doi=10.1086/430667|bibcode=2005ApJ...628..246E|arxiv=astro-ph/0502129|s2cid=122485461 }}</ref>]] [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, labeled S2 in '''Figure 4a''', completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance from the Sun to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: &hairsp; :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \\ \end{align}</math> &hairsp; If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. ==== Idealized Galactic Weeks ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Weeks_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 4b''': Division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks of solar travel (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 4b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks (yellow grid). Each week represents 1,000 parsecs of solar travel, which in this plot is assumed to be traversed by the Sun in roughly 4.09 million years. Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000''', respectively, indicating the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D. The cyan lines in the lower half of the image further divide one sector into 10 equal subsectors of 100 parsecs each. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 4b, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun had during Bully timestamp 8209 D89D 89D8 (approximately 31,000 B.C.), which is 1,000 parsecs of travel beyond the yellow line representing timestamp 8200 0000 0000. The nine cyan lines to the left of the red line represent the polar angles of the Sun after traveling 1,100 through 1,900 parsecs beyond timestamp 8200 0000 0000. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2⁴¹ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4c''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. It outlines the specific Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved across this idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4c:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. ==== Is the Galactic Calendar Realistic? ==== [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4d:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250-million-year time period.]] The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4d). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4d''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in Figure 4c states that the galactic week beginning on timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark. ==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ==== In Figure 3a and Figure 3b, the Sun is shown to travel less than 50,000 parsecs per galactic year. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar shown in Figure 4b assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per galactic year, introducing a distinct discrepancy in both galactic scale and calculated orbital velocity. Because the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to complex gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is neither perfectly uniform nor entirely predictable. Consequently, the Sun's true orbital velocity remains a subject of ongoing discovery and refinement. The conjectured values used in Figure 3b and Figure 4b should be viewed as '''practical assumptions''' rather than a reflection of a stable, long-term physical reality; the idealized Bully Calendar is a '''conceptual model''' designed to help visualize the immense scale of the galactic orbit. The table in '''Figure 4e''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp up to 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | '''Figure 4e''': Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 100 parsecs per 16⁸ Bully timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps</small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | <small>2^18.597453 ≈ 396,635 </small> | <small>2^18.6438562 ≈ 409,600 </small> | <small>2^18.666224 ≈ 416,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | <small>2^14.597453 ≈ 24,789.7 </small> | <small>2^14.6438562 ≈ 25,600.0 </small> | <small>2^14.666224 ≈ 26,000.0 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | <small>2^10.597453 ≈ 1,549.36 </small> | <small>2^10.6438562 ≈ 1,600.00 </small> | <small>2^10.666224 ≈ 1,625.00 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁸''' | <small>2^6.597453 ≈ 96.8348 </small> | <small>2^6.6438562 ≈ 100.0000 </small> | <small>2^6.666224 ≈ 101.5625 </small> |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off-Nominal Values |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | <small>2^15.597453 ≈ 49,579 </small> | <small>2^15.6438562 ≈ 51,200 </small> | <small>2^15.666224 ≈ 52,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2²⁶''' | <small>2^0.597453 ≈ 1.513043 </small> | <small>2^0.6438562 ≈ 1.562500 </small> | <small>2^0.666224 ≈ 1.586914 </small> |} == The Earth and Moon == The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep-time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these movements in mind and incorporates a few of their unique values as identified in the '''Bully Mnemonic'''. The Bully Mnemonic is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds in Earth's [[w:Sidereal year|sidereal year]] and [[w:Tropical year|tropical year]], a good approximation of the Earth's [[w:Great Year|Great Year]], and an approximation of the Solar System's [[w:Galactic year|galactic year]]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic|Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] ==== Earth's sidereal year ==== The duration of Earth's sidereal year is '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. While gravitational perturbations from neighboring planets cause this value to vary by a few seconds annually, the averaged century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given this relative stability, using a whole-number divisor of the sidereal year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system offers significant utility. Specifically, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds, meaning Earth's sidereal year—rounded to the nearest second—equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's tropical year ==== Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of seasons between successive vernal equinoxes, spans '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp shorter than the sidereal year, measuring exactly '''10,329.6 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's Great Year ==== With Earth's sidereal year (<math>P</math>) spanning 10,330 timestamps and the tropical year (<math>a_{t}</math>) spanning 10,329.6 timestamps, a full precessional cycle requires a ratio of years, <math>N</math>, where the cumulative annual difference equals exactly one year: <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> <math> \begin{aligned} N &= \frac{1\text{ Bully timestamp}}{P - a_{t}} \\ &= \frac{1}{10,330 - 10,329.6} \\ &= \frac{1}{0.4} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \end{aligned} </math> </div> Expressing this duration in terms of sidereal years yields: <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= 25,824 \, P \end{aligned} </math> </div> Alternatively, expressing the cycle in terms of tropical years yields: <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= 25,825 \, a_{t} \end{aligned} </math> </div> ==== Earth's gravity ==== Of all the planets in the cosmos, our Earth is unique in that the gravity on Earth's surface is approximately equal to the speed of light divided by one sidereal year: <div style="margin-top: 1em;margin-bottom: 1em; "> :<math>g \approx \frac{c}{P}</math> </div> Or equivalently: <div style="margin-top: 1em;margin-bottom: 1em; "> :<math>10^4\text{ Bully timestamps} \approx \frac{c}{g}</math> </div> :where: :* <math>g</math> is Surface gravity :* <math>c</math> is the Speed of light :* <math>P</math> is the orbital period ==== The Metonic cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23, 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp complete approximately three cycles per one Metonic cycle, as illustrated below: <div style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: inherit; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688; border-radius: 4px; line-height: 1.6; margin: 1em 0;"> '''July 23 New Moons:''' * July 23, 1998 — 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 — 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 — 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> * [[Bully Metric Metonic cycle|Learn More About The Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Anchoring Bully Timestamps == To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''. === The Bully Timestamp Duration === While 3,055 seconds may appear to be an arbitrary choice, the length of a single Bully timestamp is mathematically derived from solar, lunar, and deep-time orbital mechanics. {{Quote box| align = center| width = 100%| title = Bully Timestamp Duration | text = Justification: # The Sun orbits approximately one solar radius per Bully timestamp: [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics#Solar_Radius_Mnemonics| t_☉ ≈ 3,055 seconds]] # The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year: [[Bully Mnemonic |31,558,150 s = 10,330 × 3,055 s]]. # Approximate divisor of the ratio of the speed of light with Earth's gravity: [https://www.google.com/search?q=c+%2F+g_earth+in+megaseconds c / g_earth ≈ 10,000 × 3,055 s] # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of the Earth–Moon Metonic cycle: [https://www.google.com/search?q=3+*+16%5E4+*+3055+s 1 Metonic cycle ≈ 3 × 16⁴ × 3,055 s] # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of Earth's Great Year: [https://www.google.com/search?q=16%5E7+*+3055+s 1 Great Year ≈ 16⁷ × 3,055 s]. # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of the galactic year: [https://www.google.com/search?q=2+*+16%5E10+*+3055+s 1 galactic year ≈ 2 × 16¹⁰ × 3,055 s] }} === The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 6a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]], where the plane intersects the Galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 6a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] ==== Bullies in the Bully System ==== A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in Figure 6a: * '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign. * '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left. * '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left. As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history: {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was “sweetheart”. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, “lover”. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}} Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of "excellent" or "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. {{Quote box| align = center | width = full | title = The "Bully" Name | text = The specific "bullies" in the "Bully" timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}} === A surrogate for the Sun === As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving. The path of the node can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°): <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4c''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 6b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}'''. (Note: Figure 4c assumes an idealized travel distance of exactly 52,000 parsecs (or 2^15.666224) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps, whereas Figure 6b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs (or 2^15.666040) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center;" |+ '''Figure 6b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 3px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled in parsecs |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B32}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5058}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.100 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|820A D4AD 4AD4}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1099.86''}}}} |} {{Quote box| align = center| width = full| title = Bully Timestamp Anchor| text = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 6b).}} ==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ==== In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 6c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days. The Earth's orbital speed varies throughout the year, moving slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Consequently, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season. As shown in Figure 6c, '''winter''' was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. It took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to '''spring''' being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to '''summer'''. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over '''21,000 years'''. [[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 6c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]] Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 6c. The transition from '''spring to summer''' is correlated with a large '''green dot''' and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large '''red dot''' appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from '''summer to autumn''', and a large '''blue dot''', back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from '''winter to spring'''. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,500 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly '''26,000 years''' (1 Great Year ≈ 25,824 sidereal years ≈ 25,825 tropical years). {{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | text = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred near the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. All of the Galactic crossings shown in Figure 6c, at 4495 BCE, 1998 CE, and 8329 CE, are roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE. }} == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 7a''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in Figure 7a, these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|'''Figure 7a''': Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of Figure 7a, follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. Ideally, all of the black lines in Figure 7a could be discontinued and replaced by Bully timestamps going forward. === Why do we need Bully timestamps? === All the timestamps in '''Figure 7b''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ '''Figure 7b''': UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of Figure 7b attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of Figure 7b, breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3,055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950s, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic timekeeping (1958 AD – present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Estimation == [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 8a: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 8a'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 8b'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|'''Figure 8b''': The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in '''Figure 8c''' contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8c''': Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in '''Figure 8d''' (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8d''': Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 8d) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in '''Figure 8e''' is the same as is shown in Figure 8d, but Figure 8e plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8e''': A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in '''Figure 8f''' is similar to the table in Figure 8c, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 8c was for large z values, Figure 8f shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8f''': Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] o0w97y8r08fso5u8bdk48jnywfwqh0h 2832677 2832673 2026-09-10T19:39:47Z Unitfreak 695864 /* The Bully Timestamp Duration */ 2832677 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the Sun's orbit around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp occurs each time the Sun advances by roughly one solar radius along its path through the cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|upright=2.2|center|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] == One Solar Radius == The Sun hurtles around the Milky Way Galaxy at a blistering 0.076% of the speed of light ([https://arxiv.org/abs/1810.09466 229.0 ± 0.2 kilometers per second]). Yet, even at this staggering pace, it takes about five-sixths of an hour for the Sun to traverse a distance equal to its own radius. This highlights the truly colossal size of our star, which boasts a radius of 2.3206 light-seconds (695,700 kilometers). '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. During each '''3,055-second''' period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over '''2.33 light-seconds''', which is slightly more than one solar radius (<math>R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 2.33 \text{ ls} \gtrapprox R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', it is a vast, oblong, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into surrounding space. While somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, the latter is a comparatively thin layer of gas held near the planetary surface, whereas the heliosphere is a plasma constantly blasted into space by the Sun's extreme heat and energy. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is so vast that if it were truly spherical, it would take the Sun roughly 6.344 years to travel a distance equivalent to the heliosphere's diameter. The digit in the '''fifth position''' of a Bully timestamp represents this orbital distance. Figure 2 illustrates the motion of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. Timestamp 8209 ED00 0000 is defined to have occurred at exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16, 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. During each 6.344-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 306 astronomical units, which is slightly more than 65,536 solar radii (<math>16^{4}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 306 \text{ AU} \gtrapprox 16^{4}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === Naked-Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (not to scale) across 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' corresponds to approximately 383,000 B.C., while timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., representing a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a cyan dashed line marking 100 parsecs. The Sun travels a little less than this distance during each 416,000-year interval, which is tracked by the digit in the '''ninth position''' of the Bully timestamp. Because a large percentage of naked-eye stars sit within this 100-parsec radius, the appearance of Earth's night sky changes completely over this timeframe. [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of naked-eye stars binned according to brightness and distance from the Sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the Sun than 100 parsecs, which is the distance the Sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of naked-eye stars are within this 100-parsec travel distance of the Sun.]] During each 415,792-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 97 parsecs, which is slightly more than 4,294,967,296 solar radii (<math>16^{8}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 97 \text{ pc} \gtrapprox 16^{8}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> ==== The Bully Milky Way ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3b''': Division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 3b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid). Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000'''. These represent the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D., respectively, assuming a full orbital path around the Milky Way of roughly 50,000 parsecs. In the lower half of the image, cyan lines further divide a single yellow sector into 16 equal subsectors. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center in Figure 3b, corresponding to the 6 o'clock position, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle of the Sun at Bully timestamp 820A 0000 0000, estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D. The nine cyan grid lines to the right of the red line mark the Sun's polar angle for Bully timestamps 8201 0000 0000 through 8209 0000 0000. Meanwhile, the five cyan grid lines to the left of the red line indicate the polar angle for timestamps 820B 0000 0000 through 820F 0000 0000. <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,t_{\odot} \approx 212.9 \text{ million years} </math> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \sim 50,000 \text{ parsecs} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> == The Galactic Calendar == [[File:Galactic centre orbits.svg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 4a''':Inferred orbits of 6 stars around the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* at the Milky Way's center<ref name="Eisenhauer">{{cite journal|last=Eisenhauer|first=F.|display-authors=et al. |title=SINFONI in the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares in the Central Light-Month|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=July 20, 2005|volume=628|issue=1|pages=246–259|doi=10.1086/430667|bibcode=2005ApJ...628..246E|arxiv=astro-ph/0502129|s2cid=122485461 }}</ref>]] [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, labeled S2 in '''Figure 4a''', completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance from the Sun to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: &hairsp; :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \\ \end{align}</math> &hairsp; If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. ==== Idealized Galactic Weeks ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Weeks_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 4b''': Division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks of solar travel (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 4b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks (yellow grid). Each week represents 1,000 parsecs of solar travel, which in this plot is assumed to be traversed by the Sun in roughly 4.09 million years. Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000''', respectively, indicating the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D. The cyan lines in the lower half of the image further divide one sector into 10 equal subsectors of 100 parsecs each. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 4b, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun had during Bully timestamp 8209 D89D 89D8 (approximately 31,000 B.C.), which is 1,000 parsecs of travel beyond the yellow line representing timestamp 8200 0000 0000. The nine cyan lines to the left of the red line represent the polar angles of the Sun after traveling 1,100 through 1,900 parsecs beyond timestamp 8200 0000 0000. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2⁴¹ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4c''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. It outlines the specific Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved across this idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4c:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. ==== Is the Galactic Calendar Realistic? ==== [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4d:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250-million-year time period.]] The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4d). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4d''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in Figure 4c states that the galactic week beginning on timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark. ==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ==== In Figure 3a and Figure 3b, the Sun is shown to travel less than 50,000 parsecs per galactic year. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar shown in Figure 4b assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per galactic year, introducing a distinct discrepancy in both galactic scale and calculated orbital velocity. Because the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to complex gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is neither perfectly uniform nor entirely predictable. Consequently, the Sun's true orbital velocity remains a subject of ongoing discovery and refinement. The conjectured values used in Figure 3b and Figure 4b should be viewed as '''practical assumptions''' rather than a reflection of a stable, long-term physical reality; the idealized Bully Calendar is a '''conceptual model''' designed to help visualize the immense scale of the galactic orbit. The table in '''Figure 4e''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp up to 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | '''Figure 4e''': Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 100 parsecs per 16⁸ Bully timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps</small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | <small>2^18.597453 ≈ 396,635 </small> | <small>2^18.6438562 ≈ 409,600 </small> | <small>2^18.666224 ≈ 416,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | <small>2^14.597453 ≈ 24,789.7 </small> | <small>2^14.6438562 ≈ 25,600.0 </small> | <small>2^14.666224 ≈ 26,000.0 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | <small>2^10.597453 ≈ 1,549.36 </small> | <small>2^10.6438562 ≈ 1,600.00 </small> | <small>2^10.666224 ≈ 1,625.00 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁸''' | <small>2^6.597453 ≈ 96.8348 </small> | <small>2^6.6438562 ≈ 100.0000 </small> | <small>2^6.666224 ≈ 101.5625 </small> |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off-Nominal Values |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | <small>2^15.597453 ≈ 49,579 </small> | <small>2^15.6438562 ≈ 51,200 </small> | <small>2^15.666224 ≈ 52,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2²⁶''' | <small>2^0.597453 ≈ 1.513043 </small> | <small>2^0.6438562 ≈ 1.562500 </small> | <small>2^0.666224 ≈ 1.586914 </small> |} == The Earth and Moon == The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep-time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these movements in mind and incorporates a few of their unique values as identified in the '''Bully Mnemonic'''. The Bully Mnemonic is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds in Earth's [[w:Sidereal year|sidereal year]] and [[w:Tropical year|tropical year]], a good approximation of the Earth's [[w:Great Year|Great Year]], and an approximation of the Solar System's [[w:Galactic year|galactic year]]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic|Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] ==== Earth's sidereal year ==== The duration of Earth's sidereal year is '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. While gravitational perturbations from neighboring planets cause this value to vary by a few seconds annually, the averaged century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given this relative stability, using a whole-number divisor of the sidereal year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system offers significant utility. Specifically, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds, meaning Earth's sidereal year—rounded to the nearest second—equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's tropical year ==== Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of seasons between successive vernal equinoxes, spans '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp shorter than the sidereal year, measuring exactly '''10,329.6 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's Great Year ==== With Earth's sidereal year (<math>P</math>) spanning 10,330 timestamps and the tropical year (<math>a_{t}</math>) spanning 10,329.6 timestamps, a full precessional cycle requires a ratio of years, <math>N</math>, where the cumulative annual difference equals exactly one year: <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> <math> \begin{aligned} N &= \frac{1\text{ Bully timestamp}}{P - a_{t}} \\ &= \frac{1}{10,330 - 10,329.6} \\ &= \frac{1}{0.4} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \end{aligned} </math> </div> Expressing this duration in terms of sidereal years yields: <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= 25,824 \, P \end{aligned} </math> </div> Alternatively, expressing the cycle in terms of tropical years yields: <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= 25,825 \, a_{t} \end{aligned} </math> </div> ==== Earth's gravity ==== Of all the planets in the cosmos, our Earth is unique in that the gravity on Earth's surface is approximately equal to the speed of light divided by one sidereal year: <div style="margin-top: 1em;margin-bottom: 1em; "> :<math>g \approx \frac{c}{P}</math> </div> Or equivalently: <div style="margin-top: 1em;margin-bottom: 1em; "> :<math>10^4\text{ Bully timestamps} \approx \frac{c}{g}</math> </div> :where: :* <math>g</math> is Surface gravity :* <math>c</math> is the Speed of light :* <math>P</math> is the orbital period ==== The Metonic cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23, 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp complete approximately three cycles per one Metonic cycle, as illustrated below: <div style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: inherit; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688; border-radius: 4px; line-height: 1.6; margin: 1em 0;"> '''July 23 New Moons:''' * July 23, 1998 — 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 — 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 — 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> * [[Bully Metric Metonic cycle|Learn More About The Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Anchoring Bully Timestamps == To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''. === The Bully Timestamp Duration === While 3,055 seconds may appear to be an arbitrary choice, the length of a single Bully timestamp is mathematically derived from solar, lunar, and deep-time orbital mechanics. {{Quote box| align = center| width = 100%| title = Bully Timestamp Duration | text = Justification: # The Sun orbits approximately one solar radius per Bully timestamp: [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics#Solar_Radius_Mnemonics| t_☉ ≈ 3,055 seconds]] # The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year: [[Bully Mnemonic |31,558,150 s = 10,330 × 3,055 s]]. # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of the Earth–Moon Metonic cycle: [https://www.google.com/search?q=3+*+16%5E4+*+3055+s 1 Metonic cycle ≈ 3 × 16⁴ × 3,055 s] # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of Earth's Great Year: [https://www.google.com/search?q=16%5E7+*+3055+s 1 Great Year ≈ 16⁷ × 3,055 s]. # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of the galactic year: [https://www.google.com/search?q=2+*+16%5E10+*+3055+s 1 galactic year ≈ 2 × 16¹⁰ × 3,055 s] }} === The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 6a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]], where the plane intersects the Galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 6a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] ==== Bullies in the Bully System ==== A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in Figure 6a: * '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign. * '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left. * '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left. As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history: {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was “sweetheart”. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, “lover”. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}} Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of "excellent" or "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. {{Quote box| align = center | width = full | title = The "Bully" Name | text = The specific "bullies" in the "Bully" timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}} === A surrogate for the Sun === As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving. The path of the node can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°): <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4c''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 6b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}'''. (Note: Figure 4c assumes an idealized travel distance of exactly 52,000 parsecs (or 2^15.666224) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps, whereas Figure 6b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs (or 2^15.666040) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center;" |+ '''Figure 6b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 3px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled in parsecs |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B32}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5058}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.100 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|820A D4AD 4AD4}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1099.86''}}}} |} {{Quote box| align = center| width = full| title = Bully Timestamp Anchor| text = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 6b).}} ==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ==== In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 6c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days. The Earth's orbital speed varies throughout the year, moving slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Consequently, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season. As shown in Figure 6c, '''winter''' was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. It took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to '''spring''' being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to '''summer'''. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over '''21,000 years'''. [[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 6c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]] Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 6c. The transition from '''spring to summer''' is correlated with a large '''green dot''' and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large '''red dot''' appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from '''summer to autumn''', and a large '''blue dot''', back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from '''winter to spring'''. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,500 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly '''26,000 years''' (1 Great Year ≈ 25,824 sidereal years ≈ 25,825 tropical years). {{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | text = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred near the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. All of the Galactic crossings shown in Figure 6c, at 4495 BCE, 1998 CE, and 8329 CE, are roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE. }} == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 7a''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in Figure 7a, these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|'''Figure 7a''': Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of Figure 7a, follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. Ideally, all of the black lines in Figure 7a could be discontinued and replaced by Bully timestamps going forward. === Why do we need Bully timestamps? === All the timestamps in '''Figure 7b''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ '''Figure 7b''': UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of Figure 7b attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of Figure 7b, breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3,055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950s, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic timekeeping (1958 AD – present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Estimation == [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 8a: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 8a'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 8b'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|'''Figure 8b''': The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in '''Figure 8c''' contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8c''': Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in '''Figure 8d''' (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8d''': Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 8d) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in '''Figure 8e''' is the same as is shown in Figure 8d, but Figure 8e plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8e''': A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in '''Figure 8f''' is similar to the table in Figure 8c, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 8c was for large z values, Figure 8f shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8f''': Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] drovb7bv3iwr5zy7xtzdhwwm3g1k4pq 2832678 2832677 2026-09-10T19:45:03Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Earth's gravity */ 2832678 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the Sun's orbit around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp occurs each time the Sun advances by roughly one solar radius along its path through the cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|upright=2.2|center|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] == One Solar Radius == The Sun hurtles around the Milky Way Galaxy at a blistering 0.076% of the speed of light ([https://arxiv.org/abs/1810.09466 229.0 ± 0.2 kilometers per second]). Yet, even at this staggering pace, it takes about five-sixths of an hour for the Sun to traverse a distance equal to its own radius. This highlights the truly colossal size of our star, which boasts a radius of 2.3206 light-seconds (695,700 kilometers). '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. During each '''3,055-second''' period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over '''2.33 light-seconds''', which is slightly more than one solar radius (<math>R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 2.33 \text{ ls} \gtrapprox R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', it is a vast, oblong, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into surrounding space. While somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, the latter is a comparatively thin layer of gas held near the planetary surface, whereas the heliosphere is a plasma constantly blasted into space by the Sun's extreme heat and energy. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is so vast that if it were truly spherical, it would take the Sun roughly 6.344 years to travel a distance equivalent to the heliosphere's diameter. The digit in the '''fifth position''' of a Bully timestamp represents this orbital distance. Figure 2 illustrates the motion of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. Timestamp 8209 ED00 0000 is defined to have occurred at exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16, 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. During each 6.344-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 306 astronomical units, which is slightly more than 65,536 solar radii (<math>16^{4}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 306 \text{ AU} \gtrapprox 16^{4}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === Naked-Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (not to scale) across 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' corresponds to approximately 383,000 B.C., while timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., representing a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a cyan dashed line marking 100 parsecs. The Sun travels a little less than this distance during each 416,000-year interval, which is tracked by the digit in the '''ninth position''' of the Bully timestamp. Because a large percentage of naked-eye stars sit within this 100-parsec radius, the appearance of Earth's night sky changes completely over this timeframe. [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of naked-eye stars binned according to brightness and distance from the Sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the Sun than 100 parsecs, which is the distance the Sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of naked-eye stars are within this 100-parsec travel distance of the Sun.]] During each 415,792-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 97 parsecs, which is slightly more than 4,294,967,296 solar radii (<math>16^{8}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 97 \text{ pc} \gtrapprox 16^{8}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> ==== The Bully Milky Way ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3b''': Division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 3b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid). Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000'''. These represent the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D., respectively, assuming a full orbital path around the Milky Way of roughly 50,000 parsecs. In the lower half of the image, cyan lines further divide a single yellow sector into 16 equal subsectors. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center in Figure 3b, corresponding to the 6 o'clock position, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle of the Sun at Bully timestamp 820A 0000 0000, estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D. The nine cyan grid lines to the right of the red line mark the Sun's polar angle for Bully timestamps 8201 0000 0000 through 8209 0000 0000. Meanwhile, the five cyan grid lines to the left of the red line indicate the polar angle for timestamps 820B 0000 0000 through 820F 0000 0000. <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,t_{\odot} \approx 212.9 \text{ million years} </math> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \sim 50,000 \text{ parsecs} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> == The Galactic Calendar == [[File:Galactic centre orbits.svg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 4a''':Inferred orbits of 6 stars around the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* at the Milky Way's center<ref name="Eisenhauer">{{cite journal|last=Eisenhauer|first=F.|display-authors=et al. |title=SINFONI in the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares in the Central Light-Month|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=July 20, 2005|volume=628|issue=1|pages=246–259|doi=10.1086/430667|bibcode=2005ApJ...628..246E|arxiv=astro-ph/0502129|s2cid=122485461 }}</ref>]] [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, labeled S2 in '''Figure 4a''', completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance from the Sun to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: &hairsp; :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \\ \end{align}</math> &hairsp; If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. ==== Idealized Galactic Weeks ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Weeks_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 4b''': Division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks of solar travel (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 4b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks (yellow grid). Each week represents 1,000 parsecs of solar travel, which in this plot is assumed to be traversed by the Sun in roughly 4.09 million years. Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000''', respectively, indicating the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D. The cyan lines in the lower half of the image further divide one sector into 10 equal subsectors of 100 parsecs each. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 4b, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun had during Bully timestamp 8209 D89D 89D8 (approximately 31,000 B.C.), which is 1,000 parsecs of travel beyond the yellow line representing timestamp 8200 0000 0000. The nine cyan lines to the left of the red line represent the polar angles of the Sun after traveling 1,100 through 1,900 parsecs beyond timestamp 8200 0000 0000. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2⁴¹ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4c''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. It outlines the specific Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved across this idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4c:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. ==== Is the Galactic Calendar Realistic? ==== [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4d:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250-million-year time period.]] The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4d). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4d''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in Figure 4c states that the galactic week beginning on timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark. ==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ==== In Figure 3a and Figure 3b, the Sun is shown to travel less than 50,000 parsecs per galactic year. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar shown in Figure 4b assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per galactic year, introducing a distinct discrepancy in both galactic scale and calculated orbital velocity. Because the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to complex gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is neither perfectly uniform nor entirely predictable. Consequently, the Sun's true orbital velocity remains a subject of ongoing discovery and refinement. The conjectured values used in Figure 3b and Figure 4b should be viewed as '''practical assumptions''' rather than a reflection of a stable, long-term physical reality; the idealized Bully Calendar is a '''conceptual model''' designed to help visualize the immense scale of the galactic orbit. The table in '''Figure 4e''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp up to 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | '''Figure 4e''': Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 100 parsecs per 16⁸ Bully timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps</small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | <small>2^18.597453 ≈ 396,635 </small> | <small>2^18.6438562 ≈ 409,600 </small> | <small>2^18.666224 ≈ 416,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | <small>2^14.597453 ≈ 24,789.7 </small> | <small>2^14.6438562 ≈ 25,600.0 </small> | <small>2^14.666224 ≈ 26,000.0 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | <small>2^10.597453 ≈ 1,549.36 </small> | <small>2^10.6438562 ≈ 1,600.00 </small> | <small>2^10.666224 ≈ 1,625.00 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁸''' | <small>2^6.597453 ≈ 96.8348 </small> | <small>2^6.6438562 ≈ 100.0000 </small> | <small>2^6.666224 ≈ 101.5625 </small> |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off-Nominal Values |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | <small>2^15.597453 ≈ 49,579 </small> | <small>2^15.6438562 ≈ 51,200 </small> | <small>2^15.666224 ≈ 52,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2²⁶''' | <small>2^0.597453 ≈ 1.513043 </small> | <small>2^0.6438562 ≈ 1.562500 </small> | <small>2^0.666224 ≈ 1.586914 </small> |} == The Earth and Moon == The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep-time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these movements in mind and incorporates a few of their unique values as identified in the '''Bully Mnemonic'''. The Bully Mnemonic is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds in Earth's [[w:Sidereal year|sidereal year]] and [[w:Tropical year|tropical year]], a good approximation of the Earth's [[w:Great Year|Great Year]], and an approximation of the Solar System's [[w:Galactic year|galactic year]]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic|Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] ==== Earth's sidereal year ==== The duration of Earth's sidereal year is '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. While gravitational perturbations from neighboring planets cause this value to vary by a few seconds annually, the averaged century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given this relative stability, using a whole-number divisor of the sidereal year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system offers significant utility. Specifically, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds, meaning Earth's sidereal year—rounded to the nearest second—equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's tropical year ==== Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of seasons between successive vernal equinoxes, spans '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp shorter than the sidereal year, measuring exactly '''10,329.6 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's Great Year ==== With Earth's sidereal year (<math>P</math>) spanning 10,330 timestamps and the tropical year (<math>a_{t}</math>) spanning 10,329.6 timestamps, a full precessional cycle requires a ratio of years, <math>N</math>, where the cumulative annual difference equals exactly one year: <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> <math> \begin{aligned} N &= \frac{1\text{ Bully timestamp}}{P - a_{t}} \\ &= \frac{1}{10,330 - 10,329.6} \\ &= \frac{1}{0.4} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \end{aligned} </math> </div> Expressing this duration in terms of sidereal years yields: <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= 25,824 \, P \end{aligned} </math> </div> Alternatively, expressing the cycle in terms of tropical years yields: <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= 25,825 \, a_{t} \end{aligned} </math> </div> ==== Earth's gravity ==== Of all the planets in the cosmos, our Earth is unique in that the gravity on Earth's surface is approximately equal to the speed of light divided by one sidereal year: <div style="margin-top: 1em;margin-bottom: 1em; "> :<math>g \approx \frac{c}{P}</math> </div> Or equivalently: <div style="margin-top: 1em;margin-bottom: 1em; "> :<math>10,000\text{ Bully timestamps} \approx \frac{c}{g}</math> </div> :where: :* <math>g</math> is Surface gravity :* <math>c</math> is the Speed of light :* <math>P</math> is the orbital period ==== The Metonic cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23, 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp complete approximately three cycles per one Metonic cycle, as illustrated below: <div style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: inherit; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688; border-radius: 4px; line-height: 1.6; margin: 1em 0;"> '''July 23 New Moons:''' * July 23, 1998 — 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 — 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 — 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> * [[Bully Metric Metonic cycle|Learn More About The Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Anchoring Bully Timestamps == To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''. === The Bully Timestamp Duration === While 3,055 seconds may appear to be an arbitrary choice, the length of a single Bully timestamp is mathematically derived from solar, lunar, and deep-time orbital mechanics. {{Quote box| align = center| width = 100%| title = Bully Timestamp Duration | text = Justification: # The Sun orbits approximately one solar radius per Bully timestamp: [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics#Solar_Radius_Mnemonics| t_☉ ≈ 3,055 seconds]] # The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year: [[Bully Mnemonic |31,558,150 s = 10,330 × 3,055 s]]. # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of the Earth–Moon Metonic cycle: [https://www.google.com/search?q=3+*+16%5E4+*+3055+s 1 Metonic cycle ≈ 3 × 16⁴ × 3,055 s] # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of Earth's Great Year: [https://www.google.com/search?q=16%5E7+*+3055+s 1 Great Year ≈ 16⁷ × 3,055 s]. # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of the galactic year: [https://www.google.com/search?q=2+*+16%5E10+*+3055+s 1 galactic year ≈ 2 × 16¹⁰ × 3,055 s] }} === The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 6a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]], where the plane intersects the Galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 6a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] ==== Bullies in the Bully System ==== A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in Figure 6a: * '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign. * '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left. * '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left. As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history: {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was “sweetheart”. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, “lover”. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}} Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of "excellent" or "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. {{Quote box| align = center | width = full | title = The "Bully" Name | text = The specific "bullies" in the "Bully" timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}} === A surrogate for the Sun === As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving. The path of the node can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°): <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4c''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 6b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}'''. (Note: Figure 4c assumes an idealized travel distance of exactly 52,000 parsecs (or 2^15.666224) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps, whereas Figure 6b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs (or 2^15.666040) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center;" |+ '''Figure 6b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 3px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled in parsecs |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B32}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5058}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.100 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|820A D4AD 4AD4}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1099.86''}}}} |} {{Quote box| align = center| width = full| title = Bully Timestamp Anchor| text = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 6b).}} ==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ==== In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 6c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days. The Earth's orbital speed varies throughout the year, moving slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Consequently, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season. As shown in Figure 6c, '''winter''' was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. It took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to '''spring''' being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to '''summer'''. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over '''21,000 years'''. [[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 6c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]] Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 6c. The transition from '''spring to summer''' is correlated with a large '''green dot''' and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large '''red dot''' appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from '''summer to autumn''', and a large '''blue dot''', back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from '''winter to spring'''. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,500 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly '''26,000 years''' (1 Great Year ≈ 25,824 sidereal years ≈ 25,825 tropical years). {{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | text = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred near the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. All of the Galactic crossings shown in Figure 6c, at 4495 BCE, 1998 CE, and 8329 CE, are roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE. }} == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 7a''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in Figure 7a, these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|'''Figure 7a''': Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of Figure 7a, follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. Ideally, all of the black lines in Figure 7a could be discontinued and replaced by Bully timestamps going forward. === Why do we need Bully timestamps? === All the timestamps in '''Figure 7b''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ '''Figure 7b''': UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of Figure 7b attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of Figure 7b, breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3,055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950s, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic timekeeping (1958 AD – present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Estimation == [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 8a: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 8a'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 8b'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|'''Figure 8b''': The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in '''Figure 8c''' contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8c''': Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in '''Figure 8d''' (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8d''': Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 8d) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in '''Figure 8e''' is the same as is shown in Figure 8d, but Figure 8e plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8e''': A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in '''Figure 8f''' is similar to the table in Figure 8c, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 8c was for large z values, Figure 8f shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8f''': Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] mo6e784f7kd4v28yw6icau289pft21u 2832686 2832678 2026-09-10T19:57:20Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Anchoring Bully Timestamps */ 2832686 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the Sun's orbit around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp occurs each time the Sun advances by roughly one solar radius along its path through the cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|upright=2.2|center|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] == One Solar Radius == The Sun hurtles around the Milky Way Galaxy at a blistering 0.076% of the speed of light ([https://arxiv.org/abs/1810.09466 229.0 ± 0.2 kilometers per second]). Yet, even at this staggering pace, it takes about five-sixths of an hour for the Sun to traverse a distance equal to its own radius. This highlights the truly colossal size of our star, which boasts a radius of 2.3206 light-seconds (695,700 kilometers). '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. During each '''3,055-second''' period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over '''2.33 light-seconds''', which is slightly more than one solar radius (<math>R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 2.33 \text{ ls} \gtrapprox R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', it is a vast, oblong, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into surrounding space. While somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, the latter is a comparatively thin layer of gas held near the planetary surface, whereas the heliosphere is a plasma constantly blasted into space by the Sun's extreme heat and energy. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is so vast that if it were truly spherical, it would take the Sun roughly 6.344 years to travel a distance equivalent to the heliosphere's diameter. The digit in the '''fifth position''' of a Bully timestamp represents this orbital distance. Figure 2 illustrates the motion of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. Timestamp 8209 ED00 0000 is defined to have occurred at exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16, 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. During each 6.344-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 306 astronomical units, which is slightly more than 65,536 solar radii (<math>16^{4}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 306 \text{ AU} \gtrapprox 16^{4}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === Naked-Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (not to scale) across 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' corresponds to approximately 383,000 B.C., while timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., representing a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a cyan dashed line marking 100 parsecs. The Sun travels a little less than this distance during each 416,000-year interval, which is tracked by the digit in the '''ninth position''' of the Bully timestamp. Because a large percentage of naked-eye stars sit within this 100-parsec radius, the appearance of Earth's night sky changes completely over this timeframe. [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of naked-eye stars binned according to brightness and distance from the Sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the Sun than 100 parsecs, which is the distance the Sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of naked-eye stars are within this 100-parsec travel distance of the Sun.]] During each 415,792-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 97 parsecs, which is slightly more than 4,294,967,296 solar radii (<math>16^{8}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 97 \text{ pc} \gtrapprox 16^{8}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> ==== The Bully Milky Way ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3b''': Division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 3b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid). Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000'''. These represent the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D., respectively, assuming a full orbital path around the Milky Way of roughly 50,000 parsecs. In the lower half of the image, cyan lines further divide a single yellow sector into 16 equal subsectors. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center in Figure 3b, corresponding to the 6 o'clock position, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle of the Sun at Bully timestamp 820A 0000 0000, estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D. The nine cyan grid lines to the right of the red line mark the Sun's polar angle for Bully timestamps 8201 0000 0000 through 8209 0000 0000. Meanwhile, the five cyan grid lines to the left of the red line indicate the polar angle for timestamps 820B 0000 0000 through 820F 0000 0000. <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,t_{\odot} \approx 212.9 \text{ million years} </math> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \sim 50,000 \text{ parsecs} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> == The Galactic Calendar == [[File:Galactic centre orbits.svg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 4a''':Inferred orbits of 6 stars around the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* at the Milky Way's center<ref name="Eisenhauer">{{cite journal|last=Eisenhauer|first=F.|display-authors=et al. |title=SINFONI in the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares in the Central Light-Month|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=July 20, 2005|volume=628|issue=1|pages=246–259|doi=10.1086/430667|bibcode=2005ApJ...628..246E|arxiv=astro-ph/0502129|s2cid=122485461 }}</ref>]] [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, labeled S2 in '''Figure 4a''', completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance from the Sun to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: &hairsp; :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \\ \end{align}</math> &hairsp; If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. ==== Idealized Galactic Weeks ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Weeks_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 4b''': Division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks of solar travel (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 4b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks (yellow grid). Each week represents 1,000 parsecs of solar travel, which in this plot is assumed to be traversed by the Sun in roughly 4.09 million years. Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000''', respectively, indicating the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D. The cyan lines in the lower half of the image further divide one sector into 10 equal subsectors of 100 parsecs each. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 4b, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun had during Bully timestamp 8209 D89D 89D8 (approximately 31,000 B.C.), which is 1,000 parsecs of travel beyond the yellow line representing timestamp 8200 0000 0000. The nine cyan lines to the left of the red line represent the polar angles of the Sun after traveling 1,100 through 1,900 parsecs beyond timestamp 8200 0000 0000. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2⁴¹ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4c''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. It outlines the specific Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved across this idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4c:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. ==== Is the Galactic Calendar Realistic? ==== [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4d:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250-million-year time period.]] The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4d). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4d''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in Figure 4c states that the galactic week beginning on timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark. ==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ==== In Figure 3a and Figure 3b, the Sun is shown to travel less than 50,000 parsecs per galactic year. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar shown in Figure 4b assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per galactic year, introducing a distinct discrepancy in both galactic scale and calculated orbital velocity. Because the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to complex gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is neither perfectly uniform nor entirely predictable. Consequently, the Sun's true orbital velocity remains a subject of ongoing discovery and refinement. The conjectured values used in Figure 3b and Figure 4b should be viewed as '''practical assumptions''' rather than a reflection of a stable, long-term physical reality; the idealized Bully Calendar is a '''conceptual model''' designed to help visualize the immense scale of the galactic orbit. The table in '''Figure 4e''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp up to 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | '''Figure 4e''': Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 100 parsecs per 16⁸ Bully timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps</small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | <small>2^18.597453 ≈ 396,635 </small> | <small>2^18.6438562 ≈ 409,600 </small> | <small>2^18.666224 ≈ 416,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | <small>2^14.597453 ≈ 24,789.7 </small> | <small>2^14.6438562 ≈ 25,600.0 </small> | <small>2^14.666224 ≈ 26,000.0 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | <small>2^10.597453 ≈ 1,549.36 </small> | <small>2^10.6438562 ≈ 1,600.00 </small> | <small>2^10.666224 ≈ 1,625.00 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁸''' | <small>2^6.597453 ≈ 96.8348 </small> | <small>2^6.6438562 ≈ 100.0000 </small> | <small>2^6.666224 ≈ 101.5625 </small> |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off-Nominal Values |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | <small>2^15.597453 ≈ 49,579 </small> | <small>2^15.6438562 ≈ 51,200 </small> | <small>2^15.666224 ≈ 52,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2²⁶''' | <small>2^0.597453 ≈ 1.513043 </small> | <small>2^0.6438562 ≈ 1.562500 </small> | <small>2^0.666224 ≈ 1.586914 </small> |} == The Earth and Moon == The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep-time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these movements in mind and incorporates a few of their unique values as identified in the '''Bully Mnemonic'''. The Bully Mnemonic is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds in Earth's [[w:Sidereal year|sidereal year]] and [[w:Tropical year|tropical year]], a good approximation of the Earth's [[w:Great Year|Great Year]], and an approximation of the Solar System's [[w:Galactic year|galactic year]]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic|Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] ==== Earth's sidereal year ==== The duration of Earth's sidereal year is '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. While gravitational perturbations from neighboring planets cause this value to vary by a few seconds annually, the averaged century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given this relative stability, using a whole-number divisor of the sidereal year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system offers significant utility. Specifically, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds, meaning Earth's sidereal year—rounded to the nearest second—equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's tropical year ==== Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of seasons between successive vernal equinoxes, spans '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp shorter than the sidereal year, measuring exactly '''10,329.6 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's Great Year ==== With Earth's sidereal year (<math>P</math>) spanning 10,330 timestamps and the tropical year (<math>a_{t}</math>) spanning 10,329.6 timestamps, a full precessional cycle requires a ratio of years, <math>N</math>, where the cumulative annual difference equals exactly one year: <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> <math> \begin{aligned} N &= \frac{1\text{ Bully timestamp}}{P - a_{t}} \\ &= \frac{1}{10,330 - 10,329.6} \\ &= \frac{1}{0.4} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \end{aligned} </math> </div> Expressing this duration in terms of sidereal years yields: <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= 25,824 \, P \end{aligned} </math> </div> Alternatively, expressing the cycle in terms of tropical years yields: <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= 25,825 \, a_{t} \end{aligned} </math> </div> ==== Earth's gravity ==== Of all the planets in the cosmos, our Earth is unique in that the gravity on Earth's surface is approximately equal to the speed of light divided by one sidereal year: <div style="margin-top: 1em;margin-bottom: 1em; "> :<math>g \approx \frac{c}{P}</math> </div> Or equivalently: <div style="margin-top: 1em;margin-bottom: 1em; "> :<math>10,000\text{ Bully timestamps} \approx \frac{c}{g}</math> </div> :where: :* <math>g</math> is Surface gravity :* <math>c</math> is the Speed of light :* <math>P</math> is the orbital period ==== The Metonic cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23, 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp complete approximately three cycles per one Metonic cycle, as illustrated below: <div style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: inherit; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688; border-radius: 4px; line-height: 1.6; margin: 1em 0;"> '''July 23 New Moons:''' * July 23, 1998 — 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 — 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 — 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> * [[Bully Metric Metonic cycle|Learn More About The Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Anchoring Bully Timestamps == To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by defining timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is uniformly maintained by terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''. === The Bully Timestamp Duration === While 3,055 seconds may appear to be an arbitrary choice, the length of a single Bully timestamp is mathematically derived from solar, lunar, and deep-time orbital mechanics. {{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Timestamp Duration | text = Justification: # The Sun orbits approximately one solar radius per Bully timestamp: [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics#Solar_Radius_Mnemonics|t_☉ ≈ 3,055 seconds]] # The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year: [[Bully Mnemonic|31,558,150 s = 10,330 × 3,055 s]]. # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of the Earth–Moon Metonic cycle: 1 Metonic cycle ≈ 3 × 16⁴ × 3,055 s # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of Earth's Great Year: 1 Great Year ≈ 16⁷ × 3,055 s. # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of the galactic year: 1 galactic year ≈ 2 × 16¹⁰ × 3,055 s }} === The Bully Timestamp Duration === While 3,055 seconds may appear to be an arbitrary choice, the length of a single Bully timestamp is mathematically derived from solar, lunar, and deep-time orbital mechanics. {{Quote box| align = center| width = 100%| title = Bully Timestamp Duration | text = Justification: # The Sun orbits approximately one solar radius per Bully timestamp: [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics#Solar_Radius_Mnemonics| t_☉ ≈ 3,055 seconds]] # The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year: [[Bully Mnemonic |31,558,150 s = 10,330 × 3,055 s]]. # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of the Earth–Moon Metonic cycle: [https://www.google.com/search?q=3+*+16%5E4+*+3055+s 1 Metonic cycle ≈ 3 × 16⁴ × 3,055 s] # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of Earth's Great Year: [https://www.google.com/search?q=16%5E7+*+3055+s 1 Great Year ≈ 16⁷ × 3,055 s]. # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of the galactic year: [https://www.google.com/search?q=2+*+16%5E10+*+3055+s 1 galactic year ≈ 2 × 16¹⁰ × 3,055 s] }} === The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 6a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]], where the plane intersects the Galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 6a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] ==== Bullies in the Bully System ==== A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in Figure 6a: * '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign. * '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left. * '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left. As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history: {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was “sweetheart”. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, “lover”. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}} Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of "excellent" or "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. {{Quote box| align = center | width = full | title = The "Bully" Name | text = The specific "bullies" in the "Bully" timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}} === A surrogate for the Sun === As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving. The path of the node can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°): <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4c''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 6b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}'''. (Note: Figure 4c assumes an idealized travel distance of exactly 52,000 parsecs (or 2^15.666224) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps, whereas Figure 6b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs (or 2^15.666040) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center;" |+ '''Figure 6b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 3px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled in parsecs |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B32}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5058}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.100 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|820A D4AD 4AD4}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1099.86''}}}} |} {{Quote box| align = center| width = full| title = Bully Timestamp Anchor| text = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 6b).}} ==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ==== In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 6c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days. The Earth's orbital speed varies throughout the year, moving slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Consequently, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season. As shown in Figure 6c, '''winter''' was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. It took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to '''spring''' being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to '''summer'''. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over '''21,000 years'''. [[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 6c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]] Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 6c. The transition from '''spring to summer''' is correlated with a large '''green dot''' and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large '''red dot''' appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from '''summer to autumn''', and a large '''blue dot''', back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from '''winter to spring'''. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,500 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly '''26,000 years''' (1 Great Year ≈ 25,824 sidereal years ≈ 25,825 tropical years). {{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | text = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred near the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. All of the Galactic crossings shown in Figure 6c, at 4495 BCE, 1998 CE, and 8329 CE, are roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE. }} == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 7a''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in Figure 7a, these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|'''Figure 7a''': Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of Figure 7a, follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. Ideally, all of the black lines in Figure 7a could be discontinued and replaced by Bully timestamps going forward. === Why do we need Bully timestamps? === All the timestamps in '''Figure 7b''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ '''Figure 7b''': UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of Figure 7b attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of Figure 7b, breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3,055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950s, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic timekeeping (1958 AD – present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Estimation == [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 8a: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 8a'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 8b'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|'''Figure 8b''': The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in '''Figure 8c''' contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8c''': Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in '''Figure 8d''' (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8d''': Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 8d) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in '''Figure 8e''' is the same as is shown in Figure 8d, but Figure 8e plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8e''': A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in '''Figure 8f''' is similar to the table in Figure 8c, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 8c was for large z values, Figure 8f shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8f''': Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] rk7zxh1lci6xg8mkmyy84pg9h3bgimc 2832687 2832686 2026-09-10T19:59:14Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Anchoring Bully Timestamps */ 2832687 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the Sun's orbit around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp occurs each time the Sun advances by roughly one solar radius along its path through the cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|upright=2.2|center|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] == One Solar Radius == The Sun hurtles around the Milky Way Galaxy at a blistering 0.076% of the speed of light ([https://arxiv.org/abs/1810.09466 229.0 ± 0.2 kilometers per second]). Yet, even at this staggering pace, it takes about five-sixths of an hour for the Sun to traverse a distance equal to its own radius. This highlights the truly colossal size of our star, which boasts a radius of 2.3206 light-seconds (695,700 kilometers). '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. During each '''3,055-second''' period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over '''2.33 light-seconds''', which is slightly more than one solar radius (<math>R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 2.33 \text{ ls} \gtrapprox R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', it is a vast, oblong, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into surrounding space. While somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, the latter is a comparatively thin layer of gas held near the planetary surface, whereas the heliosphere is a plasma constantly blasted into space by the Sun's extreme heat and energy. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is so vast that if it were truly spherical, it would take the Sun roughly 6.344 years to travel a distance equivalent to the heliosphere's diameter. The digit in the '''fifth position''' of a Bully timestamp represents this orbital distance. Figure 2 illustrates the motion of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. Timestamp 8209 ED00 0000 is defined to have occurred at exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16, 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. During each 6.344-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 306 astronomical units, which is slightly more than 65,536 solar radii (<math>16^{4}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 306 \text{ AU} \gtrapprox 16^{4}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === Naked-Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (not to scale) across 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' corresponds to approximately 383,000 B.C., while timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., representing a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a cyan dashed line marking 100 parsecs. The Sun travels a little less than this distance during each 416,000-year interval, which is tracked by the digit in the '''ninth position''' of the Bully timestamp. Because a large percentage of naked-eye stars sit within this 100-parsec radius, the appearance of Earth's night sky changes completely over this timeframe. [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of naked-eye stars binned according to brightness and distance from the Sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the Sun than 100 parsecs, which is the distance the Sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of naked-eye stars are within this 100-parsec travel distance of the Sun.]] During each 415,792-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 97 parsecs, which is slightly more than 4,294,967,296 solar radii (<math>16^{8}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 97 \text{ pc} \gtrapprox 16^{8}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> ==== The Bully Milky Way ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3b''': Division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 3b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid). Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000'''. These represent the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D., respectively, assuming a full orbital path around the Milky Way of roughly 50,000 parsecs. In the lower half of the image, cyan lines further divide a single yellow sector into 16 equal subsectors. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center in Figure 3b, corresponding to the 6 o'clock position, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle of the Sun at Bully timestamp 820A 0000 0000, estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D. The nine cyan grid lines to the right of the red line mark the Sun's polar angle for Bully timestamps 8201 0000 0000 through 8209 0000 0000. Meanwhile, the five cyan grid lines to the left of the red line indicate the polar angle for timestamps 820B 0000 0000 through 820F 0000 0000. <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,t_{\odot} \approx 212.9 \text{ million years} </math> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \sim 50,000 \text{ parsecs} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> == The Galactic Calendar == [[File:Galactic centre orbits.svg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 4a''':Inferred orbits of 6 stars around the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* at the Milky Way's center<ref name="Eisenhauer">{{cite journal|last=Eisenhauer|first=F.|display-authors=et al. |title=SINFONI in the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares in the Central Light-Month|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=July 20, 2005|volume=628|issue=1|pages=246–259|doi=10.1086/430667|bibcode=2005ApJ...628..246E|arxiv=astro-ph/0502129|s2cid=122485461 }}</ref>]] [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, labeled S2 in '''Figure 4a''', completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance from the Sun to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: &hairsp; :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \\ \end{align}</math> &hairsp; If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. ==== Idealized Galactic Weeks ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Weeks_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 4b''': Division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks of solar travel (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 4b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks (yellow grid). Each week represents 1,000 parsecs of solar travel, which in this plot is assumed to be traversed by the Sun in roughly 4.09 million years. Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000''', respectively, indicating the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D. The cyan lines in the lower half of the image further divide one sector into 10 equal subsectors of 100 parsecs each. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 4b, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun had during Bully timestamp 8209 D89D 89D8 (approximately 31,000 B.C.), which is 1,000 parsecs of travel beyond the yellow line representing timestamp 8200 0000 0000. The nine cyan lines to the left of the red line represent the polar angles of the Sun after traveling 1,100 through 1,900 parsecs beyond timestamp 8200 0000 0000. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2⁴¹ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4c''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. It outlines the specific Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved across this idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4c:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. ==== Is the Galactic Calendar Realistic? ==== [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4d:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250-million-year time period.]] The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4d). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4d''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in Figure 4c states that the galactic week beginning on timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark. ==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ==== In Figure 3a and Figure 3b, the Sun is shown to travel less than 50,000 parsecs per galactic year. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar shown in Figure 4b assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per galactic year, introducing a distinct discrepancy in both galactic scale and calculated orbital velocity. Because the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to complex gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is neither perfectly uniform nor entirely predictable. Consequently, the Sun's true orbital velocity remains a subject of ongoing discovery and refinement. The conjectured values used in Figure 3b and Figure 4b should be viewed as '''practical assumptions''' rather than a reflection of a stable, long-term physical reality; the idealized Bully Calendar is a '''conceptual model''' designed to help visualize the immense scale of the galactic orbit. The table in '''Figure 4e''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp up to 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | '''Figure 4e''': Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 100 parsecs per 16⁸ Bully timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps</small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | <small>2^18.597453 ≈ 396,635 </small> | <small>2^18.6438562 ≈ 409,600 </small> | <small>2^18.666224 ≈ 416,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | <small>2^14.597453 ≈ 24,789.7 </small> | <small>2^14.6438562 ≈ 25,600.0 </small> | <small>2^14.666224 ≈ 26,000.0 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | <small>2^10.597453 ≈ 1,549.36 </small> | <small>2^10.6438562 ≈ 1,600.00 </small> | <small>2^10.666224 ≈ 1,625.00 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁸''' | <small>2^6.597453 ≈ 96.8348 </small> | <small>2^6.6438562 ≈ 100.0000 </small> | <small>2^6.666224 ≈ 101.5625 </small> |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off-Nominal Values |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | <small>2^15.597453 ≈ 49,579 </small> | <small>2^15.6438562 ≈ 51,200 </small> | <small>2^15.666224 ≈ 52,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2²⁶''' | <small>2^0.597453 ≈ 1.513043 </small> | <small>2^0.6438562 ≈ 1.562500 </small> | <small>2^0.666224 ≈ 1.586914 </small> |} == The Earth and Moon == The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep-time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these movements in mind and incorporates a few of their unique values as identified in the '''Bully Mnemonic'''. The Bully Mnemonic is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds in Earth's [[w:Sidereal year|sidereal year]] and [[w:Tropical year|tropical year]], a good approximation of the Earth's [[w:Great Year|Great Year]], and an approximation of the Solar System's [[w:Galactic year|galactic year]]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic|Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] ==== Earth's sidereal year ==== The duration of Earth's sidereal year is '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. While gravitational perturbations from neighboring planets cause this value to vary by a few seconds annually, the averaged century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given this relative stability, using a whole-number divisor of the sidereal year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system offers significant utility. Specifically, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds, meaning Earth's sidereal year—rounded to the nearest second—equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's tropical year ==== Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of seasons between successive vernal equinoxes, spans '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp shorter than the sidereal year, measuring exactly '''10,329.6 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's Great Year ==== With Earth's sidereal year (<math>P</math>) spanning 10,330 timestamps and the tropical year (<math>a_{t}</math>) spanning 10,329.6 timestamps, a full precessional cycle requires a ratio of years, <math>N</math>, where the cumulative annual difference equals exactly one year: <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> <math> \begin{aligned} N &= \frac{1\text{ Bully timestamp}}{P - a_{t}} \\ &= \frac{1}{10,330 - 10,329.6} \\ &= \frac{1}{0.4} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \end{aligned} </math> </div> Expressing this duration in terms of sidereal years yields: <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= 25,824 \, P \end{aligned} </math> </div> Alternatively, expressing the cycle in terms of tropical years yields: <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= 25,825 \, a_{t} \end{aligned} </math> </div> ==== Earth's gravity ==== Of all the planets in the cosmos, our Earth is unique in that the gravity on Earth's surface is approximately equal to the speed of light divided by one sidereal year: <div style="margin-top: 1em;margin-bottom: 1em; "> :<math>g \approx \frac{c}{P}</math> </div> Or equivalently: <div style="margin-top: 1em;margin-bottom: 1em; "> :<math>10,000\text{ Bully timestamps} \approx \frac{c}{g}</math> </div> :where: :* <math>g</math> is Surface gravity :* <math>c</math> is the Speed of light :* <math>P</math> is the orbital period ==== The Metonic cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23, 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp complete approximately three cycles per one Metonic cycle, as illustrated below: <div style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: inherit; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688; border-radius: 4px; line-height: 1.6; margin: 1em 0;"> '''July 23 New Moons:''' * July 23, 1998 — 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 — 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 — 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> * [[Bully Metric Metonic cycle|Learn More About The Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Anchoring Bully Timestamps == To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by defining timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is uniformly maintained by terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''. === The Bully Timestamp Duration === While 3,055 seconds may appear to be an arbitrary choice, the length of a single Bully timestamp is mathematically derived from solar, lunar, and deep-time orbital mechanics. {{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Timestamp Duration | text = Justification: # The Sun orbits approximately one solar radius per Bully timestamp: [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics#Solar_Radius_Mnemonics|t_☉ ≈ 3,055 seconds]] # The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year: [[Bully Mnemonic|31,558,150 s = 10,330 × 3,055 s]]. # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of the Earth–Moon Metonic cycle: [https://www.google.com/search?q=3+*+16%5E4+*+3055+s 1 Metonic cycle ≈ 3 × 16⁴ × 3,055 s]. # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of Earth's Great Year: [https://www.google.com/search?q=16%5E7+*+3055+s 1 Great Year ≈ 16⁷ × 3,055 s]. # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of the galactic year: [https://www.google.com/search?q=2+*+16%5E10+*+3055+s 1 galactic year ≈ 2 × 16¹⁰ × 3,055 s].}} === The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 6a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]], where the plane intersects the Galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 6a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] ==== Bullies in the Bully System ==== A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in Figure 6a: * '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign. * '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left. * '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left. As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history: {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was “sweetheart”. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, “lover”. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}} Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of "excellent" or "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. {{Quote box| align = center | width = full | title = The "Bully" Name | text = The specific "bullies" in the "Bully" timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}} === A surrogate for the Sun === As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving. The path of the node can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°): <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4c''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 6b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}'''. (Note: Figure 4c assumes an idealized travel distance of exactly 52,000 parsecs (or 2^15.666224) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps, whereas Figure 6b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs (or 2^15.666040) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center;" |+ '''Figure 6b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 3px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled in parsecs |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B32}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5058}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.100 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|820A D4AD 4AD4}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1099.86''}}}} |} {{Quote box| align = center| width = full| title = Bully Timestamp Anchor| text = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 6b).}} ==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ==== In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 6c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days. The Earth's orbital speed varies throughout the year, moving slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Consequently, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season. As shown in Figure 6c, '''winter''' was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. It took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to '''spring''' being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to '''summer'''. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over '''21,000 years'''. [[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 6c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]] Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 6c. The transition from '''spring to summer''' is correlated with a large '''green dot''' and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large '''red dot''' appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from '''summer to autumn''', and a large '''blue dot''', back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from '''winter to spring'''. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,500 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly '''26,000 years''' (1 Great Year ≈ 25,824 sidereal years ≈ 25,825 tropical years). {{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | text = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred near the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. All of the Galactic crossings shown in Figure 6c, at 4495 BCE, 1998 CE, and 8329 CE, are roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE. }} == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 7a''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in Figure 7a, these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|'''Figure 7a''': Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of Figure 7a, follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. Ideally, all of the black lines in Figure 7a could be discontinued and replaced by Bully timestamps going forward. === Why do we need Bully timestamps? === All the timestamps in '''Figure 7b''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ '''Figure 7b''': UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of Figure 7b attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of Figure 7b, breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3,055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950s, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic timekeeping (1958 AD – present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Estimation == [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 8a: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 8a'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 8b'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|'''Figure 8b''': The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in '''Figure 8c''' contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8c''': Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in '''Figure 8d''' (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8d''': Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 8d) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in '''Figure 8e''' is the same as is shown in Figure 8d, but Figure 8e plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8e''': A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in '''Figure 8f''' is similar to the table in Figure 8c, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 8c was for large z values, Figure 8f shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8f''': Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] it8bk8xijv9jdty6y5epwkj0aoy4d2x 2832689 2832687 2026-09-10T20:00:53Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility */ 2832689 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the Sun's orbit around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp occurs each time the Sun advances by roughly one solar radius along its path through the cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|upright=2.2|center|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] == One Solar Radius == The Sun hurtles around the Milky Way Galaxy at a blistering 0.076% of the speed of light ([https://arxiv.org/abs/1810.09466 229.0 ± 0.2 kilometers per second]). Yet, even at this staggering pace, it takes about five-sixths of an hour for the Sun to traverse a distance equal to its own radius. This highlights the truly colossal size of our star, which boasts a radius of 2.3206 light-seconds (695,700 kilometers). '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. During each '''3,055-second''' period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over '''2.33 light-seconds''', which is slightly more than one solar radius (<math>R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 2.33 \text{ ls} \gtrapprox R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', it is a vast, oblong, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into surrounding space. While somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, the latter is a comparatively thin layer of gas held near the planetary surface, whereas the heliosphere is a plasma constantly blasted into space by the Sun's extreme heat and energy. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is so vast that if it were truly spherical, it would take the Sun roughly 6.344 years to travel a distance equivalent to the heliosphere's diameter. The digit in the '''fifth position''' of a Bully timestamp represents this orbital distance. Figure 2 illustrates the motion of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. Timestamp 8209 ED00 0000 is defined to have occurred at exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16, 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. During each 6.344-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 306 astronomical units, which is slightly more than 65,536 solar radii (<math>16^{4}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 306 \text{ AU} \gtrapprox 16^{4}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === Naked-Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (not to scale) across 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' corresponds to approximately 383,000 B.C., while timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., representing a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a cyan dashed line marking 100 parsecs. The Sun travels a little less than this distance during each 416,000-year interval, which is tracked by the digit in the '''ninth position''' of the Bully timestamp. Because a large percentage of naked-eye stars sit within this 100-parsec radius, the appearance of Earth's night sky changes completely over this timeframe. [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of naked-eye stars binned according to brightness and distance from the Sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the Sun than 100 parsecs, which is the distance the Sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of naked-eye stars are within this 100-parsec travel distance of the Sun.]] During each 415,792-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 97 parsecs, which is slightly more than 4,294,967,296 solar radii (<math>16^{8}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 97 \text{ pc} \gtrapprox 16^{8}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> ==== The Bully Milky Way ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3b''': Division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 3b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid). Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000'''. These represent the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D., respectively, assuming a full orbital path around the Milky Way of roughly 50,000 parsecs. In the lower half of the image, cyan lines further divide a single yellow sector into 16 equal subsectors. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center in Figure 3b, corresponding to the 6 o'clock position, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle of the Sun at Bully timestamp 820A 0000 0000, estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D. The nine cyan grid lines to the right of the red line mark the Sun's polar angle for Bully timestamps 8201 0000 0000 through 8209 0000 0000. Meanwhile, the five cyan grid lines to the left of the red line indicate the polar angle for timestamps 820B 0000 0000 through 820F 0000 0000. <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,t_{\odot} \approx 212.9 \text{ million years} </math> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \sim 50,000 \text{ parsecs} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> == The Galactic Calendar == [[File:Galactic centre orbits.svg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 4a''':Inferred orbits of 6 stars around the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* at the Milky Way's center<ref name="Eisenhauer">{{cite journal|last=Eisenhauer|first=F.|display-authors=et al. |title=SINFONI in the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares in the Central Light-Month|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=July 20, 2005|volume=628|issue=1|pages=246–259|doi=10.1086/430667|bibcode=2005ApJ...628..246E|arxiv=astro-ph/0502129|s2cid=122485461 }}</ref>]] [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, labeled S2 in '''Figure 4a''', completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance from the Sun to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: &hairsp; :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \\ \end{align}</math> &hairsp; If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. ==== Idealized Galactic Weeks ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Weeks_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 4b''': Division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks of solar travel (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 4b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks (yellow grid). Each week represents 1,000 parsecs of solar travel, which in this plot is assumed to be traversed by the Sun in roughly 4.09 million years. Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000''', respectively, indicating the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D. The cyan lines in the lower half of the image further divide one sector into 10 equal subsectors of 100 parsecs each. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 4b, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun had during Bully timestamp 8209 D89D 89D8 (approximately 31,000 B.C.), which is 1,000 parsecs of travel beyond the yellow line representing timestamp 8200 0000 0000. The nine cyan lines to the left of the red line represent the polar angles of the Sun after traveling 1,100 through 1,900 parsecs beyond timestamp 8200 0000 0000. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2⁴¹ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4c''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. It outlines the specific Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved across this idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4c:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. ==== Is the Galactic Calendar Realistic? ==== [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4d:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250-million-year time period.]] The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4d). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4d''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in Figure 4c states that the galactic week beginning on timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark. ==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ==== In Figure 3a and Figure 3b, the Sun is shown to travel less than 50,000 parsecs per galactic year. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar shown in Figure 4b assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per galactic year, introducing a distinct discrepancy in both galactic scale and calculated orbital velocity. Because the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to complex gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is neither perfectly uniform nor entirely predictable. Consequently, the Sun's true orbital velocity remains a subject of ongoing discovery and refinement. The conjectured values used in Figure 3b and Figure 4b should be viewed as '''practical assumptions''' rather than a reflection of a stable, long-term physical reality; the idealized Bully Calendar is a '''conceptual model''' designed to help visualize the immense scale of the galactic orbit. The table in '''Figure 4e''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp up to 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | '''Figure 4e''': Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 100 parsecs per 16⁸ Bully timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps</small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | <small>2^18.597453 ≈ 396,635 </small> | <small>2^18.6438562 ≈ 409,600 </small> | <small>2^18.666224 ≈ 416,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | <small>2^14.597453 ≈ 24,789.7 </small> | <small>2^14.6438562 ≈ 25,600.0 </small> | <small>2^14.666224 ≈ 26,000.0 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | <small>2^10.597453 ≈ 1,549.36 </small> | <small>2^10.6438562 ≈ 1,600.00 </small> | <small>2^10.666224 ≈ 1,625.00 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁸''' | <small>2^6.597453 ≈ 96.8348 </small> | <small>2^6.6438562 ≈ 100.0000 </small> | <small>2^6.666224 ≈ 101.5625 </small> |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off-Nominal Values |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | <small>2^15.597453 ≈ 49,579 </small> | <small>2^15.6438562 ≈ 51,200 </small> | <small>2^15.666224 ≈ 52,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2²⁶''' | <small>2^0.597453 ≈ 1.513043 </small> | <small>2^0.6438562 ≈ 1.562500 </small> | <small>2^0.666224 ≈ 1.586914 </small> |} == The Earth and Moon == The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep-time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these movements in mind and incorporates a few of their unique values as identified in the '''Bully Mnemonic'''. The Bully Mnemonic is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds in Earth's [[w:Sidereal year|sidereal year]] and [[w:Tropical year|tropical year]], a good approximation of the Earth's [[w:Great Year|Great Year]], and an approximation of the Solar System's [[w:Galactic year|galactic year]]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic|Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] ==== Earth's sidereal year ==== The duration of Earth's sidereal year is '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. While gravitational perturbations from neighboring planets cause this value to vary by a few seconds annually, the averaged century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given this relative stability, using a whole-number divisor of the sidereal year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system offers significant utility. Specifically, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds, meaning Earth's sidereal year—rounded to the nearest second—equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's tropical year ==== Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of seasons between successive vernal equinoxes, spans '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp shorter than the sidereal year, measuring exactly '''10,329.6 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's Great Year ==== With Earth's sidereal year (<math>P</math>) spanning 10,330 timestamps and the tropical year (<math>a_{t}</math>) spanning 10,329.6 timestamps, a full precessional cycle requires a ratio of years, <math>N</math>, where the cumulative annual difference equals exactly one year: <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> <math> \begin{aligned} N &= \frac{1\text{ Bully timestamp}}{P - a_{t}} \\ &= \frac{1}{10,330 - 10,329.6} \\ &= \frac{1}{0.4} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \end{aligned} </math> </div> Expressing this duration in terms of sidereal years yields: <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= 25,824 \, P \end{aligned} </math> </div> Alternatively, expressing the cycle in terms of tropical years yields: <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= 25,825 \, a_{t} \end{aligned} </math> </div> ==== Earth's gravity ==== Of all the planets in the cosmos, our Earth is unique in that the gravity on Earth's surface is approximately equal to the speed of light divided by one sidereal year: <div style="margin-top: 1em;margin-bottom: 1em; "> :<math>g \approx \frac{c}{P}</math> </div> Or equivalently: <div style="margin-top: 1em;margin-bottom: 1em; "> :<math>10,000\text{ Bully timestamps} \approx \frac{c}{g}</math> </div> :where: :* <math>g</math> is Surface gravity :* <math>c</math> is the Speed of light :* <math>P</math> is the orbital period ==== The Metonic cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23, 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp complete approximately three cycles per one Metonic cycle, as illustrated below: <div style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: inherit; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688; border-radius: 4px; line-height: 1.6; margin: 1em 0;"> '''July 23 New Moons:''' * July 23, 1998 — 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 — 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 — 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> * [[Bully Metric Metonic cycle|Learn More About The Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Anchoring Bully Timestamps == To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by defining timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is uniformly maintained by terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''. === The Bully Timestamp Duration === While 3,055 seconds may appear to be an arbitrary choice, the length of a single Bully timestamp is mathematically derived from solar, lunar, and deep-time orbital mechanics. {{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Timestamp Duration | text = Justification: # The Sun orbits approximately one solar radius per Bully timestamp: [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics#Solar_Radius_Mnemonics|t_☉ ≈ 3,055 seconds]] # The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year: [[Bully Mnemonic|31,558,150 s = 10,330 × 3,055 s]]. # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of the Earth–Moon Metonic cycle: [https://www.google.com/search?q=3+*+16%5E4+*+3055+s 1 Metonic cycle ≈ 3 × 16⁴ × 3,055 s]. # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of Earth's Great Year: [https://www.google.com/search?q=16%5E7+*+3055+s 1 Great Year ≈ 16⁷ × 3,055 s]. # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of the galactic year: [https://www.google.com/search?q=2+*+16%5E10+*+3055+s 1 galactic year ≈ 2 × 16¹⁰ × 3,055 s].}} === The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 6a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]], where the plane intersects the Galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 6a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] ==== Bullies in the Bully System ==== A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in Figure 6a: * '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign. * '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left. * '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left. As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history: {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was “sweetheart”. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, “lover”. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}} Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of "excellent" or "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. {{Quote box| align = center | width = full | title = The "Bully" Name | text = The specific "bullies" in the "Bully" timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}} === A surrogate for the Sun === As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving. The path of the node can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°): <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4c''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 6b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}'''. (Note: Figure 4c assumes an idealized travel distance of exactly 52,000 parsecs (or 2^15.666224) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps, whereas Figure 6b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs (or 2^15.666040) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center;" |+ '''Figure 6b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 3px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled in parsecs |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B32}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5058}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.100 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|820A D4AD 4AD4}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1099.86''}}}} |} {{Quote box| align = center| width = full| title = Bully Timestamp Anchor| text = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 6b).}} ==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ==== In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 6c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days. The Earth's orbital speed varies throughout the year, moving slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Consequently, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season. As shown in Figure 6c, '''winter''' was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. It took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to '''spring''' being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to '''summer'''. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over '''21,000 years'''. [[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|upright=2.8|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 6c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]] Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 6c. The transition from '''spring to summer''' is correlated with a large '''green dot''' and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large '''red dot''' appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from '''summer to autumn''', and a large '''blue dot''', back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from '''winter to spring'''. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,500 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly '''26,000 years''' (1 Great Year ≈ 25,824 sidereal years ≈ 25,825 tropical years). {{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | text = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred near the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. All of the Galactic crossings shown in Figure 6c, at 4495 BCE, 1998 CE, and 8329 CE, are roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE. }} == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 7a''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in Figure 7a, these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|'''Figure 7a''': Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of Figure 7a, follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. Ideally, all of the black lines in Figure 7a could be discontinued and replaced by Bully timestamps going forward. === Why do we need Bully timestamps? === All the timestamps in '''Figure 7b''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ '''Figure 7b''': UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of Figure 7b attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of Figure 7b, breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3,055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950s, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic timekeeping (1958 AD – present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Estimation == [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 8a: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 8a'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 8b'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|'''Figure 8b''': The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in '''Figure 8c''' contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8c''': Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in '''Figure 8d''' (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8d''': Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 8d) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in '''Figure 8e''' is the same as is shown in Figure 8d, but Figure 8e plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8e''': A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in '''Figure 8f''' is similar to the table in Figure 8c, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 8c was for large z values, Figure 8f shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8f''': Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] 6xzz9duldgt0tdfsi3avqc98g7q4p4l 2832690 2832689 2026-09-10T20:01:20Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility */ 2832690 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the Sun's orbit around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp occurs each time the Sun advances by roughly one solar radius along its path through the cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|upright=2.2|center|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] == One Solar Radius == The Sun hurtles around the Milky Way Galaxy at a blistering 0.076% of the speed of light ([https://arxiv.org/abs/1810.09466 229.0 ± 0.2 kilometers per second]). Yet, even at this staggering pace, it takes about five-sixths of an hour for the Sun to traverse a distance equal to its own radius. This highlights the truly colossal size of our star, which boasts a radius of 2.3206 light-seconds (695,700 kilometers). '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. During each '''3,055-second''' period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over '''2.33 light-seconds''', which is slightly more than one solar radius (<math>R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 2.33 \text{ ls} \gtrapprox R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', it is a vast, oblong, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into surrounding space. While somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, the latter is a comparatively thin layer of gas held near the planetary surface, whereas the heliosphere is a plasma constantly blasted into space by the Sun's extreme heat and energy. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is so vast that if it were truly spherical, it would take the Sun roughly 6.344 years to travel a distance equivalent to the heliosphere's diameter. The digit in the '''fifth position''' of a Bully timestamp represents this orbital distance. Figure 2 illustrates the motion of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. Timestamp 8209 ED00 0000 is defined to have occurred at exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16, 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. During each 6.344-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 306 astronomical units, which is slightly more than 65,536 solar radii (<math>16^{4}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 306 \text{ AU} \gtrapprox 16^{4}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === Naked-Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (not to scale) across 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' corresponds to approximately 383,000 B.C., while timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., representing a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a cyan dashed line marking 100 parsecs. The Sun travels a little less than this distance during each 416,000-year interval, which is tracked by the digit in the '''ninth position''' of the Bully timestamp. Because a large percentage of naked-eye stars sit within this 100-parsec radius, the appearance of Earth's night sky changes completely over this timeframe. [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of naked-eye stars binned according to brightness and distance from the Sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the Sun than 100 parsecs, which is the distance the Sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of naked-eye stars are within this 100-parsec travel distance of the Sun.]] During each 415,792-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 97 parsecs, which is slightly more than 4,294,967,296 solar radii (<math>16^{8}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 97 \text{ pc} \gtrapprox 16^{8}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> ==== The Bully Milky Way ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3b''': Division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 3b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid). Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000'''. These represent the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D., respectively, assuming a full orbital path around the Milky Way of roughly 50,000 parsecs. In the lower half of the image, cyan lines further divide a single yellow sector into 16 equal subsectors. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center in Figure 3b, corresponding to the 6 o'clock position, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle of the Sun at Bully timestamp 820A 0000 0000, estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D. The nine cyan grid lines to the right of the red line mark the Sun's polar angle for Bully timestamps 8201 0000 0000 through 8209 0000 0000. Meanwhile, the five cyan grid lines to the left of the red line indicate the polar angle for timestamps 820B 0000 0000 through 820F 0000 0000. <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,t_{\odot} \approx 212.9 \text{ million years} </math> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \sim 50,000 \text{ parsecs} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> == The Galactic Calendar == [[File:Galactic centre orbits.svg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 4a''':Inferred orbits of 6 stars around the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* at the Milky Way's center<ref name="Eisenhauer">{{cite journal|last=Eisenhauer|first=F.|display-authors=et al. |title=SINFONI in the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares in the Central Light-Month|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=July 20, 2005|volume=628|issue=1|pages=246–259|doi=10.1086/430667|bibcode=2005ApJ...628..246E|arxiv=astro-ph/0502129|s2cid=122485461 }}</ref>]] [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, labeled S2 in '''Figure 4a''', completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance from the Sun to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: &hairsp; :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \\ \end{align}</math> &hairsp; If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. ==== Idealized Galactic Weeks ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Weeks_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 4b''': Division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks of solar travel (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 4b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks (yellow grid). Each week represents 1,000 parsecs of solar travel, which in this plot is assumed to be traversed by the Sun in roughly 4.09 million years. Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000''', respectively, indicating the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D. The cyan lines in the lower half of the image further divide one sector into 10 equal subsectors of 100 parsecs each. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 4b, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun had during Bully timestamp 8209 D89D 89D8 (approximately 31,000 B.C.), which is 1,000 parsecs of travel beyond the yellow line representing timestamp 8200 0000 0000. The nine cyan lines to the left of the red line represent the polar angles of the Sun after traveling 1,100 through 1,900 parsecs beyond timestamp 8200 0000 0000. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2⁴¹ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4c''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. It outlines the specific Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved across this idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4c:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. ==== Is the Galactic Calendar Realistic? ==== [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4d:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250-million-year time period.]] The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4d). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4d''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in Figure 4c states that the galactic week beginning on timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark. ==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ==== In Figure 3a and Figure 3b, the Sun is shown to travel less than 50,000 parsecs per galactic year. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar shown in Figure 4b assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per galactic year, introducing a distinct discrepancy in both galactic scale and calculated orbital velocity. Because the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to complex gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is neither perfectly uniform nor entirely predictable. Consequently, the Sun's true orbital velocity remains a subject of ongoing discovery and refinement. The conjectured values used in Figure 3b and Figure 4b should be viewed as '''practical assumptions''' rather than a reflection of a stable, long-term physical reality; the idealized Bully Calendar is a '''conceptual model''' designed to help visualize the immense scale of the galactic orbit. The table in '''Figure 4e''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp up to 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | '''Figure 4e''': Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 100 parsecs per 16⁸ Bully timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps</small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | <small>2^18.597453 ≈ 396,635 </small> | <small>2^18.6438562 ≈ 409,600 </small> | <small>2^18.666224 ≈ 416,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | <small>2^14.597453 ≈ 24,789.7 </small> | <small>2^14.6438562 ≈ 25,600.0 </small> | <small>2^14.666224 ≈ 26,000.0 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | <small>2^10.597453 ≈ 1,549.36 </small> | <small>2^10.6438562 ≈ 1,600.00 </small> | <small>2^10.666224 ≈ 1,625.00 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁸''' | <small>2^6.597453 ≈ 96.8348 </small> | <small>2^6.6438562 ≈ 100.0000 </small> | <small>2^6.666224 ≈ 101.5625 </small> |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off-Nominal Values |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | <small>2^15.597453 ≈ 49,579 </small> | <small>2^15.6438562 ≈ 51,200 </small> | <small>2^15.666224 ≈ 52,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2²⁶''' | <small>2^0.597453 ≈ 1.513043 </small> | <small>2^0.6438562 ≈ 1.562500 </small> | <small>2^0.666224 ≈ 1.586914 </small> |} == The Earth and Moon == The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep-time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these movements in mind and incorporates a few of their unique values as identified in the '''Bully Mnemonic'''. The Bully Mnemonic is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds in Earth's [[w:Sidereal year|sidereal year]] and [[w:Tropical year|tropical year]], a good approximation of the Earth's [[w:Great Year|Great Year]], and an approximation of the Solar System's [[w:Galactic year|galactic year]]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic|Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] ==== Earth's sidereal year ==== The duration of Earth's sidereal year is '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. While gravitational perturbations from neighboring planets cause this value to vary by a few seconds annually, the averaged century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given this relative stability, using a whole-number divisor of the sidereal year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system offers significant utility. Specifically, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds, meaning Earth's sidereal year—rounded to the nearest second—equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's tropical year ==== Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of seasons between successive vernal equinoxes, spans '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp shorter than the sidereal year, measuring exactly '''10,329.6 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's Great Year ==== With Earth's sidereal year (<math>P</math>) spanning 10,330 timestamps and the tropical year (<math>a_{t}</math>) spanning 10,329.6 timestamps, a full precessional cycle requires a ratio of years, <math>N</math>, where the cumulative annual difference equals exactly one year: <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> <math> \begin{aligned} N &= \frac{1\text{ Bully timestamp}}{P - a_{t}} \\ &= \frac{1}{10,330 - 10,329.6} \\ &= \frac{1}{0.4} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \end{aligned} </math> </div> Expressing this duration in terms of sidereal years yields: <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= 25,824 \, P \end{aligned} </math> </div> Alternatively, expressing the cycle in terms of tropical years yields: <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= 25,825 \, a_{t} \end{aligned} </math> </div> ==== Earth's gravity ==== Of all the planets in the cosmos, our Earth is unique in that the gravity on Earth's surface is approximately equal to the speed of light divided by one sidereal year: <div style="margin-top: 1em;margin-bottom: 1em; "> :<math>g \approx \frac{c}{P}</math> </div> Or equivalently: <div style="margin-top: 1em;margin-bottom: 1em; "> :<math>10,000\text{ Bully timestamps} \approx \frac{c}{g}</math> </div> :where: :* <math>g</math> is Surface gravity :* <math>c</math> is the Speed of light :* <math>P</math> is the orbital period ==== The Metonic cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23, 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp complete approximately three cycles per one Metonic cycle, as illustrated below: <div style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: inherit; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688; border-radius: 4px; line-height: 1.6; margin: 1em 0;"> '''July 23 New Moons:''' * July 23, 1998 — 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 — 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 — 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> * [[Bully Metric Metonic cycle|Learn More About The Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Anchoring Bully Timestamps == To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by defining timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is uniformly maintained by terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''. === The Bully Timestamp Duration === While 3,055 seconds may appear to be an arbitrary choice, the length of a single Bully timestamp is mathematically derived from solar, lunar, and deep-time orbital mechanics. {{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Timestamp Duration | text = Justification: # The Sun orbits approximately one solar radius per Bully timestamp: [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics#Solar_Radius_Mnemonics|t_☉ ≈ 3,055 seconds]] # The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year: [[Bully Mnemonic|31,558,150 s = 10,330 × 3,055 s]]. # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of the Earth–Moon Metonic cycle: [https://www.google.com/search?q=3+*+16%5E4+*+3055+s 1 Metonic cycle ≈ 3 × 16⁴ × 3,055 s]. # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of Earth's Great Year: [https://www.google.com/search?q=16%5E7+*+3055+s 1 Great Year ≈ 16⁷ × 3,055 s]. # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of the galactic year: [https://www.google.com/search?q=2+*+16%5E10+*+3055+s 1 galactic year ≈ 2 × 16¹⁰ × 3,055 s].}} === The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 6a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]], where the plane intersects the Galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 6a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] ==== Bullies in the Bully System ==== A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in Figure 6a: * '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign. * '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left. * '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left. As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history: {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was “sweetheart”. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, “lover”. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}} Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of "excellent" or "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. {{Quote box| align = center | width = full | title = The "Bully" Name | text = The specific "bullies" in the "Bully" timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}} === A surrogate for the Sun === As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving. The path of the node can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°): <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4c''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 6b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}'''. (Note: Figure 4c assumes an idealized travel distance of exactly 52,000 parsecs (or 2^15.666224) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps, whereas Figure 6b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs (or 2^15.666040) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center;" |+ '''Figure 6b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 3px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled in parsecs |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B32}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5058}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.100 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|820A D4AD 4AD4}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1099.86''}}}} |} {{Quote box| align = center| width = full| title = Bully Timestamp Anchor| text = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 6b).}} ==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ==== In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 6c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days. The Earth's orbital speed varies throughout the year, moving slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Consequently, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season. As shown in Figure 6c, '''winter''' was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. It took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to '''spring''' being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to '''summer'''. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over '''21,000 years'''. [[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|upright=3.0|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 6c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]] Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 6c. The transition from '''spring to summer''' is correlated with a large '''green dot''' and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large '''red dot''' appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from '''summer to autumn''', and a large '''blue dot''', back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from '''winter to spring'''. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,500 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly '''26,000 years''' (1 Great Year ≈ 25,824 sidereal years ≈ 25,825 tropical years). {{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | text = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred near the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. All of the Galactic crossings shown in Figure 6c, at 4495 BCE, 1998 CE, and 8329 CE, are roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE. }} == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 7a''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in Figure 7a, these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|'''Figure 7a''': Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of Figure 7a, follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. Ideally, all of the black lines in Figure 7a could be discontinued and replaced by Bully timestamps going forward. === Why do we need Bully timestamps? === All the timestamps in '''Figure 7b''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ '''Figure 7b''': UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of Figure 7b attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of Figure 7b, breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3,055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950s, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic timekeeping (1958 AD – present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Estimation == [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 8a: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 8a'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 8b'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|'''Figure 8b''': The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in '''Figure 8c''' contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8c''': Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in '''Figure 8d''' (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8d''': Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 8d) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in '''Figure 8e''' is the same as is shown in Figure 8d, but Figure 8e plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8e''': A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in '''Figure 8f''' is similar to the table in Figure 8c, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 8c was for large z values, Figure 8f shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8f''': Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] fisrvlviavjrroyb6zhqgwc3sf2rl68 2832691 2832690 2026-09-10T20:06:47Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Earth's Great Year */ 2832691 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the Sun's orbit around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp occurs each time the Sun advances by roughly one solar radius along its path through the cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|upright=2.2|center|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] == One Solar Radius == The Sun hurtles around the Milky Way Galaxy at a blistering 0.076% of the speed of light ([https://arxiv.org/abs/1810.09466 229.0 ± 0.2 kilometers per second]). Yet, even at this staggering pace, it takes about five-sixths of an hour for the Sun to traverse a distance equal to its own radius. This highlights the truly colossal size of our star, which boasts a radius of 2.3206 light-seconds (695,700 kilometers). '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. During each '''3,055-second''' period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over '''2.33 light-seconds''', which is slightly more than one solar radius (<math>R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 2.33 \text{ ls} \gtrapprox R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', it is a vast, oblong, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into surrounding space. While somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, the latter is a comparatively thin layer of gas held near the planetary surface, whereas the heliosphere is a plasma constantly blasted into space by the Sun's extreme heat and energy. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is so vast that if it were truly spherical, it would take the Sun roughly 6.344 years to travel a distance equivalent to the heliosphere's diameter. The digit in the '''fifth position''' of a Bully timestamp represents this orbital distance. Figure 2 illustrates the motion of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. Timestamp 8209 ED00 0000 is defined to have occurred at exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16, 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. During each 6.344-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 306 astronomical units, which is slightly more than 65,536 solar radii (<math>16^{4}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 306 \text{ AU} \gtrapprox 16^{4}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === Naked-Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (not to scale) across 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' corresponds to approximately 383,000 B.C., while timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., representing a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a cyan dashed line marking 100 parsecs. The Sun travels a little less than this distance during each 416,000-year interval, which is tracked by the digit in the '''ninth position''' of the Bully timestamp. Because a large percentage of naked-eye stars sit within this 100-parsec radius, the appearance of Earth's night sky changes completely over this timeframe. [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of naked-eye stars binned according to brightness and distance from the Sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the Sun than 100 parsecs, which is the distance the Sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of naked-eye stars are within this 100-parsec travel distance of the Sun.]] During each 415,792-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 97 parsecs, which is slightly more than 4,294,967,296 solar radii (<math>16^{8}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 97 \text{ pc} \gtrapprox 16^{8}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> ==== The Bully Milky Way ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3b''': Division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 3b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid). Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000'''. These represent the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D., respectively, assuming a full orbital path around the Milky Way of roughly 50,000 parsecs. In the lower half of the image, cyan lines further divide a single yellow sector into 16 equal subsectors. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center in Figure 3b, corresponding to the 6 o'clock position, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle of the Sun at Bully timestamp 820A 0000 0000, estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D. The nine cyan grid lines to the right of the red line mark the Sun's polar angle for Bully timestamps 8201 0000 0000 through 8209 0000 0000. Meanwhile, the five cyan grid lines to the left of the red line indicate the polar angle for timestamps 820B 0000 0000 through 820F 0000 0000. <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,t_{\odot} \approx 212.9 \text{ million years} </math> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \sim 50,000 \text{ parsecs} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> == The Galactic Calendar == [[File:Galactic centre orbits.svg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 4a''':Inferred orbits of 6 stars around the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* at the Milky Way's center<ref name="Eisenhauer">{{cite journal|last=Eisenhauer|first=F.|display-authors=et al. |title=SINFONI in the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares in the Central Light-Month|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=July 20, 2005|volume=628|issue=1|pages=246–259|doi=10.1086/430667|bibcode=2005ApJ...628..246E|arxiv=astro-ph/0502129|s2cid=122485461 }}</ref>]] [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, labeled S2 in '''Figure 4a''', completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance from the Sun to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: &hairsp; :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \\ \end{align}</math> &hairsp; If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. ==== Idealized Galactic Weeks ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Weeks_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 4b''': Division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks of solar travel (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 4b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks (yellow grid). Each week represents 1,000 parsecs of solar travel, which in this plot is assumed to be traversed by the Sun in roughly 4.09 million years. Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000''', respectively, indicating the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D. The cyan lines in the lower half of the image further divide one sector into 10 equal subsectors of 100 parsecs each. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 4b, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun had during Bully timestamp 8209 D89D 89D8 (approximately 31,000 B.C.), which is 1,000 parsecs of travel beyond the yellow line representing timestamp 8200 0000 0000. The nine cyan lines to the left of the red line represent the polar angles of the Sun after traveling 1,100 through 1,900 parsecs beyond timestamp 8200 0000 0000. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2⁴¹ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4c''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. It outlines the specific Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved across this idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4c:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. ==== Is the Galactic Calendar Realistic? ==== [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4d:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250-million-year time period.]] The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4d). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4d''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in Figure 4c states that the galactic week beginning on timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark. ==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ==== In Figure 3a and Figure 3b, the Sun is shown to travel less than 50,000 parsecs per galactic year. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar shown in Figure 4b assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per galactic year, introducing a distinct discrepancy in both galactic scale and calculated orbital velocity. Because the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to complex gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is neither perfectly uniform nor entirely predictable. Consequently, the Sun's true orbital velocity remains a subject of ongoing discovery and refinement. The conjectured values used in Figure 3b and Figure 4b should be viewed as '''practical assumptions''' rather than a reflection of a stable, long-term physical reality; the idealized Bully Calendar is a '''conceptual model''' designed to help visualize the immense scale of the galactic orbit. The table in '''Figure 4e''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp up to 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | '''Figure 4e''': Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 100 parsecs per 16⁸ Bully timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps</small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | <small>2^18.597453 ≈ 396,635 </small> | <small>2^18.6438562 ≈ 409,600 </small> | <small>2^18.666224 ≈ 416,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | <small>2^14.597453 ≈ 24,789.7 </small> | <small>2^14.6438562 ≈ 25,600.0 </small> | <small>2^14.666224 ≈ 26,000.0 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | <small>2^10.597453 ≈ 1,549.36 </small> | <small>2^10.6438562 ≈ 1,600.00 </small> | <small>2^10.666224 ≈ 1,625.00 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁸''' | <small>2^6.597453 ≈ 96.8348 </small> | <small>2^6.6438562 ≈ 100.0000 </small> | <small>2^6.666224 ≈ 101.5625 </small> |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off-Nominal Values |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | <small>2^15.597453 ≈ 49,579 </small> | <small>2^15.6438562 ≈ 51,200 </small> | <small>2^15.666224 ≈ 52,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2²⁶''' | <small>2^0.597453 ≈ 1.513043 </small> | <small>2^0.6438562 ≈ 1.562500 </small> | <small>2^0.666224 ≈ 1.586914 </small> |} == The Earth and Moon == The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep-time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these movements in mind and incorporates a few of their unique values as identified in the '''Bully Mnemonic'''. The Bully Mnemonic is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds in Earth's [[w:Sidereal year|sidereal year]] and [[w:Tropical year|tropical year]], a good approximation of the Earth's [[w:Great Year|Great Year]], and an approximation of the Solar System's [[w:Galactic year|galactic year]]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic|Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] ==== Earth's sidereal year ==== The duration of Earth's sidereal year is '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. While gravitational perturbations from neighboring planets cause this value to vary by a few seconds annually, the averaged century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given this relative stability, using a whole-number divisor of the sidereal year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system offers significant utility. Specifically, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds, meaning Earth's sidereal year—rounded to the nearest second—equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's tropical year ==== Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of seasons between successive vernal equinoxes, spans '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp shorter than the sidereal year, measuring exactly '''10,329.6 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's Great Year ==== [[File:Precesion.png|thumb|'''Figure 5a''': The tilt of the Earth's polar axis remains constant but describes a circular path in space during a period known as the Great Year.]] With Earth's sidereal year (<math>P</math>) spanning 10,330 timestamps and the tropical year (<math>a_{t}</math>) spanning 10,329.6 timestamps, a full precessional cycle requires a ratio of years, <math>N</math>, where the cumulative annual difference equals exactly one year: <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> <math> \begin{aligned} N &= \frac{1\text{ Bully timestamp}}{P - a_{t}} \\ &= \frac{1}{10,330 - 10,329.6} \\ &= \frac{1}{0.4} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \end{aligned} </math> </div> Expressing this duration in terms of sidereal years yields: <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= 25,824 \, P \end{aligned} </math> </div> Alternatively, expressing the cycle in terms of tropical years yields: <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= 25,825 \, a_{t} \end{aligned} </math> </div> ==== Earth's gravity ==== Of all the planets in the cosmos, our Earth is unique in that the gravity on Earth's surface is approximately equal to the speed of light divided by one sidereal year: <div style="margin-top: 1em;margin-bottom: 1em; "> :<math>g \approx \frac{c}{P}</math> </div> Or equivalently: <div style="margin-top: 1em;margin-bottom: 1em; "> :<math>10,000\text{ Bully timestamps} \approx \frac{c}{g}</math> </div> :where: :* <math>g</math> is Surface gravity :* <math>c</math> is the Speed of light :* <math>P</math> is the orbital period ==== The Metonic cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23, 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp complete approximately three cycles per one Metonic cycle, as illustrated below: <div style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: inherit; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688; border-radius: 4px; line-height: 1.6; margin: 1em 0;"> '''July 23 New Moons:''' * July 23, 1998 — 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 — 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 — 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> * [[Bully Metric Metonic cycle|Learn More About The Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Anchoring Bully Timestamps == To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by defining timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is uniformly maintained by terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''. === The Bully Timestamp Duration === While 3,055 seconds may appear to be an arbitrary choice, the length of a single Bully timestamp is mathematically derived from solar, lunar, and deep-time orbital mechanics. {{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Timestamp Duration | text = Justification: # The Sun orbits approximately one solar radius per Bully timestamp: [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics#Solar_Radius_Mnemonics|t_☉ ≈ 3,055 seconds]] # The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year: [[Bully Mnemonic|31,558,150 s = 10,330 × 3,055 s]]. # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of the Earth–Moon Metonic cycle: [https://www.google.com/search?q=3+*+16%5E4+*+3055+s 1 Metonic cycle ≈ 3 × 16⁴ × 3,055 s]. # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of Earth's Great Year: [https://www.google.com/search?q=16%5E7+*+3055+s 1 Great Year ≈ 16⁷ × 3,055 s]. # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of the galactic year: [https://www.google.com/search?q=2+*+16%5E10+*+3055+s 1 galactic year ≈ 2 × 16¹⁰ × 3,055 s].}} === The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 6a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]], where the plane intersects the Galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 6a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] ==== Bullies in the Bully System ==== A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in Figure 6a: * '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign. * '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left. * '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left. As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history: {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was “sweetheart”. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, “lover”. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}} Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of "excellent" or "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. {{Quote box| align = center | width = full | title = The "Bully" Name | text = The specific "bullies" in the "Bully" timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}} === A surrogate for the Sun === As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving. The path of the node can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°): <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4c''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 6b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}'''. (Note: Figure 4c assumes an idealized travel distance of exactly 52,000 parsecs (or 2^15.666224) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps, whereas Figure 6b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs (or 2^15.666040) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center;" |+ '''Figure 6b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 3px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled in parsecs |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B32}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5058}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.100 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|820A D4AD 4AD4}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1099.86''}}}} |} {{Quote box| align = center| width = full| title = Bully Timestamp Anchor| text = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 6b).}} ==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ==== In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 6c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days. The Earth's orbital speed varies throughout the year, moving slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Consequently, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season. As shown in Figure 6c, '''winter''' was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. It took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to '''spring''' being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to '''summer'''. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over '''21,000 years'''. [[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|upright=3.0|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 6c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]] Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 6c. The transition from '''spring to summer''' is correlated with a large '''green dot''' and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large '''red dot''' appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from '''summer to autumn''', and a large '''blue dot''', back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from '''winter to spring'''. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,500 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly '''26,000 years''' (1 Great Year ≈ 25,824 sidereal years ≈ 25,825 tropical years). {{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | text = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred near the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. All of the Galactic crossings shown in Figure 6c, at 4495 BCE, 1998 CE, and 8329 CE, are roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE. }} == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 7a''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in Figure 7a, these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|'''Figure 7a''': Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of Figure 7a, follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. Ideally, all of the black lines in Figure 7a could be discontinued and replaced by Bully timestamps going forward. === Why do we need Bully timestamps? === All the timestamps in '''Figure 7b''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ '''Figure 7b''': UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of Figure 7b attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of Figure 7b, breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3,055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950s, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic timekeeping (1958 AD – present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Estimation == [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 8a: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 8a'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 8b'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|'''Figure 8b''': The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in '''Figure 8c''' contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8c''': Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in '''Figure 8d''' (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8d''': Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 8d) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in '''Figure 8e''' is the same as is shown in Figure 8d, but Figure 8e plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8e''': A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in '''Figure 8f''' is similar to the table in Figure 8c, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 8c was for large z values, Figure 8f shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8f''': Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] smgyamfzdxj5r09zfpihwtw8fecocv1 2832692 2832691 2026-09-10T20:08:46Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Earth's Great Year */ 2832692 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the Sun's orbit around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp occurs each time the Sun advances by roughly one solar radius along its path through the cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|upright=2.2|center|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] == One Solar Radius == The Sun hurtles around the Milky Way Galaxy at a blistering 0.076% of the speed of light ([https://arxiv.org/abs/1810.09466 229.0 ± 0.2 kilometers per second]). Yet, even at this staggering pace, it takes about five-sixths of an hour for the Sun to traverse a distance equal to its own radius. This highlights the truly colossal size of our star, which boasts a radius of 2.3206 light-seconds (695,700 kilometers). '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. During each '''3,055-second''' period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over '''2.33 light-seconds''', which is slightly more than one solar radius (<math>R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 2.33 \text{ ls} \gtrapprox R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', it is a vast, oblong, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into surrounding space. While somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, the latter is a comparatively thin layer of gas held near the planetary surface, whereas the heliosphere is a plasma constantly blasted into space by the Sun's extreme heat and energy. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is so vast that if it were truly spherical, it would take the Sun roughly 6.344 years to travel a distance equivalent to the heliosphere's diameter. The digit in the '''fifth position''' of a Bully timestamp represents this orbital distance. Figure 2 illustrates the motion of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. Timestamp 8209 ED00 0000 is defined to have occurred at exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16, 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. During each 6.344-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 306 astronomical units, which is slightly more than 65,536 solar radii (<math>16^{4}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 306 \text{ AU} \gtrapprox 16^{4}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === Naked-Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (not to scale) across 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' corresponds to approximately 383,000 B.C., while timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., representing a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a cyan dashed line marking 100 parsecs. The Sun travels a little less than this distance during each 416,000-year interval, which is tracked by the digit in the '''ninth position''' of the Bully timestamp. Because a large percentage of naked-eye stars sit within this 100-parsec radius, the appearance of Earth's night sky changes completely over this timeframe. [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of naked-eye stars binned according to brightness and distance from the Sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the Sun than 100 parsecs, which is the distance the Sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of naked-eye stars are within this 100-parsec travel distance of the Sun.]] During each 415,792-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 97 parsecs, which is slightly more than 4,294,967,296 solar radii (<math>16^{8}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 97 \text{ pc} \gtrapprox 16^{8}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> ==== The Bully Milky Way ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3b''': Division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 3b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid). Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000'''. These represent the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D., respectively, assuming a full orbital path around the Milky Way of roughly 50,000 parsecs. In the lower half of the image, cyan lines further divide a single yellow sector into 16 equal subsectors. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center in Figure 3b, corresponding to the 6 o'clock position, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle of the Sun at Bully timestamp 820A 0000 0000, estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D. The nine cyan grid lines to the right of the red line mark the Sun's polar angle for Bully timestamps 8201 0000 0000 through 8209 0000 0000. Meanwhile, the five cyan grid lines to the left of the red line indicate the polar angle for timestamps 820B 0000 0000 through 820F 0000 0000. <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,t_{\odot} \approx 212.9 \text{ million years} </math> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \sim 50,000 \text{ parsecs} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> == The Galactic Calendar == [[File:Galactic centre orbits.svg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 4a''':Inferred orbits of 6 stars around the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* at the Milky Way's center<ref name="Eisenhauer">{{cite journal|last=Eisenhauer|first=F.|display-authors=et al. |title=SINFONI in the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares in the Central Light-Month|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=July 20, 2005|volume=628|issue=1|pages=246–259|doi=10.1086/430667|bibcode=2005ApJ...628..246E|arxiv=astro-ph/0502129|s2cid=122485461 }}</ref>]] [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, labeled S2 in '''Figure 4a''', completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance from the Sun to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: &hairsp; :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \\ \end{align}</math> &hairsp; If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. ==== Idealized Galactic Weeks ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Weeks_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 4b''': Division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks of solar travel (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 4b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks (yellow grid). Each week represents 1,000 parsecs of solar travel, which in this plot is assumed to be traversed by the Sun in roughly 4.09 million years. Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000''', respectively, indicating the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D. The cyan lines in the lower half of the image further divide one sector into 10 equal subsectors of 100 parsecs each. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 4b, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun had during Bully timestamp 8209 D89D 89D8 (approximately 31,000 B.C.), which is 1,000 parsecs of travel beyond the yellow line representing timestamp 8200 0000 0000. The nine cyan lines to the left of the red line represent the polar angles of the Sun after traveling 1,100 through 1,900 parsecs beyond timestamp 8200 0000 0000. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2⁴¹ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4c''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. It outlines the specific Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved across this idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4c:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. ==== Is the Galactic Calendar Realistic? ==== [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4d:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250-million-year time period.]] The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4d). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4d''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in Figure 4c states that the galactic week beginning on timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark. ==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ==== In Figure 3a and Figure 3b, the Sun is shown to travel less than 50,000 parsecs per galactic year. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar shown in Figure 4b assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per galactic year, introducing a distinct discrepancy in both galactic scale and calculated orbital velocity. Because the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to complex gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is neither perfectly uniform nor entirely predictable. Consequently, the Sun's true orbital velocity remains a subject of ongoing discovery and refinement. The conjectured values used in Figure 3b and Figure 4b should be viewed as '''practical assumptions''' rather than a reflection of a stable, long-term physical reality; the idealized Bully Calendar is a '''conceptual model''' designed to help visualize the immense scale of the galactic orbit. The table in '''Figure 4e''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp up to 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | '''Figure 4e''': Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 100 parsecs per 16⁸ Bully timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps</small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | <small>2^18.597453 ≈ 396,635 </small> | <small>2^18.6438562 ≈ 409,600 </small> | <small>2^18.666224 ≈ 416,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | <small>2^14.597453 ≈ 24,789.7 </small> | <small>2^14.6438562 ≈ 25,600.0 </small> | <small>2^14.666224 ≈ 26,000.0 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | <small>2^10.597453 ≈ 1,549.36 </small> | <small>2^10.6438562 ≈ 1,600.00 </small> | <small>2^10.666224 ≈ 1,625.00 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁸''' | <small>2^6.597453 ≈ 96.8348 </small> | <small>2^6.6438562 ≈ 100.0000 </small> | <small>2^6.666224 ≈ 101.5625 </small> |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off-Nominal Values |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | <small>2^15.597453 ≈ 49,579 </small> | <small>2^15.6438562 ≈ 51,200 </small> | <small>2^15.666224 ≈ 52,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2²⁶''' | <small>2^0.597453 ≈ 1.513043 </small> | <small>2^0.6438562 ≈ 1.562500 </small> | <small>2^0.666224 ≈ 1.586914 </small> |} == The Earth and Moon == The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep-time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these movements in mind and incorporates a few of their unique values as identified in the '''Bully Mnemonic'''. The Bully Mnemonic is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds in Earth's [[w:Sidereal year|sidereal year]] and [[w:Tropical year|tropical year]], a good approximation of the Earth's [[w:Great Year|Great Year]], and an approximation of the Solar System's [[w:Galactic year|galactic year]]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic|Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] ==== Earth's sidereal year ==== The duration of Earth's sidereal year is '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. While gravitational perturbations from neighboring planets cause this value to vary by a few seconds annually, the averaged century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given this relative stability, using a whole-number divisor of the sidereal year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system offers significant utility. Specifically, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds, meaning Earth's sidereal year—rounded to the nearest second—equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's tropical year ==== Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of seasons between successive vernal equinoxes, spans '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp shorter than the sidereal year, measuring exactly '''10,329.6 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's Great Year ==== [[File:Precesion.png|thumb|'''Figure 5a''': The tilt of the Earth's polar axis remains constant but describes a circular path in space during a period known as the Great Year.]] With Earth's sidereal year (<math>P</math>) spanning 10,330 timestamps and the tropical year (<math>a_{t}</math>) spanning 10,329.6 timestamps, a full precessional cycle (see Figure 5a) requires a ratio of years, <math>N</math>, where the cumulative annual difference equals exactly one year: <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> <math> \begin{aligned} N &= \frac{1\text{ Bully timestamp}}{P - a_{t}} \\ &= \frac{1}{10,330 - 10,329.6} \\ &= \frac{1}{0.4} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \end{aligned} </math> </div> Expressing this duration in terms of sidereal years yields: <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= 25,824 \, P \end{aligned} </math> </div> Alternatively, expressing the cycle in terms of tropical years yields: <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= 25,825 \, a_{t} \end{aligned} </math> </div> ==== Earth's gravity ==== Of all the planets in the cosmos, our Earth is unique in that the gravity on Earth's surface is approximately equal to the speed of light divided by one sidereal year: <div style="margin-top: 1em;margin-bottom: 1em; "> :<math>g \approx \frac{c}{P}</math> </div> Or equivalently: <div style="margin-top: 1em;margin-bottom: 1em; "> :<math>10,000\text{ Bully timestamps} \approx \frac{c}{g}</math> </div> :where: :* <math>g</math> is Surface gravity :* <math>c</math> is the Speed of light :* <math>P</math> is the orbital period ==== The Metonic cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23, 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp complete approximately three cycles per one Metonic cycle, as illustrated below: <div style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: inherit; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688; border-radius: 4px; line-height: 1.6; margin: 1em 0;"> '''July 23 New Moons:''' * July 23, 1998 — 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 — 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 — 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> * [[Bully Metric Metonic cycle|Learn More About The Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Anchoring Bully Timestamps == To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by defining timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is uniformly maintained by terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''. === The Bully Timestamp Duration === While 3,055 seconds may appear to be an arbitrary choice, the length of a single Bully timestamp is mathematically derived from solar, lunar, and deep-time orbital mechanics. {{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Timestamp Duration | text = Justification: # The Sun orbits approximately one solar radius per Bully timestamp: [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics#Solar_Radius_Mnemonics|t_☉ ≈ 3,055 seconds]] # The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year: [[Bully Mnemonic|31,558,150 s = 10,330 × 3,055 s]]. # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of the Earth–Moon Metonic cycle: [https://www.google.com/search?q=3+*+16%5E4+*+3055+s 1 Metonic cycle ≈ 3 × 16⁴ × 3,055 s]. # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of Earth's Great Year: [https://www.google.com/search?q=16%5E7+*+3055+s 1 Great Year ≈ 16⁷ × 3,055 s]. # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of the galactic year: [https://www.google.com/search?q=2+*+16%5E10+*+3055+s 1 galactic year ≈ 2 × 16¹⁰ × 3,055 s].}} === The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 6a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]], where the plane intersects the Galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 6a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] ==== Bullies in the Bully System ==== A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in Figure 6a: * '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign. * '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left. * '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left. As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history: {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was “sweetheart”. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, “lover”. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}} Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of "excellent" or "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. {{Quote box| align = center | width = full | title = The "Bully" Name | text = The specific "bullies" in the "Bully" timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}} === A surrogate for the Sun === As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving. The path of the node can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°): <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4c''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 6b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}'''. (Note: Figure 4c assumes an idealized travel distance of exactly 52,000 parsecs (or 2^15.666224) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps, whereas Figure 6b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs (or 2^15.666040) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center;" |+ '''Figure 6b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 3px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled in parsecs |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B32}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5058}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.100 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|820A D4AD 4AD4}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1099.86''}}}} |} {{Quote box| align = center| width = full| title = Bully Timestamp Anchor| text = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 6b).}} ==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ==== In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 6c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days. The Earth's orbital speed varies throughout the year, moving slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Consequently, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season. As shown in Figure 6c, '''winter''' was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. It took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to '''spring''' being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to '''summer'''. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over '''21,000 years'''. [[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|upright=3.0|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 6c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]] Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 6c. The transition from '''spring to summer''' is correlated with a large '''green dot''' and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large '''red dot''' appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from '''summer to autumn''', and a large '''blue dot''', back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from '''winter to spring'''. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,500 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly '''26,000 years''' (1 Great Year ≈ 25,824 sidereal years ≈ 25,825 tropical years). {{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | text = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred near the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. All of the Galactic crossings shown in Figure 6c, at 4495 BCE, 1998 CE, and 8329 CE, are roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE. }} == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 7a''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in Figure 7a, these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|'''Figure 7a''': Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of Figure 7a, follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. Ideally, all of the black lines in Figure 7a could be discontinued and replaced by Bully timestamps going forward. === Why do we need Bully timestamps? === All the timestamps in '''Figure 7b''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ '''Figure 7b''': UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of Figure 7b attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of Figure 7b, breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3,055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950s, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic timekeeping (1958 AD – present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Estimation == [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 8a: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 8a'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 8b'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|'''Figure 8b''': The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in '''Figure 8c''' contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8c''': Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in '''Figure 8d''' (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8d''': Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 8d) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in '''Figure 8e''' is the same as is shown in Figure 8d, but Figure 8e plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8e''': A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in '''Figure 8f''' is similar to the table in Figure 8c, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 8c was for large z values, Figure 8f shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8f''': Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] m3t26kwoi94z239hhxykiyut2ludlsc 2832693 2832692 2026-09-10T20:09:07Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Earth's Great Year */ 2832693 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the Sun's orbit around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp occurs each time the Sun advances by roughly one solar radius along its path through the cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|upright=2.2|center|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] == One Solar Radius == The Sun hurtles around the Milky Way Galaxy at a blistering 0.076% of the speed of light ([https://arxiv.org/abs/1810.09466 229.0 ± 0.2 kilometers per second]). Yet, even at this staggering pace, it takes about five-sixths of an hour for the Sun to traverse a distance equal to its own radius. This highlights the truly colossal size of our star, which boasts a radius of 2.3206 light-seconds (695,700 kilometers). '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. During each '''3,055-second''' period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over '''2.33 light-seconds''', which is slightly more than one solar radius (<math>R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 2.33 \text{ ls} \gtrapprox R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', it is a vast, oblong, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into surrounding space. While somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, the latter is a comparatively thin layer of gas held near the planetary surface, whereas the heliosphere is a plasma constantly blasted into space by the Sun's extreme heat and energy. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is so vast that if it were truly spherical, it would take the Sun roughly 6.344 years to travel a distance equivalent to the heliosphere's diameter. The digit in the '''fifth position''' of a Bully timestamp represents this orbital distance. Figure 2 illustrates the motion of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. Timestamp 8209 ED00 0000 is defined to have occurred at exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16, 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. During each 6.344-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 306 astronomical units, which is slightly more than 65,536 solar radii (<math>16^{4}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 306 \text{ AU} \gtrapprox 16^{4}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === Naked-Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (not to scale) across 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' corresponds to approximately 383,000 B.C., while timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., representing a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a cyan dashed line marking 100 parsecs. The Sun travels a little less than this distance during each 416,000-year interval, which is tracked by the digit in the '''ninth position''' of the Bully timestamp. Because a large percentage of naked-eye stars sit within this 100-parsec radius, the appearance of Earth's night sky changes completely over this timeframe. [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of naked-eye stars binned according to brightness and distance from the Sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the Sun than 100 parsecs, which is the distance the Sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of naked-eye stars are within this 100-parsec travel distance of the Sun.]] During each 415,792-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 97 parsecs, which is slightly more than 4,294,967,296 solar radii (<math>16^{8}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 97 \text{ pc} \gtrapprox 16^{8}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> ==== The Bully Milky Way ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3b''': Division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 3b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid). Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000'''. These represent the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D., respectively, assuming a full orbital path around the Milky Way of roughly 50,000 parsecs. In the lower half of the image, cyan lines further divide a single yellow sector into 16 equal subsectors. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center in Figure 3b, corresponding to the 6 o'clock position, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle of the Sun at Bully timestamp 820A 0000 0000, estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D. The nine cyan grid lines to the right of the red line mark the Sun's polar angle for Bully timestamps 8201 0000 0000 through 8209 0000 0000. Meanwhile, the five cyan grid lines to the left of the red line indicate the polar angle for timestamps 820B 0000 0000 through 820F 0000 0000. <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,t_{\odot} \approx 212.9 \text{ million years} </math> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \sim 50,000 \text{ parsecs} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> == The Galactic Calendar == [[File:Galactic centre orbits.svg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 4a''':Inferred orbits of 6 stars around the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* at the Milky Way's center<ref name="Eisenhauer">{{cite journal|last=Eisenhauer|first=F.|display-authors=et al. |title=SINFONI in the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares in the Central Light-Month|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=July 20, 2005|volume=628|issue=1|pages=246–259|doi=10.1086/430667|bibcode=2005ApJ...628..246E|arxiv=astro-ph/0502129|s2cid=122485461 }}</ref>]] [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, labeled S2 in '''Figure 4a''', completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance from the Sun to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: &hairsp; :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \\ \end{align}</math> &hairsp; If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. ==== Idealized Galactic Weeks ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Weeks_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 4b''': Division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks of solar travel (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 4b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks (yellow grid). Each week represents 1,000 parsecs of solar travel, which in this plot is assumed to be traversed by the Sun in roughly 4.09 million years. Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000''', respectively, indicating the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D. The cyan lines in the lower half of the image further divide one sector into 10 equal subsectors of 100 parsecs each. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 4b, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun had during Bully timestamp 8209 D89D 89D8 (approximately 31,000 B.C.), which is 1,000 parsecs of travel beyond the yellow line representing timestamp 8200 0000 0000. The nine cyan lines to the left of the red line represent the polar angles of the Sun after traveling 1,100 through 1,900 parsecs beyond timestamp 8200 0000 0000. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2⁴¹ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4c''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. It outlines the specific Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved across this idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4c:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. ==== Is the Galactic Calendar Realistic? ==== [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4d:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250-million-year time period.]] The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4d). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4d''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in Figure 4c states that the galactic week beginning on timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark. ==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ==== In Figure 3a and Figure 3b, the Sun is shown to travel less than 50,000 parsecs per galactic year. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar shown in Figure 4b assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per galactic year, introducing a distinct discrepancy in both galactic scale and calculated orbital velocity. Because the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to complex gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is neither perfectly uniform nor entirely predictable. Consequently, the Sun's true orbital velocity remains a subject of ongoing discovery and refinement. The conjectured values used in Figure 3b and Figure 4b should be viewed as '''practical assumptions''' rather than a reflection of a stable, long-term physical reality; the idealized Bully Calendar is a '''conceptual model''' designed to help visualize the immense scale of the galactic orbit. The table in '''Figure 4e''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp up to 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | '''Figure 4e''': Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 100 parsecs per 16⁸ Bully timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps</small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | <small>2^18.597453 ≈ 396,635 </small> | <small>2^18.6438562 ≈ 409,600 </small> | <small>2^18.666224 ≈ 416,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | <small>2^14.597453 ≈ 24,789.7 </small> | <small>2^14.6438562 ≈ 25,600.0 </small> | <small>2^14.666224 ≈ 26,000.0 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | <small>2^10.597453 ≈ 1,549.36 </small> | <small>2^10.6438562 ≈ 1,600.00 </small> | <small>2^10.666224 ≈ 1,625.00 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁸''' | <small>2^6.597453 ≈ 96.8348 </small> | <small>2^6.6438562 ≈ 100.0000 </small> | <small>2^6.666224 ≈ 101.5625 </small> |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off-Nominal Values |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | <small>2^15.597453 ≈ 49,579 </small> | <small>2^15.6438562 ≈ 51,200 </small> | <small>2^15.666224 ≈ 52,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2²⁶''' | <small>2^0.597453 ≈ 1.513043 </small> | <small>2^0.6438562 ≈ 1.562500 </small> | <small>2^0.666224 ≈ 1.586914 </small> |} == The Earth and Moon == The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep-time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these movements in mind and incorporates a few of their unique values as identified in the '''Bully Mnemonic'''. The Bully Mnemonic is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds in Earth's [[w:Sidereal year|sidereal year]] and [[w:Tropical year|tropical year]], a good approximation of the Earth's [[w:Great Year|Great Year]], and an approximation of the Solar System's [[w:Galactic year|galactic year]]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic|Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] ==== Earth's sidereal year ==== The duration of Earth's sidereal year is '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. While gravitational perturbations from neighboring planets cause this value to vary by a few seconds annually, the averaged century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given this relative stability, using a whole-number divisor of the sidereal year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system offers significant utility. Specifically, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds, meaning Earth's sidereal year—rounded to the nearest second—equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's tropical year ==== Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of seasons between successive vernal equinoxes, spans '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp shorter than the sidereal year, measuring exactly '''10,329.6 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's Great Year ==== [[File:Precesion.png|thumb|'''Figure 5a''': The tilt of the Earth's polar axis remains constant but describes a circular path in space during a period known as the Great Year.]] With Earth's sidereal year (<math>P</math>) spanning 10,330 timestamps and the tropical year (<math>a_{t}</math>) spanning 10,329.6 timestamps, a full precessional cycle (see '''Figure 5a''') requires a ratio of years, <math>N</math>, where the cumulative annual difference equals exactly one year: <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> <math> \begin{aligned} N &= \frac{1\text{ Bully timestamp}}{P - a_{t}} \\ &= \frac{1}{10,330 - 10,329.6} \\ &= \frac{1}{0.4} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \end{aligned} </math> </div> Expressing this duration in terms of sidereal years yields: <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= 25,824 \, P \end{aligned} </math> </div> Alternatively, expressing the cycle in terms of tropical years yields: <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= 25,825 \, a_{t} \end{aligned} </math> </div> ==== Earth's gravity ==== Of all the planets in the cosmos, our Earth is unique in that the gravity on Earth's surface is approximately equal to the speed of light divided by one sidereal year: <div style="margin-top: 1em;margin-bottom: 1em; "> :<math>g \approx \frac{c}{P}</math> </div> Or equivalently: <div style="margin-top: 1em;margin-bottom: 1em; "> :<math>10,000\text{ Bully timestamps} \approx \frac{c}{g}</math> </div> :where: :* <math>g</math> is Surface gravity :* <math>c</math> is the Speed of light :* <math>P</math> is the orbital period ==== The Metonic cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23, 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp complete approximately three cycles per one Metonic cycle, as illustrated below: <div style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: inherit; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688; border-radius: 4px; line-height: 1.6; margin: 1em 0;"> '''July 23 New Moons:''' * July 23, 1998 — 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 — 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 — 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> * [[Bully Metric Metonic cycle|Learn More About The Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Anchoring Bully Timestamps == To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by defining timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is uniformly maintained by terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''. === The Bully Timestamp Duration === While 3,055 seconds may appear to be an arbitrary choice, the length of a single Bully timestamp is mathematically derived from solar, lunar, and deep-time orbital mechanics. {{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Timestamp Duration | text = Justification: # The Sun orbits approximately one solar radius per Bully timestamp: [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics#Solar_Radius_Mnemonics|t_☉ ≈ 3,055 seconds]] # The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year: [[Bully Mnemonic|31,558,150 s = 10,330 × 3,055 s]]. # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of the Earth–Moon Metonic cycle: [https://www.google.com/search?q=3+*+16%5E4+*+3055+s 1 Metonic cycle ≈ 3 × 16⁴ × 3,055 s]. # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of Earth's Great Year: [https://www.google.com/search?q=16%5E7+*+3055+s 1 Great Year ≈ 16⁷ × 3,055 s]. # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of the galactic year: [https://www.google.com/search?q=2+*+16%5E10+*+3055+s 1 galactic year ≈ 2 × 16¹⁰ × 3,055 s].}} === The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 6a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]], where the plane intersects the Galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 6a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] ==== Bullies in the Bully System ==== A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in Figure 6a: * '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign. * '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left. * '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left. As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history: {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was “sweetheart”. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, “lover”. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}} Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of "excellent" or "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. {{Quote box| align = center | width = full | title = The "Bully" Name | text = The specific "bullies" in the "Bully" timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}} === A surrogate for the Sun === As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving. The path of the node can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°): <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4c''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 6b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}'''. (Note: Figure 4c assumes an idealized travel distance of exactly 52,000 parsecs (or 2^15.666224) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps, whereas Figure 6b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs (or 2^15.666040) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center;" |+ '''Figure 6b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 3px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled in parsecs |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B32}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5058}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.100 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|820A D4AD 4AD4}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1099.86''}}}} |} {{Quote box| align = center| width = full| title = Bully Timestamp Anchor| text = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 6b).}} ==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ==== In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 6c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days. The Earth's orbital speed varies throughout the year, moving slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Consequently, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season. As shown in Figure 6c, '''winter''' was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. It took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to '''spring''' being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to '''summer'''. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over '''21,000 years'''. [[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|upright=3.0|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 6c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]] Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 6c. The transition from '''spring to summer''' is correlated with a large '''green dot''' and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large '''red dot''' appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from '''summer to autumn''', and a large '''blue dot''', back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from '''winter to spring'''. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,500 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly '''26,000 years''' (1 Great Year ≈ 25,824 sidereal years ≈ 25,825 tropical years). {{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | text = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred near the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. All of the Galactic crossings shown in Figure 6c, at 4495 BCE, 1998 CE, and 8329 CE, are roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE. }} == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 7a''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in Figure 7a, these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|'''Figure 7a''': Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of Figure 7a, follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. Ideally, all of the black lines in Figure 7a could be discontinued and replaced by Bully timestamps going forward. === Why do we need Bully timestamps? === All the timestamps in '''Figure 7b''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ '''Figure 7b''': UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of Figure 7b attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of Figure 7b, breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3,055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950s, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic timekeeping (1958 AD – present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Estimation == [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 8a: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 8a'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 8b'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|'''Figure 8b''': The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in '''Figure 8c''' contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8c''': Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in '''Figure 8d''' (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8d''': Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 8d) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in '''Figure 8e''' is the same as is shown in Figure 8d, but Figure 8e plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8e''': A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in '''Figure 8f''' is similar to the table in Figure 8c, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 8c was for large z values, Figure 8f shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8f''': Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] 7m7xr1skrrgt5gzwa8lr7q0w64qghqb 2832694 2832693 2026-09-10T20:13:02Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Earth's gravity */ 2832694 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the Sun's orbit around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp occurs each time the Sun advances by roughly one solar radius along its path through the cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|upright=2.2|center|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] == One Solar Radius == The Sun hurtles around the Milky Way Galaxy at a blistering 0.076% of the speed of light ([https://arxiv.org/abs/1810.09466 229.0 ± 0.2 kilometers per second]). Yet, even at this staggering pace, it takes about five-sixths of an hour for the Sun to traverse a distance equal to its own radius. This highlights the truly colossal size of our star, which boasts a radius of 2.3206 light-seconds (695,700 kilometers). '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. During each '''3,055-second''' period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over '''2.33 light-seconds''', which is slightly more than one solar radius (<math>R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 2.33 \text{ ls} \gtrapprox R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', it is a vast, oblong, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into surrounding space. While somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, the latter is a comparatively thin layer of gas held near the planetary surface, whereas the heliosphere is a plasma constantly blasted into space by the Sun's extreme heat and energy. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is so vast that if it were truly spherical, it would take the Sun roughly 6.344 years to travel a distance equivalent to the heliosphere's diameter. The digit in the '''fifth position''' of a Bully timestamp represents this orbital distance. Figure 2 illustrates the motion of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. Timestamp 8209 ED00 0000 is defined to have occurred at exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16, 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. During each 6.344-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 306 astronomical units, which is slightly more than 65,536 solar radii (<math>16^{4}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 306 \text{ AU} \gtrapprox 16^{4}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === Naked-Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (not to scale) across 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' corresponds to approximately 383,000 B.C., while timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., representing a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a cyan dashed line marking 100 parsecs. The Sun travels a little less than this distance during each 416,000-year interval, which is tracked by the digit in the '''ninth position''' of the Bully timestamp. Because a large percentage of naked-eye stars sit within this 100-parsec radius, the appearance of Earth's night sky changes completely over this timeframe. [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of naked-eye stars binned according to brightness and distance from the Sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the Sun than 100 parsecs, which is the distance the Sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of naked-eye stars are within this 100-parsec travel distance of the Sun.]] During each 415,792-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 97 parsecs, which is slightly more than 4,294,967,296 solar radii (<math>16^{8}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 97 \text{ pc} \gtrapprox 16^{8}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> ==== The Bully Milky Way ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3b''': Division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 3b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid). Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000'''. These represent the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D., respectively, assuming a full orbital path around the Milky Way of roughly 50,000 parsecs. In the lower half of the image, cyan lines further divide a single yellow sector into 16 equal subsectors. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center in Figure 3b, corresponding to the 6 o'clock position, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle of the Sun at Bully timestamp 820A 0000 0000, estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D. The nine cyan grid lines to the right of the red line mark the Sun's polar angle for Bully timestamps 8201 0000 0000 through 8209 0000 0000. Meanwhile, the five cyan grid lines to the left of the red line indicate the polar angle for timestamps 820B 0000 0000 through 820F 0000 0000. <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,t_{\odot} \approx 212.9 \text{ million years} </math> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \sim 50,000 \text{ parsecs} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> == The Galactic Calendar == [[File:Galactic centre orbits.svg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 4a''':Inferred orbits of 6 stars around the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* at the Milky Way's center<ref name="Eisenhauer">{{cite journal|last=Eisenhauer|first=F.|display-authors=et al. |title=SINFONI in the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares in the Central Light-Month|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=July 20, 2005|volume=628|issue=1|pages=246–259|doi=10.1086/430667|bibcode=2005ApJ...628..246E|arxiv=astro-ph/0502129|s2cid=122485461 }}</ref>]] [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, labeled S2 in '''Figure 4a''', completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance from the Sun to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: &hairsp; :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \\ \end{align}</math> &hairsp; If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. ==== Idealized Galactic Weeks ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Weeks_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 4b''': Division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks of solar travel (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 4b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks (yellow grid). Each week represents 1,000 parsecs of solar travel, which in this plot is assumed to be traversed by the Sun in roughly 4.09 million years. Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000''', respectively, indicating the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D. The cyan lines in the lower half of the image further divide one sector into 10 equal subsectors of 100 parsecs each. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 4b, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun had during Bully timestamp 8209 D89D 89D8 (approximately 31,000 B.C.), which is 1,000 parsecs of travel beyond the yellow line representing timestamp 8200 0000 0000. The nine cyan lines to the left of the red line represent the polar angles of the Sun after traveling 1,100 through 1,900 parsecs beyond timestamp 8200 0000 0000. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2⁴¹ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4c''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. It outlines the specific Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved across this idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4c:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. ==== Is the Galactic Calendar Realistic? ==== [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4d:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250-million-year time period.]] The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4d). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4d''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in Figure 4c states that the galactic week beginning on timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark. ==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ==== In Figure 3a and Figure 3b, the Sun is shown to travel less than 50,000 parsecs per galactic year. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar shown in Figure 4b assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per galactic year, introducing a distinct discrepancy in both galactic scale and calculated orbital velocity. Because the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to complex gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is neither perfectly uniform nor entirely predictable. Consequently, the Sun's true orbital velocity remains a subject of ongoing discovery and refinement. The conjectured values used in Figure 3b and Figure 4b should be viewed as '''practical assumptions''' rather than a reflection of a stable, long-term physical reality; the idealized Bully Calendar is a '''conceptual model''' designed to help visualize the immense scale of the galactic orbit. The table in '''Figure 4e''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp up to 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | '''Figure 4e''': Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 100 parsecs per 16⁸ Bully timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps</small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | <small>2^18.597453 ≈ 396,635 </small> | <small>2^18.6438562 ≈ 409,600 </small> | <small>2^18.666224 ≈ 416,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | <small>2^14.597453 ≈ 24,789.7 </small> | <small>2^14.6438562 ≈ 25,600.0 </small> | <small>2^14.666224 ≈ 26,000.0 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | <small>2^10.597453 ≈ 1,549.36 </small> | <small>2^10.6438562 ≈ 1,600.00 </small> | <small>2^10.666224 ≈ 1,625.00 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁸''' | <small>2^6.597453 ≈ 96.8348 </small> | <small>2^6.6438562 ≈ 100.0000 </small> | <small>2^6.666224 ≈ 101.5625 </small> |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off-Nominal Values |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | <small>2^15.597453 ≈ 49,579 </small> | <small>2^15.6438562 ≈ 51,200 </small> | <small>2^15.666224 ≈ 52,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2²⁶''' | <small>2^0.597453 ≈ 1.513043 </small> | <small>2^0.6438562 ≈ 1.562500 </small> | <small>2^0.666224 ≈ 1.586914 </small> |} == The Earth and Moon == The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep-time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these movements in mind and incorporates a few of their unique values as identified in the '''Bully Mnemonic'''. The Bully Mnemonic is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds in Earth's [[w:Sidereal year|sidereal year]] and [[w:Tropical year|tropical year]], a good approximation of the Earth's [[w:Great Year|Great Year]], and an approximation of the Solar System's [[w:Galactic year|galactic year]]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic|Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] ==== Earth's sidereal year ==== The duration of Earth's sidereal year is '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. While gravitational perturbations from neighboring planets cause this value to vary by a few seconds annually, the averaged century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given this relative stability, using a whole-number divisor of the sidereal year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system offers significant utility. Specifically, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds, meaning Earth's sidereal year—rounded to the nearest second—equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's tropical year ==== Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of seasons between successive vernal equinoxes, spans '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp shorter than the sidereal year, measuring exactly '''10,329.6 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's Great Year ==== [[File:Precesion.png|thumb|'''Figure 5a''': The tilt of the Earth's polar axis remains constant but describes a circular path in space during a period known as the Great Year.]] With Earth's sidereal year (<math>P</math>) spanning 10,330 timestamps and the tropical year (<math>a_{t}</math>) spanning 10,329.6 timestamps, a full precessional cycle (see '''Figure 5a''') requires a ratio of years, <math>N</math>, where the cumulative annual difference equals exactly one year: <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> <math> \begin{aligned} N &= \frac{1\text{ Bully timestamp}}{P - a_{t}} \\ &= \frac{1}{10,330 - 10,329.6} \\ &= \frac{1}{0.4} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \end{aligned} </math> </div> Expressing this duration in terms of sidereal years yields: <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= 25,824 \, P \end{aligned} </math> </div> Alternatively, expressing the cycle in terms of tropical years yields: <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= 25,825 \, a_{t} \end{aligned} </math> </div> ==== Earth's gravity ==== [[File:Earth-G-force.png|thumb|upright=1.35|'''Figure 5b''': Gravity at different internal layers of Earth (1 = continental crust, 2 = oceanic crust, 3 = upper mantle, 4 = lower mantle, 5+6 = core, A = crust-mantle boundary)]] Of all the planets in the cosmos, our Earth is unique in that the gravity on Earth's surface (see '''Figure 5b''') is approximately equal to the speed of light divided by one sidereal year: <div style="margin-top: 1em;margin-bottom: 1em; "> :<math>g \approx \frac{c}{P}</math> </div> Or equivalently: <div style="margin-top: 1em;margin-bottom: 1em; "> :<math>10,000\text{ Bully timestamps} \approx \frac{c}{g}</math> </div> :where: :* <math>g</math> is Surface gravity :* <math>c</math> is the Speed of light :* <math>P</math> is the orbital period ==== The Metonic cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23, 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp complete approximately three cycles per one Metonic cycle, as illustrated below: <div style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: inherit; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688; border-radius: 4px; line-height: 1.6; margin: 1em 0;"> '''July 23 New Moons:''' * July 23, 1998 — 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 — 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 — 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> * [[Bully Metric Metonic cycle|Learn More About The Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Anchoring Bully Timestamps == To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by defining timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is uniformly maintained by terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''. === The Bully Timestamp Duration === While 3,055 seconds may appear to be an arbitrary choice, the length of a single Bully timestamp is mathematically derived from solar, lunar, and deep-time orbital mechanics. {{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Timestamp Duration | text = Justification: # The Sun orbits approximately one solar radius per Bully timestamp: [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics#Solar_Radius_Mnemonics|t_☉ ≈ 3,055 seconds]] # The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year: [[Bully Mnemonic|31,558,150 s = 10,330 × 3,055 s]]. # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of the Earth–Moon Metonic cycle: [https://www.google.com/search?q=3+*+16%5E4+*+3055+s 1 Metonic cycle ≈ 3 × 16⁴ × 3,055 s]. # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of Earth's Great Year: [https://www.google.com/search?q=16%5E7+*+3055+s 1 Great Year ≈ 16⁷ × 3,055 s]. # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of the galactic year: [https://www.google.com/search?q=2+*+16%5E10+*+3055+s 1 galactic year ≈ 2 × 16¹⁰ × 3,055 s].}} === The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 6a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]], where the plane intersects the Galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 6a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] ==== Bullies in the Bully System ==== A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in Figure 6a: * '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign. * '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left. * '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left. As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history: {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was “sweetheart”. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, “lover”. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}} Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of "excellent" or "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. {{Quote box| align = center | width = full | title = The "Bully" Name | text = The specific "bullies" in the "Bully" timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}} === A surrogate for the Sun === As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving. The path of the node can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°): <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4c''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 6b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}'''. (Note: Figure 4c assumes an idealized travel distance of exactly 52,000 parsecs (or 2^15.666224) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps, whereas Figure 6b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs (or 2^15.666040) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center;" |+ '''Figure 6b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 3px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled in parsecs |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B32}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5058}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.100 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|820A D4AD 4AD4}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1099.86''}}}} |} {{Quote box| align = center| width = full| title = Bully Timestamp Anchor| text = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 6b).}} ==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ==== In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 6c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days. The Earth's orbital speed varies throughout the year, moving slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Consequently, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season. As shown in Figure 6c, '''winter''' was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. It took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to '''spring''' being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to '''summer'''. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over '''21,000 years'''. [[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|upright=3.0|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 6c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]] Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 6c. The transition from '''spring to summer''' is correlated with a large '''green dot''' and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large '''red dot''' appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from '''summer to autumn''', and a large '''blue dot''', back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from '''winter to spring'''. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,500 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly '''26,000 years''' (1 Great Year ≈ 25,824 sidereal years ≈ 25,825 tropical years). {{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | text = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred near the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. All of the Galactic crossings shown in Figure 6c, at 4495 BCE, 1998 CE, and 8329 CE, are roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE. }} == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 7a''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in Figure 7a, these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|'''Figure 7a''': Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of Figure 7a, follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. Ideally, all of the black lines in Figure 7a could be discontinued and replaced by Bully timestamps going forward. === Why do we need Bully timestamps? === All the timestamps in '''Figure 7b''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ '''Figure 7b''': UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of Figure 7b attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of Figure 7b, breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3,055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950s, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic timekeeping (1958 AD – present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Estimation == [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 8a: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 8a'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 8b'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|'''Figure 8b''': The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in '''Figure 8c''' contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8c''': Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in '''Figure 8d''' (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8d''': Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 8d) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in '''Figure 8e''' is the same as is shown in Figure 8d, but Figure 8e plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8e''': A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in '''Figure 8f''' is similar to the table in Figure 8c, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 8c was for large z values, Figure 8f shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8f''': Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] m4cllpmvdrxmnf0rp0c4zhbb9hm2g58 2832695 2832694 2026-09-10T20:15:16Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Earth's gravity */ 2832695 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the Sun's orbit around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp occurs each time the Sun advances by roughly one solar radius along its path through the cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|upright=2.2|center|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] == One Solar Radius == The Sun hurtles around the Milky Way Galaxy at a blistering 0.076% of the speed of light ([https://arxiv.org/abs/1810.09466 229.0 ± 0.2 kilometers per second]). Yet, even at this staggering pace, it takes about five-sixths of an hour for the Sun to traverse a distance equal to its own radius. This highlights the truly colossal size of our star, which boasts a radius of 2.3206 light-seconds (695,700 kilometers). '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. During each '''3,055-second''' period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over '''2.33 light-seconds''', which is slightly more than one solar radius (<math>R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 2.33 \text{ ls} \gtrapprox R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', it is a vast, oblong, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into surrounding space. While somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, the latter is a comparatively thin layer of gas held near the planetary surface, whereas the heliosphere is a plasma constantly blasted into space by the Sun's extreme heat and energy. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is so vast that if it were truly spherical, it would take the Sun roughly 6.344 years to travel a distance equivalent to the heliosphere's diameter. The digit in the '''fifth position''' of a Bully timestamp represents this orbital distance. Figure 2 illustrates the motion of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. Timestamp 8209 ED00 0000 is defined to have occurred at exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16, 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. During each 6.344-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 306 astronomical units, which is slightly more than 65,536 solar radii (<math>16^{4}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 306 \text{ AU} \gtrapprox 16^{4}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === Naked-Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (not to scale) across 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' corresponds to approximately 383,000 B.C., while timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., representing a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a cyan dashed line marking 100 parsecs. The Sun travels a little less than this distance during each 416,000-year interval, which is tracked by the digit in the '''ninth position''' of the Bully timestamp. Because a large percentage of naked-eye stars sit within this 100-parsec radius, the appearance of Earth's night sky changes completely over this timeframe. [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of naked-eye stars binned according to brightness and distance from the Sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the Sun than 100 parsecs, which is the distance the Sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of naked-eye stars are within this 100-parsec travel distance of the Sun.]] During each 415,792-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 97 parsecs, which is slightly more than 4,294,967,296 solar radii (<math>16^{8}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 97 \text{ pc} \gtrapprox 16^{8}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> ==== The Bully Milky Way ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3b''': Division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 3b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid). Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000'''. These represent the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D., respectively, assuming a full orbital path around the Milky Way of roughly 50,000 parsecs. In the lower half of the image, cyan lines further divide a single yellow sector into 16 equal subsectors. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center in Figure 3b, corresponding to the 6 o'clock position, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle of the Sun at Bully timestamp 820A 0000 0000, estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D. The nine cyan grid lines to the right of the red line mark the Sun's polar angle for Bully timestamps 8201 0000 0000 through 8209 0000 0000. Meanwhile, the five cyan grid lines to the left of the red line indicate the polar angle for timestamps 820B 0000 0000 through 820F 0000 0000. <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,t_{\odot} \approx 212.9 \text{ million years} </math> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \sim 50,000 \text{ parsecs} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> == The Galactic Calendar == [[File:Galactic centre orbits.svg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 4a''':Inferred orbits of 6 stars around the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* at the Milky Way's center<ref name="Eisenhauer">{{cite journal|last=Eisenhauer|first=F.|display-authors=et al. |title=SINFONI in the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares in the Central Light-Month|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=July 20, 2005|volume=628|issue=1|pages=246–259|doi=10.1086/430667|bibcode=2005ApJ...628..246E|arxiv=astro-ph/0502129|s2cid=122485461 }}</ref>]] [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, labeled S2 in '''Figure 4a''', completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance from the Sun to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: &hairsp; :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \\ \end{align}</math> &hairsp; If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. ==== Idealized Galactic Weeks ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Weeks_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 4b''': Division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks of solar travel (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 4b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks (yellow grid). Each week represents 1,000 parsecs of solar travel, which in this plot is assumed to be traversed by the Sun in roughly 4.09 million years. Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000''', respectively, indicating the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D. The cyan lines in the lower half of the image further divide one sector into 10 equal subsectors of 100 parsecs each. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 4b, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun had during Bully timestamp 8209 D89D 89D8 (approximately 31,000 B.C.), which is 1,000 parsecs of travel beyond the yellow line representing timestamp 8200 0000 0000. The nine cyan lines to the left of the red line represent the polar angles of the Sun after traveling 1,100 through 1,900 parsecs beyond timestamp 8200 0000 0000. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2⁴¹ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4c''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. It outlines the specific Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved across this idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4c:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. ==== Is the Galactic Calendar Realistic? ==== [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4d:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250-million-year time period.]] The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4d). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4d''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in Figure 4c states that the galactic week beginning on timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark. ==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ==== In Figure 3a and Figure 3b, the Sun is shown to travel less than 50,000 parsecs per galactic year. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar shown in Figure 4b assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per galactic year, introducing a distinct discrepancy in both galactic scale and calculated orbital velocity. Because the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to complex gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is neither perfectly uniform nor entirely predictable. Consequently, the Sun's true orbital velocity remains a subject of ongoing discovery and refinement. The conjectured values used in Figure 3b and Figure 4b should be viewed as '''practical assumptions''' rather than a reflection of a stable, long-term physical reality; the idealized Bully Calendar is a '''conceptual model''' designed to help visualize the immense scale of the galactic orbit. The table in '''Figure 4e''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp up to 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | '''Figure 4e''': Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 100 parsecs per 16⁸ Bully timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps</small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | <small>2^18.597453 ≈ 396,635 </small> | <small>2^18.6438562 ≈ 409,600 </small> | <small>2^18.666224 ≈ 416,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | <small>2^14.597453 ≈ 24,789.7 </small> | <small>2^14.6438562 ≈ 25,600.0 </small> | <small>2^14.666224 ≈ 26,000.0 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | <small>2^10.597453 ≈ 1,549.36 </small> | <small>2^10.6438562 ≈ 1,600.00 </small> | <small>2^10.666224 ≈ 1,625.00 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁸''' | <small>2^6.597453 ≈ 96.8348 </small> | <small>2^6.6438562 ≈ 100.0000 </small> | <small>2^6.666224 ≈ 101.5625 </small> |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off-Nominal Values |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | <small>2^15.597453 ≈ 49,579 </small> | <small>2^15.6438562 ≈ 51,200 </small> | <small>2^15.666224 ≈ 52,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2²⁶''' | <small>2^0.597453 ≈ 1.513043 </small> | <small>2^0.6438562 ≈ 1.562500 </small> | <small>2^0.666224 ≈ 1.586914 </small> |} == The Earth and Moon == The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep-time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these movements in mind and incorporates a few of their unique values as identified in the '''Bully Mnemonic'''. The Bully Mnemonic is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds in Earth's [[w:Sidereal year|sidereal year]] and [[w:Tropical year|tropical year]], a good approximation of the Earth's [[w:Great Year|Great Year]], and an approximation of the Solar System's [[w:Galactic year|galactic year]]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic|Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] ==== Earth's sidereal year ==== The duration of Earth's sidereal year is '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. While gravitational perturbations from neighboring planets cause this value to vary by a few seconds annually, the averaged century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given this relative stability, using a whole-number divisor of the sidereal year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system offers significant utility. Specifically, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds, meaning Earth's sidereal year—rounded to the nearest second—equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's tropical year ==== Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of seasons between successive vernal equinoxes, spans '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp shorter than the sidereal year, measuring exactly '''10,329.6 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's Great Year ==== [[File:Precesion.png|thumb|'''Figure 5a''': The tilt of the Earth's polar axis remains constant but describes a circular path in space during a period known as the Great Year.]] With Earth's sidereal year (<math>P</math>) spanning 10,330 timestamps and the tropical year (<math>a_{t}</math>) spanning 10,329.6 timestamps, a full precessional cycle (see '''Figure 5a''') requires a ratio of years, <math>N</math>, where the cumulative annual difference equals exactly one year: <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> <math> \begin{aligned} N &= \frac{1\text{ Bully timestamp}}{P - a_{t}} \\ &= \frac{1}{10,330 - 10,329.6} \\ &= \frac{1}{0.4} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \end{aligned} </math> </div> Expressing this duration in terms of sidereal years yields: <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= 25,824 \, P \end{aligned} </math> </div> Alternatively, expressing the cycle in terms of tropical years yields: <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= 25,825 \, a_{t} \end{aligned} </math> </div> ==== Earth's gravity ==== [[File:Earth-G-force.png|thumb|upright=1.35|'''Figure 5b''': Gravity at different internal layers of Earth (1 = continental crust, 2 = oceanic crust, 3 = upper mantle, 4 = lower mantle, 5+6 = core, A = crust-mantle boundary)]] Of all the planets in the cosmos, our Earth is unique in that the gravity on Earth's surface (see '''Figure 5b''') is by coincidence approximately equal to the speed of light divided by one sidereal Earth year: <div style="margin-top: 1em;margin-bottom: 1em; "> :<math>g \approx \frac{c}{P}</math> </div> Or equivalently: <div style="margin-top: 1em;margin-bottom: 1em; "> :<math>10,000\text{ Bully timestamps} \approx \frac{c}{g}</math> </div> :where: :* <math>g</math> is Surface gravity :* <math>c</math> is the Speed of light :* <math>P</math> is the orbital period ==== The Metonic cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23, 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp complete approximately three cycles per one Metonic cycle, as illustrated below: <div style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: inherit; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688; border-radius: 4px; line-height: 1.6; margin: 1em 0;"> '''July 23 New Moons:''' * July 23, 1998 — 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 — 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 — 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> * [[Bully Metric Metonic cycle|Learn More About The Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Anchoring Bully Timestamps == To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by defining timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is uniformly maintained by terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''. === The Bully Timestamp Duration === While 3,055 seconds may appear to be an arbitrary choice, the length of a single Bully timestamp is mathematically derived from solar, lunar, and deep-time orbital mechanics. {{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Timestamp Duration | text = Justification: # The Sun orbits approximately one solar radius per Bully timestamp: [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics#Solar_Radius_Mnemonics|t_☉ ≈ 3,055 seconds]] # The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year: [[Bully Mnemonic|31,558,150 s = 10,330 × 3,055 s]]. # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of the Earth–Moon Metonic cycle: [https://www.google.com/search?q=3+*+16%5E4+*+3055+s 1 Metonic cycle ≈ 3 × 16⁴ × 3,055 s]. # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of Earth's Great Year: [https://www.google.com/search?q=16%5E7+*+3055+s 1 Great Year ≈ 16⁷ × 3,055 s]. # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of the galactic year: [https://www.google.com/search?q=2+*+16%5E10+*+3055+s 1 galactic year ≈ 2 × 16¹⁰ × 3,055 s].}} === The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 6a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]], where the plane intersects the Galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 6a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] ==== Bullies in the Bully System ==== A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in Figure 6a: * '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign. * '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left. * '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left. As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history: {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was “sweetheart”. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, “lover”. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}} Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of "excellent" or "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. {{Quote box| align = center | width = full | title = The "Bully" Name | text = The specific "bullies" in the "Bully" timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}} === A surrogate for the Sun === As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving. The path of the node can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°): <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4c''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 6b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}'''. (Note: Figure 4c assumes an idealized travel distance of exactly 52,000 parsecs (or 2^15.666224) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps, whereas Figure 6b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs (or 2^15.666040) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center;" |+ '''Figure 6b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 3px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled in parsecs |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B32}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5058}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.100 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|820A D4AD 4AD4}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1099.86''}}}} |} {{Quote box| align = center| width = full| title = Bully Timestamp Anchor| text = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 6b).}} ==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ==== In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 6c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days. The Earth's orbital speed varies throughout the year, moving slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Consequently, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season. As shown in Figure 6c, '''winter''' was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. It took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to '''spring''' being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to '''summer'''. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over '''21,000 years'''. [[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|upright=3.0|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 6c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]] Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 6c. The transition from '''spring to summer''' is correlated with a large '''green dot''' and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large '''red dot''' appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from '''summer to autumn''', and a large '''blue dot''', back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from '''winter to spring'''. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,500 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly '''26,000 years''' (1 Great Year ≈ 25,824 sidereal years ≈ 25,825 tropical years). {{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | text = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred near the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. All of the Galactic crossings shown in Figure 6c, at 4495 BCE, 1998 CE, and 8329 CE, are roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE. }} == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 7a''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in Figure 7a, these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|'''Figure 7a''': Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of Figure 7a, follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. Ideally, all of the black lines in Figure 7a could be discontinued and replaced by Bully timestamps going forward. === Why do we need Bully timestamps? === All the timestamps in '''Figure 7b''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ '''Figure 7b''': UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of Figure 7b attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of Figure 7b, breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3,055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950s, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic timekeeping (1958 AD – present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Estimation == [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 8a: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 8a'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 8b'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|'''Figure 8b''': The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in '''Figure 8c''' contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8c''': Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in '''Figure 8d''' (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8d''': Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 8d) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in '''Figure 8e''' is the same as is shown in Figure 8d, but Figure 8e plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8e''': A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in '''Figure 8f''' is similar to the table in Figure 8c, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 8c was for large z values, Figure 8f shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8f''': Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] dgymsw8hw9q2n31o6kqmshumzl32oq1 2832697 2832695 2026-09-10T20:18:50Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Earth's gravity */ 2832697 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the Sun's orbit around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp occurs each time the Sun advances by roughly one solar radius along its path through the cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|upright=2.2|center|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] == One Solar Radius == The Sun hurtles around the Milky Way Galaxy at a blistering 0.076% of the speed of light ([https://arxiv.org/abs/1810.09466 229.0 ± 0.2 kilometers per second]). Yet, even at this staggering pace, it takes about five-sixths of an hour for the Sun to traverse a distance equal to its own radius. This highlights the truly colossal size of our star, which boasts a radius of 2.3206 light-seconds (695,700 kilometers). '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. During each '''3,055-second''' period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over '''2.33 light-seconds''', which is slightly more than one solar radius (<math>R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 2.33 \text{ ls} \gtrapprox R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', it is a vast, oblong, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into surrounding space. While somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, the latter is a comparatively thin layer of gas held near the planetary surface, whereas the heliosphere is a plasma constantly blasted into space by the Sun's extreme heat and energy. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is so vast that if it were truly spherical, it would take the Sun roughly 6.344 years to travel a distance equivalent to the heliosphere's diameter. The digit in the '''fifth position''' of a Bully timestamp represents this orbital distance. Figure 2 illustrates the motion of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. Timestamp 8209 ED00 0000 is defined to have occurred at exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16, 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. During each 6.344-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 306 astronomical units, which is slightly more than 65,536 solar radii (<math>16^{4}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 306 \text{ AU} \gtrapprox 16^{4}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === Naked-Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (not to scale) across 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' corresponds to approximately 383,000 B.C., while timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., representing a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a cyan dashed line marking 100 parsecs. The Sun travels a little less than this distance during each 416,000-year interval, which is tracked by the digit in the '''ninth position''' of the Bully timestamp. Because a large percentage of naked-eye stars sit within this 100-parsec radius, the appearance of Earth's night sky changes completely over this timeframe. [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of naked-eye stars binned according to brightness and distance from the Sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the Sun than 100 parsecs, which is the distance the Sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of naked-eye stars are within this 100-parsec travel distance of the Sun.]] During each 415,792-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 97 parsecs, which is slightly more than 4,294,967,296 solar radii (<math>16^{8}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 97 \text{ pc} \gtrapprox 16^{8}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> ==== The Bully Milky Way ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3b''': Division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 3b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid). Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000'''. These represent the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D., respectively, assuming a full orbital path around the Milky Way of roughly 50,000 parsecs. In the lower half of the image, cyan lines further divide a single yellow sector into 16 equal subsectors. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center in Figure 3b, corresponding to the 6 o'clock position, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle of the Sun at Bully timestamp 820A 0000 0000, estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D. The nine cyan grid lines to the right of the red line mark the Sun's polar angle for Bully timestamps 8201 0000 0000 through 8209 0000 0000. Meanwhile, the five cyan grid lines to the left of the red line indicate the polar angle for timestamps 820B 0000 0000 through 820F 0000 0000. <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,t_{\odot} \approx 212.9 \text{ million years} </math> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \sim 50,000 \text{ parsecs} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> == The Galactic Calendar == [[File:Galactic centre orbits.svg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 4a''':Inferred orbits of 6 stars around the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* at the Milky Way's center<ref name="Eisenhauer">{{cite journal|last=Eisenhauer|first=F.|display-authors=et al. |title=SINFONI in the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares in the Central Light-Month|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=July 20, 2005|volume=628|issue=1|pages=246–259|doi=10.1086/430667|bibcode=2005ApJ...628..246E|arxiv=astro-ph/0502129|s2cid=122485461 }}</ref>]] [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, labeled S2 in '''Figure 4a''', completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance from the Sun to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: &hairsp; :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \\ \end{align}</math> &hairsp; If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. ==== Idealized Galactic Weeks ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Weeks_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 4b''': Division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks of solar travel (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 4b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks (yellow grid). Each week represents 1,000 parsecs of solar travel, which in this plot is assumed to be traversed by the Sun in roughly 4.09 million years. Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000''', respectively, indicating the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D. The cyan lines in the lower half of the image further divide one sector into 10 equal subsectors of 100 parsecs each. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 4b, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun had during Bully timestamp 8209 D89D 89D8 (approximately 31,000 B.C.), which is 1,000 parsecs of travel beyond the yellow line representing timestamp 8200 0000 0000. The nine cyan lines to the left of the red line represent the polar angles of the Sun after traveling 1,100 through 1,900 parsecs beyond timestamp 8200 0000 0000. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2⁴¹ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4c''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. It outlines the specific Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved across this idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4c:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. ==== Is the Galactic Calendar Realistic? ==== [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4d:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250-million-year time period.]] The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4d). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4d''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in Figure 4c states that the galactic week beginning on timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark. ==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ==== In Figure 3a and Figure 3b, the Sun is shown to travel less than 50,000 parsecs per galactic year. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar shown in Figure 4b assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per galactic year, introducing a distinct discrepancy in both galactic scale and calculated orbital velocity. Because the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to complex gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is neither perfectly uniform nor entirely predictable. Consequently, the Sun's true orbital velocity remains a subject of ongoing discovery and refinement. The conjectured values used in Figure 3b and Figure 4b should be viewed as '''practical assumptions''' rather than a reflection of a stable, long-term physical reality; the idealized Bully Calendar is a '''conceptual model''' designed to help visualize the immense scale of the galactic orbit. The table in '''Figure 4e''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp up to 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | '''Figure 4e''': Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 100 parsecs per 16⁸ Bully timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps</small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | <small>2^18.597453 ≈ 396,635 </small> | <small>2^18.6438562 ≈ 409,600 </small> | <small>2^18.666224 ≈ 416,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | <small>2^14.597453 ≈ 24,789.7 </small> | <small>2^14.6438562 ≈ 25,600.0 </small> | <small>2^14.666224 ≈ 26,000.0 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | <small>2^10.597453 ≈ 1,549.36 </small> | <small>2^10.6438562 ≈ 1,600.00 </small> | <small>2^10.666224 ≈ 1,625.00 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁸''' | <small>2^6.597453 ≈ 96.8348 </small> | <small>2^6.6438562 ≈ 100.0000 </small> | <small>2^6.666224 ≈ 101.5625 </small> |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off-Nominal Values |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | <small>2^15.597453 ≈ 49,579 </small> | <small>2^15.6438562 ≈ 51,200 </small> | <small>2^15.666224 ≈ 52,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2²⁶''' | <small>2^0.597453 ≈ 1.513043 </small> | <small>2^0.6438562 ≈ 1.562500 </small> | <small>2^0.666224 ≈ 1.586914 </small> |} == The Earth and Moon == The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep-time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these movements in mind and incorporates a few of their unique values as identified in the '''Bully Mnemonic'''. The Bully Mnemonic is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds in Earth's [[w:Sidereal year|sidereal year]] and [[w:Tropical year|tropical year]], a good approximation of the Earth's [[w:Great Year|Great Year]], and an approximation of the Solar System's [[w:Galactic year|galactic year]]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic|Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] ==== Earth's sidereal year ==== The duration of Earth's sidereal year is '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. While gravitational perturbations from neighboring planets cause this value to vary by a few seconds annually, the averaged century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given this relative stability, using a whole-number divisor of the sidereal year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system offers significant utility. Specifically, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds, meaning Earth's sidereal year—rounded to the nearest second—equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's tropical year ==== Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of seasons between successive vernal equinoxes, spans '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp shorter than the sidereal year, measuring exactly '''10,329.6 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's Great Year ==== [[File:Precesion.png|thumb|'''Figure 5a''': The tilt of the Earth's polar axis remains constant but describes a circular path in space during a period known as the Great Year.]] With Earth's sidereal year (<math>P</math>) spanning 10,330 timestamps and the tropical year (<math>a_{t}</math>) spanning 10,329.6 timestamps, a full precessional cycle (see '''Figure 5a''') requires a ratio of years, <math>N</math>, where the cumulative annual difference equals exactly one year: <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> <math> \begin{aligned} N &= \frac{1\text{ Bully timestamp}}{P - a_{t}} \\ &= \frac{1}{10,330 - 10,329.6} \\ &= \frac{1}{0.4} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \end{aligned} </math> </div> Expressing this duration in terms of sidereal years yields: <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= 25,824 \, P \end{aligned} </math> </div> Alternatively, expressing the cycle in terms of tropical years yields: <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= 25,825 \, a_{t} \end{aligned} </math> </div> ==== Earth's gravity ==== [[File:Earth-G-force.png|thumb|upright=1.35|'''Figure 5b''': Gravity at different internal layers of Earth (1 = continental crust, 2 = oceanic crust, 3 = upper mantle, 4 = lower mantle, 5+6 = core, A = crust-mantle boundary)]] Of all the planets in the cosmos, our Earth is unique in that the gravity on Earth's surface (see '''Figure 5b''') is by coincidence approximately equal to the speed of light divided by one sidereal Earth year: <div style="margin-top: 1em;margin-bottom: 1em; "> :<math>g \approx \frac{c}{P}</math> </div> Or equivalently: <div style="margin-top: 1em;margin-bottom: 1em; "> :<math>10,000\text{ Bully timestamps} \approx \frac{c}{g}</math> </div> <div style="margin-bottom: 2em; "> :where: :* <math>g</math> is Surface gravity :* <math>c</math> is the Speed of light :* <math>P</math> is the orbital period </div> ==== The Metonic cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23, 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp complete approximately three cycles per one Metonic cycle, as illustrated below: <div style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: inherit; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688; border-radius: 4px; line-height: 1.6; margin: 1em 0;"> '''July 23 New Moons:''' * July 23, 1998 — 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 — 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 — 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> * [[Bully Metric Metonic cycle|Learn More About The Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Anchoring Bully Timestamps == To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by defining timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is uniformly maintained by terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''. === The Bully Timestamp Duration === While 3,055 seconds may appear to be an arbitrary choice, the length of a single Bully timestamp is mathematically derived from solar, lunar, and deep-time orbital mechanics. {{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Timestamp Duration | text = Justification: # The Sun orbits approximately one solar radius per Bully timestamp: [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics#Solar_Radius_Mnemonics|t_☉ ≈ 3,055 seconds]] # The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year: [[Bully Mnemonic|31,558,150 s = 10,330 × 3,055 s]]. # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of the Earth–Moon Metonic cycle: [https://www.google.com/search?q=3+*+16%5E4+*+3055+s 1 Metonic cycle ≈ 3 × 16⁴ × 3,055 s]. # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of Earth's Great Year: [https://www.google.com/search?q=16%5E7+*+3055+s 1 Great Year ≈ 16⁷ × 3,055 s]. # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of the galactic year: [https://www.google.com/search?q=2+*+16%5E10+*+3055+s 1 galactic year ≈ 2 × 16¹⁰ × 3,055 s].}} === The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 6a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]], where the plane intersects the Galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 6a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] ==== Bullies in the Bully System ==== A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in Figure 6a: * '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign. * '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left. * '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left. As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history: {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was “sweetheart”. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, “lover”. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}} Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of "excellent" or "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. {{Quote box| align = center | width = full | title = The "Bully" Name | text = The specific "bullies" in the "Bully" timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}} === A surrogate for the Sun === As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving. The path of the node can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°): <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4c''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 6b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}'''. (Note: Figure 4c assumes an idealized travel distance of exactly 52,000 parsecs (or 2^15.666224) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps, whereas Figure 6b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs (or 2^15.666040) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center;" |+ '''Figure 6b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 3px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled in parsecs |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B32}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5058}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.100 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|820A D4AD 4AD4}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1099.86''}}}} |} {{Quote box| align = center| width = full| title = Bully Timestamp Anchor| text = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 6b).}} ==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ==== In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 6c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days. The Earth's orbital speed varies throughout the year, moving slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Consequently, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season. As shown in Figure 6c, '''winter''' was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. It took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to '''spring''' being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to '''summer'''. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over '''21,000 years'''. [[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|upright=3.0|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 6c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]] Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 6c. The transition from '''spring to summer''' is correlated with a large '''green dot''' and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large '''red dot''' appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from '''summer to autumn''', and a large '''blue dot''', back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from '''winter to spring'''. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,500 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly '''26,000 years''' (1 Great Year ≈ 25,824 sidereal years ≈ 25,825 tropical years). {{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | text = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred near the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. All of the Galactic crossings shown in Figure 6c, at 4495 BCE, 1998 CE, and 8329 CE, are roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE. }} == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 7a''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in Figure 7a, these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|'''Figure 7a''': Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of Figure 7a, follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. Ideally, all of the black lines in Figure 7a could be discontinued and replaced by Bully timestamps going forward. === Why do we need Bully timestamps? === All the timestamps in '''Figure 7b''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ '''Figure 7b''': UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of Figure 7b attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of Figure 7b, breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3,055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950s, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic timekeeping (1958 AD – present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Estimation == [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 8a: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 8a'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 8b'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|'''Figure 8b''': The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in '''Figure 8c''' contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8c''': Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in '''Figure 8d''' (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8d''': Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 8d) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in '''Figure 8e''' is the same as is shown in Figure 8d, but Figure 8e plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8e''': A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in '''Figure 8f''' is similar to the table in Figure 8c, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 8c was for large z values, Figure 8f shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8f''': Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] thca0kqg046odl0cxp7i4qtyvgoyzfu 2832700 2832697 2026-09-10T20:25:01Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Anchoring Bully Timestamps */ 2832700 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the Sun's orbit around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp occurs each time the Sun advances by roughly one solar radius along its path through the cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|upright=2.2|center|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] == One Solar Radius == The Sun hurtles around the Milky Way Galaxy at a blistering 0.076% of the speed of light ([https://arxiv.org/abs/1810.09466 229.0 ± 0.2 kilometers per second]). Yet, even at this staggering pace, it takes about five-sixths of an hour for the Sun to traverse a distance equal to its own radius. This highlights the truly colossal size of our star, which boasts a radius of 2.3206 light-seconds (695,700 kilometers). '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. During each '''3,055-second''' period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over '''2.33 light-seconds''', which is slightly more than one solar radius (<math>R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 2.33 \text{ ls} \gtrapprox R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', it is a vast, oblong, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into surrounding space. While somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, the latter is a comparatively thin layer of gas held near the planetary surface, whereas the heliosphere is a plasma constantly blasted into space by the Sun's extreme heat and energy. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is so vast that if it were truly spherical, it would take the Sun roughly 6.344 years to travel a distance equivalent to the heliosphere's diameter. The digit in the '''fifth position''' of a Bully timestamp represents this orbital distance. Figure 2 illustrates the motion of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. Timestamp 8209 ED00 0000 is defined to have occurred at exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16, 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. During each 6.344-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 306 astronomical units, which is slightly more than 65,536 solar radii (<math>16^{4}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 306 \text{ AU} \gtrapprox 16^{4}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === Naked-Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (not to scale) across 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' corresponds to approximately 383,000 B.C., while timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., representing a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a cyan dashed line marking 100 parsecs. The Sun travels a little less than this distance during each 416,000-year interval, which is tracked by the digit in the '''ninth position''' of the Bully timestamp. Because a large percentage of naked-eye stars sit within this 100-parsec radius, the appearance of Earth's night sky changes completely over this timeframe. [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of naked-eye stars binned according to brightness and distance from the Sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the Sun than 100 parsecs, which is the distance the Sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of naked-eye stars are within this 100-parsec travel distance of the Sun.]] During each 415,792-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 97 parsecs, which is slightly more than 4,294,967,296 solar radii (<math>16^{8}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 97 \text{ pc} \gtrapprox 16^{8}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> ==== The Bully Milky Way ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3b''': Division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 3b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid). Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000'''. These represent the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D., respectively, assuming a full orbital path around the Milky Way of roughly 50,000 parsecs. In the lower half of the image, cyan lines further divide a single yellow sector into 16 equal subsectors. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center in Figure 3b, corresponding to the 6 o'clock position, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle of the Sun at Bully timestamp 820A 0000 0000, estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D. The nine cyan grid lines to the right of the red line mark the Sun's polar angle for Bully timestamps 8201 0000 0000 through 8209 0000 0000. Meanwhile, the five cyan grid lines to the left of the red line indicate the polar angle for timestamps 820B 0000 0000 through 820F 0000 0000. <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,t_{\odot} \approx 212.9 \text{ million years} </math> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \sim 50,000 \text{ parsecs} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> == The Galactic Calendar == [[File:Galactic centre orbits.svg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 4a''':Inferred orbits of 6 stars around the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* at the Milky Way's center<ref name="Eisenhauer">{{cite journal|last=Eisenhauer|first=F.|display-authors=et al. |title=SINFONI in the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares in the Central Light-Month|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=July 20, 2005|volume=628|issue=1|pages=246–259|doi=10.1086/430667|bibcode=2005ApJ...628..246E|arxiv=astro-ph/0502129|s2cid=122485461 }}</ref>]] [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, labeled S2 in '''Figure 4a''', completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance from the Sun to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: &hairsp; :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \\ \end{align}</math> &hairsp; If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. ==== Idealized Galactic Weeks ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Weeks_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 4b''': Division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks of solar travel (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 4b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks (yellow grid). Each week represents 1,000 parsecs of solar travel, which in this plot is assumed to be traversed by the Sun in roughly 4.09 million years. Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000''', respectively, indicating the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D. The cyan lines in the lower half of the image further divide one sector into 10 equal subsectors of 100 parsecs each. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 4b, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun had during Bully timestamp 8209 D89D 89D8 (approximately 31,000 B.C.), which is 1,000 parsecs of travel beyond the yellow line representing timestamp 8200 0000 0000. The nine cyan lines to the left of the red line represent the polar angles of the Sun after traveling 1,100 through 1,900 parsecs beyond timestamp 8200 0000 0000. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2⁴¹ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4c''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. It outlines the specific Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved across this idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4c:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. ==== Is the Galactic Calendar Realistic? ==== [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4d:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250-million-year time period.]] The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4d). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4d''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in Figure 4c states that the galactic week beginning on timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark. ==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ==== In Figure 3a and Figure 3b, the Sun is shown to travel less than 50,000 parsecs per galactic year. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar shown in Figure 4b assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per galactic year, introducing a distinct discrepancy in both galactic scale and calculated orbital velocity. Because the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to complex gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is neither perfectly uniform nor entirely predictable. Consequently, the Sun's true orbital velocity remains a subject of ongoing discovery and refinement. The conjectured values used in Figure 3b and Figure 4b should be viewed as '''practical assumptions''' rather than a reflection of a stable, long-term physical reality; the idealized Bully Calendar is a '''conceptual model''' designed to help visualize the immense scale of the galactic orbit. The table in '''Figure 4e''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp up to 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | '''Figure 4e''': Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 100 parsecs per 16⁸ Bully timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps</small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | <small>2^18.597453 ≈ 396,635 </small> | <small>2^18.6438562 ≈ 409,600 </small> | <small>2^18.666224 ≈ 416,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | <small>2^14.597453 ≈ 24,789.7 </small> | <small>2^14.6438562 ≈ 25,600.0 </small> | <small>2^14.666224 ≈ 26,000.0 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | <small>2^10.597453 ≈ 1,549.36 </small> | <small>2^10.6438562 ≈ 1,600.00 </small> | <small>2^10.666224 ≈ 1,625.00 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁸''' | <small>2^6.597453 ≈ 96.8348 </small> | <small>2^6.6438562 ≈ 100.0000 </small> | <small>2^6.666224 ≈ 101.5625 </small> |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off-Nominal Values |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | <small>2^15.597453 ≈ 49,579 </small> | <small>2^15.6438562 ≈ 51,200 </small> | <small>2^15.666224 ≈ 52,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2²⁶''' | <small>2^0.597453 ≈ 1.513043 </small> | <small>2^0.6438562 ≈ 1.562500 </small> | <small>2^0.666224 ≈ 1.586914 </small> |} == The Earth and Moon == The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep-time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these movements in mind and incorporates a few of their unique values as identified in the '''Bully Mnemonic'''. The Bully Mnemonic is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds in Earth's [[w:Sidereal year|sidereal year]] and [[w:Tropical year|tropical year]], a good approximation of the Earth's [[w:Great Year|Great Year]], and an approximation of the Solar System's [[w:Galactic year|galactic year]]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic|Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] ==== Earth's sidereal year ==== The duration of Earth's sidereal year is '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. While gravitational perturbations from neighboring planets cause this value to vary by a few seconds annually, the averaged century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given this relative stability, using a whole-number divisor of the sidereal year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system offers significant utility. Specifically, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds, meaning Earth's sidereal year—rounded to the nearest second—equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's tropical year ==== Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of seasons between successive vernal equinoxes, spans '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp shorter than the sidereal year, measuring exactly '''10,329.6 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's Great Year ==== [[File:Precesion.png|thumb|'''Figure 5a''': The tilt of the Earth's polar axis remains constant but describes a circular path in space during a period known as the Great Year.]] With Earth's sidereal year (<math>P</math>) spanning 10,330 timestamps and the tropical year (<math>a_{t}</math>) spanning 10,329.6 timestamps, a full precessional cycle (see '''Figure 5a''') requires a ratio of years, <math>N</math>, where the cumulative annual difference equals exactly one year: <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> <math> \begin{aligned} N &= \frac{1\text{ Bully timestamp}}{P - a_{t}} \\ &= \frac{1}{10,330 - 10,329.6} \\ &= \frac{1}{0.4} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \end{aligned} </math> </div> Expressing this duration in terms of sidereal years yields: <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= 25,824 \, P \end{aligned} </math> </div> Alternatively, expressing the cycle in terms of tropical years yields: <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= 25,825 \, a_{t} \end{aligned} </math> </div> ==== Earth's gravity ==== [[File:Earth-G-force.png|thumb|upright=1.35|'''Figure 5b''': Gravity at different internal layers of Earth (1 = continental crust, 2 = oceanic crust, 3 = upper mantle, 4 = lower mantle, 5+6 = core, A = crust-mantle boundary)]] Of all the planets in the cosmos, our Earth is unique in that the gravity on Earth's surface (see '''Figure 5b''') is by coincidence approximately equal to the speed of light divided by one sidereal Earth year: <div style="margin-top: 1em;margin-bottom: 1em; "> :<math>g \approx \frac{c}{P}</math> </div> Or equivalently: <div style="margin-top: 1em;margin-bottom: 1em; "> :<math>10,000\text{ Bully timestamps} \approx \frac{c}{g}</math> </div> <div style="margin-bottom: 2em; "> :where: :* <math>g</math> is Surface gravity :* <math>c</math> is the Speed of light :* <math>P</math> is the orbital period </div> ==== The Metonic cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23, 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp complete approximately three cycles per one Metonic cycle, as illustrated below: <div style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: inherit; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688; border-radius: 4px; line-height: 1.6; margin: 1em 0;"> '''July 23 New Moons:''' * July 23, 1998 — 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 — 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 — 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> * [[Bully Metric Metonic cycle|Learn More About The Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Anchoring Bully Timestamps == To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by defining timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is uniformly maintained by terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''. While 3,055 seconds may appear to be an arbitrary choice, the length of a single Bully timestamp is mathematically derived from solar, lunar, and deep-time orbital mechanics. {{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Timestamp Duration | text = Justification: # The Sun orbits approximately one solar radius per Bully timestamp: [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics#Solar_Radius_Mnemonics|t_☉ ≈ 3,055 seconds]] # The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year: [[Bully Mnemonic|31,558,150 s = 10,330 × 3,055 s]]. # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of the Earth–Moon Metonic cycle: [https://www.google.com/search?q=3+*+16%5E4+*+3055+s 1 Metonic cycle ≈ 3 × 16⁴ × 3,055 s]. # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of Earth's Great Year: [https://www.google.com/search?q=16%5E7+*+3055+s 1 Great Year ≈ 16⁷ × 3,055 s]. # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of the galactic year: [https://www.google.com/search?q=2+*+16%5E10+*+3055+s 1 galactic year ≈ 2 × 16¹⁰ × 3,055 s].}} === The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 6a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]], where the plane intersects the Galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 6a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] ==== Bullies in the Bully System ==== A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in Figure 6a: * '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign. * '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left. * '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left. As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history: {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was “sweetheart”. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, “lover”. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}} Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of "excellent" or "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. {{Quote box| align = center | width = full | title = The "Bully" Name | text = The specific "bullies" in the "Bully" timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}} === A surrogate for the Sun === As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving. The path of the node can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°): <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4c''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 6b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}'''. (Note: Figure 4c assumes an idealized travel distance of exactly 52,000 parsecs (or 2^15.666224) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps, whereas Figure 6b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs (or 2^15.666040) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center;" |+ '''Figure 6b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 3px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled in parsecs |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B32}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5058}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.100 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|820A D4AD 4AD4}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1099.86''}}}} |} {{Quote box| align = center| width = full| title = Bully Timestamp Anchor| text = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 6b).}} ==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ==== In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 6c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days. The Earth's orbital speed varies throughout the year, moving slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Consequently, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season. As shown in Figure 6c, '''winter''' was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. It took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to '''spring''' being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to '''summer'''. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over '''21,000 years'''. [[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|upright=3.0|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 6c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]] Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 6c. The transition from '''spring to summer''' is correlated with a large '''green dot''' and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large '''red dot''' appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from '''summer to autumn''', and a large '''blue dot''', back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from '''winter to spring'''. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,500 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly '''26,000 years''' (1 Great Year ≈ 25,824 sidereal years ≈ 25,825 tropical years). {{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | text = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred near the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. All of the Galactic crossings shown in Figure 6c, at 4495 BCE, 1998 CE, and 8329 CE, are roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE. }} == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 7a''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in Figure 7a, these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|'''Figure 7a''': Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of Figure 7a, follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. Ideally, all of the black lines in Figure 7a could be discontinued and replaced by Bully timestamps going forward. === Why do we need Bully timestamps? === All the timestamps in '''Figure 7b''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ '''Figure 7b''': UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of Figure 7b attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of Figure 7b, breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3,055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950s, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic timekeeping (1958 AD – present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Estimation == [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 8a: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 8a'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 8b'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|'''Figure 8b''': The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in '''Figure 8c''' contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8c''': Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in '''Figure 8d''' (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8d''': Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 8d) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in '''Figure 8e''' is the same as is shown in Figure 8d, but Figure 8e plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8e''': A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in '''Figure 8f''' is similar to the table in Figure 8c, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 8c was for large z values, Figure 8f shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8f''': Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] 9bmg2p9kjgkmftii2yaurfam6vi7ytn 2832701 2832700 2026-09-10T20:26:10Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Anchoring Bully Timestamps */ 2832701 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the Sun's orbit around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp occurs each time the Sun advances by roughly one solar radius along its path through the cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|upright=2.2|center|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] == One Solar Radius == The Sun hurtles around the Milky Way Galaxy at a blistering 0.076% of the speed of light ([https://arxiv.org/abs/1810.09466 229.0 ± 0.2 kilometers per second]). Yet, even at this staggering pace, it takes about five-sixths of an hour for the Sun to traverse a distance equal to its own radius. This highlights the truly colossal size of our star, which boasts a radius of 2.3206 light-seconds (695,700 kilometers). '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. During each '''3,055-second''' period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over '''2.33 light-seconds''', which is slightly more than one solar radius (<math>R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 2.33 \text{ ls} \gtrapprox R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', it is a vast, oblong, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into surrounding space. While somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, the latter is a comparatively thin layer of gas held near the planetary surface, whereas the heliosphere is a plasma constantly blasted into space by the Sun's extreme heat and energy. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is so vast that if it were truly spherical, it would take the Sun roughly 6.344 years to travel a distance equivalent to the heliosphere's diameter. The digit in the '''fifth position''' of a Bully timestamp represents this orbital distance. Figure 2 illustrates the motion of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. Timestamp 8209 ED00 0000 is defined to have occurred at exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16, 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. During each 6.344-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 306 astronomical units, which is slightly more than 65,536 solar radii (<math>16^{4}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 306 \text{ AU} \gtrapprox 16^{4}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === Naked-Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (not to scale) across 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' corresponds to approximately 383,000 B.C., while timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., representing a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a cyan dashed line marking 100 parsecs. The Sun travels a little less than this distance during each 416,000-year interval, which is tracked by the digit in the '''ninth position''' of the Bully timestamp. Because a large percentage of naked-eye stars sit within this 100-parsec radius, the appearance of Earth's night sky changes completely over this timeframe. [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of naked-eye stars binned according to brightness and distance from the Sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the Sun than 100 parsecs, which is the distance the Sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of naked-eye stars are within this 100-parsec travel distance of the Sun.]] During each 415,792-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 97 parsecs, which is slightly more than 4,294,967,296 solar radii (<math>16^{8}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 97 \text{ pc} \gtrapprox 16^{8}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> ==== The Bully Milky Way ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3b''': Division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 3b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid). Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000'''. These represent the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D., respectively, assuming a full orbital path around the Milky Way of roughly 50,000 parsecs. In the lower half of the image, cyan lines further divide a single yellow sector into 16 equal subsectors. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center in Figure 3b, corresponding to the 6 o'clock position, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle of the Sun at Bully timestamp 820A 0000 0000, estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D. The nine cyan grid lines to the right of the red line mark the Sun's polar angle for Bully timestamps 8201 0000 0000 through 8209 0000 0000. Meanwhile, the five cyan grid lines to the left of the red line indicate the polar angle for timestamps 820B 0000 0000 through 820F 0000 0000. <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,t_{\odot} \approx 212.9 \text{ million years} </math> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \sim 50,000 \text{ parsecs} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> == The Galactic Calendar == [[File:Galactic centre orbits.svg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 4a''':Inferred orbits of 6 stars around the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* at the Milky Way's center<ref name="Eisenhauer">{{cite journal|last=Eisenhauer|first=F.|display-authors=et al. |title=SINFONI in the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares in the Central Light-Month|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=July 20, 2005|volume=628|issue=1|pages=246–259|doi=10.1086/430667|bibcode=2005ApJ...628..246E|arxiv=astro-ph/0502129|s2cid=122485461 }}</ref>]] [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, labeled S2 in '''Figure 4a''', completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance from the Sun to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: &hairsp; :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \\ \end{align}</math> &hairsp; If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. ==== Idealized Galactic Weeks ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Weeks_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 4b''': Division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks of solar travel (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 4b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks (yellow grid). Each week represents 1,000 parsecs of solar travel, which in this plot is assumed to be traversed by the Sun in roughly 4.09 million years. Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000''', respectively, indicating the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D. The cyan lines in the lower half of the image further divide one sector into 10 equal subsectors of 100 parsecs each. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 4b, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun had during Bully timestamp 8209 D89D 89D8 (approximately 31,000 B.C.), which is 1,000 parsecs of travel beyond the yellow line representing timestamp 8200 0000 0000. The nine cyan lines to the left of the red line represent the polar angles of the Sun after traveling 1,100 through 1,900 parsecs beyond timestamp 8200 0000 0000. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2⁴¹ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4c''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. It outlines the specific Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved across this idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4c:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. ==== Is the Galactic Calendar Realistic? ==== [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4d:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250-million-year time period.]] The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4d). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4d''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in Figure 4c states that the galactic week beginning on timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark. ==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ==== In Figure 3a and Figure 3b, the Sun is shown to travel less than 50,000 parsecs per galactic year. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar shown in Figure 4b assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per galactic year, introducing a distinct discrepancy in both galactic scale and calculated orbital velocity. Because the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to complex gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is neither perfectly uniform nor entirely predictable. Consequently, the Sun's true orbital velocity remains a subject of ongoing discovery and refinement. The conjectured values used in Figure 3b and Figure 4b should be viewed as '''practical assumptions''' rather than a reflection of a stable, long-term physical reality; the idealized Bully Calendar is a '''conceptual model''' designed to help visualize the immense scale of the galactic orbit. The table in '''Figure 4e''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp up to 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | '''Figure 4e''': Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 100 parsecs per 16⁸ Bully timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps</small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | <small>2^18.597453 ≈ 396,635 </small> | <small>2^18.6438562 ≈ 409,600 </small> | <small>2^18.666224 ≈ 416,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | <small>2^14.597453 ≈ 24,789.7 </small> | <small>2^14.6438562 ≈ 25,600.0 </small> | <small>2^14.666224 ≈ 26,000.0 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | <small>2^10.597453 ≈ 1,549.36 </small> | <small>2^10.6438562 ≈ 1,600.00 </small> | <small>2^10.666224 ≈ 1,625.00 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁸''' | <small>2^6.597453 ≈ 96.8348 </small> | <small>2^6.6438562 ≈ 100.0000 </small> | <small>2^6.666224 ≈ 101.5625 </small> |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off-Nominal Values |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | <small>2^15.597453 ≈ 49,579 </small> | <small>2^15.6438562 ≈ 51,200 </small> | <small>2^15.666224 ≈ 52,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2²⁶''' | <small>2^0.597453 ≈ 1.513043 </small> | <small>2^0.6438562 ≈ 1.562500 </small> | <small>2^0.666224 ≈ 1.586914 </small> |} == The Earth and Moon == The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep-time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these movements in mind and incorporates a few of their unique values as identified in the '''Bully Mnemonic'''. The Bully Mnemonic is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds in Earth's [[w:Sidereal year|sidereal year]] and [[w:Tropical year|tropical year]], a good approximation of the Earth's [[w:Great Year|Great Year]], and an approximation of the Solar System's [[w:Galactic year|galactic year]]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic|Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] ==== Earth's sidereal year ==== The duration of Earth's sidereal year is '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. While gravitational perturbations from neighboring planets cause this value to vary by a few seconds annually, the averaged century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given this relative stability, using a whole-number divisor of the sidereal year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system offers significant utility. Specifically, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds, meaning Earth's sidereal year—rounded to the nearest second—equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's tropical year ==== Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of seasons between successive vernal equinoxes, spans '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp shorter than the sidereal year, measuring exactly '''10,329.6 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's Great Year ==== [[File:Precesion.png|thumb|'''Figure 5a''': The tilt of the Earth's polar axis remains constant but describes a circular path in space during a period known as the Great Year.]] With Earth's sidereal year (<math>P</math>) spanning 10,330 timestamps and the tropical year (<math>a_{t}</math>) spanning 10,329.6 timestamps, a full precessional cycle (see '''Figure 5a''') requires a ratio of years, <math>N</math>, where the cumulative annual difference equals exactly one year: <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> <math> \begin{aligned} N &= \frac{1\text{ Bully timestamp}}{P - a_{t}} \\ &= \frac{1}{10,330 - 10,329.6} \\ &= \frac{1}{0.4} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \end{aligned} </math> </div> Expressing this duration in terms of sidereal years yields: <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= 25,824 \, P \end{aligned} </math> </div> Alternatively, expressing the cycle in terms of tropical years yields: <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= 25,825 \, a_{t} \end{aligned} </math> </div> ==== Earth's gravity ==== [[File:Earth-G-force.png|thumb|upright=1.35|'''Figure 5b''': Gravity at different internal layers of Earth (1 = continental crust, 2 = oceanic crust, 3 = upper mantle, 4 = lower mantle, 5+6 = core, A = crust-mantle boundary)]] Of all the planets in the cosmos, our Earth is unique in that the gravity on Earth's surface (see '''Figure 5b''') is by coincidence approximately equal to the speed of light divided by one sidereal Earth year: <div style="margin-top: 1em;margin-bottom: 1em; "> :<math>g \approx \frac{c}{P}</math> </div> Or equivalently: <div style="margin-top: 1em;margin-bottom: 1em; "> :<math>10,000\text{ Bully timestamps} \approx \frac{c}{g}</math> </div> <div style="margin-bottom: 2em; "> :where: :* <math>g</math> is Surface gravity :* <math>c</math> is the Speed of light :* <math>P</math> is the orbital period </div> ==== The Metonic cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23, 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp complete approximately three cycles per one Metonic cycle, as illustrated below: <div style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: inherit; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688; border-radius: 4px; line-height: 1.6; margin: 1em 0;"> '''July 23 New Moons:''' * July 23, 1998 — 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 — 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 — 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> * [[Bully Metric Metonic cycle|Learn More About The Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Anchoring Bully Timestamps == To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by defining timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is uniformly maintained by terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''. While 3,055 seconds may appear to be an arbitrary choice, the length of a single Bully timestamp is mathematically derived from solar, lunar, and deep-time orbital mechanics. {{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Timestamp Duration | text = Justification: # The Sun orbits approximately one solar radius per Bully timestamp: [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics#Solar_Radius_Mnemonics|t_☉ ≈ 3,055 seconds]] # The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year: [[Bully Mnemonic|31,558,150 s = 10,330 × 3,055 s]]. # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of the Earth–Moon Metonic cycle: [https://www.google.com/search?q=3+*+16%5E4+*+3055+s 1 Metonic cycle ≈ 3 × 16⁴ × 3,055 s]. # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of Earth's Great Year: [https://www.google.com/search?q=16%5E7+*+3055+s 1 Great Year ≈ 16⁷ × 3,055 s]. # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of the galactic year: [https://www.google.com/search?q=2+*+16%5E10+*+3055+s 1 galactic year ≈ 2 × 16¹⁰ × 3,055 s].}} === The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 6a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]], where the plane intersects the Galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 6a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] ==== Bullies in the Bully System ==== A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in Figure 6a: * '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign. * '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left. * '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left. As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history: {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was “sweetheart”. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, “lover”. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}} Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of "excellent" or "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. {{Quote box| align = center | width = full | title = The "Bully" Name | text = The specific "bullies" in the "Bully" timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}} === A surrogate for the Sun === As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving. The path of the node can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°): <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4c''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 6b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}'''. (Note: Figure 4c assumes an idealized travel distance of exactly 52,000 parsecs (or 2^15.666224) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps, whereas Figure 6b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs (or 2^15.666040) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center;" |+ '''Figure 6b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 3px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled in parsecs |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B32}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5058}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.100 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|820A D4AD 4AD4}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1099.86''}}}} |} {{Quote box| align = center| width = full| title = Bully Timestamp Anchor| text = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 6b).}} ==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ==== In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 6c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days. The Earth's orbital speed varies throughout the year, moving slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Consequently, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season. As shown in Figure 6c, '''winter''' was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. It took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to '''spring''' being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to '''summer'''. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over '''21,000 years'''. [[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|upright=3.0|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 6c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]] Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 6c. The transition from '''spring to summer''' is correlated with a large '''green dot''' and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large '''red dot''' appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from '''summer to autumn''', and a large '''blue dot''', back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from '''winter to spring'''. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,500 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly '''26,000 years''' (1 Great Year ≈ 25,824 sidereal years ≈ 25,825 tropical years). {{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | text = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred near the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. All of the Galactic crossings shown in Figure 6c, at 4495 BCE, 1998 CE, and 8329 CE, are roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE. }} == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 7a''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in Figure 7a, these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|'''Figure 7a''': Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of Figure 7a, follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. Ideally, all of the black lines in Figure 7a could be discontinued and replaced by Bully timestamps going forward. === Why do we need Bully timestamps? === All the timestamps in '''Figure 7b''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ '''Figure 7b''': UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of Figure 7b attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of Figure 7b, breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3,055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950s, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic timekeeping (1958 AD – present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Estimation == [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 8a: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 8a'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 8b'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|'''Figure 8b''': The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in '''Figure 8c''' contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8c''': Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in '''Figure 8d''' (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8d''': Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 8d) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in '''Figure 8e''' is the same as is shown in Figure 8d, but Figure 8e plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8e''': A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in '''Figure 8f''' is similar to the table in Figure 8c, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 8c was for large z values, Figure 8f shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8f''': Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] g1pqmiwpob44i45d3xfw9nh40n52zr9 2832702 2832701 2026-09-10T20:29:41Z Unitfreak 695864 /* The Earth and Moon */ 2832702 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the Sun's orbit around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp occurs each time the Sun advances by roughly one solar radius along its path through the cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|upright=2.2|center|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] == One Solar Radius == The Sun hurtles around the Milky Way Galaxy at a blistering 0.076% of the speed of light ([https://arxiv.org/abs/1810.09466 229.0 ± 0.2 kilometers per second]). Yet, even at this staggering pace, it takes about five-sixths of an hour for the Sun to traverse a distance equal to its own radius. This highlights the truly colossal size of our star, which boasts a radius of 2.3206 light-seconds (695,700 kilometers). '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. During each '''3,055-second''' period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over '''2.33 light-seconds''', which is slightly more than one solar radius (<math>R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 2.33 \text{ ls} \gtrapprox R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', it is a vast, oblong, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into surrounding space. While somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, the latter is a comparatively thin layer of gas held near the planetary surface, whereas the heliosphere is a plasma constantly blasted into space by the Sun's extreme heat and energy. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is so vast that if it were truly spherical, it would take the Sun roughly 6.344 years to travel a distance equivalent to the heliosphere's diameter. The digit in the '''fifth position''' of a Bully timestamp represents this orbital distance. Figure 2 illustrates the motion of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. Timestamp 8209 ED00 0000 is defined to have occurred at exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16, 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. During each 6.344-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 306 astronomical units, which is slightly more than 65,536 solar radii (<math>16^{4}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 306 \text{ AU} \gtrapprox 16^{4}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === Naked-Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (not to scale) across 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' corresponds to approximately 383,000 B.C., while timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., representing a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a cyan dashed line marking 100 parsecs. The Sun travels a little less than this distance during each 416,000-year interval, which is tracked by the digit in the '''ninth position''' of the Bully timestamp. Because a large percentage of naked-eye stars sit within this 100-parsec radius, the appearance of Earth's night sky changes completely over this timeframe. [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of naked-eye stars binned according to brightness and distance from the Sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the Sun than 100 parsecs, which is the distance the Sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of naked-eye stars are within this 100-parsec travel distance of the Sun.]] During each 415,792-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 97 parsecs, which is slightly more than 4,294,967,296 solar radii (<math>16^{8}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 97 \text{ pc} \gtrapprox 16^{8}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> ==== The Bully Milky Way ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3b''': Division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 3b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid). Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000'''. These represent the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D., respectively, assuming a full orbital path around the Milky Way of roughly 50,000 parsecs. In the lower half of the image, cyan lines further divide a single yellow sector into 16 equal subsectors. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center in Figure 3b, corresponding to the 6 o'clock position, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle of the Sun at Bully timestamp 820A 0000 0000, estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D. The nine cyan grid lines to the right of the red line mark the Sun's polar angle for Bully timestamps 8201 0000 0000 through 8209 0000 0000. Meanwhile, the five cyan grid lines to the left of the red line indicate the polar angle for timestamps 820B 0000 0000 through 820F 0000 0000. <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,t_{\odot} \approx 212.9 \text{ million years} </math> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \sim 50,000 \text{ parsecs} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> == The Galactic Calendar == [[File:Galactic centre orbits.svg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 4a''':Inferred orbits of 6 stars around the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* at the Milky Way's center<ref name="Eisenhauer">{{cite journal|last=Eisenhauer|first=F.|display-authors=et al. |title=SINFONI in the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares in the Central Light-Month|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=July 20, 2005|volume=628|issue=1|pages=246–259|doi=10.1086/430667|bibcode=2005ApJ...628..246E|arxiv=astro-ph/0502129|s2cid=122485461 }}</ref>]] [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, labeled S2 in '''Figure 4a''', completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance from the Sun to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: &hairsp; :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \\ \end{align}</math> &hairsp; If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. ==== Idealized Galactic Weeks ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Weeks_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 4b''': Division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks of solar travel (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 4b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks (yellow grid). Each week represents 1,000 parsecs of solar travel, which in this plot is assumed to be traversed by the Sun in roughly 4.09 million years. Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000''', respectively, indicating the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D. The cyan lines in the lower half of the image further divide one sector into 10 equal subsectors of 100 parsecs each. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 4b, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun had during Bully timestamp 8209 D89D 89D8 (approximately 31,000 B.C.), which is 1,000 parsecs of travel beyond the yellow line representing timestamp 8200 0000 0000. The nine cyan lines to the left of the red line represent the polar angles of the Sun after traveling 1,100 through 1,900 parsecs beyond timestamp 8200 0000 0000. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2⁴¹ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4c''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. It outlines the specific Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved across this idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4c:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. ==== Is the Galactic Calendar Realistic? ==== [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4d:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250-million-year time period.]] The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4d). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4d''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in Figure 4c states that the galactic week beginning on timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark. ==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ==== In Figure 3a and Figure 3b, the Sun is shown to travel less than 50,000 parsecs per galactic year. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar shown in Figure 4b assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per galactic year, introducing a distinct discrepancy in both galactic scale and calculated orbital velocity. Because the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to complex gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is neither perfectly uniform nor entirely predictable. Consequently, the Sun's true orbital velocity remains a subject of ongoing discovery and refinement. The conjectured values used in Figure 3b and Figure 4b should be viewed as '''practical assumptions''' rather than a reflection of a stable, long-term physical reality; the idealized Bully Calendar is a '''conceptual model''' designed to help visualize the immense scale of the galactic orbit. The table in '''Figure 4e''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp up to 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | '''Figure 4e''': Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 100 parsecs per 16⁸ Bully timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps</small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | <small>2^18.597453 ≈ 396,635 </small> | <small>2^18.6438562 ≈ 409,600 </small> | <small>2^18.666224 ≈ 416,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | <small>2^14.597453 ≈ 24,789.7 </small> | <small>2^14.6438562 ≈ 25,600.0 </small> | <small>2^14.666224 ≈ 26,000.0 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | <small>2^10.597453 ≈ 1,549.36 </small> | <small>2^10.6438562 ≈ 1,600.00 </small> | <small>2^10.666224 ≈ 1,625.00 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁸''' | <small>2^6.597453 ≈ 96.8348 </small> | <small>2^6.6438562 ≈ 100.0000 </small> | <small>2^6.666224 ≈ 101.5625 </small> |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off-Nominal Values |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | <small>2^15.597453 ≈ 49,579 </small> | <small>2^15.6438562 ≈ 51,200 </small> | <small>2^15.666224 ≈ 52,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2²⁶''' | <small>2^0.597453 ≈ 1.513043 </small> | <small>2^0.6438562 ≈ 1.562500 </small> | <small>2^0.666224 ≈ 1.586914 </small> |} == The Earth and Moon == The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep-time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these movements in mind and incorporates a few of their unique values as identified in the '''Bully Mnemonic'''. The Bully Mnemonic is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds in Earth's [[w:Sidereal year|sidereal year]] and [[w:Tropical year|tropical year]], a good approximation of the Earth's [[w:Great Year|Great Year]], and an approximation of the Solar System's [[w:Galactic year|galactic year]]. * [[Bully Mnemonic|Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] ==== Earth's sidereal year ==== The duration of Earth's sidereal year is '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. While gravitational perturbations from neighboring planets cause this value to vary by a few seconds annually, the averaged century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given this relative stability, using a whole-number divisor of the sidereal year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system offers significant utility. Specifically, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds, meaning Earth's sidereal year—rounded to the nearest second—equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's tropical year ==== Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of seasons between successive vernal equinoxes, spans '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp shorter than the sidereal year, measuring exactly '''10,329.6 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's Great Year ==== [[File:Precesion.png|thumb|'''Figure 5a''': The tilt of the Earth's polar axis remains constant but describes a circular path in space during a period known as the Great Year.]] With Earth's sidereal year (<math>P</math>) spanning 10,330 timestamps and the tropical year (<math>a_{t}</math>) spanning 10,329.6 timestamps, a full precessional cycle (see '''Figure 5a''') requires a ratio of years, <math>N</math>, where the cumulative annual difference equals exactly one year: <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> <math> \begin{aligned} N &= \frac{1\text{ Bully timestamp}}{P - a_{t}} \\ &= \frac{1}{10,330 - 10,329.6} \\ &= \frac{1}{0.4} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \end{aligned} </math> </div> Expressing this duration in terms of sidereal years yields: <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= 25,824 \, P \end{aligned} </math> </div> Alternatively, expressing the cycle in terms of tropical years yields: <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= 25,825 \, a_{t} \end{aligned} </math> </div> ==== Earth's gravity ==== [[File:Earth-G-force.png|thumb|upright=1.35|'''Figure 5b''': Gravity at different internal layers of Earth (1 = continental crust, 2 = oceanic crust, 3 = upper mantle, 4 = lower mantle, 5+6 = core, A = crust-mantle boundary)]] Of all the planets in the cosmos, our Earth is unique in that the gravity on Earth's surface (see '''Figure 5b''') is by coincidence approximately equal to the speed of light divided by one sidereal Earth year: <div style="margin-top: 1em;margin-bottom: 1em; "> :<math>g \approx \frac{c}{P}</math> </div> Or equivalently: <div style="margin-top: 1em;margin-bottom: 1em; "> :<math>10,000\text{ Bully timestamps} \approx \frac{c}{g}</math> </div> <div style="margin-bottom: 2em; "> :where: :* <math>g</math> is Surface gravity :* <math>c</math> is the Speed of light :* <math>P</math> is the orbital period </div> ==== The Metonic cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23, 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp complete approximately three cycles per one Metonic cycle, as illustrated below: <div style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: inherit; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688; border-radius: 4px; line-height: 1.6; margin: 1em 0;"> '''July 23 New Moons:''' * July 23, 1998 — 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 — 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 — 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> * [[Bully Metric Metonic cycle|Learn More About The Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Anchoring Bully Timestamps == To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by defining timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is uniformly maintained by terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''. While 3,055 seconds may appear to be an arbitrary choice, the length of a single Bully timestamp is mathematically derived from solar, lunar, and deep-time orbital mechanics. {{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Timestamp Duration | text = Justification: # The Sun orbits approximately one solar radius per Bully timestamp: [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics#Solar_Radius_Mnemonics|t_☉ ≈ 3,055 seconds]] # The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year: [[Bully Mnemonic|31,558,150 s = 10,330 × 3,055 s]]. # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of the Earth–Moon Metonic cycle: [https://www.google.com/search?q=3+*+16%5E4+*+3055+s 1 Metonic cycle ≈ 3 × 16⁴ × 3,055 s]. # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of Earth's Great Year: [https://www.google.com/search?q=16%5E7+*+3055+s 1 Great Year ≈ 16⁷ × 3,055 s]. # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of the galactic year: [https://www.google.com/search?q=2+*+16%5E10+*+3055+s 1 galactic year ≈ 2 × 16¹⁰ × 3,055 s].}} === The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 6a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]], where the plane intersects the Galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 6a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] ==== Bullies in the Bully System ==== A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in Figure 6a: * '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign. * '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left. * '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left. As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history: {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was “sweetheart”. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, “lover”. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}} Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of "excellent" or "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. {{Quote box| align = center | width = full | title = The "Bully" Name | text = The specific "bullies" in the "Bully" timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}} === A surrogate for the Sun === As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving. The path of the node can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°): <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4c''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 6b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}'''. (Note: Figure 4c assumes an idealized travel distance of exactly 52,000 parsecs (or 2^15.666224) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps, whereas Figure 6b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs (or 2^15.666040) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center;" |+ '''Figure 6b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 3px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled in parsecs |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B32}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5058}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.100 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|820A D4AD 4AD4}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1099.86''}}}} |} {{Quote box| align = center| width = full| title = Bully Timestamp Anchor| text = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 6b).}} ==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ==== In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 6c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days. The Earth's orbital speed varies throughout the year, moving slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Consequently, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season. As shown in Figure 6c, '''winter''' was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. It took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to '''spring''' being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to '''summer'''. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over '''21,000 years'''. [[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|upright=3.0|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 6c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]] Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 6c. The transition from '''spring to summer''' is correlated with a large '''green dot''' and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large '''red dot''' appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from '''summer to autumn''', and a large '''blue dot''', back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from '''winter to spring'''. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,500 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly '''26,000 years''' (1 Great Year ≈ 25,824 sidereal years ≈ 25,825 tropical years). {{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | text = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred near the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. All of the Galactic crossings shown in Figure 6c, at 4495 BCE, 1998 CE, and 8329 CE, are roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE. }} == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 7a''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in Figure 7a, these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|'''Figure 7a''': Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of Figure 7a, follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. Ideally, all of the black lines in Figure 7a could be discontinued and replaced by Bully timestamps going forward. === Why do we need Bully timestamps? === All the timestamps in '''Figure 7b''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ '''Figure 7b''': UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of Figure 7b attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of Figure 7b, breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3,055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950s, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic timekeeping (1958 AD – present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Estimation == [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 8a: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 8a'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 8b'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|'''Figure 8b''': The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in '''Figure 8c''' contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8c''': Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in '''Figure 8d''' (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8d''': Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 8d) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in '''Figure 8e''' is the same as is shown in Figure 8d, but Figure 8e plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8e''': A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in '''Figure 8f''' is similar to the table in Figure 8c, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 8c was for large z values, Figure 8f shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8f''': Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] mhjk7d656o71pn7whqr4iuy75ps910y 2832716 2832702 2026-09-10T20:51:35Z Unitfreak 695864 /* The Foundations of Bully Metric */ 2832716 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the Sun's orbit around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp occurs each time the Sun advances by roughly one solar radius along its path through the cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|upright=2.2|center|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] == One Solar Radius == The Sun hurtles around the Milky Way Galaxy at a blistering 0.076% of the speed of light ([https://arxiv.org/abs/1810.09466 229.0 ± 0.2 kilometers per second]). Yet, even at this staggering pace, it takes about five-sixths of an hour for the Sun to traverse a distance equal to its own radius. This highlights the truly colossal size of our star, which boasts a radius of 2.3206 light-seconds (695,700 kilometers). '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. During each '''3,055-second''' period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over '''2.33 light-seconds''', which is slightly more than one solar radius (<math>R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 2.33 \text{ ls} \gtrapprox R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', it is a vast, oblong, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into surrounding space. While somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, the latter is a comparatively thin layer of gas held near the planetary surface, whereas the heliosphere is a plasma constantly blasted into space by the Sun's extreme heat and energy. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is so vast that if it were truly spherical, it would take the Sun roughly 6.344 years to travel a distance equivalent to the heliosphere's diameter. The digit in the '''fifth position''' of a Bully timestamp represents this orbital distance. Figure 2 illustrates the motion of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. Timestamp 8209 ED00 0000 is defined to have occurred at exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16, 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. During each 6.344-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 306 astronomical units, which is slightly more than 65,536 solar radii (<math>16^{4}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 306 \text{ AU} \gtrapprox 16^{4}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === Naked-Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (not to scale) across 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' corresponds to approximately 383,000 B.C., while timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., representing a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a cyan dashed line marking 100 parsecs. The Sun travels a little less than this distance during each 416,000-year interval, which is tracked by the digit in the '''ninth position''' of the Bully timestamp. Because a large percentage of naked-eye stars sit within this 100-parsec radius, the appearance of Earth's night sky changes completely over this timeframe. [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of naked-eye stars binned according to brightness and distance from the Sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the Sun than 100 parsecs, which is the distance the Sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of naked-eye stars are within this 100-parsec travel distance of the Sun.]] During each 415,792-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 97 parsecs, which is slightly more than 4,294,967,296 solar radii (<math>16^{8}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 97 \text{ pc} \gtrapprox 16^{8}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> ==== The Bully Milky Way ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3b''': Division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 3b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid). Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000'''. These represent the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D., respectively, assuming a full orbital path around the Milky Way of roughly 50,000 parsecs. In the lower half of the image, cyan lines further divide a single yellow sector into 16 equal subsectors. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center in Figure 3b, corresponding to the 6 o'clock position, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle of the Sun at Bully timestamp 820A 0000 0000, estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D. The nine cyan grid lines to the right of the red line mark the Sun's polar angle for Bully timestamps 8201 0000 0000 through 8209 0000 0000. Meanwhile, the five cyan grid lines to the left of the red line indicate the polar angle for timestamps 820B 0000 0000 through 820F 0000 0000. <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,t_{\odot} \approx 212.9 \text{ million years} </math> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \sim 50,000 \text{ parsecs} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> == The Galactic Calendar == [[File:Galactic centre orbits.svg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 4a''':Inferred orbits of 6 stars around the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* at the Milky Way's center<ref name="Eisenhauer">{{cite journal|last=Eisenhauer|first=F.|display-authors=et al. |title=SINFONI in the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares in the Central Light-Month|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=July 20, 2005|volume=628|issue=1|pages=246–259|doi=10.1086/430667|bibcode=2005ApJ...628..246E|arxiv=astro-ph/0502129|s2cid=122485461 }}</ref>]] [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, labeled S2 in '''Figure 4a''', completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance from the Sun to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: &hairsp; :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \\ \end{align}</math> &hairsp; If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. ==== Idealized Galactic Weeks ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Weeks_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 4b''': Division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks of solar travel (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 4b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks (yellow grid). Each week represents 1,000 parsecs of solar travel, which in this plot is assumed to be traversed by the Sun in roughly 4.09 million years. Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000''', respectively, indicating the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D. The cyan lines in the lower half of the image further divide one sector into 10 equal subsectors of 100 parsecs each. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 4b, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun had during Bully timestamp 8209 D89D 89D8 (approximately 31,000 B.C.), which is 1,000 parsecs of travel beyond the yellow line representing timestamp 8200 0000 0000. The nine cyan lines to the left of the red line represent the polar angles of the Sun after traveling 1,100 through 1,900 parsecs beyond timestamp 8200 0000 0000. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2⁴¹ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4c''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. It outlines the specific Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved across this idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4c:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. ==== Is the Galactic Calendar Realistic? ==== [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4d:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250-million-year time period.]] The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4d). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4d''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in Figure 4c states that the galactic week beginning on timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark. ==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ==== In Figure 3a and Figure 3b, the Sun is shown to travel less than 50,000 parsecs per galactic year. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar shown in Figure 4b assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per galactic year, introducing a distinct discrepancy in both galactic scale and calculated orbital velocity. Because the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to complex gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is neither perfectly uniform nor entirely predictable. Consequently, the Sun's true orbital velocity remains a subject of ongoing discovery and refinement. The conjectured values used in Figure 3b and Figure 4b should be viewed as '''practical assumptions''' rather than a reflection of a stable, long-term physical reality; the idealized Bully Calendar is a '''conceptual model''' designed to help visualize the immense scale of the galactic orbit. The table in '''Figure 4e''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp up to 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | '''Figure 4e''': Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 100 parsecs per 16⁸ Bully timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps</small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | <small>2^18.597453 ≈ 396,635 </small> | <small>2^18.6438562 ≈ 409,600 </small> | <small>2^18.666224 ≈ 416,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | <small>2^14.597453 ≈ 24,789.7 </small> | <small>2^14.6438562 ≈ 25,600.0 </small> | <small>2^14.666224 ≈ 26,000.0 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | <small>2^10.597453 ≈ 1,549.36 </small> | <small>2^10.6438562 ≈ 1,600.00 </small> | <small>2^10.666224 ≈ 1,625.00 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁸''' | <small>2^6.597453 ≈ 96.8348 </small> | <small>2^6.6438562 ≈ 100.0000 </small> | <small>2^6.666224 ≈ 101.5625 </small> |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off-Nominal Values |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | <small>2^15.597453 ≈ 49,579 </small> | <small>2^15.6438562 ≈ 51,200 </small> | <small>2^15.666224 ≈ 52,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2²⁶''' | <small>2^0.597453 ≈ 1.513043 </small> | <small>2^0.6438562 ≈ 1.562500 </small> | <small>2^0.666224 ≈ 1.586914 </small> |} == The Earth and Moon == The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep-time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these movements in mind and incorporates a few of their unique values as identified in the '''Bully Mnemonic'''. The Bully Mnemonic is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds in Earth's [[w:Sidereal year|sidereal year]] and [[w:Tropical year|tropical year]], a good approximation of the Earth's [[w:Great Year|Great Year]], and an approximation of the Solar System's [[w:Galactic year|galactic year]]. * [[Bully Mnemonic|Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] ==== Earth's sidereal year ==== The duration of Earth's sidereal year is '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. While gravitational perturbations from neighboring planets cause this value to vary by a few seconds annually, the averaged century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given this relative stability, using a whole-number divisor of the sidereal year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system offers significant utility. Specifically, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds, meaning Earth's sidereal year—rounded to the nearest second—equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's tropical year ==== Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of seasons between successive vernal equinoxes, spans '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp shorter than the sidereal year, measuring exactly '''10,329.6 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's Great Year ==== [[File:Precesion.png|thumb|'''Figure 5a''': The tilt of the Earth's polar axis remains constant but describes a circular path in space during a period known as the Great Year.]] With Earth's sidereal year (<math>P</math>) spanning 10,330 timestamps and the tropical year (<math>a_{t}</math>) spanning 10,329.6 timestamps, a full precessional cycle (see '''Figure 5a''') requires a ratio of years, <math>N</math>, where the cumulative annual difference equals exactly one year: <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> <math> \begin{aligned} N &= \frac{1\text{ Bully timestamp}}{P - a_{t}} \\ &= \frac{1}{10,330 - 10,329.6} \\ &= \frac{1}{0.4} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \end{aligned} </math> </div> Expressing this duration in terms of sidereal years yields: <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= 25,824 \, P \end{aligned} </math> </div> Alternatively, expressing the cycle in terms of tropical years yields: <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= 25,825 \, a_{t} \end{aligned} </math> </div> ==== Earth's gravity ==== [[File:Earth-G-force.png|thumb|upright=1.35|'''Figure 5b''': Gravity at different internal layers of Earth (1 = continental crust, 2 = oceanic crust, 3 = upper mantle, 4 = lower mantle, 5+6 = core, A = crust-mantle boundary)]] Of all the planets in the cosmos, our Earth is unique in that the gravity on Earth's surface (see '''Figure 5b''') is by coincidence approximately equal to the speed of light divided by one sidereal Earth year: <div style="margin-top: 1em;margin-bottom: 1em; "> :<math>g \approx \frac{c}{P}</math> </div> Or equivalently: <div style="margin-top: 1em;margin-bottom: 1em; "> :<math>10,000\text{ Bully timestamps} \approx \frac{c}{g}</math> </div> <div style="margin-bottom: 2em; "> :where: :* <math>g</math> is Surface gravity :* <math>c</math> is the Speed of light :* <math>P</math> is the orbital period </div> ==== The Metonic cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23, 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp complete approximately three cycles per one Metonic cycle, as illustrated below: <div style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: inherit; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688; border-radius: 4px; line-height: 1.6; margin: 1em 0;"> '''July 23 New Moons:''' * July 23, 1998 — 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 — 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 — 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> * [[Bully Metric Metonic cycle|Learn More About The Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Anchoring Bully Timestamps == To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by defining timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is uniformly maintained by terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''. While 3,055 seconds may appear to be an arbitrary choice, the length of a single Bully timestamp is mathematically derived from solar, lunar, and deep-time orbital mechanics. {{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Timestamp Duration | text = Justification: # The Sun orbits approximately one solar radius per Bully timestamp: [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics#Solar_Radius_Mnemonics|t_☉ ≈ 3,055 seconds]] # The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year: [[Bully Mnemonic|31,558,150 s = 10,330 × 3,055 s]]. # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of the Earth–Moon Metonic cycle: [https://www.google.com/search?q=3+*+16%5E4+*+3055+s 1 Metonic cycle ≈ 3 × 16⁴ × 3,055 s]. # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of Earth's Great Year: [https://www.google.com/search?q=16%5E7+*+3055+s 1 Great Year ≈ 16⁷ × 3,055 s]. # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of the galactic year: [https://www.google.com/search?q=2+*+16%5E10+*+3055+s 1 galactic year ≈ 2 × 16¹⁰ × 3,055 s].}} === The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 6a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]], where the plane intersects the Galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 6a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] ==== Bullies in the Bully System ==== A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in Figure 6a: * '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign. * '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left. * '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left. As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history: {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was “sweetheart”. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, “lover”. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}} Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of "excellent" or "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. {{Quote box| align = center | width = full | title = The "Bully" Name | text = The specific "bullies" in the "Bully" timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}} === A surrogate for the Sun === As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving. The path of the node can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°): <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4c''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 6b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}'''. (Note: Figure 4c assumes an idealized travel distance of exactly 52,000 parsecs (or 2^15.666224) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps, whereas Figure 6b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs (or 2^15.666040) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center;" |+ '''Figure 6b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 3px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled in parsecs |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B32}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5058}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.100 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|820A D4AD 4AD4}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1099.86''}}}} |} {{Quote box| align = center| width = full| title = Bully Timestamp Anchor| text = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 6b).}} ==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ==== In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 6c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days. The Earth's orbital speed varies throughout the year, moving slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Consequently, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season. As shown in Figure 6c, '''winter''' was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. It took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to '''spring''' being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to '''summer'''. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over '''21,000 years'''. [[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|upright=3.0|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 6c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]] Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 6c. The transition from '''spring to summer''' is correlated with a large '''green dot''' and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large '''red dot''' appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from '''summer to autumn''', and a large '''blue dot''', back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from '''winter to spring'''. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,500 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly '''26,000 years''' (1 Great Year ≈ 25,824 sidereal years ≈ 25,825 tropical years). {{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | text = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred near the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. All of the Galactic crossings shown in Figure 6c, at 4495 BCE, 1998 CE, and 8329 CE, are roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE. }} == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 7a''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in Figure 7a, these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|'''Figure 7a''': Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of Figure 7a, follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. Ideally, all of the black lines in Figure 7a could be discontinued and replaced by Bully timestamps going forward. === Why do we need Bully timestamps? === All the timestamps in '''Figure 7b''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ '''Figure 7b''': UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of Figure 7b attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of Figure 7b, breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3,055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950s, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic timekeeping (1958 AD – present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Estimation == [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 8a: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 8a'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 8b'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|'''Figure 8b''': The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in '''Figure 8c''' contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8c''': Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in '''Figure 8d''' (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8d''': Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 8d) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in '''Figure 8e''' is the same as is shown in Figure 8d, but Figure 8e plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8e''': A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in '''Figure 8f''' is similar to the table in Figure 8c, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 8c was for large z values, Figure 8f shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8f''': Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The following links are OBE and will be updated at a later date. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] o83il09xtbhei2lfevcs0604unj9ygr 2832717 2832716 2026-09-10T20:55:25Z Unitfreak 695864 /* OBE */ 2832717 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the Sun's orbit around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp occurs each time the Sun advances by roughly one solar radius along its path through the cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|upright=2.2|center|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] == One Solar Radius == The Sun hurtles around the Milky Way Galaxy at a blistering 0.076% of the speed of light ([https://arxiv.org/abs/1810.09466 229.0 ± 0.2 kilometers per second]). Yet, even at this staggering pace, it takes about five-sixths of an hour for the Sun to traverse a distance equal to its own radius. This highlights the truly colossal size of our star, which boasts a radius of 2.3206 light-seconds (695,700 kilometers). '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. During each '''3,055-second''' period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over '''2.33 light-seconds''', which is slightly more than one solar radius (<math>R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 2.33 \text{ ls} \gtrapprox R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', it is a vast, oblong, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into surrounding space. While somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, the latter is a comparatively thin layer of gas held near the planetary surface, whereas the heliosphere is a plasma constantly blasted into space by the Sun's extreme heat and energy. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is so vast that if it were truly spherical, it would take the Sun roughly 6.344 years to travel a distance equivalent to the heliosphere's diameter. The digit in the '''fifth position''' of a Bully timestamp represents this orbital distance. Figure 2 illustrates the motion of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. Timestamp 8209 ED00 0000 is defined to have occurred at exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16, 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. During each 6.344-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 306 astronomical units, which is slightly more than 65,536 solar radii (<math>16^{4}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{4}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 306 \text{ AU} \gtrapprox 16^{4}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> === Naked-Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (not to scale) across 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' corresponds to approximately 383,000 B.C., while timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., representing a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a cyan dashed line marking 100 parsecs. The Sun travels a little less than this distance during each 416,000-year interval, which is tracked by the digit in the '''ninth position''' of the Bully timestamp. Because a large percentage of naked-eye stars sit within this 100-parsec radius, the appearance of Earth's night sky changes completely over this timeframe. [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of naked-eye stars binned according to brightness and distance from the Sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the Sun than 100 parsecs, which is the distance the Sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of naked-eye stars are within this 100-parsec travel distance of the Sun.]] During each 415,792-year period, the Sun travels a distance (<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot}</math>) of a little over 97 parsecs, which is slightly more than 4,294,967,296 solar radii (<math>16^{8}\,R_{\odot}</math>). <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math>16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 97 \text{ pc} \gtrapprox 16^{8}\,R_{\odot} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> ==== The Bully Milky Way ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3b''': Division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 3b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid). Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000'''. These represent the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D., respectively, assuming a full orbital path around the Milky Way of roughly 50,000 parsecs. In the lower half of the image, cyan lines further divide a single yellow sector into 16 equal subsectors. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center in Figure 3b, corresponding to the 6 o'clock position, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle of the Sun at Bully timestamp 820A 0000 0000, estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D. The nine cyan grid lines to the right of the red line mark the Sun's polar angle for Bully timestamps 8201 0000 0000 through 8209 0000 0000. Meanwhile, the five cyan grid lines to the left of the red line indicate the polar angle for timestamps 820B 0000 0000 through 820F 0000 0000. <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,t_{\odot} \approx 212.9 \text{ million years} </math> :<math> 512 \times 16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \sim 50,000 \text{ parsecs} </math> [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]] </div> == The Galactic Calendar == [[File:Galactic centre orbits.svg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 4a''':Inferred orbits of 6 stars around the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* at the Milky Way's center<ref name="Eisenhauer">{{cite journal|last=Eisenhauer|first=F.|display-authors=et al. |title=SINFONI in the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares in the Central Light-Month|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=July 20, 2005|volume=628|issue=1|pages=246–259|doi=10.1086/430667|bibcode=2005ApJ...628..246E|arxiv=astro-ph/0502129|s2cid=122485461 }}</ref>]] [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, labeled S2 in '''Figure 4a''', completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance from the Sun to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: &hairsp; :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \\ \end{align}</math> &hairsp; If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. ==== Idealized Galactic Weeks ==== [[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Weeks_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 4b''': Division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks of solar travel (yellow grid).]] '''Figure 4b''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks (yellow grid). Each week represents 1,000 parsecs of solar travel, which in this plot is assumed to be traversed by the Sun in roughly 4.09 million years. Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000''', respectively, indicating the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D. The cyan lines in the lower half of the image further divide one sector into 10 equal subsectors of 100 parsecs each. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 4b, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun had during Bully timestamp 8209 D89D 89D8 (approximately 31,000 B.C.), which is 1,000 parsecs of travel beyond the yellow line representing timestamp 8200 0000 0000. The nine cyan lines to the left of the red line represent the polar angles of the Sun after traveling 1,100 through 1,900 parsecs beyond timestamp 8200 0000 0000. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2⁴¹ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4c''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. It outlines the specific Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved across this idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4c:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. ==== Is the Galactic Calendar Realistic? ==== [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4d:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250-million-year time period.]] The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4d). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4d''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in Figure 4c states that the galactic week beginning on timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark. ==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ==== In Figure 3a and Figure 3b, the Sun is shown to travel less than 50,000 parsecs per galactic year. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar shown in Figure 4b assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per galactic year, introducing a distinct discrepancy in both galactic scale and calculated orbital velocity. Because the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to complex gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is neither perfectly uniform nor entirely predictable. Consequently, the Sun's true orbital velocity remains a subject of ongoing discovery and refinement. The conjectured values used in Figure 3b and Figure 4b should be viewed as '''practical assumptions''' rather than a reflection of a stable, long-term physical reality; the idealized Bully Calendar is a '''conceptual model''' designed to help visualize the immense scale of the galactic orbit. The table in '''Figure 4e''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp up to 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | '''Figure 4e''': Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 100 parsecs per 16⁸ Bully timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;" | <small>Sun's Galactic orbital distance in parsecs assuming 52,000 parsecs per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps</small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | <small>2^18.597453 ≈ 396,635 </small> | <small>2^18.6438562 ≈ 409,600 </small> | <small>2^18.666224 ≈ 416,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | <small>2^14.597453 ≈ 24,789.7 </small> | <small>2^14.6438562 ≈ 25,600.0 </small> | <small>2^14.666224 ≈ 26,000.0 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | <small>2^10.597453 ≈ 1,549.36 </small> | <small>2^10.6438562 ≈ 1,600.00 </small> | <small>2^10.666224 ≈ 1,625.00 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁸''' | <small>2^6.597453 ≈ 96.8348 </small> | <small>2^6.6438562 ≈ 100.0000 </small> | <small>2^6.666224 ≈ 101.5625 </small> |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off-Nominal Values |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | <small>2^15.597453 ≈ 49,579 </small> | <small>2^15.6438562 ≈ 51,200 </small> | <small>2^15.666224 ≈ 52,000 </small> |- | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2²⁶''' | <small>2^0.597453 ≈ 1.513043 </small> | <small>2^0.6438562 ≈ 1.562500 </small> | <small>2^0.666224 ≈ 1.586914 </small> |} == The Earth and Moon == The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep-time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these movements in mind and incorporates a few of their unique values as identified in the '''Bully Mnemonic'''. The Bully Mnemonic is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds in Earth's [[w:Sidereal year|sidereal year]] and [[w:Tropical year|tropical year]], a good approximation of the Earth's [[w:Great Year|Great Year]], and an approximation of the Solar System's [[w:Galactic year|galactic year]]. * [[Bully Mnemonic|Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] ==== Earth's sidereal year ==== The duration of Earth's sidereal year is '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. While gravitational perturbations from neighboring planets cause this value to vary by a few seconds annually, the averaged century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given this relative stability, using a whole-number divisor of the sidereal year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system offers significant utility. Specifically, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds, meaning Earth's sidereal year—rounded to the nearest second—equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's tropical year ==== Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of seasons between successive vernal equinoxes, spans '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp shorter than the sidereal year, measuring exactly '''10,329.6 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's Great Year ==== [[File:Precesion.png|thumb|'''Figure 5a''': The tilt of the Earth's polar axis remains constant but describes a circular path in space during a period known as the Great Year.]] With Earth's sidereal year (<math>P</math>) spanning 10,330 timestamps and the tropical year (<math>a_{t}</math>) spanning 10,329.6 timestamps, a full precessional cycle (see '''Figure 5a''') requires a ratio of years, <math>N</math>, where the cumulative annual difference equals exactly one year: <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> <math> \begin{aligned} N &= \frac{1\text{ Bully timestamp}}{P - a_{t}} \\ &= \frac{1}{10,330 - 10,329.6} \\ &= \frac{1}{0.4} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \end{aligned} </math> </div> Expressing this duration in terms of sidereal years yields: <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,329.6 \, P \\ &= 25,824 \, P \end{aligned} </math> </div> Alternatively, expressing the cycle in terms of tropical years yields: <div style="margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; "> <math> \begin{aligned} 1 \, \text{Great Year} &= N \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= \frac{5}{2} \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\ &= 25,825 \, a_{t} \end{aligned} </math> </div> ==== Earth's gravity ==== [[File:Earth-G-force.png|thumb|upright=1.35|'''Figure 5b''': Gravity at different internal layers of Earth (1 = continental crust, 2 = oceanic crust, 3 = upper mantle, 4 = lower mantle, 5+6 = core, A = crust-mantle boundary)]] Of all the planets in the cosmos, our Earth is unique in that the gravity on Earth's surface (see '''Figure 5b''') is by coincidence approximately equal to the speed of light divided by one sidereal Earth year: <div style="margin-top: 1em;margin-bottom: 1em; "> :<math>g \approx \frac{c}{P}</math> </div> Or equivalently: <div style="margin-top: 1em;margin-bottom: 1em; "> :<math>10,000\text{ Bully timestamps} \approx \frac{c}{g}</math> </div> <div style="margin-bottom: 2em; "> :where: :* <math>g</math> is Surface gravity :* <math>c</math> is the Speed of light :* <math>P</math> is the orbital period </div> ==== The Metonic cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23, 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp complete approximately three cycles per one Metonic cycle, as illustrated below: <div style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: inherit; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688; border-radius: 4px; line-height: 1.6; margin: 1em 0;"> '''July 23 New Moons:''' * July 23, 1998 — 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 — 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 — 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> * [[Bully Metric Metonic cycle|Learn More About The Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Anchoring Bully Timestamps == To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by defining timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is uniformly maintained by terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''. While 3,055 seconds may appear to be an arbitrary choice, the length of a single Bully timestamp is mathematically derived from solar, lunar, and deep-time orbital mechanics. {{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Timestamp Duration | text = Justification: # The Sun orbits approximately one solar radius per Bully timestamp: [[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics#Solar_Radius_Mnemonics|t_☉ ≈ 3,055 seconds]] # The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year: [[Bully Mnemonic|31,558,150 s = 10,330 × 3,055 s]]. # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of the Earth–Moon Metonic cycle: [https://www.google.com/search?q=3+*+16%5E4+*+3055+s 1 Metonic cycle ≈ 3 × 16⁴ × 3,055 s]. # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of Earth's Great Year: [https://www.google.com/search?q=16%5E7+*+3055+s 1 Great Year ≈ 16⁷ × 3,055 s]. # The Bully timestamp is an approximate divisor of the galactic year: [https://www.google.com/search?q=2+*+16%5E10+*+3055+s 1 galactic year ≈ 2 × 16¹⁰ × 3,055 s].}} === The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 6a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]], where the plane intersects the Galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 6a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] ==== Bullies in the Bully System ==== A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in Figure 6a: * '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign. * '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left. * '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left. As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history: {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was “sweetheart”. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, “lover”. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}} Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of "excellent" or "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. {{Quote box| align = center | width = full | title = The "Bully" Name | text = The specific "bullies" in the "Bully" timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}} === A surrogate for the Sun === As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving. The path of the node can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°): <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4c''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 6b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}'''. (Note: Figure 4c assumes an idealized travel distance of exactly 52,000 parsecs (or 2^15.666224) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps, whereas Figure 6b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs (or 2^15.666040) of orbital travel per 2⁴¹ Bully timestamps.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center;" |+ '''Figure 6b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 3px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled in parsecs |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B32}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5058}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87''}}}} |- style="font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.100 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|820A D4AD 4AD4}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1099.86''}}}} |} {{Quote box| align = center| width = full| title = Bully Timestamp Anchor| text = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 6b).}} ==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ==== In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 6c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days. The Earth's orbital speed varies throughout the year, moving slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Consequently, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season. As shown in Figure 6c, '''winter''' was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. It took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to '''spring''' being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to '''summer'''. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over '''21,000 years'''. [[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|upright=3.0|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 6c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]] Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 6c. The transition from '''spring to summer''' is correlated with a large '''green dot''' and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large '''red dot''' appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from '''summer to autumn''', and a large '''blue dot''', back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from '''winter to spring'''. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,500 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly '''26,000 years''' (1 Great Year ≈ 25,824 sidereal years ≈ 25,825 tropical years). {{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | text = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred near the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. All of the Galactic crossings shown in Figure 6c, at 4495 BCE, 1998 CE, and 8329 CE, are roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE. # Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE. }} == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 7a''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in Figure 7a, these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|'''Figure 7a''': Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of Figure 7a, follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. Ideally, all of the black lines in Figure 7a could be discontinued and replaced by Bully timestamps going forward. === Why do we need Bully timestamps? === All the timestamps in '''Figure 7b''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ '''Figure 7b''': UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of Figure 7b attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of Figure 7b, breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3,055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950s, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic timekeeping (1958 AD – present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Estimation == [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 8a: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 8a'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 8b'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|'''Figure 8b''': The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in '''Figure 8c''' contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8c''': Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in '''Figure 8d''' (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8d''': Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 8d) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in '''Figure 8e''' is the same as is shown in Figure 8d, but Figure 8e plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8e''': A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in '''Figure 8f''' is similar to the table in Figure 8c, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 8c was for large z values, Figure 8f shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 8f''': Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] === OBE === The following links are OBE and will be updated at a later date. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] hrmry9dboj9ziw6vmrveluu1ep0gm5c 0 306587 2832747 2754142 2026-09-11T00:39:14Z P U3270518 3106535 See also and external links section - used bullet points to organise the see also and external links section. Also included source in parentheses 2832747 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|E-cigarette use motivation:<br>What motivates starting and continuing vaping of nicotine e-cigarettes?}} {{MECR3|1=https://youtu.be/8S1tFh6TPoA}} __TOC__ == Overview == {{IconBoxLeft}} ;Case study A previously healthy 16-year-old male presented with progressive shortness of breath, cough, and hypoxemia in the setting of several months of daily nicotine and THC-containing e-cigarette use. He had been suffering from a chronic cough and intermittent nausea since he started vaping several months before presentation. His cough worsened 1 week before admission to the hospital, accompanied by vomiting induced by coughing and non-bloody diarrhea. He subsequently developed a fever and was evaluated in an Emergency Department. A chest radiograph showed a right lower lobe pneumonia prompting outpatient treatment with bacterial infection medication ([https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1546084320301504 Shah et al., 2020]). {{IconBoxClose}} [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic%20cigarette Electronic cigarettes] (e-cigarettes) are electronic devices that use a battery powered heating element to disperse liquid, typically a glycerin and/or propylene glycol solution, into an inhalable aerosol ([https://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/13/7/661 Wadsworth et al., 2016]). This aerosolized liquid contains flavorings, solvents, and the addictive, dependence-producing drug [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicotine nicotine] ([https://nyaspubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/nyas.12977 Breland et al., 2017]). Vaping and smoking prevalence in Australia has been trending upward since 2020, with the Australian population aged 14 and over containing 3.5 million smokers and/or vapers, with current smokers (11.8% of the population) outnumbering current vapers (8.9% of the population) ([https://ggtc.world/library/current-vaping-and-smoking-in-the-australian-population-aged-14-years-or-older-february-2018-to-march-2023 Wakefield et al., 2023]). {| class="wikitable" ! Focus questions |- | What motivates people to vape? |- | What are the physical and mental health implications of e-cigarette use? |- | What psychological theories may be applied to e-cigarette use? |} [[File:CDC_electronic_cigarettes_October_2015_(cropped).png|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Cigarette and e-cigarettes]] == What motivates people to vape? == There are many factors that contribute to the initiation and maintenance of e-cigarette use behaviour. Below are some of the psychological, social, and biological factors that contribute to this behaviour. ==== Reasons for initiating e-cigarette use ==== The most common reason for initiating e-cigarette use or vaping is to stop or reduce tobacco smoking behaviour ([https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1080/08897077.2019.1671937 Kinouani et al., 2017]). However, current evidence regarding the effectiveness of e-cigarette use in smoking cessation is inconclusive. Several longitudinal studies have reported that e-cigarette use is associated with a greater risk of initiating the use of tobacco smoking products among adolescents and young adults ([https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1080/08897077.2019.1671937 Kinouani et al., 2017]). Smokers who initiate e-cigarette use for cessation rather than recreation or enjoyment purposes are more likely to have greater nicotine dependence, cigarette consumption, and e-cigarette consumption. However, motivations and use differ and are related to both consumption and dependence on nicotine e-cigarette products ([https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2211335522002315 Temourian et al., 2022]). A qualitative interview-based study of e-cigarette use investigating motivation in smokers and non-smokers, revealed that non-smokers cited social reasons for e-cigarette use, such as peer influence and social norms, whereas, smokers or ex-smokers often cited health reasons for initiating e-cigarette use ([https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/hpja.442 Amin et al., 2021]). ==== Socioeconomic status, adverse childhood events and e-cigarette use ==== Smoking and e-cigarette use is unequally distributed between people of different socioeconomic status, with higher smoking prevalence in lower status groups, contributing to health inequities ([https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352853219301725 Jahnel et al., 2020]). A study by [https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352853219302032 Williams et al., 2020] examined adverse childhood experiences and early initiation of e-cigarette use behaviour in Nevada. Findings suggested a strong positively graded relationship between cumulative adverse childhood experience exposure and early initiation of electronic vapour product use in a middle school aged population. ==== Attitudes and education around e-cigarettes ==== Understanding individuals' perceptions around the relative safety of a behaviour provides a basis for a predictive relationship between perception/attitude and engagement in the behaviour ([https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/dar.12984 Erku et al., 2019]). There appears to be a direct relationship between smokers' perception of the relative harm of tobacco cigarettes and nicotine vaping products (NVPs) and the likelihood of switching from smoking to vaping ([https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/dar.12984 Erku et al., 2019]). A longitudinal study found that smokers and ex-smokers who perceived NVPs as less harmful were subsequently more likely to try them, however, a considerable portion of interviewed smokers reported a lack of knowledge about the relative safety ([https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/dar.12984 Erku et al., 2019]). There are various reasons contributing to the significant rise in adolescent vaping. This includes misconceptions about the safety of e-cigarettes, lower prices than traditional tobacco cigarettes, a variety of flavours such as fruits and candy, and social or peer pressure ([https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9195082/ Javed et al., 2022]). ==== Psychosocial factors relating to e-cigarette use ==== E-cigarette use studies have identified many psychosocial factors associated with the behaviour, such as difficulties with studying, school stress, problems communicating with parents, and generalised trust ([https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0033350617304031 Lindstrom & Rosvall, 2018]). Other psychosocial factors identified include home use of e-cigarette products, friends' use of and positive attitudes towards usage, and harm perception. These were all found to be strongly positively associated with e-cigarette use behaviour ([https://publications.aap.org/pediatrics/article-abstract/136/2/308/33811/Psychosocial-Factors-Associated-With-Adolescent Barrington-Trimis et al., 2015]). A study of university students attending an Appalachian university stated that the most common motivator for e-cigarette use was stress reduction, followed by the good taste, friends' usage, and wanting to quit cigarettes ([https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10826084.2021.1914102 Wattick et al., 2021]). ==== Biological factors and addiction ==== The chemical nicotine, found in e-cigarettes and vapes, interacts with an individual's nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, initiating the release of neurotransmitters ([https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/24/19/14570 Sansone et al., 2023]). The predominant neurotransmitters that nicotine consumption releases include dopamine, norepinephrine, acetylcholine, serotonin, GABA, glutamate, and endorphins ([https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/24/19/14570 Sansone et al., 2023]). The release of these neurotransmitters induce sensations of pleasure, stimulation, and mood modulation ([https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/24/19/14570 Sansone et al., 2023]). Activation of these receptors establishes new neural pathways, and, in conjunction with environmental cues, behavioural conditioning occurs ([https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/24/19/14570 Sansone et al., 2023]). Between periods of nicotine consumption, or after discontinuing nicotine use, levels of nicotine in the brain decline, causing reductions in dopamine and other neurotransmitters, and symptoms such as craving and withdrawal ([https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/24/19/14570 Sansone et al., 2023]). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} ; Quiz Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display="simple"> {What is the most common motivation for initiating e-cigarette use? |type="(True)"} + Cigarette smoking cessation - Colourful packaging - Sweet and fun flavours </quiz> {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==== Maintenance of e-cigarette use behaviour ==== Little is known about the effects of long-term e-cigarette use, however findings suggest that the risk of relapse to combustible cigarette use is low ([https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0749379719302156?casa%20token=JgVEZE0sniQAAAAA:%20r9Bmhd7kfGTmD-R5rFDlUKUVaf9qapKnm2vyW-F6HOYUgFEAzksYgYZ-dj8GNwBuwJ2cCUd Du & Fan et al., 2019]). Findings also suggest that e-cigarette dependence remains stable in long-term e-cigarette users ([https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0749379719302156?casa%20token=JgVEZE0sniQAAAAA:%20r9Bmhd7kfGTmD-R5rFDlUKUVaf9qapKnm2vyW-F6HOYUgFEAzksYgYZ-dj8GNwBuwJ2cCUd Du & Fan, 2019]). Nicotine dependence is a factor of e-cigarette use maintenance and resistance to cessation, however a 2018 study from [https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0306460317302885 Browne and Todd] suggests that motivations for vaping are less dominated by nicotine delivery ([https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reinforcement negative reinforcement]), and may be driven by [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reinforcement positive reinforcement] factors. == What are the physical and mental health implications of e-cigarette use? == {{expand}} ===== Physical health effects of e-cigarette use ===== [[File:LungCACXR.PNG|thumb|200px|Figure 3. X ray of lung cancer]] Research on the long-term health effects of the orally-ingested toxicants delivered via aerosolized vapor in e-cigarettes is limited, however, there is rising concern about the health impacts among youth who begin using e-cigarettes at an early age ([https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352853219302032 Williams et al., 2020]). Many of the volatile organic compounds found in the saliva and urine samples of e-cigarette users are carcinogenic ([https://publications.aap.org/pediatrics/article-abstract/141/4/e20173557/37730/Adolescent-Exposure-to-Toxic-Volatile-Organic Rubinstein et al., 2018]). From March 2019 to February 2020, The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention stated that more than 2,807 cases of lung injury associated with e-cigarette use were reported ([https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/0022042620921351?casa_token=WeqPz-sZSEQAAAAA%3AMHaFUe4jh4J09P7TrTVubJbFd8tuYWtAP8cFbPitotUKT8cbYknZS6D-67xmc7kfvGBgYuDhuqM Rocheleau, 2020]). Furthermore, as of 2020, there were 68 deaths associated with e-cigarette use across 29 states in the U.S. ([https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/0022042620921351?casa_token=WeqPz-sZSEQAAAAA%3AMHaFUe4jh4J09P7TrTVubJbFd8tuYWtAP8cFbPitotUKT8cbYknZS6D-67xmc7kfvGBgYuDhuqM Rocheleau, 2020]) ===== Mental health effects of e-cigarette use ===== Nicotine, the addictive chemical component of e-cigarettes, has been shown to cause severe impairment to the growing brain leading to cognitive and psychiatric issues, such as depression, anxiety, violence, other substance abuse, and suicidality ([https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9195082/ Javed et al., 2022]). In adolescents, depressive symptoms predict an increased likelihood of initiating e-cigarette use, but sustained e-cigarette use is associated with an increase in depressive symptoms, and higher frequency of e-cigarette use is associated with higher rates of depressive symptoms ([https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0091743516304388?casa%20token=d-o3LzpTib0AAAAA:dB-%20wckQbzxTRH-8qIoHruVLjKkGV3tJyS8SbqjBShfulEuzSQHyZYSwhW-Da5sgs0Mc3fjPd5so Lechner et al., 2017]). Although e-cigarette use has detrimental mental health effects, the prevalence of e-cigarette use is significantly higher amongst adults with serious psychological distress ([https://academic.oup.com/ntr/article/22/10/1875/5819790?login=true Weinberger et al., 2020]). The implications of these findings are crucial for approaches to public health and youth wellbeing, as they identify the demographic factors and predictors of the behaviour and the consequences of the behaviour. ===== Nicotine use in adolescents ===== There is a plethora of epidemiological evidence demonstrating that adolescents are more likely to use nicotine, and that nicotine exposure in adolescents causes a greater risk of long-term nicotine dependency ([https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0028390808003249 O'Dell, 2009]). Adolescents, compared to adults, experience enhanced short-term positive effects and reduced aversive effects when using nicotine ([https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0028390808003249 O'Dell, 2009]. This makes the use of nicotine more appealing for younger audiences which then leads to increased consumption. The implication this has on physical health is that it results in longer usage of the product causing poorer health outcomes. The short term positive affects create a dependency on the substance which negatively impacts mental health through addictive tendencies. {{ic|Peer review comment: The information is good but ensure you expand on it and relate it back to the question, why is the information you've presented useful? Consider the implications more.}} == What psychological theories may be applied to e-cigarette use? == {{expand}} ===== Theory of Planned Behaviour ===== [[File:Theory_of_planned_behavior.png|thumb|300px|Figure 4. Ajzen's theory of planned behaviour]] Ajzen's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_planned_behavior theory of planned behaviour] posits that attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control all contribute to intentions to perform behaviours ([https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/074959789190020T Ajzen, 1991]). In this context, the performed behaviour is e-cigarette use, and the theory of planned behaviour (TPB) components (attitude, subjective norms, perceived behavioural control) all influence an individual's intention as to whether they will perform this behaviour. A study from the [https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1360-0443.1992.tb02742.x?_gl=1*1ckdt8g*_gcl_au*NTU0Nzg5NTIzLjE3MjE0NDQ5NDA. British Journal of Addiction] found that for adult smokers in the general population, perceived behavioural control, attitudes and subjective norms were contributing to intention regarding cigarette-smoking behaviour ([https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1360-0443.1992.tb02742.x Godin et al., 1992]). The most current version of the TPB proposes that perceived behavioural control moderates the effects of subjective norm and attitude on intention ([https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7909507/ LaBarbera & Ajzen, 2020]). This new theory posits that greater perceived behavioural control tends to strengthen the relative importance of attitude in the prediction of intention, whereas it tends to weaken the relative importance of subjective norm ([https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7909507/ LaBarbera & Ajzen, 2020]) ===== Social Learning Theory ===== [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social%20learning%20theory Social learning theory], originally proposed by [https://www.simplypsychology.org/bandura.html Albert Bandura], primarily focuses on the importance of interactions one has with others in their peer group ([https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/9781118512449.ch12 Akers & Jennings, 2015]), and posits that people learn through observing, imitating, and modelling others' behaviour ([https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Mohammad-Bijandi/publication/367203768%20Bandura's%20Social%20Learning%20Theory%20Social%20Cognitive%20Learning%20Theory/links/63c6a10bd7e5841e0bd70276/Banduras-Social-Learning-Theory-Social-Cognitive-Learning-Theory.pdf Nabavi, 2012]). Findings from a study utilising a social learning approach to e-cigarette use found that higher levels of peer e-cigarette use contribute to higher odds of personal e-cigarette use ([https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/0022042620921351 Rocheleau et al., 2020]).{{ic|Peer review comment: Include a section on why people maintain vaping and using e-cigarettes. The chapter speaks well about the initiation of this behaviour but doesn't touch on maintenance enough considering the focus question. Consider adding some more review questions throughout}} == Conclusion == Electronic cigarettes are electronic devices that use a battery powered heating element to disperse liquid, typically a glycerin and/or propylene glycol solution, into an inhalable aerosol (Wadsworth et al.,2016), containing flavourings, solvents, and the addictive, dependence-producing drug nicotine (Breland et al., 2017).{{ic|repetitive of Overview}} The current {{what}} literature suggests that reasons for initiation and maintenance of e-cigarette use behaviour vary, however the most common motivation is cessation {{gr}} cigarette smoking behaviour (Kinouani et al., 2017). Lower socioeconomic status and adverse childhood experiences contribute to higher rates of e-cigarette use (Williams et al., 2020), as well as variations in individual attitudes and e-cigarette education (Erku et al., 2019), as well as psychosocial factors such as such as difficulties with studying, school stress, problems communicating with parents, and generalised trust (Lindstrom & Rosvall, 2018). E-cigarette use is associated with detrimental mental and physical health effects, with adolescents being the demographic most likely to be exposed to, and use, nicotine (O'Dell, 2009). Ajzen's theory of planned behaviour and Bandura's social learning theory are both relevant frameworks for understanding the initiation and maintenance of e-cigarette use behaviour. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Take-home messages * Vaping is often motivated by smoking cessation but is also shaped by social, psychological, and biological factors. * Adolescents are particularly vulnerable due to peer influence, brain development, and misperceptions of harm. * Long-term risks include physical health harms (e.g., lung injury, toxicant exposure) and mental health impacts (e.g., depression, anxiety, dependence). * Psychological theories such as the Theory of Planned Behaviour and Social Learning Theory help explain both initiation and maintenance of e-cigarette use. {{RoundBoxBottom}} == See also == * [[Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2013/Nicotine_and_emotion|Nicotine and Emotion: what is the effect of nicotine on emotion?]] (Book chapter) * [[wikipedia:Electronic_cigarette#Society_and_culture|Vaping - Society and Culture]] (Wikipedia) == References == {{Hanging indent|1= Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned behavior. ''Organizational behavior and human decision processes, 50''(2), 179-211. Akers, R. L., & Jennings, W. G. (2015). Social learning theory. ''The handbook of criminological theory'', 230-240. Amin, S., Dunn, A. G., & Laranjo, L. (2021). Why do people start or stop using e‐cigarettes in Australia? A qualitative interview‐based study. ''Health Promotion Journal of Australia, 32'', 358-366. Barrington-Trimis, J. L., Berhane, K., Unger, J. B., Cruz, T. B., Huh, J., Leventhal, A. M., & McConnell, R. (2015). Psychosocial factors associated with adolescent electronic cigarette and cigarette use. Pediatrics, 136(2), 308-317. Breland, A., Soule, E., Lopez, A., Ramôa, C., El‐Hellani, A., & Eissenberg, T. (2017). Electronic cigarettes: what are they and what do they do?. ''Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1394''(1), 5-30. Browne, M., & Todd, D. G. (2018). Then and now: Consumption and dependence in e-cigarette users who formerly smoked cigarettes. Addictive behaviors, 76, 113-121. Du, P., Fan, T., Yingst, J., Veldheer, S., Hrabovsky, S., Chen, C., & Foulds, J. (2019). Changes in e-cigarette use behaviors and dependence in long-term e-cigarette users. American journal of preventive medicine, 57(3), 374-383. Erku, D. A., Gartner, C. E., Tengphakwaen, U., Morphett, K., & Steadman, K. J. (2019). Nicotine vaping product use, harm perception and policy support among pharmacy customers in Brisbane, Australia. ''Drug and Alcohol Review, 38''(6), 703-711. Jahnel, T., Ferguson, S. G., Partos, T., & Brose, L. S. (2020). Socioeconomic differences in the motivation to stop using e-cigarettes and attempts to do so. ''Addictive Behaviors Reports, 11'', 100247. Javed, S., Usmani, S., Sarfraz, Z., Sarfraz, A., Hanif, A., Firoz, A., ... & Ahmed, S. (2022). A scoping review of vaping, e-cigarettes and mental health impact: depression and suicidality. ''Journal of community hospital internal medicine perspectives, 12''(3), 33. Kinouani, S., Leflot, C., Vanderkam, P., Auriacombe, M., Langlois, E., & Tzourio, C. (2020). Motivations for using electronic cigarettes in young adults: A systematic review. ''Substance abuse, 41''(3), 315-322. La Barbera, F., & Ajzen, I. (2020). Control interactions in the theory of planned behavior: Rethinking the role of subjective norm. Europe's Journal of Psychology, 16(3), 401. Lechner, W. V., Janssen, T., Kahler, C. W., Audrain-McGovern, J., & Leventhal, A. M. (2017). Bi-directional associations of electronic and combustible cigarette use onset patterns with depressive symptoms in adolescents. ''Preventive medicine, 96'', 73-78. Lindström, M., & Rosvall, M. (2018). Addictive behaviors, social and psychosocial factors, and electronic cigarette use among adolescents: a population-based study. Public Health, 155, 129-132. Nabavi, R. T. (2012). Bandura’s social learning theory & social cognitive learning theory. ''Theory of Developmental Psychology, 1''(1), 1-24. O'Dell, L. E. (2009). A psychobiological framework of the substrates that mediate nicotine use during adolescence. Neuropharmacology, 56, 263-278. Rocheleau, G. C., Vito, A. G., & Intravia, J. (2020). Peers, perceptions, and e-cigarettes: A social learning approach to explaining e-cigarette use among youth. ''Journal of drug issues, 50''(4), 472-489. Rubinstein, M. L., Delucchi, K., Benowitz, N. L., & Ramo, D. E. (2018). Adolescent exposure to toxic volatile organic chemicals from e-cigarettes. ''Pediatrics, 141''(4). Sansone, L., Milani, F., Fabrizi, R., Belli, M., Cristina, M., Zagà, V., ... & Russo, P. (2023). Nicotine: From discovery to biological effects. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 24(19), 14570. Shah, J., Mullen, M., & Lu, M. (2020). E-cigarette or vaping product use–associated lung injury: a case study and review of the literature. ''Journal of Radiology Nursing, 39''(4), 305-308. Temourian, A. A., Song, A. V., Halliday, D. M., Gonzalez, M., & Epperson, A. E. (2022). Why do smokers use e-cigarettes? A study on reasons among dual users. ''Preventive Medicine Reports, 29'', 101924. Wadsworth, E., Neale, J., McNeill, A., & Hitchman, S. C. (2016). How and why do smokers start using e-cigarettes? Qualitative study of vapers in London, UK. ''International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 13''(7), 661. Wakefield, M., Haynes, A., Tabbakh, T., Scollo, M., & Durkin, S. (2023). Current vaping and current smoking in the Australian population aged 14+ years: February 2018-March 2023. ''Melbourne: Centre for Behavioural Research in Cancer, Cancer Council Victoria''. Wattick, R. A., Olfert, I. M., & Olfert, M. D. (2021). Psychosocial factors associated with E-cigarette use among young adults in a 4-year university in appalachia. Substance Use & Misuse, 56(8), 1182-1189. Weinberger, A. H., Zhu, J., Barrington-Trimis, J. L., Wyka, K., & Goodwin, R. D. (2020). Cigarette use, e-cigarette use, and dual product use are higher among adults with serious psychological distress in the United States: 2014–2017. Nicotine and Tobacco Research, 22(10), 1875-1882. Williams, L., Clements-Nolle, K., Lensch, T., & Yang, W. (2020). Exposure to adverse childhood experiences and early initiation of electronic vapor product use among middle school students in Nevada. ''Addictive Behaviors Reports, 11'', 100266. }} == External links == * [https://www.health.gov.au/give-up-for-good?gad%20source=1&gclid=Cj0KCQjwu-63BhC9ARIsAMMTLXQafvvf8FYKhW19FPvDhuLNCkB1SqSmHLzfsRZyQhubPtdOJLAKEvYaApzBEALw%20wcB&gclsrc=aw.ds Quit Vaping] (Australian Government) * [https://www.health.gov.au/ministers/the-hon-mark-butler-mp/media/new-supports-to-quit-vaping-and-smoking New Supports to Quit Vaping and Smoking] (Department of Health and Aged Care) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Drugs/Nicotine]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Motivation]] cl1e2qarcojiejs2plvqyxftsjzv0eh 0 306605 2832750 2741278 2026-09-11T01:00:43Z P U3270518 3106535 Corrected spelling and grammer errors 2832750 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Sleep and ego depletion:<br>How does sleep affect the capacity for self-control and willpower?}} {{MECR3|1=https://youtu.be/95AM9g2BlGE}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}} '''Food for thought:''' [[File:Edward Thompson Davis Learning by heart.jpg|thumb|250px|'''Figure 1'''. - A small boy looking stressed about his studies]] Have you ever been cramming for an important exam and stayed up all night studying, only to find the next day you can barely even comprehend the questions, let alone remember a semester's worth of content? This is because your poor brain has been deprived of its much-needed reset. By denying your brain sleep, you do not retain anything you studied the night before and lose valuable processing and decision-making abilities! Next time, skip the caffeine-induced all-nighter and get a good night's rest so your brain can be at its best when you need it!{{RoundBoxBottom}} Sleep is one of the most important parts of our day. It plays a crucial role in maintaining our overall health and well-being. Throughout the day, our brains accumulate vast amounts of information and experiences. Sleep acts as a crucial period for sorting, consolidating, and storing these memories and learned experiences, allowing us to retain and build upon them effectively. Sleep also plays a crucial role in flushing out toxins that build up during the day.{{f}} In addition to its role in cognitive functions, sleep is a time for the body to reset and restore itself. When we sleep, the [https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/body/23262-sympathetic-nervous-system-sns-fight-or-flight sympathetic nervous system] 'turns off', and the [https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/body/23266-parasympathetic-nervous-system-psns parasympathetic nervous system] takes over{{f}}. This shift facilitates the release of growth hormones (Zaffanello et al, 2024) that promote cell repair and tissue regeneration. This restorative process helps heal tissues, build muscle, and strengthen the immune system to prepare us for the next day. By understanding the importance of sleep, we can start to unpack why poor sleep disrupts our daily lives and health. Over time, chronic sleep deprivation can lead to more serious health issues, including increased risk of cardiovascular diseases (Nagai et al., 2010), and weakened immune response. Recognising and addressing poor sleeping habits is crucial for both short-term and long-term health. Prioritising quality sleep is essential for optimal brain function, physical health, and overall quality of life. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} <quiz display="simple"> {It is better to stay up all night studying, or getting a good nights sleep before a big exam?} - Stay up studying to cram as much extra knowledge in before the exam + Get a full 8 hours of sleep so your brain can fully take in what you already revised </quiz> {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}} '''Focus questions:''' * What happens in the brain when we sleep? * What is ego depletion? * Does a lack of sleep have long-term effects? * How does sleep affect performance? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == What happens in the brain when we sleep? == Sleep is an integral part of everyday life; when life gets stressful, sleep is often one of the first things to be disrupted. It is estimated that adults need between 7 and 9 hours of sleep per night to fully rest and recover from the day prior, and the younger you are, the more sleep you need. The [[wikipedia:Suprachiasmatic_nucleus|suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)]] is the part of the brain responsible for circadian rhythms in the brain, or your sleep/wake cycle. As it gets dark, the synthesis and release of melatonin is triggered which in turn decreases the amount of neuron firing in the SCN aiding in sleep.{{f}} During sleep we go through multiple stages but can broadly be characterised into deep, rapid eye movement (REM) or light, non-REM sleep. During REM sleep is when we have dreams and your brain is most active, nearly as much as when you’re awake. There is still ongoing research to further understand why we enter this state and why our brains seem to nearly ‘turn back on’ during sleep. During early infancy and early childhood REM sleep makes up most of sleep which indicates its importance in organising and solidifying neural connections.{{f}} === Key chemicals in sleep === {{expand}} ==== '''GABA''' ==== [[wikipedia:GABA|Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)]] is a very important amino acid within the brain which is responsible for inhibiting signals in the brain to both cause a calming effect and permit sleep (Siegel, 2004). It blocks signals to the CNS to trigger and maintain sleep. Low levels of GABA in the brain have been linked to schizophrenia, anxiety and depression (Paine, 2011; Schür, 2016). Studies have shown that a decrease in GABA is linked to impulsivity and gambling, the mechanisms as to why are still developing (Murphy 2012; Paine 2011). ==== '''Histamine''' ==== [[wikipedia:Histamine|Histamine]] is a chemical in the immune system responsible for intercellular communication most thought of in allergic reactions. It is heavily involved in keeping us awake, and when made inactive by [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK526124/ GABAergic cells] causes drowsiness and sleep (Siegel, 2004). It also has a role in the sleep/wake cycle in which the management of different receptors can induce sleep or wakefulness depending on the receptor (Thakkar, 2011). It has been shown to be linked to motivation especially in food motivation in which increased levels of histamine are released in preparation for mealtimes (Torrealba, 2012). ==== '''Serotonin''' ==== [[wikipedia:Serotonin|Serotonin]] is a [[wikipedia:Neurotransmitter|neurotransmitter]] in the brain that plays a varied role in the brain and body. Some key roles include maintaining mood, desire, and digestion. It typically promotes wakefulness and is inactivated during sleep via GABA molecules and has been linked to inhibiting the REM sleep cycle and has a role in maintaining arousal and regulating muscle tone during sleep (Monti, 2011). Serotonin has also been implicated in a person’s ability to make good decisions however the pathway that it accomplishes this is still unclear (Homberg, 2012). === Glucose levels === Glucose levels increase during sleep and peak during non-REM sleep stages (Knutson 2007). Variation in glucose levels has a negative impact on a person’s ability for sleep. Low glucose levels can trigger sweating and nightmares, and high blood sugar can lead to poor sleep and a harder time falling asleep (Pacheco, 2020). This means that those suffering with diabetes have a poorer sleep compared to those with normal blood sugar (Yoda et al., 2015). Disrupted sleep can lead to insulin resistance which can cause a domino effect to developing pre-diabetes and diabetes. It can be thought of as a circular relationship in that high blood sugar leads to less sleep and less sleep leads to higher blood sugar. The cyclical relationship could also be contributed to lifestyle choices, assuming those with poor sleep also make other poor lifestyle choices such as unhealthy eating habits and a sedentary lifestyle (Knutson 2007). == What is ego depletion? == The basis of ego depletion is that it takes energy to make decisions and have self control. This mental energy is a finite resource and when depleted it becomes much harder to make appropriate decisions and practise self control leading to [https://www.healthline.com/health/decision-fatigue decision fatigue] moodiness and other 'symptoms'. "The ego is constantly working to keep the ID in check. Like any other cognitive task, the ego’s constant efforts to satisfy both the ID and the superego requires mental energy, which is limited" (D. Pilat and K. Sekoul, 2021). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''"Spoon Theory"''' was coined as a term to describe ego depletion. You only have so many spoons in a day (and the amount can vary day to day), different tasks take a different amount of spoons, once you're out it's very difficult to continue to complete tasks.{{f}} {{RoundBoxBottom}} === Physiological causes === Self control and making decisions are both actions that require energy. It has been suggested that glucose the primary form of energy that these actions use. There have been studies that link glucose intake to self-control and found that blood glucose levels drop after periods of decision making and self control which then suggests that self-control can be increased by consuming glucose (Matthew T et al., 2007){{expand}}. This study was later questioned however other studies found that simply rinsing your mouth with a sweet beverage can increase capacity for self control (Molden et al., 2012){{expand}}. === Implications in real life (Motivations) === Not sleeping depletes the energy available, lowering self-control{{f}}. We make decisions that are not well thought out and can be different from what we would typically make after a well-rested night{{f}}. There is also less capacity for recalling and retaining memories{{f}}. During REM sleep, your brain organises all you've learnt over the day and sorts it into your memory{{f}}. When you go through fewer REM cycles of a night, there is less time to organise everything, and information can be partially lost (B. Rasch and J. Born, 2013) {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} <quiz display="simple"> {How much sleep should the average adult get per night?} - 5-7 {{ic|hours?}} + 7-9 - 9+ </quiz> {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Does lack of sleep have long term effects? == Consistently not getting enough sleep can have various health impacts on the body including increased risk of cardiovascular diseases, increases blood pressure, increased risk of developing diabetes and obesity. It can also have negative impacts on the brain as low sleep can lead to depression and anxiety and has been linked to the onset of various neurodegenerative diseases. === Mental illness === The links between sleep and mental health is a widely researched area of psychology. It has been clearly established that a lack of sleep is a common comorbidity in a number of psychiatric disorders, particularly mood disorders, such as schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. Additionally, disruptions in sleep and circadian biology impacts the neural and endocrine functions of individuals which can contribute to atypical patterns of social behaviour and abnormal light exposure. In schizophrenia, a common feature of the disorder is having sleep disturbances which include reductions in total sleep time, poor sleeping efficiency, increased sleep latency and reduced REM sleep, with 30-80% of all schizophrenic patients reportedly having poor sleep (Cohrs, 2008). In children, it has been reported that prodromal sleep disturbances are a common feature of early-onset schizophrenia (Mattai et al, 2006). From a biological perspective, poor sleep affects schizophrenic patients through compromising their circadian biology and resulting in fragmenting and instability in their rest-activity cycles. In both Bipolar I and II, having poor sleep is a good predictor of the likelihood of someone developing the condition. This is because people with Bipolar disorder tend to struggle falling asleep, have a lower requirement for sleep and their sleep is easily disturbed. === Increased risk of neurodegenerative diseases === When you sleep for less then 7 hours a night the proteins in your brain called beta-amyloid build up, and an excess of it can lead to [[wikipedia:Alzheimer's_disease|Alzheimers Disease]] (AD). Your brain has a build up of beta-amyloid during the day, the exact function is still unclear, and is degraded my microglia as we sleep. A disturbance in sleep patterns is one of the first symptoms of AD, and 25-60% of people with the disease suffer from various sleep disorders (Vaou et al., 2018). Melatonin production decreases as we age and even more so in AD patients. This has been hypothesised to contribute to the phenomenon known as "Sun-downing" in which a person with AD becomes anxious, irritable and disoriented during dusk as the sun begins to set (Liu et al., 1999; Sanders et al., 2012). == How does sleep affect performance? == A lack of self-control can lead to poor decisions and interactions both in your personal and professional life. With less self-control your ability to regulate facial expressions, tone and choice of words is all impaired which can lead to conflict. It also leaves you less aware of your surroundings and can lead to increased risk of injury both in the workplace and in sports.{{f}} === Work === It is important to come to work well rested for both yourself and the people around you. Little or poor sleep has shown to increase unsafe and unethical practises within the workforce (Barns et al., 2011). It also makes it harder to maintain interpersonal relationships, especially if irritability caused by a lack of sleep occurs for weeks on end.{{f}} No-body wants to be friends with a grouch. {{RoundBoxTop|theme12}} '''Case study:''' [[File:"Plenty of sleep keeps him on the job" - NARA - 514792.jpg|thumb|200px|'''Figure 2'''. WW2 poster created by the US Government encouraging employers to allow workers to get adequate rest to stay working]] In a study by Mei Chen et al. (2022), 79 employees were sampled across the East Coast of China to test hypotheses surrounding sleep and ego depletion and whether or not these affected workplace conflict. The study found that those with less sleep or a poor quality of sleep experience more conflict in the workplace. It was suggested that the cause of this was ego depletion when an individual did not get enough sleep and hence had less self-control than usual, causing more conflicts. The study also stressed the importance of sleep in avoiding burnout and consequently leaving the workplace. Figure 2 is an older example of this. Ultimately, it emphasised that allowing workers to get enough sleep would improve workplace morale and productivity by avoiding ego depletion. {{RoundBoxBottom}} === Athletes === In professional sports, athletes are more likely to have disrupted sleep which increases the risk of injury (Huang and Ihm, 2021). Athletes who get less than 7 hours of sleep per night are 1.7 times more likely to get injured than those who receive a full 8 hours (Milewski et al., 2014). This is due to the impaired decision-making, while there may be less overt decisions being made during training, there are lots of micro decisions being made, "where should I step", and some decisions such as "do I need to stop pushing" can fall to the wayside when there is less capacity for a well rounded perspective thus increasing the chance of injury. Getting a good night's sleep has been shown to increase the rate of recovery for certain injuries as the body has time to repair during sleep. (Vermier et al., 2021) ==Conclusion== Decision making and willpower is closely linked to how much quality sleep we get per night. When we get less than 7 our brains are unable to sort through the information we received the day before and there is less energy available for making decisions. Sleep is an important part of our days as it clears toxins from our brains and creates new neural networks based on our experiences from the day before. Consistently not sleeping can lead to serious health impacts and increase our risk of mental health issues and developing neurodegenerative diseases such as AD. It also effects out work lives because when we lack self-control there is a negative impact on those around us and out interpersonal relationships are impacted and you are more likely to make mistakes that lead to injury. When life gets crazy and it feels like there are less hours in the day to accomplish all you need to, remember to prioritise sleep as it will give you the much needed. energy to successfully function throughout the day. ==See also== * [[wikipedia:Ego_depletion).|Ego Depletion]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Sleep_deprivation|Sleep deprivation]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Barnes, C. M., Schaubroeck, J., Huth, M., & Ghumman, S. (2011). Lack of sleep and unethical conduct. 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''Psychological Science'', 23(12), 1470-1472. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797612450034 Schür, R. R., Draisma, L. W., Wijnen, J. P., Boks, M. P., Koevoets, M. G., Joëls, M., Klomp, D. W., Kahn, R. S., & Vinkers, C. H. (2016). Brain GABA levels across psychiatric disorders: A systematic literature review and meta-analysis of (1) H-MRS studies. ''Hum Brain Mapp'', 37(9), 3337-3352. https://doi.org/10.1002/hbm.23244 Siegel, J. M. (2004). The neurotransmitters of sleep. ''J Clin Psychiatry'', 65 Suppl 16(Suppl 16), 4-7. Thakkar, M. M. (2011). Histamine in the regulation of wakefulness. ''Sleep Medicine Reviews'', 15(1), 65-74. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smrv.2010.06.004 Torrealba, F., Riveros, M. E., Contreras, M., & Valdes, J. L. (2012). Histamine and motivation. ''Front Syst Neurosci'', 6, 51. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnsys.2012.00051 Vaou, O. E., Lin, S. H., Branson, C., & Auerbach, S. (2018). Sleep and Dementia. ''Current Sleep Medicine Reports'', 4(2), 134-142. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40675-018-0112-9 Vermeir, P., Leye, M. D., Grymonprez, R., Goethals, A., Vermeir, R., Bossche, L. V., & Mariman, A. (2021). 456 The impact of sleep on the recovery of sport injuries. British ''Journal of Sports Medicine'', 55(Suppl 1), A173-A174. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2021-IOC.417 Yoda, K., Inaba, M., Hamamoto, K., Yoda, M., Tsuda, A., Mori, K., Imanishi, Y., Emoto, M., & Yamada, S. (2015). Association between poor glycemic control, impaired sleep quality, and increased arterial thickening in type 2 diabetic patients. ''PLoS One'', 10(4), e0122521. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0122521 Zaffanello, M., Pietrobelli, A., Cavarzere, P., Guzzo, A., & Antoniazzi, F. (2024). Complex relationship between growth hormone and sleep in children: insights, discrepancies, and implications [Review]. ''Frontiers in Endocrinology'', 14. https://doi.org/10.3389/fendo.2023.1332114 }} ==External links== * Brain Basics: Understanding Sleep ([https://www.ninds.nih.gov/health-information/public-education/brain-basics/brain-basics-understanding-sleep https://www.ninds.nih.gov/health-information/public-education/brain-basics/brain-basics-understanding-sleep]) * [https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/body/12148-sleep-basics Sleep] (Cleveland Clinic) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Ego depletion]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Sleep]] 2i3tl639t0x1e8az93h5q87cgjma1ko 0 307211 2832808 2829971 2026-09-11T11:47:28Z SJPiper 3107750 /* History of motivation and activism */ 2832808 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Youth environmental activism motivation:<br>What motivates young people to engage in environmental activism?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Case Study 1: 2010 Study on Chile Environmental Activism''' Recently there have been growing concerns about mining and its risks for individuals as well as the environment. The mining of gold, has a high environmental impact. This impact has increased over time as new and riskier technologies have been developed (Mudd, 2007). One of the biggest environmental impacts of open pit mining is high water consumption and acid mine drainage (Urkidi, 2010) . Socially studies have shown that mining areas tend to have comparatively higher levels of economic inequity, AIDS, alcoholism, prostitution and child labour, accentuating poverty and social conflict (Pegg, 2006). In Chile from 2009 to 2019, Scherman and colleagues (2022) wrote about a fluctuation of environmental activism in Chili due to the above conditions. During this period they saw a drastic rise in a specific kind of people. Younger generations predominated among environmental activists, who were particularly active (Scherman et al., 2022). This correlated with social media and different ways to protest through instant messaging and sharing ideas. Scherman and colleagues (2022) found social media use was positively associated with participation in environmental issues. Because of the large scale of protesters, they were able to block mining and energy work from being continued. What other motivators do the youth have for environmental activism? {{grammar}}{{RoundBoxBottom}} Key points * The use of social media as a motivation in environmental issues. * Rise of youth in protesting. *Reasons people protest; Social unrest, environmental risks and individual risks. *Key definitions {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' *Why are more youth participating in activism? *What is motivating youth to engage in activism? *What role does nature, nurture and culture play on youth activism? *What is the relationship between education and environmental activism? *How can we motivate young people to engage in environmental activism? {{RoundBoxBottom}} What is [https://www.liberties.eu/en/stories/activism/44871 activism]? What is [https://www.liberties.eu/en/stories/activism/44871 environmental activism]? What is [[motivation]]? == History of motivation and activism == Activism began in..... The first form of environmental activism was... Activist movements have played a significant role in shaping history and pushing for social and political change (Luttrell., 2023) ;Key points * Activism and environmental activism has been happening for centuries * Young people have not always been interested in activism * There have always been causes to act for or against * Motivations are often for a better world == The landscape == What are the contributing factors for younger generations to be so active on environmental activism? There is a rising trend of youth groups being formed with the explicit intent of educating other peers and elders on the social and political implications of climate change (Goldman et al., 2014; Feldmann, 2020). What motivates this generation to actively protest? Today's landscape that encourages youth environmental action is one of publicized climate action, social change and..... === 2010s === Climate activism has been around for much longer than 2010-2019. However, there was a clear shift in the amount of people listening these years, and the way it was portrayed in the media. Throughout these years it was clear that it climate change was happening. It wasn't a concern, it wasn't something oncoming, it was here. There was an emergence of not only regular climate protests {{clarify}} (See Figure 1), but they began to emerge on a global scale (Scherman et al., 2022). Rather than them staying entirely within individual groups, social media forced it to be within the public conscious.... More examples of how media and public awareness shifted during the 2010s. [[File:3rd Global Climate Strike Berlin FridaysForFuture demonstration view from stage 50.jpg|thumb|(Figure 1.) Climate strike ]] === Social media === * Clear rise in global awareness due to the broad scope of [[wikipedia:Social_media|social media]]. (Scherman et al., 2022). * Information is quickly passed around in comparison to previous generations. * Able to see the effects at a rapid pace, rather than articles and TV programs. * They are constantly aware of how it will effect their future. * Expand on how social media plays a crucial role in youth activism (Platforms and campaigns) === Politics === * A more politically active generation (Scherman et al., 2022). * Awareness of how these policies effect the environment. (Sloam et al., 2022). What exactly makes the youth care so much about politics? Well, there has been a clear shift in the way they view politics, it is no longer something to worry about during elections, it is expected to have some form of political awareness (Sloam et al., 2022). * Role of politics needs more exploration.... * How are young activists influence policy and what political movements they are engaging with? ;Key Points * Youth groups formed to encourage activism * Landscape that encourages environmental action * Shift in activism due to social media * A more political active generation == Motivation == So what are the things that actually motivate youths into such activism? Well throughout the literature there are clear indicators of: * Passion * Awareness * Goals * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Self-efficacy|Self efficacy]] The current youth have a clear understanding of environmental issues, and have a clear level of self efficacy towards them (Goldman, D. et al). They believe that the engaging with social media, having the conversations and living sustainable lives will make a difference.... There is a current trend of the younger generation being politically inexperienced, when they protest against specific decisions and have strikes which brings an emotional aspect into the fold (Fedmanm. H. 2020). They are angry....{{expand}} (Add more context about the emotional aspect of youth activism.) Gousse-Lessard (2013) proposed that passion is a strong motivator behind radical environmental activism. Being told they don't know what they're talking about makes personal stakes, mixed with a genuine care for the future. {{rewrite}} (Clarify the role of criticism and how it motivates further activism.) Need more of a detailed analysis (Expanding on each motivator) Emotional aspect of youth activism. This template provides tips for the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]] exercise. Gradually remove these suggestions as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of this template content for the topic development exercise. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter guidelines]]. The Overview is typically consists of one to four paragraphs inbetween the scenario and focus questions. Suggested word count aim for the Overview: 180 to 330 words. ;Key points == * Motivators of passion, awareness, goals, and self efficacy * Passion and its role in radical environmental activism * Youth trying to prove themselves ==Role of future security as a motivator== * [[File:Future_sustainabilty.png|thumb|Figure 2. Future of environmental sustainability]]Aim for three to six main headings inbetween the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * Sub-headings can also be used, but ** avoid having sections with only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections *Activism is motivated by a desire to make contributions to a just world (Wetering & Lee., 2025) *Climate change is no longer something that can be ignored (Romano et al., 2024) *Young people will experience stronger consequences of climate change in their future adult lives than older people are facing today (Wallis and Loy., 2021). *Do it ourselves politics (Pickard., 2022) ;Key points * Youth fighting for their future *More obvious climate and environmental changes *Knowledge of the impacts of climate change for the youth ==Does culture motivate youth activism? == * Aim for three to six main headings inbetween the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * Sub-headings can also be used, but ** avoid having sections with only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections ;Key points * Culture impacting young peoples beliefs * How people were raised impacting their activism *Different cultures valuing volunteering and activism more ==How does education impact activism? == * Aim for three to six main headings inbetween the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * Sub-headings can also be used, but ** avoid having sections with only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections ;Key points * Higher educated more compelled to act * Knowledge of successful activism * Knowledge of future impacts if activism is not successful ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etcetera * Embed figures throughout the chapter, including the Overview section * Figures should be captioned (using '''Figure #.''' and a caption). Use captions to explain the relevance of the image to the text/ * [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] provides a library of embeddable images * Images can also be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Refer to each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning feature== ;Quiz <quiz display="simple"> {Why were there protests in Chili: |type="()"} + Risks associated with mining - Climate change -Bushfires -Political corruption {The protests in Chili got young people involved due to social media: |type="()"} +True - False {What motivates young people to participate in environmental activism: |type="()"} - Social media - Climate change - Passion + All of the above </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Suggested word count: 150 to 330 words * It should be possible for someone to only read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a pretty good idea of the problem and what is known based on psychological science {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? (Even for the topic development, have a go at the likely take-home message) }} ==See also== * [[wikipedia:Climate_movement|Climate Movement]] * [[Climate change|Climate Change]] {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order * Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Akiva, T., Carey, R. L., Cross, A. B., Delale-O'Connor, L., & Brown, M. R. (2017). Reasons youth engage in activism programs: Social justice or sanctuary? Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 53, 20-30. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2017.08.005 Feldman, H. R.. (2020). A rhetorical perspective on youth environmental activism. ''Journal of Science Communication'', ''19''(06), C07. https://doi.org/10.22323/2.19060307 Goldman, D., Pe’er, S., & Yavetz, B. (2015). Environmental literacy of youth movement members – is environmentalism a component of their social activism? ''Environmental Education Research'', ''23''(4), 486–514. https://doi.org/10.1080/13504622.2015.1108390 Gousse-Lessard, A.-S., Vallerand, R. J., Carbonneau, N., & Lafrenière, M.-A. K. (2013). The role of passion in mainstream and radical behaviors: A look at environmental activism. ''Journal of Environmental Psychology'', ''35'', 18–29. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2013.03.003 Luttrell, R. (2023). Historical Roots and Modern Movements: A Framework for Activism. In Strategic Social Media as Activism (pp. 5-39). Routledge. Pickard, S. (2022). Young environmental activists and Do-It-Ourselves (DIO) politics: Collective engagement, generational agency, efficacy, belonging and hope. Journal of Youth Studies, 25(6), 730-750. Romano, L., Russo, C., Gladwin, T. E., & Panno, A. (2024). Adolescents and young adults’ participation in pro-environmental movements: A systematic review. The Journal of Genetic Psychology, 185(5), 373-398. Scherman, A., Valenzuela, S., & Rivera, S.. (2022). Youth environmental activism in the age of social media: the case of Chile (2009-2019). ''Journal of Youth Studies'', ''25''(6), 751–770. https://doi.org/10.1080/13676261.2021.2010691 Sloam, J., Pickard, S., & Henn, M.. (2022). ‘Young People and Environmental Activism: The Transformation of Democratic Politics’. ''Journal of Youth Studies'', ''25''(6), 683–691. https://doi.org/10.1080/13676261.2022.2056678 Tagkaloglou, S., & Kasser, T. (2018). Increasing collaborative, pro-environmental activism: The roles of Motivational Interviewing, self-determined motivation, and self-efficacy. ''Journal of Environmental Psychology'', ''58'', 86–92. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2018.06.004 Urkidi, L. (2010). A glocal environmental movement against gold mining: Pascua–Lama in Chile. Ecological Economics, 70(2), 219-227. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2010.05.004 Wallis, H., & Loy, L. S. (2021). What drives pro-environmental activism of young people? A survey study on the Fridays For Future movement. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 74, 101581. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2021.101581 Wetering, J. V. D., & Lee, K. (2026). What's in It for Them? A Developmental Science Perspective on Adolescent Climate Activism. Journal of Adolescence. }} List cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].APA style example ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]]. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Activism]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Environment]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Youth]] cc2k6wkoyckucvmmvip6nzr7irroox2 2832810 2832808 2026-09-11T11:52:09Z SJPiper 3107750 /* History of motivation and activism */ 2832810 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Youth environmental activism motivation:<br>What motivates young people to engage in environmental activism?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Case Study 1: 2010 Study on Chile Environmental Activism''' Recently there have been growing concerns about mining and its risks for individuals as well as the environment. The mining of gold, has a high environmental impact. This impact has increased over time as new and riskier technologies have been developed (Mudd, 2007). One of the biggest environmental impacts of open pit mining is high water consumption and acid mine drainage (Urkidi, 2010) . Socially studies have shown that mining areas tend to have comparatively higher levels of economic inequity, AIDS, alcoholism, prostitution and child labour, accentuating poverty and social conflict (Pegg, 2006). In Chile from 2009 to 2019, Scherman and colleagues (2022) wrote about a fluctuation of environmental activism in Chili due to the above conditions. During this period they saw a drastic rise in a specific kind of people. Younger generations predominated among environmental activists, who were particularly active (Scherman et al., 2022). This correlated with social media and different ways to protest through instant messaging and sharing ideas. Scherman and colleagues (2022) found social media use was positively associated with participation in environmental issues. Because of the large scale of protesters, they were able to block mining and energy work from being continued. What other motivators do the youth have for environmental activism? {{grammar}}{{RoundBoxBottom}} Key points * The use of social media as a motivation in environmental issues. * Rise of youth in protesting. *Reasons people protest; Social unrest, environmental risks and individual risks. *Key definitions {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' *Why are more youth participating in activism? *What is motivating youth to engage in activism? *What role does nature, nurture and culture play on youth activism? *What is the relationship between education and environmental activism? *How can we motivate young people to engage in environmental activism? {{RoundBoxBottom}} What is [https://www.liberties.eu/en/stories/activism/44871 activism]? What is [https://www.liberties.eu/en/stories/activism/44871 environmental activism]? What is [[motivation]]? == History of motivation and activism == Activism began in..... The first form of environmental activism was... Activist movements have played a significant role in shaping history and pushing for social and political change (Luttrell., 2023) The prevalence of environmental activism has increased in the past century due to more in depth knowledge about our environment and climate change. ;Key points * Activism and environmental activism has been happening for centuries * Young people have not always been interested in activism * There have always been causes to act for or against * Motivations are often for a better world == The landscape == What are the contributing factors for younger generations to be so active on environmental activism? There is a rising trend of youth groups being formed with the explicit intent of educating other peers and elders on the social and political implications of climate change (Goldman et al., 2014; Feldmann, 2020). What motivates this generation to actively protest? Today's landscape that encourages youth environmental action is one of publicized climate action, social change and..... === 2010s === Climate activism has been around for much longer than 2010-2019. However, there was a clear shift in the amount of people listening these years, and the way it was portrayed in the media. Throughout these years it was clear that it climate change was happening. It wasn't a concern, it wasn't something oncoming, it was here. There was an emergence of not only regular climate protests {{clarify}} (See Figure 1), but they began to emerge on a global scale (Scherman et al., 2022). Rather than them staying entirely within individual groups, social media forced it to be within the public conscious.... More examples of how media and public awareness shifted during the 2010s. [[File:3rd Global Climate Strike Berlin FridaysForFuture demonstration view from stage 50.jpg|thumb|(Figure 1.) Climate strike ]] === Social media === * Clear rise in global awareness due to the broad scope of [[wikipedia:Social_media|social media]]. (Scherman et al., 2022). * Information is quickly passed around in comparison to previous generations. * Able to see the effects at a rapid pace, rather than articles and TV programs. * They are constantly aware of how it will effect their future. * Expand on how social media plays a crucial role in youth activism (Platforms and campaigns) === Politics === * A more politically active generation (Scherman et al., 2022). * Awareness of how these policies effect the environment. (Sloam et al., 2022). What exactly makes the youth care so much about politics? Well, there has been a clear shift in the way they view politics, it is no longer something to worry about during elections, it is expected to have some form of political awareness (Sloam et al., 2022). * Role of politics needs more exploration.... * How are young activists influence policy and what political movements they are engaging with? ;Key Points * Youth groups formed to encourage activism * Landscape that encourages environmental action * Shift in activism due to social media * A more political active generation == Motivation == So what are the things that actually motivate youths into such activism? Well throughout the literature there are clear indicators of: * Passion * Awareness * Goals * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Self-efficacy|Self efficacy]] The current youth have a clear understanding of environmental issues, and have a clear level of self efficacy towards them (Goldman, D. et al). They believe that the engaging with social media, having the conversations and living sustainable lives will make a difference.... There is a current trend of the younger generation being politically inexperienced, when they protest against specific decisions and have strikes which brings an emotional aspect into the fold (Fedmanm. H. 2020). They are angry....{{expand}} (Add more context about the emotional aspect of youth activism.) Gousse-Lessard (2013) proposed that passion is a strong motivator behind radical environmental activism. Being told they don't know what they're talking about makes personal stakes, mixed with a genuine care for the future. {{rewrite}} (Clarify the role of criticism and how it motivates further activism.) Need more of a detailed analysis (Expanding on each motivator) Emotional aspect of youth activism. This template provides tips for the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]] exercise. Gradually remove these suggestions as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of this template content for the topic development exercise. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter guidelines]]. The Overview is typically consists of one to four paragraphs inbetween the scenario and focus questions. Suggested word count aim for the Overview: 180 to 330 words. ;Key points == * Motivators of passion, awareness, goals, and self efficacy * Passion and its role in radical environmental activism * Youth trying to prove themselves ==Role of future security as a motivator== * [[File:Future_sustainabilty.png|thumb|Figure 2. Future of environmental sustainability]]Aim for three to six main headings inbetween the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * Sub-headings can also be used, but ** avoid having sections with only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections *Activism is motivated by a desire to make contributions to a just world (Wetering & Lee., 2025) *Climate change is no longer something that can be ignored (Romano et al., 2024) *Young people will experience stronger consequences of climate change in their future adult lives than older people are facing today (Wallis and Loy., 2021). *Do it ourselves politics (Pickard., 2022) ;Key points * Youth fighting for their future *More obvious climate and environmental changes *Knowledge of the impacts of climate change for the youth ==Does culture motivate youth activism? == * Aim for three to six main headings inbetween the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * Sub-headings can also be used, but ** avoid having sections with only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections ;Key points * Culture impacting young peoples beliefs * How people were raised impacting their activism *Different cultures valuing volunteering and activism more ==How does education impact activism? == * Aim for three to six main headings inbetween the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * Sub-headings can also be used, but ** avoid having sections with only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections ;Key points * Higher educated more compelled to act * Knowledge of successful activism * Knowledge of future impacts if activism is not successful ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etcetera * Embed figures throughout the chapter, including the Overview section * Figures should be captioned (using '''Figure #.''' and a caption). Use captions to explain the relevance of the image to the text/ * [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] provides a library of embeddable images * Images can also be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Refer to each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning feature== ;Quiz <quiz display="simple"> {Why were there protests in Chili: |type="()"} + Risks associated with mining - Climate change -Bushfires -Political corruption {The protests in Chili got young people involved due to social media: |type="()"} +True - False {What motivates young people to participate in environmental activism: |type="()"} - Social media - Climate change - Passion + All of the above </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Suggested word count: 150 to 330 words * It should be possible for someone to only read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a pretty good idea of the problem and what is known based on psychological science {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? (Even for the topic development, have a go at the likely take-home message) }} ==See also== * [[wikipedia:Climate_movement|Climate Movement]] * [[Climate change|Climate Change]] {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order * Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Akiva, T., Carey, R. L., Cross, A. B., Delale-O'Connor, L., & Brown, M. R. (2017). Reasons youth engage in activism programs: Social justice or sanctuary? Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 53, 20-30. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2017.08.005 Feldman, H. R.. (2020). A rhetorical perspective on youth environmental activism. ''Journal of Science Communication'', ''19''(06), C07. https://doi.org/10.22323/2.19060307 Goldman, D., Pe’er, S., & Yavetz, B. (2015). Environmental literacy of youth movement members – is environmentalism a component of their social activism? ''Environmental Education Research'', ''23''(4), 486–514. https://doi.org/10.1080/13504622.2015.1108390 Gousse-Lessard, A.-S., Vallerand, R. J., Carbonneau, N., & Lafrenière, M.-A. K. (2013). The role of passion in mainstream and radical behaviors: A look at environmental activism. ''Journal of Environmental Psychology'', ''35'', 18–29. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2013.03.003 Luttrell, R. (2023). Historical Roots and Modern Movements: A Framework for Activism. In Strategic Social Media as Activism (pp. 5-39). Routledge. Pickard, S. (2022). Young environmental activists and Do-It-Ourselves (DIO) politics: Collective engagement, generational agency, efficacy, belonging and hope. Journal of Youth Studies, 25(6), 730-750. Romano, L., Russo, C., Gladwin, T. E., & Panno, A. (2024). Adolescents and young adults’ participation in pro-environmental movements: A systematic review. The Journal of Genetic Psychology, 185(5), 373-398. Scherman, A., Valenzuela, S., & Rivera, S.. (2022). Youth environmental activism in the age of social media: the case of Chile (2009-2019). ''Journal of Youth Studies'', ''25''(6), 751–770. https://doi.org/10.1080/13676261.2021.2010691 Sloam, J., Pickard, S., & Henn, M.. (2022). ‘Young People and Environmental Activism: The Transformation of Democratic Politics’. ''Journal of Youth Studies'', ''25''(6), 683–691. https://doi.org/10.1080/13676261.2022.2056678 Tagkaloglou, S., & Kasser, T. (2018). Increasing collaborative, pro-environmental activism: The roles of Motivational Interviewing, self-determined motivation, and self-efficacy. ''Journal of Environmental Psychology'', ''58'', 86–92. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2018.06.004 Urkidi, L. (2010). A glocal environmental movement against gold mining: Pascua–Lama in Chile. Ecological Economics, 70(2), 219-227. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2010.05.004 Wallis, H., & Loy, L. S. (2021). What drives pro-environmental activism of young people? A survey study on the Fridays For Future movement. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 74, 101581. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2021.101581 Wetering, J. V. D., & Lee, K. (2026). What's in It for Them? A Developmental Science Perspective on Adolescent Climate Activism. Journal of Adolescence. }} List cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].APA style example ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]]. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Activism]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Environment]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Youth]] 6g3bvc1ii8i0zju6kf3vk32v2yatkuu 828 310150 2832778 2664002 2026-09-11T07:11:32Z ~2026-47852-42 3110503 2832778 Scribunto text/plain local p = {} local function endswith(String,End) return End == '' or string.sub(String,-string.len(End)) == End end local function trim(s) return s:gsub("^%s+", ""):gsub("%s+$", ""):gsub("\226\128\142", "") end local function addUtcToStringIfItDoesNotEndWithUtc(s) if s == "" or endswith(s, "~~~~") then return s end if not endswith(s, "(UTC)") then return s .. " (UTC)" end return s end local function _main(args) local hopefullyTimestamp = args[1] or os.date('%H:%M, %d %B %Y (%Z)') return addUtcToStringIfItDoesNotEndWithUtc(trim(hopefullyTimestamp)) end function p.main(frame) local args if type(frame.args) == 'table' then args = frame.args else args = frame end return _main(args) end return iudxq9y05oj94nhektzi6inhhfw9sqa 0 322040 2832711 2832473 2026-09-10T20:42:24Z Unitfreak 695864 2832711 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the more than 65 years of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). Given the availability of atomic clocks, it is anticipated that Bully timestamps will continue to be realized with great regularity for the foreseeable future. Each Bully timestamp should be considered "realized" after it occurs and is measured using precise clocks with an accuracy of <math>{10}^{-10}</math> or better. === Leap Seconds (1972 - Present) === The table in '''Figure 7d''' (derived from the Wikipedia "[[W:Leap Second|Leap Second]]" article), lists all leap second insertions that have occurred since the introduction of leap seconds in 1972. For each leap second insertion, Figure 7d lists the preceding Bully timestamp (that had been "realized" immediately prior to the leap second insertion), and the subsequent Bully timestamp (that was "realized" immediately after the leap second insertion). A few details are worth noting in Figure 7d. The TAI and UTC already differed by 10 seconds at the beginning of 1972 due to rubber seconds ([https://en.m.wikiversity.org/wiki/Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps#Rubber_Seconds_(1958_-_1971) see discussion below]), so when Bully Timestamp 8209 ECFB E7FB was realized, the TAI time was 1972-06-30 23:34:45 TAI, whereas UTC time was 1972-06-30 23:34:35 UTC. An additional 27 leap seconds were inserted into UTC during the period between 1972 and 2016, making a total of 37 leap seconds difference, so when Bully Timestamp 8209 ED02 EBC0 was realized, the TAI time was 2017-01-01 00:32:00 TAI, whereas UTC time was 2017-01-01 00:31:23 UTC. Notably, Bully timestamps are always realized during TAI times with a seconds value ending in five or zero. The Bully timestamp and TAI both measure elapsed time as determined by atomic clocks at sea level on Earth, so these systems will always have this simple relationship. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ '''Figure 7d''': Announced leap seconds to date |- ! Year !! 30 Jun !! 31 Dec !! Bully Timestamp !! International Atomic Time (TAI) !! Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) |- ! 1972 |bgcolor="lime"| +1 ||bgcolor="lime"| +1 || 8209 ECFB E7FB <br /> 8209 ECFB E7FC <br /> 8209 ECFB FC4F <br /> 8209 ECFB FC50 || 1972-06-30 23:34:45 TAI <br /> 1972-07-01 00:25:40 TAI <br /> 1972-12-31 23:45:05 TAI <br /> 1973-01-01 00:36:00 TAI || 1972-06-30 23:34:35 UTC <br /> 1972-07-01 00:25:29 UTC <br /> 1972-12-31 23:44:54 UTC <br /> 1973-01-01 00:35:48 UTC |- ! 1973 | 0 ||bgcolor="lime"| +1 || 8209 ECFC 24A2 <br /> 8209 ECFC 24A3 || 1973-12-31 23:57:50 TAI <br /> 1974-01-01 00:48:45 TAI || 1973-12-31 23:57:38 UTC <br /> 1974-01-01 00:48:32 UTC |- ! 1974 | 0 ||bgcolor="lime"| +1 || 8209 ECFC 4CF4 <br /> 8209 ECFC 4CF5 || 1974-12-31 23:19:40 TAI <br /> 1975-01-01 00:10:35 TAI || 1974-12-31 23:19:27 UTC <br /> 1975-01-01 00:10:21 UTC |- ! 1975 | 0 ||bgcolor="lime"| +1 || 8209 ECFC 7547 <br /> 8209 ECFC 7548 || 1975-12-31 23:32:25 TAI <br /> 1976-01-01 00:23:20 TAI || 1975-12-31 23:32:11 UTC <br /> 1976-01-01 00:23:05 UTC |- ! 1976 | 0 ||bgcolor="lime"| +1 || 8209 ECFC 9DB6 <br /> 8209 ECFC 9DB7 || 1976-12-31 23:30:50 TAI <br /> 1977-01-01 00:21:45 TAI || 1976-12-31 23:30:35 UTC <br /> 1977-01-01 00:21:29 UTC |- ! 1977 | 0 ||bgcolor="lime"| +1 || 8209 ECFC C609 <br /> 8209 ECFC C60A || 1977-12-31 23:43:35 TAI <br /> 1978-01-01 00:34:30 TAI || 1977-12-31 23:43:19 UTC <br /> 1978-01-01 00:34:13 UTC |- ! 1978 | 0 ||bgcolor="lime"| +1 || 8209 ECFC EE5C <br /> 8209 ECFC EE5D || 1978-12-31 23:56:20 TAI <br /> 1979-01-01 00:47:15 TAI || 1978-12-31 23:56:03 UTC <br /> 1979-01-01 00:46:57 UTC |- ! 1979 | 0 ||bgcolor="lime"| +1 || 8209 ECFD 16AE <br /> 8209 ECFD 16AF || 1979-12-31 23:18:10 TAI <br /> 1980-01-01 00:09:05 TAI || 1979-12-31 23:17:52 UTC <br /> 1980-01-01 00:08:46 UTC |- ! 1981 |bgcolor="lime"| +1 || 0 || 8209 ECFD 531C <br /> 8209 ECFD 531D || 1981-06-30 23:19:00 TAI <br /> 1981-07-01 00:09:55 TAI || 1981-06-30 23:18:41 UTC <br /> 1981-07-01 00:09:35 UTC |- ! 1982 |bgcolor="lime"| +1 || 0 || 8209 ECFD 7B6F <br /> 8209 ECFD 7B70 || 1982-06-30 23:31:45 TAI <br /> 1982-07-01 00:22:40 TAI || 1982-06-30 23:31:25 UTC <br /> 1982-07-01 00:22:19 UTC |- ! 1983 |bgcolor="lime"| +1 || 0 || 8209 ECFD A3C2 <br /> 8209 ECFD A3C3 || 1983-06-30 23:44:30 TAI <br /> 1983-07-01 00:35:25 TAI || 1983-06-30 23:44:09 UTC <br /> 1983-07-01 00:35:03 UTC |- ! 1985 |bgcolor="lime"| +1 || 0 || 8209 ECFD F484 <br /> 8209 ECFD F485 || 1985-06-30 23:55:40 TAI <br /> 1985-07-01 00:46:35 TAI || 1985-06-30 23:55:18 UTC <br /> 1985-07-01 00:46:12 UTC |- ! 1987 | 0 ||bgcolor="lime"| +1 || 8209 ECFE 597D <br /> 8209 ECFE 597E || 1987-12-31 23:40:35 TAI <br /> 1988-01-01 00:31:30 TAI || 1987-12-31 23:40:12 UTC <br /> 1988-01-01 00:31:06 UTC |- ! 1989 | 0 ||bgcolor="lime"| +1 || 8209 ECFE AA3F <br /> 8209 ECFE AA40 || 1989-12-31 23:51:45 TAI <br /> 1990-01-01 00:42:40 TAI || 1989-12-31 23:51:21 UTC <br /> 1990-01-01 00:42:15 UTC |- ! 1990 | 0 ||bgcolor="lime"| +1 || 8209 ECFE D291 <br /> 8209 ECFE D292 || 1990-12-31 23:13:35 TAI <br /> 1991-01-01 00:04:30 TAI || 1990-12-31 23:13:10 UTC <br /> 1991-01-01 00:04:04 UTC |- ! 1992 |bgcolor="lime"| +1 || 0 || 8209 ECFF 0EFF <br /> 8209 ECFF 0F00 || 1992-06-30 23:14:25 TAI <br /> 1992-07-01 00:05:20 TAI || 1992-06-30 23:13:59 UTC <br /> 1992-07-01 00:04:53 UTC |- ! 1993 |bgcolor="lime"| +1 || 0 || 8209 ECFF 3752 <br /> 8209 ECFF 3753 || 1993-06-30 23:27:10 TAI <br /> 1993-07-01 00:18:05 TAI || 1993-06-30 23:26:43 UTC <br /> 1993-07-01 00:17:37 UTC |- ! 1994 |bgcolor="lime"| +1 || 0 || 8209 ECFF 5FA5 <br /> 8209 ECFF 5FA6 || 1994-06-30 23:39:55 TAI <br /> 1994-07-01 00:30:50 TAI || 1994-06-30 23:39:27 UTC <br /> 1994-07-01 00:30:21 UTC |- ! 1995 | 0 ||bgcolor="lime"| +1 || 8209 ECFF 9C4B <br /> 8209 ECFF 9C4C || 1995-12-31 23:12:05 TAI <br /> 1996-01-01 00:03:00 TAI || 1995-12-31 23:11:36 UTC <br /> 1996-01-01 00:02:30 UTC |- ! 1997 |bgcolor="lime"| +1 || 0 || 8209 ECFF D8B9 <br /> 8209 ECFF D8BA || 1997-06-30 23:12:55 TAI <br /> 1997-07-01 00:03:50 TAI || 1997-06-30 23:12:25 UTC <br /> 1997-07-01 00:03:19 UTC |- ! 1998 | 0 ||bgcolor="lime"| +1 || 8209 ED00 1560 <br /> 8209 ED00 1561 || 1998-12-31 23:36:00 TAI <br /> 1999-01-01 00:26:55 TAI || 1998-12-31 23:35:29 UTC <br /> 1999-01-01 00:26:23 UTC |- ! 2005 | 0 ||bgcolor="lime"| +1 || 8209 ED01 2FDC <br /> 8209 ED01 2FDD || 2005-12-31 23:45:40 TAI <br /> 2006-01-01 00:36:35 TAI || 2005-12-31 23:45:08 UTC <br /> 2006-01-01 00:36:02 UTC |- ! 2008 | 0 ||bgcolor="lime"| +1 || 8209 ED01 A8F0 <br /> 8209 ED01 A8F1 || 2008-12-31 23:18:40 TAI <br /> 2009-01-01 00:09:35 TAI || 2008-12-31 23:18:07 UTC <br /> 2009-01-01 00:09:01 UTC |- ! 2012 |bgcolor="lime"| +1 || 0 || 8209 ED02 3604 <br /> 8209 ED02 3605 || 2012-06-30 23:45:00 TAI <br /> 2012-07-01 00:35:55 TAI || 2012-06-30 23:44:26 UTC <br /> 2012-07-01 00:35:20 UTC |- ! 2015 |bgcolor="lime"| +1 || 0 || 8209 ED02 AEFC <br /> 8209 ED02 AEFD || 2015-06-30 23:32:20 TAI <br /> 2015-07-01 00:23:15 TAI || 2015-06-30 23:31:45 UTC <br /> 2015-07-01 00:22:39 UTC |- ! 2016 | 0 ||bgcolor="lime"| +1 || 8209 ED02 EBBF <br /> 8209 ED02 EBC0 || 2016-12-31 23:41:05 TAI <br /> 2017-01-01 00:32:00 TAI || 2016-12-31 23:40:29 UTC <br /> 2017-01-01 00:31:23 UTC |} === Rubber Seconds (1958 - 1971) === [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to rubber seconds.png|frame|center|text-bottom|'''Figure 7e''': Rubber Seconds]] Prior to 1972, the rate of UTC atomic clocks was offset from a pure atomic time scale by the BIH to remain synchronized with UT2, a practice known as the "rubber second" (see Figure 7e). The rate of UTC was decided at the start of each year. Alongside this shift in rate, an occasional 0.1&nbsp;s step (0.05&nbsp;s before 1963) was also implemented as needed. As shown in '''Figure 7e''', for 1958-1961, the offset rate was −150 parts per 10{{sup|10}} (or 0.47 seconds per year). This stretching of UTC "rubber seconds" meant that fewer of them would occur during a Bully Timestamp. For example, during the 1958-1961 time period, each Bully timestamp was realized after exactly 3055 seconds TAI, which corresponded to 3054.999955264 seconds UTC. For 1962–63 the offset rate was set to −130 parts per 10{{sup|10}} (or 0.41 seconds per year, or 3054.999960285 seconds UTC per Bully timestamp), and then for 1964–65 the offset rate was returned to −150 parts per 10{{sup|10}}. The UTC rate of −150 parts per 10{{sup|10}} turned out to be notably inadequate during the 1964-1965 time period, and multiple 0.1&nbsp;s steps were needed (see Figure 7e). Beginning in 1966, the offset rate was set to −300 parts per 10{{sup|10}} (or 0.94 seconds per year, or 3054.99990835 seconds UTC per Bully timestamp), and this continued until the inauguration of Leap Seconds in 1972. At the beginning of 1958, the TAI and UTC clocks were in sync, with 1958-01-01 00:00:00.000 TAI occurring at the same time as 1958-01-01 00:00:00.000 UTC. By the end of 1972, the UTC clock had been adjusted (using rubber seconds and time steps) by ten leap seconds, so that 1972-01-01 00:00:10.003 TAI occurred at the same time as 1972-01-01 00:00:00.003 UTC. The table in '''Figure 7f''' illustrates the slow accumulation of leap seconds prior to 1972, resulting in this ten second difference. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ '''Figure 7f''': Rubber Seconds and Accumulative (TAI - UTC) Time Delta |- ! Approximate Bully Timestamp <br /> Approximate International Atomic Time (TAI) <br /> Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) !! (ΔTAI - ΔUTC) !! Accumulative <br /> Difference |- ! 8209 ECF9 9F04 (+2820.0 sec) . . . 8209 ECF9 EFAA (+1290.9 sec) <br /> 1958-01-01 00:00:00.000 TAI . . . 1960-01-01 00:00:00.943 TAI <br /> 1958-01-01 00:00:00.002 UTC . . . 1960-01-01 00:00:00.000 UTC | 0.943 sec || 0.943 sec |- ! 8209 ECF9 EFAA (+1290.9 sec) . . . 8209 ECFA 1819 (+1386.4 sec) <br /> 1960-01-01 00:00:00.944 TAI . . . 1961-01-01 00:00:01.418 TAI <br /> 1960-01-01 00:00:00.000 UTC . . . 1961-01-01 00:00:00.000 UTC | 0.474 sec || 1.418 sec |- ! 8209 ECFA 1819 (+1386.4 sec) <br /> 1961-01-01 00:00:01.418 TAI . . . 1961-01-01 00:00:01.423 TAI <br /> 1961-01-01 00:00:00.000 UTC | 0.005 sec || 1.423 sec |- ! 8209 ECFA 1819 (+1386.4 sec) . . . 8209 ECFA 2F85 (+406.6 sec) <br /> 1961-01-01 00:00:01.423 TAI . . . 1961-08-01 00:00:01.698 TAI <br /> 1961-01-01 00:00:00.000 UTC . . . 1961-08-01 00:00:00.000 UTC | 0.275 sec || 1.698 sec |- ! 8209 ECFA 2F85 (+406.6 sec) <br /> 1961-08-01 00:00:01.698 TAI . . . 1961-08-01 00:00:01.648 TAI <br /> 1961-08-01 00:00:00.000 UTC | -0.050 sec || 1.648 sec |- ! 8209 ECFA 2F85 (+406.6 sec) . . . 8209 ECFA 406C (+621.8 sec) <br /> 1961-08-01 00:00:01.648 TAI . . . 1962-01-01 00:00:01.846 TAI <br /> 1961-08-01 00:00:00.000 UTC . . . 1962-01-01 00:00:00.000 UTC | 0.198 sec || 1.846 sec |- ! 8209 ECFA 406C (+621.8 sec) . . . 8209 ECFA 8A54 (+1622.5 sec) <br /> 1962-01-01 00:00:01.846 TAI . . . 1963-11-01 00:00:02.597 TAI <br /> 1962-01-01 00:00:00.000 UTC . . . 1963-11-01 00:00:00.000 UTC | 0.751 sec || 2.597 sec |- ! 8209 ECFA 8A54 (+1622.6 sec) <br /> 1963-11-01 00:00:02.597 TAI . . . 1963-11-01 00:00:02.697 TAI <br /> 1963-11-01 00:00:00.000 UTC | 0.100 sec || 2.697 sec |- ! 8209 ECFA 8A54 (+1622.6 sec) . . . 8209 ECFA 9111 (+2147.7 sec) <br /> 1963-11-01 00:00:02.697 TAI . . . 1964-01-01 00:00:02.766 TAI <br /> 1963-11-01 00:00:00.000 UTC . . . 1964-01-01 00:00:00.000 UTC | 0.069 sec || 2.766 sec |- ! 8209 ECFA 9111 (+2147.7 sec) . . . 8209 ECFA 9B1F (+977.8 sec) <br /> 1964-01-01 00:00:02.766 TAI . . . 1964-04-01 00:00:02.884 TAI <br /> 1964-01-01 00:00:00.000 UTC . . . 1964-04-01 00:00:00.000 UTC | 0.118 sec || 2.884 sec |- ! 8209 ECFA 9B1F (+977.9 sec) <br /> 1964-04-01 00:00:02.884 TAI . . . 1964-04-01 00:00:02.984 TAI <br /> 1964-04-01 00:00:00.000 UTC | 0.100 sec || 2.984 sec |- ! 8209 ECFA 9B1F (+977.9 sec) . . . 8209 ECFA AC06 (+1193.1 sec) <br /> 1964-04-01 00:00:02.984 TAI . . . 1964-09-01 00:00:03.182 TAI <br /> 1964-04-01 00:00:00.000 UTC . . . 1964-09-01 00:00:00.000 UTC | 0.198 sec || 3.182 sec |- ! 8209 ECFA AC06 (+1193.2 sec) <br /> 1964-09-01 00:00:03.182 TAI . . . 1964-09-01 00:00:03.282 TAI <br /> 1964-09-01 00:00:00.000 UTC | 0.100 sec || 3.282 sec |- ! 8209 ECFA AC06 (+1193.2 sec) . . . 8209 ECFA B980 (+2243.4 sec) <br /> 1964-09-01 00:00:03.282 TAI . . . 1965-01-01 00:00:03.440 TAI <br /> 1964-09-01 00:00:00.000 UTC . . . 1965-01-01 00:00:00.000 UTC | 0.158 sec || 3.440 sec |- ! 8209 ECFA B980 (+2243.5 sec) <br /> 1965-01-01 00:00:03.440 TAI . . . 1965-01-01 00:00:03.540 TAI <br /> 1965-01-01 00:00:00.000 UTC | 0.100 sec || 3.540 sec |- ! 8209 ECFA B980 (+2243.5 sec) . . . 8209 ECFA C005 (+1048.6 sec) <br /> 1965-01-01 00:00:03.540 TAI . . . 1965-03-01 00:00:03.617 TAI <br /> 1965-01-01 00:00:00.000 UTC . . . 1965-03-01 00:00:00.000 UTC | 0.076 sec || 3.617 sec |- ! 8209 ECFA C005 (+1048.7 sec) <br /> 1965-03-01 00:00:03.617 TAI . . . 1965-03-01 00:00:03.717 TAI <br /> 1965-03-01 00:00:00.000 UTC | 0.100 sec || 3.717 sec |- ! 8209 ECFA C005 (+1048.7 sec) . . . 8209 ECFA CD7F (+2098.8 sec) <br /> 1965-03-01 00:00:03.717 TAI . . . 1965-07-01 00:00:03.875 TAI <br /> 1965-03-01 00:00:00.000 UTC . . . 1965-07-01 00:00:00.000 UTC | 0.158 sec || 3.875 sec |- ! 8209 ECFA CD7F (+2098.9 sec) <br /> 1965-07-01 00:00:03.875 TAI . . . 1965-07-01 00:00:03.975 TAI <br /> 1965-07-01 00:00:00.000 UTC | 0.100 sec || 3.975 sec |- ! 8209 ECFA CD7F (+2098.9 sec) . . . 8209 ECFA D459 (+429.0 sec) <br /> 1965-07-01 00:00:03.975 TAI . . . 1965-09-01 00:00:04.055 TAI <br /> 1965-07-01 00:00:00.000 UTC . . . 1965-09-01 00:00:00.000 UTC | 0.080 sec || 4.055 sec |- ! 8209 ECFA D459 (+429.1 sec) <br /> 1965-09-01 00:00:04.055 TAI . . . 1965-09-01 00:00:04.155 TAI <br /> 1965-09-01 00:00:00.000 UTC | 0.100 sec || 4.155 sec |- ! 8209 ECFA D459 (+429.1 sec) . . . 8209 ECFA E1D3 (+1479.3 sec) <br /> 1965-09-01 00:00:04.155 TAI . . . 1966-01-01 00:00:04.313 TAI <br /> 1965-09-01 00:00:00.000 UTC . . . 1966-01-01 00:00:00.000 UTC | 0.158 sec || 4.313 sec |- ! 8209 ECFA E1D3 (+1479.3 sec) . . . 8209 ECFB 35E5 (+2171.2 sec) <br /> 1966-01-01 00:00:04.313 TAI . . . 1968-02-01 00:00:06.286 TAI <br /> 1966-01-01 00:00:00.000 UTC . . . 1968-02-01 00:00:00.000 UTC | 1.973 sec || 6.286 sec |- ! 8209 ECFB 35E5 (+2171.1 sec) <br /> 1968-02-01 00:00:06.286 TAI . . . 1968-02-01 00:00:06.186 TAI <br /> 1968-02-01 00:00:00.000 UTC | -0.100 sec || 6.186 sec |- ! 8209 ECFB 35E5 (+2171.1 sec) . . . 8209 ECFB D3E0 (+809.9 sec) <br /> 1968-02-01 00:00:06.186 TAI . . . 1972-01-01 00:00:09.891 TAI <br /> 1968-02-01 00:00:00.000 UTC . . . 1971-12-31 23:59:59.999 UTC | 3.707 sec || 9.892 sec |- ! 8209 ECFB D3E0 (+809.9 sec) <br /> 1972-01-01 00:00:09.891 TAI . . . 1972-01-01 00:00:09.999 TAI <br /> 1971-12-31 23:59:59.999 UTC | 0.109 sec || 10.000 sec |} nadzyqdrdsv304vdwuyo653rf93g3bh 0 322573 2832784 2829879 2026-09-11T07:45:39Z Jtneill 10242 Copyediting 2832784 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Breathing exercises and relaxation:<br>How can breathing exercises promote relaxation?}} == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Falun Dafa fifth meditation exercise.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' The practice of meditation which is often associated with controlled breathing and relaxation. |316x316px]] It's extremely likely that in a moment of panic or upset you have been told to take a deep breath. Although it may seem pointless or silly in the moment, performing the simple action of taking in a deep breath does more than you think. Go back to a time you were stressed or anxious, and paused for a second to control your breathing. What did you feel in your body? Did you feel more relaxed? Using breathing exercises to promote relaxation is a practice that has been used for thousands of years (Bhargav et al., 2026). {{RoundBoxBottom}} * Provide an Introduction to the topic brief overview of what will be covered in the chapter == What is Relaxation? == * Definition of [[w:relaxation|relaxation]] including wiki link * Introduction to Benson's relaxation response (Benson et al., 1975). * Introduction to Jacobson's progressive relaxation theory * Introduction to ABC relaxation theory (Smith et al., 2000). === Implications for Emotional Regulation === * definition of [[w:emotional_regulation|emotional regulation]] including wiki link * what being able to self regulate can do for reader * breathing exercises in emotional regulation (Fu et al., 2026). == Parasympathetic Nervous System == * About a paragraph explaining in easy to understand terms including wiki link * Divisions of the nervous system do different things * sympathetic: fight or flight * parasympathetic: rest and digest === How is it Stimulated? === * What is stimulation * connection to vagus nerve (Yuan & Silberstein, 2016). * common ways of stimulating === What happens when it is active? === * psychological and physiological changes * relation back to relaxation theories. * Insert quiz: Case study question and answers == What are Breathing Exercises? == * Short definition of breathing exercises * brief overview of different types === Diaphragmatic breathing === * description * link to external source with instructions: [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9jpchJcKivk How to do Diaphragmatic Breathing Exercises for Beginners] === Box breathing === * description * link to external source with instructions [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mPXy0974vu0 Box Breathing Tutorial | Reduces Anxiety & Stress] == How do Breathing Exercises Link to Relaxation? == * general info and overview about breathing creating relaxation * mention of practices like yoga and meditation * mention how mindfullness is often used and taught in clinical settings === Parasympathetic stimulation === * aligns with this theory of relaxation * vagus nerve- describe what it is and what it does === Cardiovascular and Respiratory Effects === * explain decreased heart rate and link to hormones (cortisol) * what theory of relaxation it aligns with === Emotional Regulation === * the further effects breathing exercises can have on emotional regulation] * going back to practicing mindfullness * link back to theme == Research == * summary of research * what the reader will get out of understanding * importance of knowing previous current and future research === History === * Ancient practices e.g Buddhist meditation (Omelyanenko, 2014) , examples, photos * what people originally thought was happening === Current === * the most influential and current theories surrounding the topic * at least 2 theories === Future === * gaps in research * suggestions for future research * limitations and implications == Conclusion == * Summary * Key takeaways relating back to book chapter theme * Bring back to first learning activity == See also == [[doi:10.1007/978-3-031-56798-8_4.|Slow Breathing for Anxiety: A Critical Perspective Towards Personalization]] (Book Chapter, 2024) {{ic|Move academic peer-reviewed sources into References and cite}} [[wikipedia:Pranayama|Pranyama]] (Wikipedia) == References == {{Hanging indent|1= Benson, H., Greenwood, M. M., & Klemchuk, H. (1975). The relaxation response: psychophysiologic aspects and clinical applications. ''Int J Psychiatry Med'', ''6''(1-2), 87-98. https://doi.org/10.2190/376w-e4mt-qm6q-h0um. Bhargav, H., Mehta, U. M., Kumar, A., Subramanian, S., & Keshavan, M. S. (2026). Breathing and the brain: Pranayama, an ancient self-directed approach to neuromodulation. ''Asian Journal of Psychiatry'', ''115'', 104788. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajp.2025.104788. Fu, J., Su, Q., & Fu, T. (2026). Effects of breathing rhythm–based exercise intervention on perceived stress and emotion regulation in cancer patients. ''Psycho-oncologie'', ''20''(2), 5706. https://doi.org/10.18282/po5706. Omelyanenko, V. I. (2014). Complex integrated method of dynamic meditation with Buddhists’ breathing in case of neurotic reactions. ''Pedagogics, Psychology, Medical-Biological Problems of Physical Training and Sports'', ''18''(2). https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.923513. Smith, J. C., Wedell, A. B., Kolotylo, C. J., Lewis, J. E., Byers, K. Y., & Segin, C. M. (2000). ABC relaxation theory and the factor structure of relaxation states, recalled relaxation activities, dispositions, and motivations. ''Psychol Rep'', ''86''(3 Pt 2), 1201-1208. https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.2000.86.3c.1201. Yuan, H., & Silberstein, S. D. (2016). Vagus Nerve and Vagus Nerve Stimulation, a Comprehensive Review: Part I. ''Headache'', ''56''(1), 71-78. https://doi.org/10.1111/head.12647. }} == External Links == [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9jpchJcKivk How to do Diaphragmatic Breathing Exercises for Beginners] (youtube video) [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mPXy0974vu0 Box Breathing Tutorial | Reduces Anxiety & Stress] (youtube video) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Relaxation]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Stress]] blwoz8zq7exbsgfjqzj111aps8mebfk 0 323153 2832752 2832509 2026-09-11T01:11:08Z Jtneill 10242 /* Emotion */ Fix title 2832752 wikitext text/x-wiki {{/Banner}} ==Motivation== # [[/Adolescent risk-taking and reward-system development/]] - How does reward circuit maturation influence adolescent sensation-seeking and impulsive behaviours? {{ME-By|U3280843}} # [[/Akrasia/]] - Why do people act against their better judgement? {{ME-By|U3269672}} # [[/Artificial intelligence and academic motivation/]] - How does artificial intelligence influence students’ motivation to learn, engage, and achieve? {{ME-By|U3280097}} # [[/Attachment styles and relatedness motivation/]] - How do attachment styles affect the need for relatedness? {{ME-By|HawaSA}} # [[/Athletic identity loss and returning to sport after injury/]] - How does injury related disruption to athletic identity affect motivation to return to sport? {{ME-By|Tammysaurus}} # [[/Automaticity and goal pursuit/]] - How do habits and environmental cues drive unconscious goal pursuit? {{ME-By|Revial76}} # [[/Basal ganglia and motivation/]] - What is the role of the basal ganglia in motivated behaviour? {{ME-By|U3233213}} # [[/Basic psychological needs and social media use/]] - How do basic psychological needs explain patterns of social media engagement? {{ME-By|GraceInMind}} # [[/Building therapeutic alliance/]] - What psychological factors contribute to the development of a strong therapeutic alliance? {{ME-By|U3175512}} # [[/Charismatic leadership and follower motivation/]] - How does charismatic leadership inspire follower motivation? {{ME-By|U3275984}} # [[/Competence motivation in self-determination theory/]] - How does the need for competence function within self-determination theory to shape motivation and behaviour? {{ME-By|Zozo}} # [[/Consumer emotion measurement/]] - How can consumer emotion be measured? {{ME-By|Sienna33309}} # [[/Creative inspiration and effort/]] - How do inspiration and effort interact during the creative process? {{ME-By|Vivekidid}} # [[/Developing a growth mindset/]] - How can a growth mindset be cultivated and sustained? {{ME-By|LMM26}} # [[/Effort regulation and cost-benefit decision-making/]] - How is effort dynamically adjusted based on changing cost-benefit analysis during goal pursuit? {{ME-By|Kelp14}} # [[/ERG theory and motivation/]] - What is Alderfer's ERG theory and how does it explain human motivation? {{ME-By|Sarah Hagan06}} # [[/Epistemic motivation and the need for cognitive closure/]] - How does epistemic motivation and the need for cognitive closure influence our lives? {{ME-By|Ayat Al-kabai}} # [[/Exercise gamification motivation/]] - How can gamification affect exercise motivation and behaviour? {{ME-By|U3260591}} # [[/Expectancy-value theory of educational motivation/|Expectancy-value theory of educational motivation]] - What is expectancy-value theory and how can it be applied to understand and enhance educational motivation? {{ME-By|StudentUC2026}} # [[/Extended process model of emotion regulation/]] - What is the extended process model and how does it explain the regulation of emotions in different contexts? {{ME-By|TheHutt02}} # [[/Feedback literacy/]] - What is feedback literacy, why does it matter, and how can it be developed? {{ME-By|WonderfulKitten3}} # [[/Future orientation and criminal behaviour/]] - How does future orientation influence the risk of criminal activity? {{ME-By|U3275899}} # [[/Game of dice task and decision-making/]] - What does the game of dice task reveal about risk-based decision-making? {{ME-By|U3216724}} # [[/Gender and achievement motivation/]] - How does gender shape where, how, and under what conditions achievement motivation is expressed? {{ME-By|U3242837}} # [[/Generativity/]] - What is generativity and how does it impact behaviour and life outcomes? {{ME-By|Monuc9}} # [[/Getting started/]] - Why is task initiation difficult and how to overcome it? {{ME-By|U3286643}} # [[/Hygiene motivation/]] - What motivates maintenance of personal hygiene? {{ME-By|U3275940}} # [[/Hypothalamus and homeostatic motivation/]] - How do hypothalamic circuits regulate hunger, thirst, and other survival-related motivations? {{ME-By|U3297598}} # [[/Impulsivity versus sensation-seeking/]] - What is the distinction between impulsivity and sensation-seeking and how does this affect behaviour? {{ME-By|Reillyu3280706}} # [[/Indigenous Australian role models and motivation/]] - How do role models influence aspirations, identity development, and motivation among Indigenous Australians? {{ME-By|Jshottt}} # [[/Interrogation and compliance/]] - What psychological processes influence resistance and compliance during interrogation? {{ME-By|U3283643}} # [[/Lifelong learning motivation/]] - What motivates lifelong learning? {{ME-By|U3280251}} # [[/Machiavellian motivation/]] - What is the motivational role of Machiavellianism? {{ME-By|Mim0502}} # [[/Mesolimbic pathway and addiction motivation/]] - What role does the ventral tegmental area to nucleus accumbens pathway play in addictive behaviours? {{ME-By|U3280499}} # [[/Mindsets and stigma/]] - What role do growth versus fixed mindsets play in prejudice and stigma? {{ME-By|U3275909}} # [[/Motivations for using sex work services/]] - What motivates use of sex work services? {{ME-By|U3261236}} # [[/Motivational effects of incarceration on Indigenous Australians/]] - What are the motivational effects of incarceration on Indigenous Australians?{{ME-By|U3183521}} # [[/Need to love and be loved/]] - How does the desire to give and receive love influence motivation? {{ME-By|U3280743}} # [[/Occupational violence, emotion, and coping/]] - What are the emotional impacts of occupational violence and how can employees cope? {{ME-By|Anne-Lyse Iran}} # [[/Overconfidence in decision-making/]] - How does overconfidence bias affect judgement and decision-making? {{ME-By|BellaJohnson1}} # [[/Parental motivations for homeschooling/]] - What motivates parents to homeschool their children? {{ME-By|Gracelp}} # [[/Perfectionism and procrastination/]] - What is the role of perfectionism in procrastination and what can be done about it? {{ME-By|U3222012}} # [[/Pleasure anticipation and dopamine/]] - How does the brain's reward system generate motivation through expected rather than experienced pleasure? {{ME-By|U3284308}} # [[/Possible selves and goal pursuit/]] - How do possible selves influence motivation and goal-directed behaviour? {{ME-By|Jack4234}} # [[/Power motivation in leadership/]] - How does power motivation influence leadership styles and effectiveness? {{ME-By|PsychstudentUniversity!}} # [[/Prevention versus promotion mindset/]] - What are the motivational differences between prevention and promotion mindsets? {{ME-By|Bronte.H}} # [[/Relatedness motivation in self-determination theory/]] - How does the need for relatedness function within self-determination theory to shape motivation and behaviour? {{ME-By|U3203283}} # [[/Retirement motivation/]] - What motivates retirement from work? {{ME-By|U3261207}} # [[/Scarcity versus abundance mindset/]] - How do scarcity and abundance mindsets develop and what are the motivational consequences? {{ME-By|U3274291}} # [[/Self-concept and motivation/]] - How does self-concept relate to motivation? {{ME-By|U3253363}} # [[/Self-determination theory and dementia care/]] - How can autonomy, competence, and relatedness be supported in people living with dementia? {{ME-By|Ella Kay244}} # [[/Self-determination theory and military veteran reintegration/]] - How do autonomy, competence, and relatedness shape psychological adjustment after military service? {{ME-By|U3246286}} # [[/Self-determination theory and physical activity/]] - How do autonomy, competence, and relatedness predict engagement in physical activity and exercise adherence? {{ME-By|U3275908}} # [[/Sensation-seeking and dopamine/]] - What is the neurobiological relationship between sensation-seeking and dopamine? {{ME-By|U3262868}} # [[/Sex differences in sexual arousal patterns/]] - How do patterns of sexual arousal differ between males and females? {{ME-By|U3236349}} # [[/Sex work motivation/]] - What motivates sex work and how does this impact worker experiences? {{ME-By|U3261376}} # [[/Sleep deprivation, motivation, and academic performance/|Sleep deprivation, motivation, and academic performance]] - How does sleep deprivation affect motivation, attention, and academic performance in university students? {{ME-By|RileyRuckus}} # [[/Social dominance and power motivation/]] - What is the relationship between social dominance and power motivation? {{ME-By|U3284302}} # [[/Subcortical structures and motivational drive/]] - How do subcortical brain regions generate basic motivational impulses and energy? {{ME-By|U3281503}} # [[/Sun exposure and protection motivation/]] - What motivates sun exposure and protection behaviours? {{ME-By|U3188047}} # [[/Surrender motivation/]] - What is the motivational state of surrender and what are its impacts? {{ME-By|Chloebateup}} # [[/Types of impulsivity/]] - What are the different types of impulsivity and how do they affect motivation? {{ME-By|Ella234567}} # [[/Value congruence and motivation/]] - How does alignment between personal and situational values influence motivation? {{ME-By|U3275775}} # [[/Volunteer counsellor motivation/]] - What motivates people to become and remain volunteer counsellors? {{ME-By|J.M.A Watson}} # [[/Youth environmental activism motivation/]] - What motivates young people to engage in environmental activism? {{ME-By|SJPiper}} ==Emotion== # [[/Active versus passive social media use/]] - How do different patterns of social media engagement influence emotions and psychological wellbeing? {{ME-By|U3282656}} # [[/Adaptive versus maladaptive self-reflection/]] - When does self-reflection promote wellbeing and when does it contribute to psychological distress? {{ME-By|U3211150}} # [[/Affect heuristic/]] - What is the affect heuristic and how does it influence decision making? {{ME-By|Charlie.henderson1}} # [[/Alcohol use for emotion regulation/]] - Why and how do people use alcohol to regulate their emotions? {{ME-By|JessJ117}} # [[/Apocalyptic fear/]] - What is apocalyptic fear, what are its consequences, and how can it be dealt with? {{ME-By|LazPulch}} # [[/Awe and the diminished self/]] - How does awe diminish the self and how can this be applied? {{ME-By|Amirrorslens}} # [[/Awe and nature/]] - What is the relationship between awe and nature? {{ME-By|U3269915}} # [[/Body neutrality and emotional well-being/]] - How does a body-neutral perspective affect emotional well-being? {{ME-By|Amyuniversity}} # [[/Breathing exercises and relaxation/]] - How can breathing exercises promote relaxation? {{ME-By|E3297976}} # [[/Cognitive hardiness and stress resilience/]] - How does cognitive hardiness promote resilience to stress and adversity? {{ME-By|U3068253}} # [[/Cognitive versus affective empathy/]] - What are the differences between cognitive and affective empathy and how do they contribute to prosociality? {{ME-By|U3280159}} # [[/Dark empathy/]] - What is dark empathy, what are its consequences, and what can be done to address it? {{ME-By|U3228742}} # [[/Dreams and emotional problem-solving/]] - How do REM dreams contribute to emotional processing and adaptive coping? {{ME-By|U3270398}} # [[/Eco-emotions/]] - What are eco-emotions, how do they influence behaviour, and how can they be managed? {{ME-By|U3243776}} # [[/Emotional effects of incarceration on Indigenous Australians/]] - What are the emotional effects of incarcertation on Indigenous Australians? {{ME-By|Lilfish215}} # [[/Emotional expressivity/]] - What is emotional expressivity, why does it matter, and how can it be developed? {{ME-By|U3283812}} # [[/Emotional flooding in relationships/]] - Why does emotional flooding occur, how does it affect relationships, and what can be done about it? {{ME-By|Tofu05}} # [[/Emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing/]] - How does emotional intelligence affect emotional wellbeing? {{ME-By|U3239236}} # [[/Emotion dysregulation/]] - What is emotion dysregulation, what are its consequences, and how can it be managed? {{ME-By|U3285438}} # [[/Emotion regulation through exercise/]] - How do people use exercise to regulate their emotional states? {{ME-By|KB3250298}} # [[/Empathy and jury decision-making/]] - How does empathy toward defendants and victims influence jurors' reasoning and verdict decisions? {{ME-By|U3254168}} # [[/Empathy fatigue and emotional exhaustion/]] - How does sustained empathic engagement contribute to emotional exhaustion? {{ME-By|U3143751}} # [[/Enjoyment and learning/]] - How does enjoyment influence learning? {{ME-By|Diaz Chas}} # [[/Envy in the workplace/]] - What role does envy play in workplace behaviour? {{ME-By|Flickstar888}} # [[/Excitement as an emotion/]] - What is the emotion of excitement and how does it influence behaviour and wellbeing? {{ME-By|U3292769}} # [[/Fear extinction/]] - What psychological and neural processes underlie the extinction of fear responses? {{ME-By|ChillPsychGuy0607}} # [[/Growth mindset and psychological wellbeing/]] - How does a growth mindset influence psychological wellbeing? {{ME-By|Avj.06}} # [[/Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment/]] - How does it work and what are the effects? {{ME-By|StretchBeyond}} # [[/Interpersonal psychotherapy and emotion/]] - How does interpersonal psychotherapy improve emotional wellbeing through changes in relationships? U3280122 # [[/Introjection and guilt-based motivation/]] - What role do shame and guilt play in introjected forms of behavioural regulation? {{ME-By|U3330981}} # [[/Irritability/]] - What is irritability, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be managed? {{ME-By|U3275992}} # [[/Love styles and relationships/]] - How do love styles influence relationship satisfaction and stability? {{ME-By|U3246588}} # [[/Melatonin and seasonal mood/]] - What role does melatonin play in seasonal mood changes? {{ME-By|U3224236}} # [[/Mental health first aid and helping behaviour/]] - What motivates people to recognise, approach, and support someone with a mental health problem? {{ME-By|Katelyn Rod}} # [[/Mood and cognitive performance/]] - How do different mood states impact attention, memory, and problem solving? {{ME-By|U3283879}} # [[/Moodiness/]] - What is moodiness, why does it occur, and how can it be managed? {{ME-By|U3239251}} # [[/Moral disgust and jury decision-making/]] - How does moral disgust influence jurors' judgments of guilt, blame, and punishment? {{ME-By|Yellowvines}} # [[/Neurobiology of love/]] - What neural systems and biochemical processes underlie love? {{ME-By|Honeybelle11}} # [[/Nitrous oxide and emotion/]] - How does nitrous oxide influence emotional experience and mood? {{ME-By|U3275873}} # [[/Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being/]] - How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being? {{ME-By|Mymunu}} # [[/Phubbing and emotion/]] - What are the emotional causes and consequences of phubbing? {{ME-By|U3243961}} # [[/Positive emotion dysregulation/]] - What is positive emotion dysregulation and how does it affect psychological functioning? {{ME-By|P U3270518}} # [[/Psychedelic treatment of eating disorders/]] - How might psychedelic-assisted therapy influence psychological mechanisms involved in eating eating disorders? {{ME-By|Leilab23}} # [[/Responsiveness and interpersonal trust/]] - How does responsiveness foster trust in relationships? {{ME-By|U3282586}} # [[/Romantic entertainment and love beliefs/]] - How do romantic entertainment influence beliefs and expectations about love and romantic relationships? {{ME-By|U3247927}} # [[/Romantic jealousy/]] - Why does romantic jealousy occur, what are its impacts, and how can it be managed?{{ME-By|U3279062}} # [[/Secondary trauma in healthcare workers/]] - What are the emotional consequences of secondary trauma in healthcare settings? {{ME-By|U3257744}} # [[/Seasonal affective disorder/]] - What is SAD, why does it occur, and how can it be managed? {{ME-By|Greg Philips}} # [[/Self-blame and emotion/]] - How does self-blame influence emotional responses to negative events? {{ME-By|GU3281277}} # [[/Self-disclosure and emotional intimacy/]] - How does self-disclosure foster emotional closeness in relationships? {{ME-By|U3283302}} # [[/Self-stigma and emotion/]] - How does self-stigma impact emotional well-being? {{ME-By|Pinkk47}} # [[/Social connection and emotion regulation/]] - How do social relationships help regulate people's emotions? {{ME-By|U3284040}} # [[/Socioemotional selectivity theory and wellbeing in ageing/]] - How do social and emotional experiences affect wellbeing as people age? {{ME-By|U3253354}} # [[/Technology-based pain management/]] - How can technology-based tools alter pain perception and pain management? {{ME-By|ChelsSchofield}} # [[/Time perception in mood disorders/]] - How do anxiety and depression alter the subjective experience of time? {{ME-By|Safiaah}} # [[/Trust rebuilding after trauma/]] - How can trauma survivors develop trust in similar situations again? {{ME-By|U3284437}} # [[/Volunteer wellbeing/]] - How does volunteering affect volunteers' subjective wellbeing? {{ME-By|U3216851}} ==Motivation and emotion== # [[/Boredom and interest/]] - How do boredom and interest shape emotional and motivational states? {{ME-By|U3239431}} # [[/Falling in love/]] - What motivational and emotional processes underlie romantic attraction and falling in love? {{ME-By|Mort006}} # [[/Life purpose and well-being/]] - How does a sense of purpose contribute to well-being and how can it be cultivated? {{ME-By|U3286962}} # [[/Moral emotions and ethical behaviour/]] - How do moral emotions motivate ethical and prosocial action? {{ME-By|U3263365}} # [[/Oxytocin as a neuromodulator/]] - What are the motivational and emotional effects of oxytocin as a neuromodulator? {{ME-By|U3306498}} # [[/Reward prediction error/]] - How does discrepancy between expected and actual rewards influence learning, emotion, and motivation? {{ME-By|Aivy.uc.cbr}} # [[/Warm-glow giving/]] - Why does giving feel good and how does this influence prosocial behaviour? {{ME-By|Karabi Tasneem}} # [[/Wisdom, motivation, and emotion/]] - How do motivational and emotional processes contribute to wisdom? {{ME-By|Med.011387}} [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026]] exr3wz9srab6uybwans3wjxzeibz3kp 0 324176 2832786 2799421 2026-09-11T09:16:14Z Dronebogus 3054149 Random AI slop that adds nothing 2832786 wikitext text/x-wiki —Thinking for yourself == Introduction == [[w:Philosophy|Philosophy]] empowers us to question deeply, think clearly, and live wisely—cultivating truth, justice, and meaning while guiding us toward a more authentic and humane life. This course is an invitation to ''do philosophy'' through listening, questioning, reasoning, clarifying, dialoguing, and reflecting on life’s fundamental concerns. == Objectives == The objectives of this course are to help students: # Frame philosophical questions clearly and precisely. # Recognize and construct sound arguments. # Identify and avoid common fallacies in reasoning. # Engage in respectful dialogue and philosophical discussion. # Apply philosophical reflection to issues of meaning, justice, freedom, and truth. # Connect historical and contemporary philosophical ideas to everyday life. # Enjoy doing philosophy. This course is part of the [[Wisdom/Curriculum|Applied Wisdom curriculum]] and of the [[Deductive Logic/Clear Thinking curriculum|Clear Thinking curriculum]]. == What is Philosophy? == [[w:Philosophy|Philosophy]] empowers us to question deeply, [[Clear Thinking/Curriculum|think clearly]], and [[Living Wisely|live wisely]]—cultivating truth, justice, and meaning while guiding us toward a more authentic and humane life. [[/Philosophy Is What Happens When We Think for Ourselves/|Philosophy is what happens when we begin to think for ourselves]].<ref>Shand, John (June 5, 2003). ''Fundamentals of Philosophy''. Routledge. pp. 458. ISBN [[Special:BookSources/978-0415227094|978-0415227094]].</ref> Philosophy comes alive when we ''do'' philosophy.  This course encourages us to do philosophy, think for ourselves, and [[Practicing Dialogue|dialogue]] with others about [[What Matters|what really matters]]. == What is “Doing Philosophy?” == [[/What is “Doing Philosophy?”/|Doing philosophy]] is the active practice of listening, questioning, reasoning, clarifying, [[Practicing Dialogue|dialoguing]], and reflecting on life’s most fundamental issues, with the aim of [[Seeking True Beliefs|seeking truth]] and [[Living Wisely|living wisely]]. == Why ''do'' philosophy? == People [[Doing Philosophy/What is “Doing Philosophy?”|do philosophy]] because it helps us [[Clear Thinking/Curriculum|think clearly]], [[Living Wisely|live wisely]], engage deeply with others, and shape a [[Envisioning Our Future|better world]]. Philosophy matters because it helps us live more wisely and authentically.<ref>Generated by [[w:ChatGPT|ChatGPT]]</ref> By asking deep questions, clarifying concepts, and testing reasons, we learn to separate truth from illusion and examine our own lives. It cultivates [[w:Intellectual_humility|intellectual humility]] and [[Finding Courage#Integrity, genuineness, and honesty—Moral Courage|moral courage]], enabling us to confront life’s hardest questions—about meaning, justice, freedom, and death—without fear or evasion. Philosophy also strengthens our ability to [[Practicing Dialogue|dialogue]] with others and to challenge unjust systems with clarity and vision. In short, we do philosophy because it [[What you can change and what you cannot#Agency|empowers us]] to think clearly, choose well, and become more fully human. By doing philosophy, we gain skills in five valuable practices: questioning, reasoning, clarifying, dialoguing, and reflecting. === Assignment === Do philosophy. == Logic Forms the Foundation == [[/Logic Forms the Foundations of Philosophy/|Logic forms the foundation of philosophy]] because it establishes the standards of valid reasoning. From [[w:Aristotle|Aristotle’s]] [[w:Syllogism|syllogisms]] to modern symbolic logic, philosophers have sought ways to distinguish good arguments from bad ones, valid inferences from [[Recognizing Fallacies|fallacies]]. A claim is not justified because it is loudly proclaimed or widely believed; it is justified because it follows from sound reasoning grounded in [[Evaluating Evidence|evidence]]. Logic provides the tools to test whether conclusions truly follow from [[w:Premise|premises]], and thus whether [[Forming beliefs|beliefs]] are worthy of acceptance. === Assignment === * Complete the courses in the Wikiversity [[Clear Thinking/Curriculum|Clear Thinking curriculum]]. * Think clearly. == Questions Keep Us Thinking == Fundamental questions of philosophy include “[[Exploring Existential Concerns/What Ought We Do?|What ought we do]]?”, “[[True Self|Who am I]]?”, and “Am I worthy?” Below are collections of other important questions to explore by doing philosophy. * [[Exploring Existential Concerns|Exploring existential concerns]] * [[Moral Reasoning/Moral Issues|Exploring Moral Issues]]. * [[Socratic Methods/prompts|Socratic Method Prompts.]] * [[/Philosophy Seminar Questions/|Philosophy Seminar Questions]]. * A [[Wisdom Workout|wisdom workout]]. * [[w:List_of_philosophical_problems|Unsolved Problems in Philosophy]] === Assignment === * Complete the Wikiversity course [[Practicing Dialogue]]. * Practice dialogue. * Complete the Wikiversity course [[Socratic Methods]]. * Practice Socratic methods * [[Fostering Curiosity|Stay curious]]. == Standing On the Shoulders of Giants == Philosophy has a history—and we join an ancient conversation when we do philosophy. Because philosophy is an ancient pursuit, many questions have been explored, and many ideas have been examined and eventually dismissed, refined, or developed. Here are several starting points for exploring various knowledge bases. * The [[w:History_of_philosophy|history of philosophy]] * [[w:Lists_of_philosophers|Lists of philosophers]]; the great thinkers * [[w:List_of_philosophies|Lists of philosophies]] * The paper What Do Philosophers Believe?<ref>What Do Philosophers Believe?, survey results reported by David Bourget and David J. Chalmers, November 30, 2013</ref> surveys the beliefs of a large sample of practicing philosophers. * The resources identified in the [[Doing Philosophy#Resources|section below]] provide more information. == Contemporary Forums == You can do philosophy wherever you find someone willing to [[Practicing Dialogue|practice dialogue]] with you. Choose [[Knowing Someone/Big Talk|big talk]] over [[Social Skills/The Social Skill of Small Talk|small talk]] and seek out one of the forums listed here: * [[The Idea Incubator/The Wisdom Playground|Widom Playgrounds]] * The PhilosophyGym @ Grokkist<ref>PhilosophyGym @ Grokkist <nowiki>https://network.grokk.ist/c/events-and-meetups/philosophygym-grokkist-18b3ec</nowiki></ref> * [[w:World_café_(conversation)|World café]] ** FlourishCafé™<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.flourishcafe.org/|title=FlourishCafé|website=FlourishCafé|language=en-GB|access-date=2025-09-21}}</ref> * [[w:Braver_Angels|Braver Angels]] == Apply Philosophy to Life == Doing philosophy can become a fulfilling way of living. Apply philosophy to personal ethics, civic responsibility, and existential concerns. Philosophy is never finished—it is a lifelong practice. Use skills developed by doing philosophy to engage in contemporary dialogues such as AI, climate ethics, and role of democracy. === Assignment === * Do philosophy. * [[Living Wisely/Seeking Real Good|Seek real good]] * [[Living Wisely|Live wisely]] == Resources == These resources offer treatments of various philosophical issues at different levels. Studying them can help us live more wisely. * This [[/Beginner’s Philosophy Glossary/|Beginner’s Philosophy Glossary]] balances clarity with depth to make it useful to novice philosophy students. * This [[/Philosophy Quick Reference/|Philosophy Quick Reference]] is designed for learners who already know the basics and need a sharper tool for study, dialogue, or essay-writing * This list of [[/Prominent Philosophers and Their Contributions/|Prominent Philosophers and Their Contributions]] is a broad survey of prominent and influential philosophers across eras, with short descriptions of their notable ideas and contributions. * Browse this [[/Philosophy Text Books/|list of philosophy textbooks]] to find titles that interest you. * The [[w:Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy|Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]] (SEP) combines an online encyclopedia of philosophy with peer-reviewed publication of original papers in philosophy, freely accessible to Internet users. * The [[w:Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy|Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy]] (IEP) is a scholarly online encyclopedia, dealing with philosophy, philosophical topics, and philosophers. * [[w:1000-Word_Philosophy|1000-Word Philosophy]] is an online philosophy anthology that publishes introductory 1000-word (or less) essays on philosophical topics. * [[w:RationalWiki|RationalWiki]] is an online wiki which is written from a scientific skeptic, secular, and progressive perspective. Its stated goals are to “analyze and refute pseudoscience and the anti-science movement, document crank ideas, explore conspiracy theories, authoritarianism, and fundamentalism, and analyze how these subjects are handled in the media.” * [[w:PhilPapers|PhilPapers]] is an interactive academic database of journal articles in philosophy. * [https://philpeople.org/ PhilPeople] is an online directory of philosophers, a social network for philosophers, and a tool for keeping up with the philosophical profession. * A [[Philosophy|philosophy curriculum]] is emerging on Wikiversity. You may wish to help [[Creating Wikiversity Courses|develop those courses]]. == Recommended Reading == Students who are interested in learning more about doing philosophy may wish to read these books. * {{cite book |last=Michalos |first=Alex C. |date=November 1, 1969 |title=Principles of Logic |publisher=Prentice Hall |pages=433 |isbn=978-0137094028 }} * {{cite book |last1=Copi |first1=Irving M. |last2=Cohen |first2=Carl |date=June 20, 2001 |title=Introduction to Logic |publisher=Prentice Hall |pages=647 |isbn=978-0130337351 }} * {{cite book |last=Weston |first=Anthony |date=November 14, 2008 |title=Rulebook for Arguments |publisher=Hackett Publishing Co, Inc |pages=104 |isbn=978-0872209541 }} * {{cite book |last=Van Cleave |first=Matthew J. |title=Introduction to Logic and Critical Thinking |URL=https://open.bccampus.ca/find-open-textbooks/?uuid=5d41a649-ce0f-4462-bc3d-564568b5c857&contributor=&keyword=&subject= |publisher=BCcampus OpenEd |pages=242 }} * [[b:Formal_Logic|''Formal Logic'']], Written by volunteers and editors at Wikibooks * *{{cite book |last=Duke |first=Annie |author-link=w:Annie_Duke |date= |title=Thinking in Bets: Making Smarter Decisions When You Don't Have All the Facts |publisher=Portfolio |pages= 288 |isbn=978-0735216372}} * {{cite book |last=Lawhead |first=William F. |author-link= |date=January 1, 2018 |title=The Philosophical Journey: An Interactive Approach |publisher=Mc Graw Hill Education |isbn=978-1260091571}} (Earlier editions are [[iarchive:philosophicaljou0006lawh|available on-line]]) * {{cite book |last1=Stewart|first1=David |last2=Blocker |first2=H. |author-link= |date=February 16, 2012 |title=Fundamentals of Philosophy |publisher=Pearson |pages=552 |isbn=978-0205242993}}(Earlier editions are [https://www.tnteu.ac.in/pdf/library/value_education/1%20David%20Stewart_%20H.%20Gene%20Blocker_%20James%20Petrik%20-%20Fundamentals%20of%20Philosophy-Pearson%20(2012).pdf available on-line]) I have not yet read the following books, but they seem interesting and relevant. They are listed here to invite further research. *Philosophy as a Way of Life: Spiritual Exercises from Socrates to Foucault, by Pierre Hadot <nowiki>ISBN 978-0631180333</nowiki> *{{Cite book|title=Philosophical devices: proofs, probabilities, possibilities, and sets|last=Papineau|first=David|date=2012|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-965173-3|edition=First edition|location=Oxford, England}} {{CourseCat}} [[Category:Philosophy]] r5q4fw0nrkwcbxza3emcu2qpxov2z9r 0 324822 2832703 2832466 2026-09-10T20:31:45Z Unitfreak 695864 2832703 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Examples of contextualized vs decontextualized time]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Earth_Gravity_Calculator.html Earth Gravity Calculator '''Figure 7c''' lists selected modern time units categorized by their relationship to physical phenomena. Red entries represent contextual units tied to irregular astronomical conditions. Black entries denote decontextualized units that emulate the average value of their contextual counterparts. Blue entries identify synchronized units that use "leaps" to align with the unpredictable duration of contextual time. Unlike synchronized units (blue), Bully timestamps do not require "leaps" because they are entirely decontextualized from astronomical events. Traditional calendars use leap seconds and leap years to force a fixed counting system to stay aligned with the Earth's irregular rotation and orbit. Because Bully units prioritize a consistent, linear count of SI seconds over astronomical alignment, there is no "drift" to correct. A new Bully timestamp is realized every 3055 SI seconds, regardless of whether the Earth’s rotation has slowed or where the planet is in its orbital path. {| class="wikitable sortable" style="width:100%;" cellpadding="5" |+ '''Figure 7c''': Selected modern time units categorized by contextualization |- ! scope="col" style="width:20%;" | Time Unit ! scope="col" style="width:15%;" | Type ! scope="col" | Definition / Basis |- style="background-color: #fff0f0;" | '''Solar second''' | style="color:red; font-weight:bold;" | Contextual | The 86,400th part of a solar day. Varies daily as Earth's rotation speed fluctuates. |- style="background-color: #fff0f0;" | '''Sidereal day''' | style="color:red; font-weight:bold;" | Contextual | One 360° Earth rotation relative to stars (~23h 56m 4.1s). Changes based on Earth's rotational irregularities. |- style="background-color: #fff0f0;" | '''Solar Year (Tropical)''' | style="color:red; font-weight:bold;" | Contextual | Time for the Sun to return to the same equinox position (~365.2422 solar days). |- style="background-color: #f9f9f9;" | '''SI second''' | style="color:black; font-weight:bold;" | Decontextualized | The duration of 9,192,631,770 periods of radiation from the cesium-133 atom. The fundamental "fixed" unit. |- style="background-color: #f9f9f9;" | '''SI minute / hour''' | style="color:black; font-weight:bold;" | Decontextualized | Fixed intervals of 60 and 3,600 SI seconds, respectively. |- style="background-color: #f9f9f9;" | '''Bully timestamp units''' | style="color:black; font-weight:bold;" | Decontextualized | Time unit based strictly on SI seconds. They maintain a linear count independent of Earth's rotation or orbit. |- style="background-color: #f9f9f9;" | '''Julian year''' | style="color:black; font-weight:bold;" | Decontextualized | Exactly 365.25 Julian days (31,557,600 SI seconds). Used as a standard astronomical constant. |- style="background-color: #f0f5ff;" | '''Gregorian day''' | style="color:blue; font-weight:bold;" | Synchronized | Usually 86,400 SI seconds, but may include "leap seconds" to remain aligned with the Contextual Solar Day. |- style="background-color: #f0f5ff;" | '''Gregorian leap year''' | style="color:blue; font-weight:bold;" | Synchronized | A 366-day interval used to keep the Gregorian calendar synchronized with the Solar (Tropical) year. |} p6245p0p9uqe9bsphtxswmt87bcdvdi 0 329377 2832696 2831961 2026-09-10T20:16:53Z Unitfreak 695864 2832696 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|The Metonic Cycle in Bully Metric]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same calendar dates. This cycle arises because 19 solar years and 235 synodic months nearly coincide. [[File:Bully_Metric_Metonic_Cycle.png|thumb|center|650 px| '''Figure 5c''': The Moon’s phase "advances" by approximately {{frac|7|19}} of a lunar cycle when observed on the same day in subsequent years.]] As shown in '''Figure 5c''', the Moon’s phase "advances" by approximately {{frac|7|19}} of a lunar cycle when observed on the same day in subsequent years. For example, if a '''New Moon''' occurs on the December Solstice of 2014: * The 2015 solstice will feature a '''Waxing Gibbous Moon''' (an advancement of ~{{frac|7|19}}). * The 2016 solstice will feature a '''Third Quarter Moon''' (an advancement of ~{{frac|14|19}}). * The 2017 solstice will feature a '''Waxing Crescent Moon''' (an advancement of ~{{frac|21|19}}). * And the 2033 solstice will feature a '''New Moon''' (an advancement of 7 complete cycles). Within this 19-year span, significant "near-matches" occur at the 8-year and 11-year marks. At 8 years, the drift reaches {{frac|56|19}} (approx. 2.95 cycles); at 11 years, it reaches {{frac|77|19}} (approx. 4.05 cycles). These intervals represent points where the lunar-solar alignment falls just short or just past a full-integer "reset," which eventually concludes at the 19-year mark. === The New Moon Solstice === The darkest nights in the Northern Hemisphere occur when the '''December Solstice''' coincides with a '''New Moon'''. The darkest nights in the Southern Hemisphere occur when the '''June Solstice''' coincides with a '''New Moon'''. The Metonic cycle predicts this alignment every 19 years, with significant "near-matches" at the 8th- and 11th-year marks. The table in '''Figure 5d''' illustrates Metonic cycles over a one-century period (1984–2097), listing the approximate date and Bully timestamp for every New Moon during the century. Red cells indicate the New Moon Solstice alignment every 19 years. Yellow cells indicate the New Moon Solstice near-alignments on the 8th- and 11th-year marks of the Metonic cycle. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 5d''': New Moon Bully Timestamps 1984 .. 2097 |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! rowspan="2" style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Metonic Cycle ! colspan="7" style="padding: 10px;" | Every New Moon (1984 .. 2097) |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}}; font-size: large; font-weight: bold;" || {{nowrap|1984}} || {{nowrap|2003}} || {{nowrap|2022}} || {{nowrap|2041}} || {{nowrap|2060}} || {{nowrap|2079}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jan 2}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFD B855}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 B6FC}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 B5AC}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 B45E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 B30D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C B1B3}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Feb 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFD BB9F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 BA41}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 B8ED}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 B79F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 B650}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C B4FB}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Mar 2}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFD BEE9}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 BD88}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 BC2F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 BADE}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 B991}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C B840}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Apr 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFD C232}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 C0D0}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 BF72}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 BE1E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 BCD0}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C BB81}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|May 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFD C579}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 C418}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 C2B7}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 C15E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 C00E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C BEC1}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|May 29}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFD C8BC}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 C75F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 C5FD}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 C4A0}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 C34C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C C1FE}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jun 28}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFD CBFD}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 CAA4}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 C943}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 C7E2}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 C68A}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C C53A}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jul 27}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFD CF3B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 CDE7}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 CC89}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 CB27}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 C9CA}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C C877}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Aug 26}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFD D278}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 D127}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 CFCE}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 CE6D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 CD0D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C CBB5}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Sep 24}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFD D5B5}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 D467}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 D312}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 D1B4}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 D052}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C CEF6}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Oct 24}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFD D8F4}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 D7A6}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 D656}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 D4FC}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 D39B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C D23B}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Nov 22}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFD DC35}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 DAE7}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 D998}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 D844}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 D6E6}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C D583}} |- style="font-size:small:smallbackground-color: #ffff00;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Dec 22}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFD DF78}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 DE27}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 DCDA}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 DB89}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 DA2F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C D8CE}} |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}}; font-size: large; font-weight: bold;" || || {{nowrap|1985}} || {{nowrap|2004}} || {{nowrap|2023}} || {{nowrap|2042}} || {{nowrap|2061}} || {{nowrap|2080}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jan 21}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFD E2BE}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 E169}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 E01A}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 DECC}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 DD77}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C DC19}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Feb 19}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFD E605}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 E4AC}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 E35B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 E20D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 E0BC}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C DF63}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Mar 20}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFD E94E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 E7EF}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 E69B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 E54D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 E3FE}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C E2AA}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Apr 19}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFD EC96}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 EB35}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 E9DC}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 E88B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 E73E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C E5ED}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|May 19}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFD EFDE}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 EE7B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 ED1E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 EBCA}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 EA7B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C E92D}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jun 17}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFD F323}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 F1C2}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 F061}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 EF08}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 EDB8}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C EC6A}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jul 17}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFD F665}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 F508}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 F3A5}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 F248}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 F0F4}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C EFA6}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Aug 15}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFD F9A5}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 F84C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 F6EB}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 F58B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 F432}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C F2E2}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Sep 13}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFD FCE4}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 FB90}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 FA32}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 F8D0}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 F774}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C F620}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Oct 13}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 0023}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 FED3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 FD7A}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 FC19}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 FAB8}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C F961}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Nov 11}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 0363}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 0214}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 00C0}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 FF63}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 FE00}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C FCA4}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Dec 11}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 06A3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 0556}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 0405}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 02AC}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 014B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C FFEA}} |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}}; font-size: large; font-weight: bold;" || || {{nowrap|1986}} || {{nowrap|2005}} || {{nowrap|2024}} || {{nowrap|2043}} || {{nowrap|2062}} || {{nowrap|2081}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jan 10}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 09E5}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 0896}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 0748}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 05F3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 0496}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 0334}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Feb 8}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 0D28}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 0BD7}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 0A89}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 0938}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 07E0}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 067E}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Mar 10}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 106D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 0F17}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 0DC9}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 0C7B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 0B27}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 09C9}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Apr 8}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 13B3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 1259}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 1108}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 0FBB}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 0E6A}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 0D11}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|May 8}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 16FA}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 159C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 1447}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 12F9}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 11AA}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 1056}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jun 6}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 1A41}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 18DF}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 1786}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 1635}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 14E8}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 1397}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jul 5}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 1D86}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 1C24}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 1AC6}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 1972}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 1824}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 16D5}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Aug 4}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 20CB}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 1F6A}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 1E09}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 1CB0}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 1B60}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 1A12}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Sep 3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 240E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 22B1}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 214E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 1FF1}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 1E9D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 1D4F}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Oct 2}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 2750}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 25F7}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 2496}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 2336}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 21DE}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 208D}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Nov 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 2A91}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 293D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 27E0}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 267E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 2521}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 23CD}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Dec 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 2DD2}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 2C81}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 2B29}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 29C8}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 2867}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 270F}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Dec 30}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 3112}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 2FC4}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 2E70}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 2D13}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 2BB0}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 2A53}} |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}}; font-size: large; font-weight: bold;" || || {{nowrap|1987}} || {{nowrap|2006}} || {{nowrap|2025}} || {{nowrap|2044}} || {{nowrap|2063}} || {{nowrap|2082}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jan 28}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 3453}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 3305}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 31B5}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 305C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 2EFB}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 2D9B}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Feb 27}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 3794}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 3645}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 34F7}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 33A3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 3246}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 30E4}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Mar 29}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 3AD6}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 3985}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 3837}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 36E7}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 358F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 342E}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Apr 27}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 3E19}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 3CC4}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 3B76}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 3A27}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 38D3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 3776}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|May 27}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 415E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 4004}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 3EB3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 3D65}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 3C14}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 3ABC}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jun 25}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 44A3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 4345}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 41F0}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 40A1}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 3F53}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 3DFE}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jul 24}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 47E9}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 4687}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 452E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 43DD}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 4290}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 413F}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Aug 23}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 4B2F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 49CD}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 486F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 471B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 45CD}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 447E}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Sep 21}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 4E75}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 4D14}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 4BB3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 4A5B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 490A}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 47BD}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Oct 20}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 51BA}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 505D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 4EFB}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 4D9E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 4C4A}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 4AFB}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Nov 19}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 54FE}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 53A5}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 5245}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 50E4}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 4F8B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 4E3B}} |- style="font-size:small:smallbackground-color: #ffff00;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Dec 19}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 5840}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 56EC}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 558F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 542D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 52D0}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 517C}} |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}}; font-size: large; font-weight: bold;" || {{nowrap|}} || {{nowrap|1988}} || {{nowrap|2007}} || {{nowrap|2026}} || {{nowrap|2045}} || {{nowrap|2064}} || {{nowrap|2083}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jan 18}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 5B81}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 5A31}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 58D9}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 5778}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 5617}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 54BF}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Feb 16}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 5EC1}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 5D73}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 5C20}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 5AC3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 5961}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 5804}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Mar 18}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 6201}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 60B4}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 5F64}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 5E0C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 5CAB}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 5B4A}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Apr 16}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 6541}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 63F3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 62A5}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 6151}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 5FF4}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 5E92}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|May 15}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 6882}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 6730}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 65E2}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 6492}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 633A}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 61D9}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jun 14}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 6BC3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 6A6D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 691F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 67D0}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 667C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 651F}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jul 13}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 6F06}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 6DAC}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 6C5B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 6B0D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 69BD}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 6864}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Aug 12}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 724B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 70ED}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 6F98}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 6E4A}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 6CFC}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 6BA7}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Sep 11}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 7593}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 7431}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 72D8}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 7187}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 703A}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 6EE9}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Oct 10}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 78DB}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 7779}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 761B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 74C6}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 7378}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 7229}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Nov 8}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 7C22}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 7AC2}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 7961}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 7808}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 76B7}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 7569}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Dec 8}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 7F69}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 7E0C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 7CAA}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 7B4C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 79F8}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 78A9}} |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}}; font-size: large; font-weight: bold;" || || {{nowrap|1989}} || {{nowrap|2008}} || {{nowrap|2027}} || {{nowrap|2046}} || {{nowrap|2065}} || {{nowrap|2084}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jan 6}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 82AD}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 8155}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 7FF5}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 7E94}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 7D3B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 7BEA}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Feb 5}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 85F0}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 849D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 8340}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 81DE}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 8080}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 7F2C}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Mar 6}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 8930}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 87E1}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 8689}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 8529}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 83C8}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 826F}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Apr 5}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 8C6F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 8B21}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 89CE}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 8872}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 8710}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 85B2}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|May 4}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 8FAD}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 8E5F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 8D10}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 8BB8}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 8A57}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 88F6}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jun 3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 92EB}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 919C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 904E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 8EFB}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 8D9E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 8C3C}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jul 3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 962A}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 94D8}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 938B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 923B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 90E3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 8F82}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Aug 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 996B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 9816}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 96C7}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 9579}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 9425}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 92C8}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Aug 30}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 9CAF}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 9B55}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 9A04}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 98B7}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 9766}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 960E}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Sep 29}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 9FF6}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 9E98}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 9D43}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 9BF5}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 9AA6}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 9952}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Oct 28}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE A33F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 A1DE}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 A084}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 9F33}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 9DE5}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 9C95}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Nov 27}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE A689}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 A527}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 A3C9}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 A274}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A A125}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 9FD7}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Dec 27}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE A9D2}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 A872}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 A711}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 A5B7}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A A466}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D A318}} |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}}; font-size: large; font-weight: bold;" || || {{nowrap|1990}} || {{nowrap|2009}} || {{nowrap|2028}} || {{nowrap|2047}} || {{nowrap|2066}} || {{nowrap|2085}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jan 25}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE AD19}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 ABBD}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 AA5B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 A8FD}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A A7A8}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D A65A}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Feb 24}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE B05D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 AF06}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 ADA6}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 AC45}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A AAEB}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D A99A}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Mar 25}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE B39E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 B24B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 B0EF}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 AF8D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A AE2F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D ACDA}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Apr 24}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE B6DD}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 B58D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 B436}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 B2D5}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A B174}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D B01A}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|May 23}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE BA19}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 B8CB}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 B778}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 B61C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A B4BA}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D B35C}} |- style="font-size:small:smallbackground-color: #ffff00;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jun 22}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE BD56}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 BC08}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 BAB9}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 B961}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A B801}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D B69F}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jul 21}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE C093}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 BF45}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 BDF7}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 BCA4}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A BB47}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D B9E5}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Aug 20}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE C3D3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 C282}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 C134}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 BFE4}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A BE8C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D BD2B}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Sep 18}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE C716}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 C5C0}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 C471}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 C323}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A C1CF}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D C072}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Oct 18}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE CA5B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 C901}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 C7B0}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 C662}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A C511}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D C3B9}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Nov 16}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE CDA4}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 CC45}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 CAF0}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 C9A1}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A C853}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D C6FF}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Dec 16}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE D0EF}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 CF8D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 CE33}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 CCE2}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A CB94}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D CA44}} |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}}; font-size: large; font-weight: bold;" || || {{nowrap|1991}} || {{nowrap|2010}} || {{nowrap|2029}} || {{nowrap|2048}} || {{nowrap|2067}} || {{nowrap|2086}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jan 14}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE D43A}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 D2D8}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 D179}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 D024}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A CED5}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D CD87}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Feb 13}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE D783}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 D623}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 D4C2}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 D368}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A D216}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D D0C8}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Mar 14}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE DAC8}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 D96D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 D80B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 D6AC}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A D557}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D D408}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Apr 13}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE DE0A}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 DCB3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 DB53}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 D9F2}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A D898}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D D747}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|May 12}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE E149}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 DFF6}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 DE9B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 DD38}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A DBDA}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D DA85}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jun 11}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE E486}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 E336}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 E1DF}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 E07F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A DF1E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D DDC4}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jul 10}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE E7C2}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 E675}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 E522}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 E3C5}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A E263}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D E105}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Aug 9}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE EAFF}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 E9B1}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 E862}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 E70A}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A E5AA}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D E448}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Sep 8}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE EE3D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 ECEE}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 EBA0}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 EA4D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A E8F0}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D E78E}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Oct 7}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE F17E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 F02C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 EEDE}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 ED8E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A EC36}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D EAD6}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Nov 6}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE F4C2}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 F36C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 F21D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 F0CF}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A EF7C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D EE1F}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Dec 5}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE F80A}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 F6AF}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 F55E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 F410}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A F2C0}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D F168}} |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}}; font-size: large; font-weight: bold;" || || {{nowrap|1992}} || {{nowrap|2011}} || {{nowrap|2030}} || {{nowrap|2049}} || {{nowrap|2068}} || {{nowrap|2087}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jan 4}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE FB55}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 F9F6}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 F8A0}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 F751}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A F603}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D F4B0}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Feb 2}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE FEA0}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 FD3F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 FBE4}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 FA92}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A F944}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D F7F4}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Mar 3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 01EA}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 0088}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 FF29}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 FDD3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A FC84}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D FB36}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Apr 2}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 0531}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 03D1}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 0270}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 0115}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A FFC3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D FE76}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|May 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 0874}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 0719}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 05B7}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 0458}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 0302}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 01B4}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jun 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 0BB4}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 0A5E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 08FE}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 079C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 0642}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 04F1}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jul 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 0EF2}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 0DA0}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 0C44}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 0AE2}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 0984}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 082F}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jul 29}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 122F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 10DF}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 0F88}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 0E28}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 0CC7}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 0B6D}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Aug 27}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 156B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 141D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 12CA}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 116E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 100C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 0EAE}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Sep 26}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 18A9}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 175B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 160B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 14B4}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 1353}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 11F2}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Oct 25}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 1BE9}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 1A9A}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 194C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 17F9}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 169C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 153A}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Nov 24}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 1F2C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 1DDA}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 1C8C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 1B3D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 19E5}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 1885}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Dec 24}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 2272}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 211C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 1FCD}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 1E7F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 1D2C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 1BCF}} |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}}; font-size: large; font-weight: bold;" || || {{nowrap|1993}} || {{nowrap|2012}} || {{nowrap|2031}} || {{nowrap|2050}} || {{nowrap|2069}} || {{nowrap|2088}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jan 22}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 2905}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 2460}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 230E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 21C0}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 2070}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 1F19}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Feb 21}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 2C4F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 27A6}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 2650}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 2500}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 23B2}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 225F}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Mar 22}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 2F97}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 2AED}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 2992}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 2840}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 26F2}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 25A2}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Apr 21}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 32DC}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 2E35}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 2CD6}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 2B80}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 2A31}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 28E3}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|May 20}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 361E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 317D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 301B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 2EC0}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 2D6E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 2C21}} |- style="font-size:small:smallbackground-color: #ffff00;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jun 19}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 395D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 34C3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 3361}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 3202}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 30AC}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 2F5E}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jul 18}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 3C9B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 3807}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 36A7}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 3545}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 33EB}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 329A}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Aug 16}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 3FD8}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 3B48}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 39ED}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 388A}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 372C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 35D7}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Sep 15}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 4316}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 3E89}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 3D31}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 3BD1}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 3A70}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 3916}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Oct 14}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 4656}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 41C8}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 4076}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 3F1A}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 3DB8}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 3C59}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Nov 13}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 4998}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 4508}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 43B9}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 4262}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 4102}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 3FA0}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Dec 13}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 4998}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 4849}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 46FB}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 45A8}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 444C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 42EA}} |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}}; font-size: large; font-weight: bold;" || || {{nowrap|1994}} || {{nowrap|2013}} || {{nowrap|2032}} || {{nowrap|2051}} || {{nowrap|2070}} || {{nowrap|2089}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jan 11}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 4CDD}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 4B8A}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 4A3C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 48ED}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 4795}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 4635}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Feb 10}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 5023}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 4ECC}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 4D7D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 4C2F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 4ADC}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 4980}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Mar 11}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 536B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 520F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 50BD}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 4F6F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 4E1F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 4CC8}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Apr 10}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 56B3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 5553}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 53FD}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 52AE}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 5160}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 500D}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|May 9}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 59FB}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 5899}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 573E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 55EC}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 549E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 534F}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jun 8}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 5D41}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 5BDF}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 5A80}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 592A}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 57DB}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 568D}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jul 7}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 6085}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 5F26}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 5DC4}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 5C69}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 5B17}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 59C9}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Aug 6}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 63C6}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 626B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 6109}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 5FAA}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 5E54}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 5D06}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Sep 4}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 6706}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 65AF}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 6450}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 62EE}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 6194}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 6043}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Oct 4}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 6A45}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 68F3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 6797}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 6635}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 64D7}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 6382}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Nov 2}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 6D85}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 6C35}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 6ADF}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 697F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 681D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 66C4}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Dec 2}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 70C5}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 6F77}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 6E25}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 6CC9}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 6B67}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 6A08}} |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}}; font-size: large; font-weight: bold;" || || {{nowrap|1995}} || {{nowrap|2014}} || {{nowrap|2033}} || {{nowrap|2052}} || {{nowrap|2071}} || {{nowrap|2090}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jan 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 7748}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 72B8}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 7169}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 7012}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 6EB2}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 6D50}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jan 30}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 7A8C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 75F9}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 74AB}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 7358}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 71FD}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 709B}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Mar 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 7DD1}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 7939}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 77EB}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 769C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 7545}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 73E5}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Mar 30}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 8117}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 7C7A}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 7B2A}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 79DD}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 788A}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 772F}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Apr 29}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 845E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 7FBB}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 7E69}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 7D1B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 7BCC}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 7A75}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|May 28}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 87A4}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 82FE}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 81A8}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 8058}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 7F0A}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 7DB8}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jun 26}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 8AE9}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 8642}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 84E7}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 8395}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 8247}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 80F7}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jul 26}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 8E2D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 8988}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 8828}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 86D2}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 8583}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 8435}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Aug 24}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 9170}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 8CCE}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 8B6C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 8A11}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 88C0}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 8772}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Sep 22}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 94B2}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 9015}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 8EB3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 8D54}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 8BFF}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 8AB0}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Oct 22}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 97F3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 935C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 91FC}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 909B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 8F40}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 8DEF}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Nov 21}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 9B34}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 96A1}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 9546}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 93E4}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 9285}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 912F}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffaaaa;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Dec 21}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 9B34}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 99E5}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 988E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 972F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 95CD}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 9473}} |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}}; font-size: large; font-weight: bold;" || || {{nowrap|1996}} || {{nowrap|2015}} || {{nowrap|2034}} || {{nowrap|2053}} || {{nowrap|2072}} || {{nowrap|2091}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jan 19}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 9E74}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 9D27}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 9BD4}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 9A79}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 9917}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 97B8}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Feb 18}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF A1B5}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 A067}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 9F18}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 9DC2}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 9C62}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 9B01}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Mar 19}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF A4F7}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 A3A7}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 A259}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 A107}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 9FAC}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 9E4A}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Apr 17}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF A839}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 A6E6}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 A598}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 A449}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B A2F3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E A193}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|May 17}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF AB7C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 AA25}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 A8D6}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 A788}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B A635}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E A4DA}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jun 16}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF AEC1}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 AD65}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 AC12}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 AAC4}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B A975}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E A81E}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jul 15}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF B206}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 B0A6}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 AF50}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 AE00}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B ACB3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E AB60}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Aug 14}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF B54C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 B3EA}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 B28F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 B13D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B AFEF}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E AEA0}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Sep 12}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF B893}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 B731}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 B5D2}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 B47C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B B32D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E B1DF}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Oct 11}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF BBD9}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 BA7A}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 B918}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 B7BD}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B B66B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E B51E}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Nov 10}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF BF1E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 BDC3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 BC61}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 BB02}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B B9AC}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E B85D}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Dec 9}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF C261}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 C10B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 BFAC}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 BE4A}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B BCEF}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E BB9D}} |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}}; font-size: large; font-weight: bold;" || || {{nowrap|1997}} || {{nowrap|2016}} || {{nowrap|2035}} || {{nowrap|2054}} || {{nowrap|2073}} || {{nowrap|2092}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jan 8}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF C5A2}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 C451}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 C2F6}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 C194}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B C035}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E BEDF}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Feb 7}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF C8E3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 C794}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 C63F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 C4E0}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B C37E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E C223}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Mar 8}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF CC23}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 CAD6}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 C984}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 C82A}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B C6C8}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E C569}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Apr 6}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF CF63}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 CE15}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 CCC6}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 CB70}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B CA11}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E C8AF}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|May 6}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF D2A3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 D153}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 D005}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 CEB3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B CD58}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E CBF6}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jun 5}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF D5E3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 D490}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 D342}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 D1F3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B D09C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E CF3D}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jul 4}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF D925}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 D7CD}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 D67E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 D530}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B D3DE}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E D283}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Aug 2}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF DC69}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 DB0D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 D9BB}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 D86D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B D71E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E D5C7}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Sep 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF DFB0}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 DE50}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 DCF9}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 DBAA}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B DA5C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E D90A}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Oct 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF E2F8}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 E196}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 E03A}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 DEE8}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B DD9A}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E DC4B}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Oct 30}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF E640}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 E4DE}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 E37F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 E228}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B E0D9}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E DF8B}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Nov 29}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF E987}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 E829}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 E6C7}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 E56B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B E419}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E E2CB}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Dec 28}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF ECCD}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 EB73}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 EA11}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 E8B1}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B E75B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E E60C}} |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}}; font-size: large; font-weight: bold;" || || {{nowrap|1998}} || {{nowrap|2017}} || {{nowrap|2036}} || {{nowrap|2055}} || {{nowrap|2074}} || {{nowrap|2093}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jan 27}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF F010}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 EEBB}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 ED5C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 EBFB}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B EA9F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E E94D}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Feb 25}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF F352}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 F201}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 F0A7}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 EF45}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B EDE5}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E EC8F}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Mar 27}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF F692}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 F543}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 F3EE}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 F28F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B F12D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E EFD2}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Apr 25}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF F9D0}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 F882}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 F731}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 F5D6}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B F474}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E F315}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|May 25}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF FD0D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 FBBF}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 FA70}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 F91A}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B F7BB}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E F659}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jun 23}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 004B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 FEFB}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 FDAE}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 FC5C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B FB01}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E F99F}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jul 23}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 038B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 0238}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 00EA}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 FF9B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B FE45}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E FCE6}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Aug 21}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 06CE}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 0576}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 0427}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 02D9}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 0187}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 002C}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Sep 20}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0A14}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 08B8}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 0765}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 0617}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 04C8}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 0371}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Oct 19}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0D5C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 0BFC}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 0AA5}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 0955}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 0807}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 06B5}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Nov 18}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 10A6}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 0F44}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 0DE8}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 0C95}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 0B47}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 09F8}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Dec 17}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 13EF}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 128E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 112E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 0FD7}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 0E87}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 0D3A}} |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}}; font-size: large; font-weight: bold;" || || {{nowrap|1999}} || {{nowrap|2018}} || {{nowrap|2037}} || {{nowrap|2056}} || {{nowrap|2075}} || {{nowrap|2094}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jan 16}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 1738}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 15D9}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 1477}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 131B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 11C9}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 107B}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Feb 15}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 1A7D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 1924}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 17C2}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 1662}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 150B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 13BC}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Mar 16}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 1DC0}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 1C6B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 1B0C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 19AA}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 184F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 16FC}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Apr 14}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 20FF}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 1FAE}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 1E54}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 1CF3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 1B93}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 1A3C}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|May 14}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 243C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 22EE}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 2198}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 203A}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 1ED8}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 1D7C}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jun 13}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 2779}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 262B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 24DA}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 2380}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 221E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 20BE}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jul 12}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 2AB6}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 2968}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 2819}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 26C3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 2564}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 2403}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Aug 11}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 2DF4}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 2CA4}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 2B57}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 2A05}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 28AA}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 2748}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Sep 9}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 3135}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 2FE2}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 2E94}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 2D45}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 2BEF}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 2A8F}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Oct 9}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 3479}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 3322}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 31D2}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 3084}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 2F32}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 2DD7}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Nov 7}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 37C1}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 3664}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 3511}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 33C3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 3274}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 311E}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Dec 6}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 3B0B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 39AA}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 3853}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 3703}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 35B6}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 3464}} |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}}; font-size: large; font-weight: bold;" || || {{nowrap|2000}} || {{nowrap|2019}} || {{nowrap|2038}} || {{nowrap|2057}} || {{nowrap|2076}} || {{nowrap|2095}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jan 5}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 3E56}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 3CF4}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 3B98}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 3A45}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 38F7}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 37A8}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Feb 3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 41A0}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 403F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 3EDF}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 3D88}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 3C38}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 3AEA}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Mar 5}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 44E8}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 438A}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 4228}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 40CB}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 3F78}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 3E2A}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Apr 3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 482B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 46D2}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 4570}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 4410}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 42B9}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 4169}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|May 3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 4B6B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 4A16}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 48B8}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 4756}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 45FA}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 44A7}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jun 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 4EA9}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 4D58}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 4BFE}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 4A9D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 493D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 47E6}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jul 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 51E5}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 5097}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 4F42}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 4DE3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 4C81}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 4B26}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jul 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 5522}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 53D4}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 5283}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 5129}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 4FC7}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 4E67}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Aug 29}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 585F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 5711}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 55C2}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 546D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 530E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 51AC}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Sep 27}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 5B9F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 5A4F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 5901}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 57AF}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 5654}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 54F2}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Oct 27}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 5EE1}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 5D8E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 5C40}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 5AF1}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 599B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 583B}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Nov 25}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 6227}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 60CF}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 5F7F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 5E32}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 5CE0}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 5B85}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Dec 25}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 6571}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 6414}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 62C1}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 6173}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 6024}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 5ECE}} |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}}; font-size: large; font-weight: bold;" || || {{nowrap|2001}} || {{nowrap|2020}} || {{nowrap|2039}} || {{nowrap|2058}} || {{nowrap|2077}} || {{nowrap|2096}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jan 24}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 68BC}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 675C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 6604}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 64B4}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 6366}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 6214}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Feb 22}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 6C07}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 6AA5}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 6948}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 67F5}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 66A6}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 6557}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Mar 24}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 6F4F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 6DEE}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 6C8E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 6B36}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 69E6}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 6898}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Apr 22}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 7294}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 7136}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 6FD4}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 6E77}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 6D24}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 6BD6}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|May 22}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 75D5}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 747C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 731B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 71BB}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 7063}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 6F14}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffaaaa;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jun 20}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 7915}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 77C0}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 7662}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 7500}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 73A4}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 7251}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jul 19}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 7C52}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 7B01}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 79A7}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 7846}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 76E6}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 758F}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Aug 18}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 7F8E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 7E40}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 7CEB}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 7B8C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 7A2A}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 78CE}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Sep 16}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 82CB}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 817E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 802C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 7ED2}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 7D70}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 7C11}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Oct 16}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 860A}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 84BC}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 836D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 8218}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 80B9}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 7F57}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Nov 15}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 894C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 87FB}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 86AE}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 855C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 8402}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 82A0}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Dec 14}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 8C90}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 8B3D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 89EF}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 88A0}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 874A}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 85EC}} |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}}; font-size: large; font-weight: bold;" || || {{nowrap|2002}} || {{nowrap|2021}} || {{nowrap|2040}} || {{nowrap|2059}} || {{nowrap|2078}} || {{nowrap|2097}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jan 13}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 8FD8}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 8E80}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 8D30}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 8BE2}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 8A90}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 8936}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Feb 11}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 9322}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 91C5}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 9071}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 8F23}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 8DD4}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 8C7E}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Mar 13}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 966C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 950B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 93B2}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 9262}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 9114}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 8FC3}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Apr 11}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 99B4}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 9852}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 96F5}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 95A1}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 9453}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 9305}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|May 11}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 9CFB}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 9B9A}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 9A39}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 98E1}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 9791}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 9644}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jun 9}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 A03E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 9EE1}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 9D7E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 9C22}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 9ACF}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 9981}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jul 9}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 A37F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 A226}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 A0C4}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 9F64}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 9E0C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 9CBD}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Aug 7}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 A6BD}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 A569}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 A40A}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 A2A8}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C A14C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 9FF9}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Sep 6}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 A9FB}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 A8AA}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 A750}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 A5EF}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C A48F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F A337}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Oct 5}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 AD39}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 ABEA}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 AA95}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 A937}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C A7D5}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F A679}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Nov 4}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 B078}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 AF2A}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 ADD9}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 AC7F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C AB1E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F A9BE}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Dec 3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 B3B9}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 B26B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 B11C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 AFC7}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C AE69}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F AD07}} |} ly2u55ewjuz47k70ggk4qyb577pfax7 2832698 2832696 2026-09-10T20:20:31Z Unitfreak 695864 2832698 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|The Metonic Cycle in Bully Metric]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same calendar dates. This cycle arises because 19 solar years and 235 synodic months nearly coincide. [[File:Bully_Metric_Metonic_Cycle.png|thumb|center|650 px| '''Figure 5c''': The Moon’s phase "advances" by approximately {{frac|7|19}} of a lunar cycle when observed on the same day in subsequent years.]] As shown in '''Figure 5c''', the Moon’s phase "advances" by approximately {{frac|7|19}} of a lunar cycle when observed on the same day in subsequent years. For example, if a '''New Moon''' occurs on the December Solstice of 2014: * The 2015 solstice will feature a '''Waxing Gibbous Moon''' (an advancement of ~{{frac|7|19}}). * The 2016 solstice will feature a '''Third Quarter Moon''' (an advancement of ~{{frac|14|19}}). * The 2017 solstice will feature a '''Waxing Crescent Moon''' (an advancement of ~{{frac|21|19}}). * And the 2033 solstice will feature a '''New Moon''' (an advancement of 7 complete cycles). Within this 19-year span, significant "near-matches" occur at the 8-year and 11-year marks. At 8 years, the drift reaches {{frac|56|19}} (approx. 2.95 cycles); at 11 years, it reaches {{frac|77|19}} (approx. 4.05 cycles). These intervals represent points where the lunar-solar alignment falls just short or just past a full-integer "reset," which eventually concludes at the 19-year mark. ==== The New Moon Solstice ==== The darkest nights in the Northern Hemisphere occur when the '''December Solstice''' coincides with a '''New Moon'''. The darkest nights in the Southern Hemisphere occur when the '''June Solstice''' coincides with a '''New Moon'''. The Metonic cycle predicts this alignment every 19 years, with significant "near-matches" at the 8th- and 11th-year marks. The table in '''Figure 5d''' illustrates Metonic cycles over a one-century period (1984–2097), listing the approximate date and Bully timestamp for every New Moon during the century. Red cells indicate the New Moon Solstice alignment every 19 years. Yellow cells indicate the New Moon Solstice near-alignments on the 8th- and 11th-year marks of the Metonic cycle. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 5d''': New Moon Bully Timestamps 1984 .. 2097 |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! rowspan="2" style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Metonic Cycle ! colspan="7" style="padding: 10px;" | Every New Moon (1984 .. 2097) |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}}; font-size: large; font-weight: bold;" || {{nowrap|1984}} || {{nowrap|2003}} || {{nowrap|2022}} || {{nowrap|2041}} || {{nowrap|2060}} || {{nowrap|2079}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jan 2}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFD B855}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 B6FC}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 B5AC}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 B45E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 B30D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C B1B3}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Feb 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFD BB9F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 BA41}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 B8ED}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 B79F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 B650}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C B4FB}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Mar 2}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFD BEE9}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 BD88}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 BC2F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 BADE}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 B991}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C B840}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Apr 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFD C232}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 C0D0}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 BF72}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 BE1E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 BCD0}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C BB81}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|May 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFD C579}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 C418}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 C2B7}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 C15E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 C00E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C BEC1}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|May 29}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFD C8BC}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 C75F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 C5FD}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 C4A0}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 C34C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C C1FE}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jun 28}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFD CBFD}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 CAA4}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 C943}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 C7E2}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 C68A}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C C53A}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jul 27}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFD CF3B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 CDE7}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 CC89}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 CB27}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 C9CA}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C C877}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Aug 26}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFD D278}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 D127}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 CFCE}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 CE6D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 CD0D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C CBB5}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Sep 24}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFD D5B5}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 D467}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 D312}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 D1B4}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 D052}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C CEF6}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Oct 24}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFD D8F4}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 D7A6}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 D656}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 D4FC}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 D39B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C D23B}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Nov 22}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFD DC35}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 DAE7}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 D998}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 D844}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 D6E6}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C D583}} |- style="font-size:small:smallbackground-color: #ffff00;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Dec 22}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFD DF78}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 DE27}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 DCDA}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 DB89}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 DA2F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C D8CE}} |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}}; font-size: large; font-weight: bold;" || || {{nowrap|1985}} || {{nowrap|2004}} || {{nowrap|2023}} || {{nowrap|2042}} || {{nowrap|2061}} || {{nowrap|2080}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jan 21}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFD E2BE}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 E169}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 E01A}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 DECC}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 DD77}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C DC19}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Feb 19}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFD E605}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 E4AC}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 E35B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 E20D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 E0BC}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C DF63}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Mar 20}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFD E94E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 E7EF}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 E69B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 E54D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 E3FE}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C E2AA}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Apr 19}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFD EC96}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 EB35}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 E9DC}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 E88B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 E73E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C E5ED}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|May 19}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFD EFDE}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 EE7B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 ED1E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 EBCA}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 EA7B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C E92D}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jun 17}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFD F323}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 F1C2}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 F061}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 EF08}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 EDB8}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C EC6A}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jul 17}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFD F665}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 F508}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 F3A5}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 F248}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 F0F4}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C EFA6}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Aug 15}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFD F9A5}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 F84C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 F6EB}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 F58B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 F432}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C F2E2}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Sep 13}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFD FCE4}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 FB90}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 FA32}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 F8D0}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 F774}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C F620}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Oct 13}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 0023}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 FED3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 FD7A}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 FC19}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 FAB8}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C F961}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Nov 11}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 0363}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 0214}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 00C0}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 FF63}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 FE00}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C FCA4}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Dec 11}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 06A3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 0556}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 0405}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 02AC}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 014B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C FFEA}} |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}}; font-size: large; font-weight: bold;" || || {{nowrap|1986}} || {{nowrap|2005}} || {{nowrap|2024}} || {{nowrap|2043}} || {{nowrap|2062}} || {{nowrap|2081}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jan 10}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 09E5}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 0896}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 0748}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 05F3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 0496}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 0334}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Feb 8}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 0D28}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 0BD7}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 0A89}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 0938}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 07E0}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 067E}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Mar 10}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 106D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 0F17}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 0DC9}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 0C7B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 0B27}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 09C9}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Apr 8}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 13B3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 1259}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 1108}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 0FBB}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 0E6A}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 0D11}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|May 8}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 16FA}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 159C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 1447}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 12F9}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 11AA}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 1056}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jun 6}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 1A41}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 18DF}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 1786}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 1635}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 14E8}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 1397}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jul 5}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 1D86}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 1C24}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 1AC6}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 1972}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 1824}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 16D5}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Aug 4}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 20CB}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 1F6A}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 1E09}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 1CB0}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 1B60}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 1A12}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Sep 3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 240E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 22B1}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 214E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 1FF1}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 1E9D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 1D4F}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Oct 2}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 2750}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 25F7}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 2496}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 2336}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 21DE}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 208D}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Nov 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 2A91}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 293D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 27E0}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 267E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 2521}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 23CD}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Dec 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 2DD2}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 2C81}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 2B29}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 29C8}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 2867}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 270F}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Dec 30}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 3112}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 2FC4}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 2E70}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 2D13}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 2BB0}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 2A53}} |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}}; font-size: large; font-weight: bold;" || || {{nowrap|1987}} || {{nowrap|2006}} || {{nowrap|2025}} || {{nowrap|2044}} || {{nowrap|2063}} || {{nowrap|2082}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jan 28}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 3453}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 3305}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 31B5}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 305C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 2EFB}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 2D9B}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Feb 27}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 3794}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 3645}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 34F7}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 33A3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 3246}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 30E4}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Mar 29}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 3AD6}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 3985}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 3837}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 36E7}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 358F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 342E}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Apr 27}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 3E19}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 3CC4}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 3B76}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 3A27}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 38D3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 3776}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|May 27}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 415E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 4004}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 3EB3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 3D65}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 3C14}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 3ABC}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jun 25}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 44A3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 4345}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 41F0}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 40A1}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 3F53}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 3DFE}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jul 24}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 47E9}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 4687}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 452E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 43DD}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 4290}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 413F}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Aug 23}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 4B2F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 49CD}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 486F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 471B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 45CD}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 447E}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Sep 21}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 4E75}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 4D14}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 4BB3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 4A5B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 490A}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 47BD}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Oct 20}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 51BA}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 505D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 4EFB}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 4D9E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 4C4A}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 4AFB}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Nov 19}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 54FE}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 53A5}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 5245}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 50E4}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 4F8B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 4E3B}} |- style="font-size:small:smallbackground-color: #ffff00;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Dec 19}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 5840}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 56EC}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 558F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 542D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 52D0}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 517C}} |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}}; font-size: large; font-weight: bold;" || {{nowrap|}} || {{nowrap|1988}} || {{nowrap|2007}} || {{nowrap|2026}} || {{nowrap|2045}} || {{nowrap|2064}} || {{nowrap|2083}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jan 18}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 5B81}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 5A31}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 58D9}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 5778}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 5617}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 54BF}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Feb 16}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 5EC1}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 5D73}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 5C20}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 5AC3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 5961}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 5804}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Mar 18}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 6201}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 60B4}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 5F64}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 5E0C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 5CAB}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 5B4A}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Apr 16}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 6541}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 63F3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 62A5}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 6151}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 5FF4}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 5E92}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|May 15}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 6882}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 6730}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 65E2}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 6492}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 633A}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 61D9}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jun 14}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 6BC3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 6A6D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 691F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 67D0}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 667C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 651F}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jul 13}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 6F06}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 6DAC}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 6C5B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 6B0D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 69BD}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 6864}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Aug 12}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 724B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 70ED}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 6F98}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 6E4A}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 6CFC}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 6BA7}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Sep 11}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 7593}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 7431}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 72D8}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 7187}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 703A}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 6EE9}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Oct 10}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 78DB}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 7779}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 761B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 74C6}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 7378}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 7229}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Nov 8}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 7C22}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 7AC2}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 7961}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 7808}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 76B7}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 7569}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Dec 8}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 7F69}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 7E0C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 7CAA}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 7B4C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 79F8}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 78A9}} |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}}; font-size: large; font-weight: bold;" || || {{nowrap|1989}} || {{nowrap|2008}} || {{nowrap|2027}} || {{nowrap|2046}} || {{nowrap|2065}} || {{nowrap|2084}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jan 6}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 82AD}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 8155}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 7FF5}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 7E94}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 7D3B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 7BEA}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Feb 5}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 85F0}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 849D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 8340}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 81DE}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 8080}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 7F2C}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Mar 6}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 8930}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 87E1}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 8689}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 8529}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 83C8}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 826F}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Apr 5}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 8C6F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 8B21}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 89CE}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 8872}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 8710}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 85B2}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|May 4}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 8FAD}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 8E5F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 8D10}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 8BB8}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 8A57}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 88F6}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jun 3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 92EB}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 919C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 904E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 8EFB}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 8D9E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 8C3C}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jul 3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 962A}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 94D8}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 938B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 923B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 90E3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 8F82}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Aug 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 996B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 9816}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 96C7}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 9579}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 9425}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 92C8}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Aug 30}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 9CAF}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 9B55}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 9A04}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 98B7}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 9766}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 960E}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Sep 29}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 9FF6}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 9E98}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 9D43}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 9BF5}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 9AA6}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 9952}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Oct 28}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE A33F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 A1DE}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 A084}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 9F33}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 9DE5}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 9C95}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Nov 27}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE A689}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 A527}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 A3C9}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 A274}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A A125}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 9FD7}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Dec 27}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE A9D2}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 A872}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 A711}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 A5B7}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A A466}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D A318}} |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}}; font-size: large; font-weight: bold;" || || {{nowrap|1990}} || {{nowrap|2009}} || {{nowrap|2028}} || {{nowrap|2047}} || {{nowrap|2066}} || {{nowrap|2085}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jan 25}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE AD19}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 ABBD}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 AA5B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 A8FD}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A A7A8}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D A65A}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Feb 24}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE B05D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 AF06}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 ADA6}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 AC45}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A AAEB}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D A99A}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Mar 25}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE B39E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 B24B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 B0EF}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 AF8D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A AE2F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D ACDA}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Apr 24}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE B6DD}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 B58D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 B436}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 B2D5}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A B174}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D B01A}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|May 23}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE BA19}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 B8CB}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 B778}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 B61C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A B4BA}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D B35C}} |- style="font-size:small:smallbackground-color: #ffff00;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jun 22}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE BD56}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 BC08}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 BAB9}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 B961}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A B801}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D B69F}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jul 21}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE C093}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 BF45}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 BDF7}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 BCA4}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A BB47}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D B9E5}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Aug 20}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE C3D3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 C282}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 C134}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 BFE4}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A BE8C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D BD2B}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Sep 18}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE C716}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 C5C0}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 C471}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 C323}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A C1CF}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D C072}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Oct 18}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE CA5B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 C901}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 C7B0}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 C662}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A C511}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D C3B9}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Nov 16}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE CDA4}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 CC45}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 CAF0}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 C9A1}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A C853}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D C6FF}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Dec 16}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE D0EF}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 CF8D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 CE33}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 CCE2}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A CB94}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D CA44}} |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}}; font-size: large; font-weight: bold;" || || {{nowrap|1991}} || {{nowrap|2010}} || {{nowrap|2029}} || {{nowrap|2048}} || {{nowrap|2067}} || {{nowrap|2086}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jan 14}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE D43A}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 D2D8}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 D179}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 D024}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A CED5}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D CD87}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Feb 13}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE D783}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 D623}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 D4C2}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 D368}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A D216}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D D0C8}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Mar 14}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE DAC8}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 D96D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 D80B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 D6AC}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A D557}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D D408}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Apr 13}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE DE0A}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 DCB3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 DB53}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 D9F2}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A D898}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D D747}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|May 12}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE E149}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 DFF6}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 DE9B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 DD38}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A DBDA}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D DA85}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jun 11}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE E486}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 E336}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 E1DF}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 E07F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A DF1E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D DDC4}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jul 10}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE E7C2}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 E675}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 E522}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 E3C5}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A E263}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D E105}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Aug 9}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE EAFF}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 E9B1}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 E862}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 E70A}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A E5AA}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D E448}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Sep 8}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE EE3D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 ECEE}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 EBA0}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 EA4D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A E8F0}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D E78E}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Oct 7}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE F17E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 F02C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 EEDE}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 ED8E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A EC36}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D EAD6}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Nov 6}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE F4C2}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 F36C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 F21D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 F0CF}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A EF7C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D EE1F}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Dec 5}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE F80A}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 F6AF}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 F55E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 F410}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A F2C0}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D F168}} |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}}; font-size: large; font-weight: bold;" || || {{nowrap|1992}} || {{nowrap|2011}} || {{nowrap|2030}} || {{nowrap|2049}} || {{nowrap|2068}} || {{nowrap|2087}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jan 4}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE FB55}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 F9F6}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 F8A0}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 F751}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A F603}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D F4B0}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Feb 2}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE FEA0}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 FD3F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 FBE4}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 FA92}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A F944}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D F7F4}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Mar 3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 01EA}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 0088}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 FF29}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 FDD3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A FC84}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D FB36}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Apr 2}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 0531}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 03D1}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 0270}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 0115}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A FFC3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D FE76}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|May 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 0874}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 0719}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 05B7}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 0458}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 0302}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 01B4}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jun 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 0BB4}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 0A5E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 08FE}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 079C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 0642}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 04F1}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jul 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 0EF2}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 0DA0}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 0C44}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 0AE2}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 0984}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 082F}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jul 29}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 122F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 10DF}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 0F88}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 0E28}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 0CC7}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 0B6D}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Aug 27}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 156B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 141D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 12CA}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 116E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 100C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 0EAE}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Sep 26}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 18A9}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 175B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 160B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 14B4}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 1353}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 11F2}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Oct 25}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 1BE9}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 1A9A}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 194C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 17F9}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 169C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 153A}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Nov 24}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 1F2C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 1DDA}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 1C8C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 1B3D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 19E5}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 1885}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Dec 24}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 2272}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 211C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 1FCD}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 1E7F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 1D2C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 1BCF}} |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}}; font-size: large; font-weight: bold;" || || {{nowrap|1993}} || {{nowrap|2012}} || {{nowrap|2031}} || {{nowrap|2050}} || {{nowrap|2069}} || {{nowrap|2088}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jan 22}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 2905}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 2460}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 230E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 21C0}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 2070}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 1F19}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Feb 21}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 2C4F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 27A6}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 2650}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 2500}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 23B2}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 225F}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Mar 22}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 2F97}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 2AED}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 2992}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 2840}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 26F2}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 25A2}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Apr 21}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 32DC}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 2E35}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 2CD6}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 2B80}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 2A31}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 28E3}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|May 20}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 361E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 317D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 301B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 2EC0}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 2D6E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 2C21}} |- style="font-size:small:smallbackground-color: #ffff00;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jun 19}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 395D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 34C3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 3361}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 3202}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 30AC}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 2F5E}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jul 18}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 3C9B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 3807}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 36A7}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 3545}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 33EB}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 329A}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Aug 16}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 3FD8}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 3B48}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 39ED}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 388A}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 372C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 35D7}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Sep 15}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 4316}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 3E89}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 3D31}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 3BD1}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 3A70}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 3916}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Oct 14}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 4656}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 41C8}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 4076}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 3F1A}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 3DB8}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 3C59}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Nov 13}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 4998}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 4508}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 43B9}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 4262}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 4102}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 3FA0}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Dec 13}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 4998}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 4849}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 46FB}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 45A8}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 444C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 42EA}} |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}}; font-size: large; font-weight: bold;" || || {{nowrap|1994}} || {{nowrap|2013}} || {{nowrap|2032}} || {{nowrap|2051}} || {{nowrap|2070}} || {{nowrap|2089}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jan 11}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 4CDD}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 4B8A}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 4A3C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 48ED}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 4795}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 4635}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Feb 10}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 5023}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 4ECC}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 4D7D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 4C2F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 4ADC}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 4980}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Mar 11}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 536B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 520F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 50BD}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 4F6F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 4E1F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 4CC8}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Apr 10}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 56B3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 5553}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 53FD}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 52AE}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 5160}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 500D}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|May 9}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 59FB}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 5899}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 573E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 55EC}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 549E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 534F}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jun 8}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 5D41}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 5BDF}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 5A80}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 592A}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 57DB}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 568D}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jul 7}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 6085}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 5F26}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 5DC4}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 5C69}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 5B17}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 59C9}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Aug 6}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 63C6}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 626B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 6109}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 5FAA}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 5E54}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 5D06}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Sep 4}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 6706}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 65AF}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 6450}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 62EE}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 6194}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 6043}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Oct 4}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 6A45}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 68F3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 6797}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 6635}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 64D7}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 6382}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Nov 2}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 6D85}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 6C35}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 6ADF}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 697F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 681D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 66C4}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Dec 2}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 70C5}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 6F77}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 6E25}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 6CC9}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 6B67}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 6A08}} |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}}; font-size: large; font-weight: bold;" || || {{nowrap|1995}} || {{nowrap|2014}} || {{nowrap|2033}} || {{nowrap|2052}} || {{nowrap|2071}} || {{nowrap|2090}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jan 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 7748}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 72B8}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 7169}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 7012}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 6EB2}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 6D50}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jan 30}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 7A8C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 75F9}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 74AB}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 7358}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 71FD}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 709B}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Mar 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 7DD1}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 7939}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 77EB}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 769C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 7545}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 73E5}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Mar 30}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 8117}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 7C7A}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 7B2A}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 79DD}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 788A}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 772F}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Apr 29}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 845E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 7FBB}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 7E69}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 7D1B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 7BCC}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 7A75}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|May 28}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 87A4}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 82FE}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 81A8}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 8058}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 7F0A}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 7DB8}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jun 26}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 8AE9}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 8642}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 84E7}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 8395}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 8247}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 80F7}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jul 26}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 8E2D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 8988}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 8828}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 86D2}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 8583}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 8435}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Aug 24}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 9170}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 8CCE}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 8B6C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 8A11}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 88C0}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 8772}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Sep 22}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 94B2}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 9015}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 8EB3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 8D54}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 8BFF}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 8AB0}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Oct 22}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 97F3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 935C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 91FC}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 909B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 8F40}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 8DEF}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Nov 21}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 9B34}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 96A1}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 9546}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 93E4}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 9285}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 912F}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffaaaa;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Dec 21}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 9B34}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 99E5}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 988E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 972F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 95CD}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 9473}} |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}}; font-size: large; font-weight: bold;" || || {{nowrap|1996}} || {{nowrap|2015}} || {{nowrap|2034}} || {{nowrap|2053}} || {{nowrap|2072}} || {{nowrap|2091}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jan 19}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 9E74}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 9D27}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 9BD4}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 9A79}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 9917}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 97B8}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Feb 18}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF A1B5}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 A067}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 9F18}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 9DC2}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 9C62}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 9B01}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Mar 19}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF A4F7}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 A3A7}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 A259}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 A107}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 9FAC}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 9E4A}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Apr 17}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF A839}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 A6E6}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 A598}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 A449}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B A2F3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E A193}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|May 17}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF AB7C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 AA25}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 A8D6}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 A788}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B A635}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E A4DA}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jun 16}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF AEC1}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 AD65}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 AC12}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 AAC4}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B A975}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E A81E}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jul 15}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF B206}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 B0A6}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 AF50}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 AE00}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B ACB3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E AB60}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Aug 14}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF B54C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 B3EA}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 B28F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 B13D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B AFEF}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E AEA0}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Sep 12}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF B893}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 B731}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 B5D2}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 B47C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B B32D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E B1DF}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Oct 11}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF BBD9}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 BA7A}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 B918}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 B7BD}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B B66B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E B51E}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Nov 10}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF BF1E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 BDC3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 BC61}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 BB02}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B B9AC}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E B85D}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Dec 9}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF C261}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 C10B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 BFAC}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 BE4A}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B BCEF}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E BB9D}} |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}}; font-size: large; font-weight: bold;" || || {{nowrap|1997}} || {{nowrap|2016}} || {{nowrap|2035}} || {{nowrap|2054}} || {{nowrap|2073}} || {{nowrap|2092}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jan 8}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF C5A2}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 C451}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 C2F6}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 C194}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B C035}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E BEDF}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Feb 7}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF C8E3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 C794}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 C63F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 C4E0}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B C37E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E C223}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Mar 8}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF CC23}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 CAD6}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 C984}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 C82A}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B C6C8}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E C569}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Apr 6}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF CF63}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 CE15}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 CCC6}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 CB70}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B CA11}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E C8AF}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|May 6}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF D2A3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 D153}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 D005}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 CEB3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B CD58}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E CBF6}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jun 5}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF D5E3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 D490}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 D342}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 D1F3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B D09C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E CF3D}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jul 4}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF D925}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 D7CD}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 D67E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 D530}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B D3DE}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E D283}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Aug 2}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF DC69}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 DB0D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 D9BB}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 D86D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B D71E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E D5C7}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Sep 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF DFB0}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 DE50}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 DCF9}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 DBAA}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B DA5C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E D90A}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Oct 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF E2F8}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 E196}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 E03A}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 DEE8}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B DD9A}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E DC4B}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Oct 30}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF E640}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 E4DE}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 E37F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 E228}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B E0D9}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E DF8B}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Nov 29}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF E987}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 E829}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 E6C7}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 E56B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B E419}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E E2CB}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Dec 28}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF ECCD}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 EB73}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 EA11}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 E8B1}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B E75B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E E60C}} |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}}; font-size: large; font-weight: bold;" || || {{nowrap|1998}} || {{nowrap|2017}} || {{nowrap|2036}} || {{nowrap|2055}} || {{nowrap|2074}} || {{nowrap|2093}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jan 27}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF F010}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 EEBB}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 ED5C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 EBFB}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B EA9F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E E94D}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Feb 25}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF F352}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 F201}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 F0A7}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 EF45}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B EDE5}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E EC8F}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Mar 27}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF F692}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 F543}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 F3EE}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 F28F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B F12D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E EFD2}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Apr 25}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF F9D0}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 F882}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 F731}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 F5D6}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B F474}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E F315}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|May 25}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF FD0D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 FBBF}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 FA70}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 F91A}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B F7BB}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E F659}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jun 23}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 004B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 FEFB}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 FDAE}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 FC5C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B FB01}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E F99F}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jul 23}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 038B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 0238}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 00EA}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 FF9B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B FE45}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E FCE6}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Aug 21}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 06CE}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 0576}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 0427}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 02D9}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 0187}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 002C}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Sep 20}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0A14}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 08B8}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 0765}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 0617}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 04C8}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 0371}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Oct 19}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0D5C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 0BFC}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 0AA5}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 0955}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 0807}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 06B5}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Nov 18}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 10A6}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 0F44}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 0DE8}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 0C95}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 0B47}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 09F8}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Dec 17}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 13EF}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 128E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 112E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 0FD7}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 0E87}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 0D3A}} |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}}; font-size: large; font-weight: bold;" || || {{nowrap|1999}} || {{nowrap|2018}} || {{nowrap|2037}} || {{nowrap|2056}} || {{nowrap|2075}} || {{nowrap|2094}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jan 16}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 1738}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 15D9}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 1477}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 131B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 11C9}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 107B}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Feb 15}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 1A7D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 1924}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 17C2}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 1662}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 150B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 13BC}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Mar 16}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 1DC0}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 1C6B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 1B0C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 19AA}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 184F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 16FC}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Apr 14}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 20FF}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 1FAE}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 1E54}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 1CF3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 1B93}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 1A3C}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|May 14}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 243C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 22EE}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 2198}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 203A}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 1ED8}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 1D7C}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jun 13}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 2779}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 262B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 24DA}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 2380}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 221E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 20BE}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jul 12}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 2AB6}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 2968}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 2819}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 26C3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 2564}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 2403}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Aug 11}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 2DF4}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 2CA4}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 2B57}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 2A05}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 28AA}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 2748}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Sep 9}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 3135}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 2FE2}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 2E94}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 2D45}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 2BEF}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 2A8F}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Oct 9}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 3479}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 3322}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 31D2}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 3084}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 2F32}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 2DD7}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Nov 7}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 37C1}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 3664}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 3511}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 33C3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 3274}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 311E}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Dec 6}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 3B0B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 39AA}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 3853}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 3703}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 35B6}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 3464}} |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}}; font-size: large; font-weight: bold;" || || {{nowrap|2000}} || {{nowrap|2019}} || {{nowrap|2038}} || {{nowrap|2057}} || {{nowrap|2076}} || {{nowrap|2095}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jan 5}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 3E56}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 3CF4}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 3B98}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 3A45}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 38F7}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 37A8}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Feb 3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 41A0}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 403F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 3EDF}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 3D88}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 3C38}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 3AEA}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Mar 5}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 44E8}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 438A}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 4228}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 40CB}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 3F78}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 3E2A}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Apr 3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 482B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 46D2}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 4570}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 4410}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 42B9}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 4169}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|May 3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 4B6B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 4A16}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 48B8}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 4756}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 45FA}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 44A7}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jun 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 4EA9}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 4D58}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 4BFE}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 4A9D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 493D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 47E6}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jul 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 51E5}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 5097}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 4F42}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 4DE3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 4C81}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 4B26}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jul 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 5522}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 53D4}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 5283}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 5129}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 4FC7}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 4E67}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Aug 29}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 585F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 5711}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 55C2}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 546D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 530E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 51AC}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Sep 27}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 5B9F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 5A4F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 5901}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 57AF}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 5654}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 54F2}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Oct 27}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 5EE1}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 5D8E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 5C40}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 5AF1}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 599B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 583B}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Nov 25}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 6227}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 60CF}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 5F7F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 5E32}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 5CE0}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 5B85}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Dec 25}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 6571}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 6414}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 62C1}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 6173}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 6024}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 5ECE}} |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}}; font-size: large; font-weight: bold;" || || {{nowrap|2001}} || {{nowrap|2020}} || {{nowrap|2039}} || {{nowrap|2058}} || {{nowrap|2077}} || {{nowrap|2096}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jan 24}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 68BC}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 675C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 6604}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 64B4}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 6366}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 6214}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Feb 22}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 6C07}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 6AA5}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 6948}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 67F5}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 66A6}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 6557}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Mar 24}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 6F4F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 6DEE}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 6C8E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 6B36}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 69E6}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 6898}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Apr 22}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 7294}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 7136}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 6FD4}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 6E77}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 6D24}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 6BD6}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|May 22}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 75D5}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 747C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 731B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 71BB}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 7063}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 6F14}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffaaaa;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jun 20}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 7915}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 77C0}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 7662}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 7500}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 73A4}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 7251}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jul 19}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 7C52}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 7B01}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 79A7}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 7846}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 76E6}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 758F}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Aug 18}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 7F8E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 7E40}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 7CEB}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 7B8C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 7A2A}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 78CE}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Sep 16}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 82CB}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 817E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 802C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 7ED2}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 7D70}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 7C11}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Oct 16}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 860A}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 84BC}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 836D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 8218}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 80B9}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 7F57}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Nov 15}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 894C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 87FB}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 86AE}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 855C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 8402}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 82A0}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Dec 14}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 8C90}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 8B3D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 89EF}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 88A0}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 874A}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 85EC}} |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}}; font-size: large; font-weight: bold;" || || {{nowrap|2002}} || {{nowrap|2021}} || {{nowrap|2040}} || {{nowrap|2059}} || {{nowrap|2078}} || {{nowrap|2097}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jan 13}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 8FD8}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 8E80}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 8D30}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 8BE2}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 8A90}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 8936}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Feb 11}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 9322}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 91C5}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 9071}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 8F23}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 8DD4}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 8C7E}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Mar 13}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 966C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 950B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 93B2}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 9262}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 9114}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 8FC3}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Apr 11}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 99B4}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 9852}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 96F5}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 95A1}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 9453}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 9305}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|May 11}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 9CFB}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 9B9A}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 9A39}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 98E1}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 9791}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 9644}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jun 9}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 A03E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 9EE1}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 9D7E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 9C22}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 9ACF}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 9981}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jul 9}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 A37F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 A226}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 A0C4}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 9F64}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 9E0C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 9CBD}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Aug 7}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 A6BD}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 A569}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 A40A}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 A2A8}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C A14C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 9FF9}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Sep 6}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 A9FB}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 A8AA}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 A750}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 A5EF}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C A48F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F A337}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Oct 5}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 AD39}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 ABEA}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 AA95}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 A937}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C A7D5}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F A679}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Nov 4}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 B078}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 AF2A}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 ADD9}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 AC7F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C AB1E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F A9BE}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Dec 3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 B3B9}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 B26B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 B11C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 AFC7}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C AE69}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F AD07}} |} 4qrk39gj0sxsz7psryooeg1g1gzohi3 2832699 2832698 2026-09-10T20:21:32Z Unitfreak 695864 2832699 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|The Metonic Cycle in Bully Metric]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same calendar dates. This cycle arises because 19 solar years and 235 synodic months nearly coincide. [[File:Bully_Metric_Metonic_Cycle.png|thumb|center|650 px| '''Figure 5c''': The Moon’s phase "advances" by approximately {{frac|7|19}} of a lunar cycle when observed on the same day in subsequent years.]] As shown in '''Figure 5c''', the Moon’s phase "advances" by approximately {{frac|7|19}} of a lunar cycle when observed on the same day in subsequent years. For example, if a '''New Moon''' occurs on the December Solstice of 2014: * The 2015 solstice will feature a '''Waxing Gibbous Moon''' (an advancement of ~{{frac|7|19}}). * The 2016 solstice will feature a '''Third Quarter Moon''' (an advancement of ~{{frac|14|19}}). * The 2017 solstice will feature a '''Waxing Crescent Moon''' (an advancement of ~{{frac|21|19}}). * And the 2033 solstice will feature a '''New Moon''' (an advancement of 7 complete cycles). Within this 19-year span, significant "near-matches" occur at the 8-year and 11-year marks. At 8 years, the drift reaches {{frac|56|19}} (approx. 2.95 cycles); at 11 years, it reaches {{frac|77|19}} (approx. 4.05 cycles). These intervals represent points where the lunar-solar alignment falls just short or just past a full-integer "reset," which eventually concludes at the 19-year mark. === The New Moon Solstice === The darkest nights in the Northern Hemisphere occur when the '''December Solstice''' coincides with a '''New Moon'''. The darkest nights in the Southern Hemisphere occur when the '''June Solstice''' coincides with a '''New Moon'''. The Metonic cycle predicts this alignment every 19 years, with significant "near-matches" at the 8th- and 11th-year marks. The table in '''Figure 5d''' illustrates Metonic cycles over a one-century period (1984–2097), listing the approximate date and Bully timestamp for every New Moon during the century. Red cells indicate the New Moon Solstice alignment every 19 years. Yellow cells indicate the New Moon Solstice near-alignments on the 8th- and 11th-year marks of the Metonic cycle. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ '''Figure 5d''': New Moon Bully Timestamps 1984 .. 2097 |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! rowspan="2" style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Metonic Cycle ! colspan="7" style="padding: 10px;" | Every New Moon (1984 .. 2097) |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}}; font-size: large; font-weight: bold;" || {{nowrap|1984}} || {{nowrap|2003}} || {{nowrap|2022}} || {{nowrap|2041}} || {{nowrap|2060}} || {{nowrap|2079}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jan 2}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFD B855}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 B6FC}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 B5AC}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 B45E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 B30D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C B1B3}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Feb 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFD BB9F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 BA41}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 B8ED}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 B79F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 B650}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C B4FB}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Mar 2}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFD BEE9}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 BD88}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 BC2F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 BADE}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 B991}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C B840}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Apr 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFD C232}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 C0D0}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 BF72}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 BE1E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 BCD0}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C BB81}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|May 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFD C579}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 C418}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 C2B7}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 C15E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 C00E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C BEC1}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|May 29}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFD C8BC}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 C75F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 C5FD}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 C4A0}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 C34C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C C1FE}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jun 28}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFD CBFD}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 CAA4}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 C943}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 C7E2}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 C68A}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C C53A}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jul 27}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFD CF3B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 CDE7}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 CC89}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 CB27}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 C9CA}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C C877}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Aug 26}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFD D278}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 D127}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 CFCE}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 CE6D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 CD0D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C CBB5}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Sep 24}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFD D5B5}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 D467}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 D312}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 D1B4}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 D052}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C CEF6}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Oct 24}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFD D8F4}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 D7A6}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 D656}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 D4FC}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 D39B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C D23B}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Nov 22}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFD DC35}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 DAE7}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 D998}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 D844}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 D6E6}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C D583}} |- style="font-size:small:smallbackground-color: #ffff00;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Dec 22}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFD DF78}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 DE27}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 DCDA}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 DB89}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 DA2F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C D8CE}} |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}}; font-size: large; font-weight: bold;" || || {{nowrap|1985}} || {{nowrap|2004}} || {{nowrap|2023}} || {{nowrap|2042}} || {{nowrap|2061}} || {{nowrap|2080}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jan 21}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFD E2BE}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 E169}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 E01A}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 DECC}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 DD77}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C DC19}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Feb 19}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFD E605}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 E4AC}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 E35B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 E20D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 E0BC}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C DF63}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Mar 20}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFD E94E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 E7EF}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 E69B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 E54D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 E3FE}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C E2AA}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Apr 19}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFD EC96}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 EB35}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 E9DC}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 E88B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 E73E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C E5ED}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|May 19}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFD EFDE}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 EE7B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 ED1E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 EBCA}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 EA7B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C E92D}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jun 17}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFD F323}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 F1C2}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 F061}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 EF08}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 EDB8}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C EC6A}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jul 17}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFD F665}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 F508}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 F3A5}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 F248}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 F0F4}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C EFA6}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Aug 15}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFD F9A5}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 F84C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 F6EB}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 F58B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 F432}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C F2E2}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Sep 13}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFD FCE4}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 FB90}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 FA32}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 F8D0}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 F774}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C F620}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Oct 13}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 0023}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 FED3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 FD7A}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 FC19}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 FAB8}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C F961}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Nov 11}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 0363}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 0214}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 00C0}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 FF63}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 FE00}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C FCA4}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Dec 11}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 06A3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 0556}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 0405}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 02AC}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 014B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C FFEA}} |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}}; font-size: large; font-weight: bold;" || || {{nowrap|1986}} || {{nowrap|2005}} || {{nowrap|2024}} || {{nowrap|2043}} || {{nowrap|2062}} || {{nowrap|2081}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jan 10}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 09E5}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 0896}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 0748}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 05F3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 0496}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 0334}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Feb 8}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 0D28}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 0BD7}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 0A89}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 0938}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 07E0}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 067E}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Mar 10}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 106D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 0F17}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 0DC9}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 0C7B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 0B27}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 09C9}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Apr 8}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 13B3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 1259}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 1108}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 0FBB}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 0E6A}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 0D11}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|May 8}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 16FA}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 159C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 1447}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 12F9}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 11AA}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 1056}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jun 6}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 1A41}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 18DF}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 1786}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 1635}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 14E8}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 1397}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jul 5}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 1D86}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 1C24}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 1AC6}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 1972}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 1824}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 16D5}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Aug 4}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 20CB}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 1F6A}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 1E09}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 1CB0}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 1B60}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 1A12}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Sep 3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 240E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 22B1}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 214E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 1FF1}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 1E9D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 1D4F}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Oct 2}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 2750}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 25F7}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 2496}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 2336}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 21DE}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 208D}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Nov 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 2A91}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 293D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 27E0}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 267E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 2521}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 23CD}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Dec 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 2DD2}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 2C81}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 2B29}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 29C8}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 2867}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 270F}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Dec 30}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 3112}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 2FC4}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 2E70}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 2D13}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 2BB0}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 2A53}} |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}}; font-size: large; font-weight: bold;" || || {{nowrap|1987}} || {{nowrap|2006}} || {{nowrap|2025}} || {{nowrap|2044}} || {{nowrap|2063}} || {{nowrap|2082}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jan 28}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 3453}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 3305}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 31B5}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 305C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 2EFB}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 2D9B}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Feb 27}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 3794}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 3645}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 34F7}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 33A3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 3246}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 30E4}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Mar 29}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 3AD6}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 3985}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 3837}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 36E7}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 358F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 342E}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Apr 27}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 3E19}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 3CC4}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 3B76}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 3A27}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 38D3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 3776}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|May 27}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 415E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 4004}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 3EB3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 3D65}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 3C14}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 3ABC}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jun 25}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 44A3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 4345}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 41F0}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 40A1}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 3F53}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 3DFE}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jul 24}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 47E9}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 4687}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 452E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 43DD}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 4290}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 413F}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Aug 23}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 4B2F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 49CD}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 486F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 471B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 45CD}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 447E}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Sep 21}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 4E75}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 4D14}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 4BB3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 4A5B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 490A}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 47BD}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Oct 20}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 51BA}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 505D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 4EFB}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 4D9E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 4C4A}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 4AFB}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Nov 19}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 54FE}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 53A5}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 5245}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 50E4}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 4F8B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 4E3B}} |- style="font-size:small:smallbackground-color: #ffff00;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Dec 19}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 5840}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 56EC}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 558F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 542D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 52D0}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 517C}} |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}}; font-size: large; font-weight: bold;" || {{nowrap|}} || {{nowrap|1988}} || {{nowrap|2007}} || {{nowrap|2026}} || {{nowrap|2045}} || {{nowrap|2064}} || {{nowrap|2083}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jan 18}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 5B81}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 5A31}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 58D9}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 5778}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 5617}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 54BF}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Feb 16}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 5EC1}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 5D73}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 5C20}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 5AC3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 5961}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 5804}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Mar 18}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 6201}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 60B4}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 5F64}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 5E0C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 5CAB}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 5B4A}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Apr 16}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 6541}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 63F3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 62A5}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 6151}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 5FF4}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 5E92}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|May 15}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 6882}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 6730}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 65E2}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 6492}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 633A}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 61D9}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jun 14}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 6BC3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 6A6D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 691F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 67D0}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 667C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 651F}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jul 13}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 6F06}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 6DAC}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 6C5B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 6B0D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 69BD}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 6864}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Aug 12}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 724B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 70ED}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 6F98}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 6E4A}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 6CFC}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 6BA7}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Sep 11}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 7593}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 7431}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 72D8}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 7187}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 703A}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 6EE9}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Oct 10}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 78DB}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 7779}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 761B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 74C6}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 7378}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 7229}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Nov 8}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 7C22}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 7AC2}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 7961}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 7808}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 76B7}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 7569}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Dec 8}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 7F69}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 7E0C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 7CAA}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 7B4C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 79F8}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 78A9}} |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}}; font-size: large; font-weight: bold;" || || {{nowrap|1989}} || {{nowrap|2008}} || {{nowrap|2027}} || {{nowrap|2046}} || {{nowrap|2065}} || {{nowrap|2084}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jan 6}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 82AD}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 8155}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 7FF5}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 7E94}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 7D3B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 7BEA}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Feb 5}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 85F0}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 849D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 8340}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 81DE}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 8080}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 7F2C}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Mar 6}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 8930}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 87E1}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 8689}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 8529}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 83C8}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 826F}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Apr 5}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 8C6F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 8B21}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 89CE}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 8872}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 8710}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 85B2}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|May 4}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 8FAD}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 8E5F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 8D10}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 8BB8}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 8A57}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 88F6}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jun 3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 92EB}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 919C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 904E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 8EFB}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 8D9E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 8C3C}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jul 3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 962A}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 94D8}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 938B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 923B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 90E3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 8F82}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Aug 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 996B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 9816}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 96C7}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 9579}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 9425}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 92C8}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Aug 30}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 9CAF}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 9B55}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 9A04}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 98B7}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 9766}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 960E}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Sep 29}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE 9FF6}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 9E98}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 9D43}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 9BF5}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 9AA6}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 9952}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Oct 28}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE A33F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 A1DE}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 A084}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 9F33}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A 9DE5}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 9C95}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Nov 27}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE A689}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 A527}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 A3C9}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 A274}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A A125}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D 9FD7}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Dec 27}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE A9D2}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 A872}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 A711}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 A5B7}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A A466}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D A318}} |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}}; font-size: large; font-weight: bold;" || || {{nowrap|1990}} || {{nowrap|2009}} || {{nowrap|2028}} || {{nowrap|2047}} || {{nowrap|2066}} || {{nowrap|2085}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jan 25}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE AD19}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 ABBD}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 AA5B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 A8FD}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A A7A8}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D A65A}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Feb 24}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE B05D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 AF06}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 ADA6}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 AC45}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A AAEB}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D A99A}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Mar 25}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE B39E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 B24B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 B0EF}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 AF8D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A AE2F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D ACDA}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Apr 24}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE B6DD}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 B58D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 B436}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 B2D5}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A B174}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D B01A}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|May 23}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE BA19}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 B8CB}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 B778}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 B61C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A B4BA}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D B35C}} |- style="font-size:small:smallbackground-color: #ffff00;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jun 22}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE BD56}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 BC08}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 BAB9}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 B961}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A B801}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D B69F}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jul 21}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE C093}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 BF45}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 BDF7}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 BCA4}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A BB47}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D B9E5}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Aug 20}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE C3D3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 C282}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 C134}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 BFE4}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A BE8C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D BD2B}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Sep 18}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE C716}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 C5C0}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 C471}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 C323}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A C1CF}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D C072}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Oct 18}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE CA5B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 C901}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 C7B0}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 C662}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A C511}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D C3B9}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Nov 16}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE CDA4}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 CC45}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 CAF0}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 C9A1}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A C853}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D C6FF}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Dec 16}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE D0EF}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 CF8D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 CE33}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 CCE2}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A CB94}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D CA44}} |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}}; font-size: large; font-weight: bold;" || || {{nowrap|1991}} || {{nowrap|2010}} || {{nowrap|2029}} || {{nowrap|2048}} || {{nowrap|2067}} || {{nowrap|2086}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jan 14}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE D43A}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 D2D8}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 D179}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 D024}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A CED5}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D CD87}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Feb 13}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE D783}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 D623}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 D4C2}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 D368}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A D216}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D D0C8}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Mar 14}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE DAC8}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 D96D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 D80B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 D6AC}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A D557}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D D408}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Apr 13}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE DE0A}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 DCB3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 DB53}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 D9F2}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A D898}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D D747}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|May 12}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE E149}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 DFF6}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 DE9B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 DD38}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A DBDA}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D DA85}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jun 11}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE E486}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 E336}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 E1DF}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 E07F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A DF1E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D DDC4}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jul 10}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE E7C2}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 E675}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 E522}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 E3C5}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A E263}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D E105}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Aug 9}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE EAFF}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 E9B1}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 E862}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 E70A}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A E5AA}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D E448}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Sep 8}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE EE3D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 ECEE}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 EBA0}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 EA4D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A E8F0}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D E78E}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Oct 7}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE F17E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 F02C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 EEDE}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 ED8E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A EC36}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D EAD6}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Nov 6}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE F4C2}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 F36C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 F21D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 F0CF}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A EF7C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D EE1F}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Dec 5}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE F80A}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 F6AF}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 F55E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 F410}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A F2C0}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D F168}} |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}}; font-size: large; font-weight: bold;" || || {{nowrap|1992}} || {{nowrap|2011}} || {{nowrap|2030}} || {{nowrap|2049}} || {{nowrap|2068}} || {{nowrap|2087}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jan 4}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE FB55}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 F9F6}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 F8A0}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 F751}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A F603}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D F4B0}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Feb 2}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFE FEA0}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED01 FD3F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 FBE4}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 FA92}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A F944}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D F7F4}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Mar 3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 01EA}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 0088}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED04 FF29}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED07 FDD3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A FC84}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D FB36}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Apr 2}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 0531}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 03D1}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 0270}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 0115}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0A FFC3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0D FE76}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|May 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 0874}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 0719}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 05B7}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 0458}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 0302}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 01B4}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jun 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 0BB4}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 0A5E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 08FE}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 079C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 0642}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 04F1}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jul 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 0EF2}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 0DA0}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 0C44}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 0AE2}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 0984}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 082F}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jul 29}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 122F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 10DF}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 0F88}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 0E28}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 0CC7}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 0B6D}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Aug 27}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 156B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 141D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 12CA}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 116E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 100C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 0EAE}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Sep 26}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 18A9}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 175B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 160B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 14B4}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 1353}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 11F2}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Oct 25}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 1BE9}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 1A9A}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 194C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 17F9}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 169C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 153A}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Nov 24}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 1F2C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 1DDA}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 1C8C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 1B3D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 19E5}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 1885}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Dec 24}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 2272}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 211C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 1FCD}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 1E7F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 1D2C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 1BCF}} |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}}; font-size: large; font-weight: bold;" || || {{nowrap|1993}} || {{nowrap|2012}} || {{nowrap|2031}} || {{nowrap|2050}} || {{nowrap|2069}} || {{nowrap|2088}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jan 22}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 2905}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 2460}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 230E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 21C0}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 2070}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 1F19}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Feb 21}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 2C4F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 27A6}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 2650}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 2500}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 23B2}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 225F}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Mar 22}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 2F97}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 2AED}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 2992}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 2840}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 26F2}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 25A2}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Apr 21}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 32DC}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 2E35}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 2CD6}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 2B80}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 2A31}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 28E3}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|May 20}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 361E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 317D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 301B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 2EC0}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 2D6E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 2C21}} |- style="font-size:small:smallbackground-color: #ffff00;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jun 19}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 395D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 34C3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 3361}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 3202}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 30AC}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 2F5E}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jul 18}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 3C9B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 3807}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 36A7}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 3545}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 33EB}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 329A}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Aug 16}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 3FD8}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 3B48}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 39ED}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 388A}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 372C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 35D7}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Sep 15}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 4316}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 3E89}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 3D31}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 3BD1}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 3A70}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 3916}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Oct 14}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 4656}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 41C8}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 4076}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 3F1A}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 3DB8}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 3C59}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Nov 13}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 4998}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 4508}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 43B9}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 4262}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 4102}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 3FA0}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Dec 13}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 4998}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 4849}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 46FB}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 45A8}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 444C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 42EA}} |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}}; font-size: large; font-weight: bold;" || || {{nowrap|1994}} || {{nowrap|2013}} || {{nowrap|2032}} || {{nowrap|2051}} || {{nowrap|2070}} || {{nowrap|2089}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jan 11}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 4CDD}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 4B8A}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 4A3C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 48ED}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 4795}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 4635}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Feb 10}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 5023}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 4ECC}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 4D7D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 4C2F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 4ADC}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 4980}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Mar 11}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 536B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 520F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 50BD}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 4F6F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 4E1F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 4CC8}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Apr 10}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 56B3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 5553}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 53FD}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 52AE}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 5160}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 500D}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|May 9}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 59FB}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 5899}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 573E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 55EC}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 549E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 534F}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jun 8}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 5D41}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 5BDF}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 5A80}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 592A}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 57DB}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 568D}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jul 7}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 6085}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 5F26}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 5DC4}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 5C69}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 5B17}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 59C9}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Aug 6}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 63C6}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 626B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 6109}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 5FAA}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 5E54}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 5D06}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Sep 4}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 6706}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 65AF}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 6450}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 62EE}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 6194}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 6043}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Oct 4}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 6A45}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 68F3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 6797}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 6635}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 64D7}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 6382}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Nov 2}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 6D85}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 6C35}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 6ADF}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 697F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 681D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 66C4}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Dec 2}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 70C5}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 6F77}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 6E25}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 6CC9}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 6B67}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 6A08}} |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}}; font-size: large; font-weight: bold;" || || {{nowrap|1995}} || {{nowrap|2014}} || {{nowrap|2033}} || {{nowrap|2052}} || {{nowrap|2071}} || {{nowrap|2090}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jan 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 7748}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 72B8}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 7169}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 7012}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 6EB2}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 6D50}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jan 30}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 7A8C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 75F9}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 74AB}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 7358}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 71FD}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 709B}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Mar 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 7DD1}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 7939}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 77EB}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 769C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 7545}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 73E5}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Mar 30}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 8117}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 7C7A}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 7B2A}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 79DD}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 788A}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 772F}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Apr 29}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 845E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 7FBB}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 7E69}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 7D1B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 7BCC}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 7A75}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|May 28}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 87A4}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 82FE}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 81A8}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 8058}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 7F0A}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 7DB8}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jun 26}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 8AE9}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 8642}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 84E7}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 8395}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 8247}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 80F7}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jul 26}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 8E2D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 8988}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 8828}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 86D2}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 8583}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 8435}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Aug 24}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 9170}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 8CCE}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 8B6C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 8A11}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 88C0}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 8772}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Sep 22}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 94B2}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 9015}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 8EB3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 8D54}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 8BFF}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 8AB0}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Oct 22}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 97F3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 935C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 91FC}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 909B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 8F40}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 8DEF}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Nov 21}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 9B34}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 96A1}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 9546}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 93E4}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 9285}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 912F}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffaaaa;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Dec 21}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 9B34}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 99E5}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 988E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 972F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 95CD}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 9473}} |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}}; font-size: large; font-weight: bold;" || || {{nowrap|1996}} || {{nowrap|2015}} || {{nowrap|2034}} || {{nowrap|2053}} || {{nowrap|2072}} || {{nowrap|2091}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jan 19}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF 9E74}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 9D27}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 9BD4}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 9A79}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 9917}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 97B8}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Feb 18}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF A1B5}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 A067}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 9F18}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 9DC2}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 9C62}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 9B01}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Mar 19}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF A4F7}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 A3A7}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 A259}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 A107}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B 9FAC}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E 9E4A}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Apr 17}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF A839}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 A6E6}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 A598}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 A449}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B A2F3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E A193}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|May 17}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF AB7C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 AA25}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 A8D6}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 A788}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B A635}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E A4DA}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jun 16}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF AEC1}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 AD65}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 AC12}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 AAC4}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B A975}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E A81E}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jul 15}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF B206}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 B0A6}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 AF50}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 AE00}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B ACB3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E AB60}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Aug 14}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF B54C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 B3EA}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 B28F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 B13D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B AFEF}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E AEA0}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Sep 12}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF B893}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 B731}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 B5D2}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 B47C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B B32D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E B1DF}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Oct 11}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF BBD9}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 BA7A}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 B918}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 B7BD}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B B66B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E B51E}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Nov 10}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF BF1E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 BDC3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 BC61}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 BB02}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B B9AC}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E B85D}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Dec 9}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF C261}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 C10B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 BFAC}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 BE4A}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B BCEF}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E BB9D}} |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}}; font-size: large; font-weight: bold;" || || {{nowrap|1997}} || {{nowrap|2016}} || {{nowrap|2035}} || {{nowrap|2054}} || {{nowrap|2073}} || {{nowrap|2092}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jan 8}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF C5A2}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 C451}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 C2F6}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 C194}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B C035}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E BEDF}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Feb 7}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF C8E3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 C794}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 C63F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 C4E0}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B C37E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E C223}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Mar 8}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF CC23}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 CAD6}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 C984}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 C82A}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B C6C8}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E C569}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Apr 6}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF CF63}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 CE15}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 CCC6}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 CB70}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B CA11}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E C8AF}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|May 6}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF D2A3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 D153}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 D005}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 CEB3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B CD58}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E CBF6}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jun 5}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF D5E3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 D490}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 D342}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 D1F3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B D09C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E CF3D}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jul 4}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF D925}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 D7CD}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 D67E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 D530}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B D3DE}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E D283}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Aug 2}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF DC69}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 DB0D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 D9BB}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 D86D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B D71E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E D5C7}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Sep 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF DFB0}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 DE50}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 DCF9}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 DBAA}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B DA5C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E D90A}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Oct 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF E2F8}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 E196}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 E03A}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 DEE8}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B DD9A}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E DC4B}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Oct 30}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF E640}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 E4DE}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 E37F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 E228}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B E0D9}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E DF8B}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Nov 29}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF E987}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 E829}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 E6C7}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 E56B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B E419}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E E2CB}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Dec 28}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF ECCD}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 EB73}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 EA11}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 E8B1}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B E75B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E E60C}} |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}}; font-size: large; font-weight: bold;" || || {{nowrap|1998}} || {{nowrap|2017}} || {{nowrap|2036}} || {{nowrap|2055}} || {{nowrap|2074}} || {{nowrap|2093}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jan 27}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF F010}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 EEBB}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 ED5C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 EBFB}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B EA9F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E E94D}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Feb 25}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF F352}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 F201}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 F0A7}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 EF45}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B EDE5}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E EC8F}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Mar 27}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF F692}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 F543}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 F3EE}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 F28F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B F12D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E EFD2}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Apr 25}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF F9D0}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 F882}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 F731}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 F5D6}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B F474}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E F315}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|May 25}} || {{nowrap|8209 ECFF FD0D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 FBBF}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 FA70}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 F91A}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B F7BB}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E F659}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jun 23}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 004B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED02 FEFB}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED05 FDAE}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 FC5C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B FB01}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E F99F}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jul 23}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 038B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 0238}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 00EA}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED08 FF9B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0B FE45}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0E FCE6}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Aug 21}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 06CE}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 0576}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 0427}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 02D9}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 0187}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 002C}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Sep 20}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0A14}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 08B8}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 0765}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 0617}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 04C8}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 0371}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Oct 19}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0D5C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 0BFC}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 0AA5}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 0955}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 0807}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 06B5}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Nov 18}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 10A6}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 0F44}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 0DE8}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 0C95}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 0B47}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 09F8}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Dec 17}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 13EF}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 128E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 112E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 0FD7}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 0E87}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 0D3A}} |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}}; font-size: large; font-weight: bold;" || || {{nowrap|1999}} || {{nowrap|2018}} || {{nowrap|2037}} || {{nowrap|2056}} || {{nowrap|2075}} || {{nowrap|2094}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jan 16}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 1738}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 15D9}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 1477}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 131B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 11C9}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 107B}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Feb 15}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 1A7D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 1924}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 17C2}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 1662}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 150B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 13BC}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Mar 16}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 1DC0}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 1C6B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 1B0C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 19AA}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 184F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 16FC}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Apr 14}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 20FF}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 1FAE}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 1E54}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 1CF3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 1B93}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 1A3C}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|May 14}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 243C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 22EE}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 2198}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 203A}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 1ED8}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 1D7C}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jun 13}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 2779}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 262B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 24DA}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 2380}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 221E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 20BE}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jul 12}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 2AB6}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 2968}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 2819}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 26C3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 2564}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 2403}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Aug 11}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 2DF4}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 2CA4}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 2B57}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 2A05}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 28AA}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 2748}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Sep 9}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 3135}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 2FE2}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 2E94}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 2D45}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 2BEF}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 2A8F}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Oct 9}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 3479}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 3322}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 31D2}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 3084}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 2F32}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 2DD7}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Nov 7}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 37C1}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 3664}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 3511}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 33C3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 3274}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 311E}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Dec 6}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 3B0B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 39AA}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 3853}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 3703}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 35B6}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 3464}} |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}}; font-size: large; font-weight: bold;" || || {{nowrap|2000}} || {{nowrap|2019}} || {{nowrap|2038}} || {{nowrap|2057}} || {{nowrap|2076}} || {{nowrap|2095}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jan 5}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 3E56}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 3CF4}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 3B98}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 3A45}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 38F7}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 37A8}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Feb 3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 41A0}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 403F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 3EDF}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 3D88}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 3C38}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 3AEA}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Mar 5}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 44E8}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 438A}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 4228}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 40CB}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 3F78}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 3E2A}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Apr 3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 482B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 46D2}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 4570}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 4410}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 42B9}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 4169}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|May 3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 4B6B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 4A16}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 48B8}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 4756}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 45FA}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 44A7}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jun 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 4EA9}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 4D58}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 4BFE}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 4A9D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 493D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 47E6}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jul 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 51E5}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 5097}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 4F42}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 4DE3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 4C81}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 4B26}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jul 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 5522}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 53D4}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 5283}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 5129}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 4FC7}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 4E67}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Aug 29}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 585F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 5711}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 55C2}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 546D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 530E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 51AC}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Sep 27}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 5B9F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 5A4F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 5901}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 57AF}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 5654}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 54F2}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Oct 27}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 5EE1}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 5D8E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 5C40}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 5AF1}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 599B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 583B}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Nov 25}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 6227}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 60CF}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 5F7F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 5E32}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 5CE0}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 5B85}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Dec 25}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 6571}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 6414}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 62C1}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 6173}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 6024}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 5ECE}} |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}}; font-size: large; font-weight: bold;" || || {{nowrap|2001}} || {{nowrap|2020}} || {{nowrap|2039}} || {{nowrap|2058}} || {{nowrap|2077}} || {{nowrap|2096}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jan 24}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 68BC}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 675C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 6604}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 64B4}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 6366}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 6214}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Feb 22}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 6C07}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 6AA5}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 6948}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 67F5}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 66A6}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 6557}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Mar 24}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 6F4F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 6DEE}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 6C8E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 6B36}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 69E6}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 6898}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Apr 22}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 7294}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 7136}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 6FD4}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 6E77}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 6D24}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 6BD6}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|May 22}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 75D5}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 747C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 731B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 71BB}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 7063}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 6F14}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffaaaa;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jun 20}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 7915}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 77C0}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 7662}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 7500}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 73A4}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 7251}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jul 19}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 7C52}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 7B01}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 79A7}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 7846}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 76E6}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 758F}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Aug 18}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 7F8E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 7E40}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 7CEB}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 7B8C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 7A2A}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 78CE}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Sep 16}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 82CB}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 817E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 802C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 7ED2}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 7D70}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 7C11}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Oct 16}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 860A}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 84BC}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 836D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 8218}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 80B9}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 7F57}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Nov 15}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 894C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 87FB}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 86AE}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 855C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 8402}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 82A0}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Dec 14}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 8C90}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 8B3D}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 89EF}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 88A0}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 874A}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 85EC}} |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}}; font-size: large; font-weight: bold;" || || {{nowrap|2002}} || {{nowrap|2021}} || {{nowrap|2040}} || {{nowrap|2059}} || {{nowrap|2078}} || {{nowrap|2097}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jan 13}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 8FD8}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 8E80}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 8D30}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 8BE2}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 8A90}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 8936}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Feb 11}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 9322}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 91C5}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 9071}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 8F23}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 8DD4}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 8C7E}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Mar 13}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 966C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 950B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 93B2}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 9262}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 9114}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 8FC3}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Apr 11}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 99B4}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 9852}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 96F5}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 95A1}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 9453}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 9305}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|May 11}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 9CFB}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 9B9A}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 9A39}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 98E1}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 9791}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 9644}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jun 9}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 A03E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 9EE1}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 9D7E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 9C22}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 9ACF}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 9981}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Jul 9}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 A37F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 A226}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 A0C4}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 9F64}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C 9E0C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 9CBD}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Aug 7}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 A6BD}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 A569}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 A40A}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 A2A8}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C A14C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F 9FF9}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Sep 6}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 A9FB}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 A8AA}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 A750}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 A5EF}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C A48F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F A337}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Oct 5}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 AD39}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 ABEA}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 AA95}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 A937}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C A7D5}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F A679}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Nov 4}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 B078}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 AF2A}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 ADD9}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 AC7F}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C AB1E}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F A9BE}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color: #ffffff;{{text default color}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{text default color}};" | {{nowrap|Dec 3}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED00 B3B9}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED03 B26B}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED06 B11C}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED09 AFC7}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0C AE69}} || {{nowrap|8209 ED0F AD07}} |} ly2u55ewjuz47k70ggk4qyb577pfax7 10 330233 2832758 2832572 2026-09-11T03:20:08Z Jtneill 10242 Make the scenario concrete and down-to-earth, using a realistic real-world example of the target psychological phenomenon rather than an abstract description. 2832758 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>{{note|Feedback [[wikiversity:FAQ/Template|template]] for the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]] exercise for [[motivation and emotion]].<br><br>[[Help:Transclusion|Transclude]] on a chapter [[Help:Talk page|talk page]].}} __NOTOC__</noinclude><includeonly> ==Topic development feedback== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}} The [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]] has been reviewed according to the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic#Marking criteria|marking criteria]]. Written feedback is provided below, plus see the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic/Feedback|general feedback]] page. Also check the [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|page history]] for changes made whilst reviewing the plan. If you don't understand the feedback or would like further information, [[Motivation and emotion/Staff|get in touch]] to discuss. Marks are available via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}}. Marks are based on the latest version before the due date. {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}} [[File:Autoroute icone.svg|right|85px]] ===1. [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic#Title|Title]]=== {{{1|No comment}}} ===2. [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic#Headings|Headings]]=== {{{2|No comment}}} ===3. [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic#Headings|Overview]]=== {{{3|No comment}}} ===4. [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic#Key points|Key points]]=== {{{4|No comment}}} ===5. [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic#Figure|Figure]]=== {{{5|No comment}}} ===6. [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic#Learning feature|Learning feature]]=== {{{6|No comment}}} ===7. [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic#References|References]]=== {{{7|No comment}}} ===8. [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic#Resources|Resources]]=== {{{8|No comment}}} ===9. [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic#User page|User page]]=== {{{9|No comment}}} ===10. [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic#Social contribution|Social contribution]]=== {{{10|No comment}}} {{RoundBoxBottom}}</includeonly><noinclude>{{collapse top|Simple example}} ==Simple example== See also [[#Detailed example|detailed example]] <pre> <!-- Official topic development feedback --> {{METF/2026 |1= <!-- Title --> # |2= <!-- Headings --> # |3= <!-- Overview --> # |4= <!-- Key points--> # |5= <!-- Figure --> # |6= <!-- Learning feature --> # |7= <!-- References --> # |8= <!-- Resources --> # |9= <!-- User page --> # |10= <!-- Social contribution --> # }} ~~~~ </pre> gives <!-- Official topic development feedback --> {{METF/2026 |1= <!-- Title --> # |2= <!-- Headings --> #|3= <!-- Overview --> # |4= <!-- Key points--> # |5= <!-- Figure --> # |6= <!-- Learning feature --> # |7= <!-- References --> # |8= <!-- Resources --> # |9= <!-- User page --> # |10= <!-- Social contribution --> # }} -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 04:42, 17 August 2025 (UTC) {{Collapse bottom}} ==Detailed example== Example use of the template which includes commonly used feedback comments: <pre> <!-- Official topic development feedback --> {{METF/2026 |1= <!-- Title --> # Title and subtitle are correctly worded and use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] # Title and/or subtitle not correctly worded and/or didn't use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] (fixed) # User name removed from the page; for authorship see [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page's edit history]] |2= <!-- Headings --> # See earlier comment about [[#heading casing|heading casing]] <!-- Heading structure --> <!-- 2-level --> # Excellent – Well developed [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project/Structure|2-level heading structure]]. Meaningful headings clearly relate directly to the core topic. # Clear [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project/Structure|2-level heading structure]] # Promising [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project/Structure|2-level heading structure]] – could benefit from further development and/or refinement # Basic [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project/Structure|2-level heading structure]] – could benefit from further development (expand) <!-- 1-level --> # Promising [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project/Structure|1-level heading structure]] – could benefit from further development (e.g., consider using subheadings) # Basic, [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project/Structure|1-level heading structure]] – could benefit from further development, perhaps using a 2-level structure (i.e., use subheadings) # Under-developed, [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project/Structure|1-level heading structure]] – develop further, perhaps using a 2-level structure for larger section(s) (i.e., including subheadings) <!-- 3-level --> # Overly complicated[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project/Structure|3-level heading structure]] – consider simplifying <!-- Conceptual --> # Messy heading structure – needs work (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) # The headings lack sufficient incision into, and exposition of, the topic # Revise heading structure to place less emphasis on background concepts and more emphasis on the target topic (i.e., address the sub-title). The draft headings place too much emphasis on background concepts and too little on the relationship between the concepts. <!-- Other ---> # Aim for 3 to 6 top-level headings between the Overview and Conclusion, with 3 to 5 sub-headings for large sections # The Overview and Conclusion should not use sub-headings # Use default heading formatting (i.e., avoid additional formatting such as bold, italics, underline, changing the size etc.) # Avoid having sections with only 1 sub-heading – use 0 or 2+ sub-headings # "Introduction" heading isn't necessary – provide this information in Overview or move into subsequent sections # Cover definition(s) in the Overview and/or subsequent sections with embedded inter-wiki link(s) to further information # Case study doesn't need a separate heading; instead embed case study within relevant sections # Quiz doesn't need a separate heading; instead embed quiz questions within relevant sections # Check grammar (e.g,. missing question mark) # Remove [[wikt:acronym#Noun|acronym]]s from headings # Remove citations from headings <!-- Alignment with focus questions --> # Excellent alignment between sub-title, focus questions, and heading structure # Very good alignment between sub-title, focus questions, and heading structure, but there may be room for improvement # Good alignment between sub-title, focus questions, and heading structure, but there is room for improvement # Reasonably good alignment between focus questions and heading structure, but aim for closer alignment # Basic alignment between between sub-title, focus questions, and top-level headings. Aim to improve. # Develop closer alignment between sub-title, focus questions, and top-level headings # Insufficient alignment between sub-title, focus questions, and top-level headings <!-- GenAI ---> # Are the headings based on [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI content]]? If so, this needs to be acknowledged in the edit summaries, otherwise it violates academic integrity. |3= <!-- Overview--> # Excellent – Scenario, image, evocative description of the problem/topic, and focus questions # Very good # Good # Basic # Insufficient # Hasn't been developed – Needs scenario, image, evocative description of the problem/topic, and focus questions <!-- GenAI ---> # Does this section include [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI content]]? If so, it needs to be acknowledged as such in the edit summaries, otherwise it violates academic integrity. <!-- Scenario --> # A scenario or case study is presented in a feature box with an image at the start of this section # A scenario or case study is presented in a feature box at the start of this section # I moved an image into the feature box to help attract reader interest # Add an image to the scenario to help attract reader interest # Put the scenario or case study into a feature box at the start of this section (fixed) # Make the scenario concrete and down-to-earth, using a realistic real-world example of the target psychological phenomenon rather than an abstract description. # Make the relevance of the scenario to the topic more clear. It should be obvious to a reader how the scenario illustrates the topic (i.e., the sub-title question). Revise the scenario to make this connection more explicit. # Add a scenario or case study in a feature box (with an image) at the start of this section to help engage reader interest <!-- Description --> # A clear description of the problem/topic is planned or presented # A promising description of the problem/topic is planned or presented # A basic description of the problem/topic is planned or presented # Introduce topic using plain English; most citations can be moved into subsequent setions # Simplify/abbreviate the description of the problem/topic. Move detail into subsequent sections. # Add a brief, evocative description of the problem/topic <!-- Style --> # Use present, rather than future, tense # Use 3rd person point of view for main body text (except 1st/2nd person point of view can work within feature boxes for scenarios) <!-- Focus questions --> # Focus questions are aligned with sub-title and top-level headings # Reasonably good alignment between focus questions and heading structure, but consider closer alignment # Develop closer alignment between the sub-title, focus questions, and top-level headings # Use open- rather then close-ended focus questions # Use single- rather than double-barrelled focus questions # Use bullet-points (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) # Present focus questions in a feature box at the end of this section |4= <!-- Key points--> <!-- Overall --> # Excellent – key points are well developed for each section # Solid development # Promising development # Highlight the most relevant theories and synthesise the best research on the topic # Focus on providing an integrative review of the most relevant theories and research on the topic # Overly broad/comprehensive; not sufficiently focused/targetted on the topic; this often occurs when genAI content is used by a prompter with insufficient background reading and understanding of the topic and/or insufficient revising and rewriting of genAI content # Basic development # Partial development # Insufficient development # No development # Provide more detailed edit summaries <!-- Scope --> # The scope is excellent (i.e., not too little/narrow or too big/broad) # The scope is about right, but it may be that all planned aspects cannot be reasonably covered within the book chapter word count; in that case, be selective and concentrate on key aspects that address the question in the sub-title # It may be that all planned aspects cannot be reasonably covered within the book chapter word count, so be selective and concentrate on key aspects that address the question in the sub-title # It is unlikely that all planned aspects can be reasonably covered within the book chapter word count, so be selective and concentrate on the most important aspects which address the question in the sub-title # All planned aspects cannot reasonably be covered within the book chapter word count, so be selective and concentrate on the most important aspects which address the question in the sub-title <!-- Writing style --> # The writing style is clear and easy to follow # The writing style is generally clear but could be simplified or made more concise # The writing style is difficult to follow (e.g., due to vagueness, complex wording, long sentences, long paragraphs, repetition, etc.) # The writing style is typical of AI-generated material with minimal human oversight. See [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI content]] for guidance about ethical and professional practice. <!-- Theory and research --> # Good balance of theory and research # Promising balance of theory and research # Reasonably good coverage of theory; strive to balance the theoretical content with critical review of relevant research # Balance theoretical content with critical synthesis of relevant research # Too much theory. Not enough research. Strive for an integrated balance of the best psychological theory and research about this topic, with practical examples. # Strive for an integrated balance of the best psychological theory and research about this topic, with practical examples. # Select the best theories about this topic # Select the best research about this topic <!-- Citations --> # Excellent use of citations # Very good use of citations # Good use of citations # Promising use of citations # Basic use of citations # Insufficient use of citations # Non-peer-reviewed sources should be moved to the "External links" section # Tip: Rather than starting with an author name and citation, start with the more interesting part (i.e., the substance) and put the citation at the end or mid-way through the sentence <!-- Citation style --> # Use [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/citations/basic-principles APA style 7th edition for citations] (e.g., do not include author initials) # Use [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/citations/basic-principles APA style 7th edition for citations] with three or more authors (i.e., FirstAuthor et al., year) # [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/punctuation/serial-comma APA style uses serial commas][[w:Serial comma|1]][https://www.buzzfeed.com/adamdavis/the-oxford-comma-is-extremely-important-and-everyone-should 2][https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gBx8ooDupXY 3] (1 min) <!-- Other --> # For sections with sub-sections, provide key points for an overview paragraph prior to branching into the sub-headings # ''Avoid providing too much background information''. Aim to briefly summarise general concepts and provide internal links to relevant book chapters and/or Wikipedia pages for further information. Focus most of the chapter on ''directly answering the core question(s)'' posed by the chapter sub-title. # Direct quotes need page numbers (APA style) – even better, express the idea in your own words # Use correct capitalisation ([https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization APA style is a "down" style]) – [https://polishedpaper.com/blog/capitalization-apa-style more info] # Use [https://www.aresearchguide.com/write-in-third-person.html 3rd person perspective], although a case study or feature box could use 1st or 2nd person perspective # Use [https://www.abc.net.au/education/learn-english/australian-vs-american-spelling/11244196 Australian spelling] (e.g., analyze → analyse; behavior → behaviour) # Move references into the References section. Keep citations in the main body. # Consider using Studiosity Writing Feedback+ or a similar writing-support service (e.g., Grammarly) to improve the quality of written expression and check for grammatical and spelling errors in the book chapter draft. <!-- GenAI ---> # Well done on acknowledging genAI use in the edit summary. Also share link(s) to the conversation, as per the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|using genAI guidelines]]. # Do these key points include [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI content]]? If so, this needs to be acknowledged in the edit summaries, otherwise it violates academic integrity. <!-- Conclusion --> # Conclusion is well developed # Conclusion is well underway # Conclusion is underway # Conclusion is underdeveloped # Conclusion hasn't been developed # What are the practical, take-home messages? (address the focus questions) |5= <!-- Figure --> # Excellent - Relevant figure(s) presented, captioned, and cited # Relevant figure(s) are presented and captioned # Relevant figure(s) are presented # The relevance of the figure to the topic is unclear # A relevant figure is not presented and cited (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) <!-- Caption --> # Figure caption(s) provide(s) a clear, appropriately detailed description that is meaningfully connected with the main text # Figure caption(s) provide(s) a reasonably clear description that is connected with the main text # Figure caption(s) provide(s) a somewhat clear description that is connected with the main text, but could be improved # Figure caption(s) could better explain how the image connects to key points being made in the main text # Figure caption(s) should include '''Figure X'''. ... <!-- Cite --> # Figure(s) are cited at least once in the main text # Cite each figure at least once in the main text using APA style (e.g., see Figure 1) <!-- Size --> # Consider increasing image size(s) (especially if they have text) to make them easier to view # Consider decreasing image size(s) to make them less dominant <!-- Creation --> # Well done on creating and uploading your own image! {{smile}}—this can also be listed on your user page as a social contribution |6= <!-- Learning feature --> <!-- Interwiki links ---> # Excellent in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] for first mention of key terms to [[w:|Wikipedia]] and/or [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]] # Promising in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] for first mention of key terms to [[w:|Wikipedia]] and/or [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]] # Two in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] for first mention of key terms to [[w:|Wikipedia]]. Also embed links to [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. # One in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki link]] for first mention of key term to [[w:|Wikipedia]]. Also embed links to [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. # Add in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] for first mention of key terms to [[w:|Wikipedia]] and/or [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]] (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) <!-- Scenarios/examples/case studies --> # Excellent use of scenarios/examples/case studies # Promising use of scenarios/examples/case studies # Keep scenarios brief # Basic use of scenario/example/case study # Placeholder use of scenarios/examples/case studies # Make the relevance of the scenario to the topic more clear # Consider incorporating additional scenarios, examples, or case studies to illustrate key concepts. These could build on the Overview scenario or introduce new real-world situations in the main body of the chapter to demonstrate how the concepts apply in practice. <!-- Quiz --> # Excellent use of quiz question(s) # Promising use of quiz question(s) # Place each quiz question in the most relevant section # Focus the quiz question(s) on the take-home messages # Placeholder use of quiz question(s) # Consider including quiz question(s) about the take-home messages <!-- Tables --> # Excellent use of [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|table(s)]] # Promising use of [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|table(s)]] # Include acknowledgement (e.g., citation(s)) for sources of information presented in the table # Use APA style for table captions # Add table caption # Cite each table at least once in the text # Also consider using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|table(s)]] to summarise key information |7= <!-- References --> <!-- Overall --> # Excellent # Very good # Good # Basic # Insufficient # To be developed <!-- Systematic reviews --> # Well done on identifying relevant systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses # At least one relevant systematic review and/or meta-analysis has been identified # What are the most relevant systematic reviews/meta-analyses about this topic? <!-- Move --> # Move Wikipedia links to the "See also" section # Move non-academic / non-peer reviewed sources to the "External links" section <!-- Citations --> # All references need in-text citation # All citations need to be in the References # Only include references which have been accessed and read <!-- APA style --> # Check and correct [https://apastyle.apa.org/instructional-aids/reference-guide.pdf APA referencing style]: ## alphabetical order ## capitalisation ## [[Help:Wikitext quick reference|italicisation]] ## [https://apastyle.apa.org/instructional-aids/reference-guide.pdf doi formatting] ## make doi hyperlinks active (i.e., clickable) ## use dois where available instead of other links ## include hyperlinked dois ## page numbers should be separated by an en-dash (–) rather than a hyphen (-) # A more thorough literature search is recommended. The goal is to identify and use the best academic theory and research about this topic. # Use APA style or wiki referencing style, but not both (currently, a mixture of referencing styles is used # Don't cite AI-generated content because it is unreliable and not peer-reviewed. Instead, follow the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|using genAI guidelines]] which include acknowledging and linking to genAI use in edit summaries, otherwise it is a violation of academic integrity. |8= <!-- Resources --> <!-- See also --> # See also ## Excellent ## Very good ## Good ## Basic ## One of two link types provided ### Also link to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]] ### Also link to relevant [[w:|Wikipedia]] pages ## Use bullet-points (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) ## Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] ## Rename links so that they are more user friendly (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) ## Include source in brackets after link (e.g., (Wikipedia) or (Book chapter, year) for Wikiversity book chapters) ## Use alphabetical order ## To be developed (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) <!-- External links --> # External links ## Excellent ## Very good ## Good ## Basic ## One of two required external links provided ## Move Wikipedia link(s) to the "See also" section ## Move academic sources into the "References" sections and provide in-text citation ## Only include links directly related to the sub-title ## Target an international audience; Australians only represent 0.33% of the world population ## Good choice of links, but poorly formatted (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) ## Use bullet-points (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) ## Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] ## Rename links so that they are more user friendly (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) ## Include source in brackets after link ## Use alphabetical order ## To be developed (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) ## Link to the most relevant external resources about this topic |9= <!-- User page --> # Excellent # Used effectively # Very good # Good # Basic but effective # Not created – see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] <!-- Description about self --> # Excellent description about self provided # Description about self provided # Brief description about self – consider expanding # Very brief description about self – consider expanding # Add description about self <!-- Links to profile(s) --> # Link(s) provided to professional profile(s) # Consider linking to your [https://portfolio.canberra.edu.au/ eportfolio] page and/or any other professional online profile or resume such as [https://www.linkedin.com/ LinkedIn]. This is not required, but it can be useful to interlink your professional networks. <!-- Link to book chapter --> # A link to the book chapter is provided # Rename the link to the book chapter to make it more user-friendly (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) # Add link to book chapter |10= <!-- Social contribution --> # Excellent – at least three different types of contributions with direct link(s) to evidence # Good – two out of three types of contributions made with direct link(s) to evidence. The other type of contribution is making: # One out of three types of contributions made with direct link(s) to evidence. The other types of contribution are making: #* direct improvements to other [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters (past or current)]] #* comments on the [[Help:Talk page|talk page]]s of other [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters (past or current)]] #* posts about the unit or project on the {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} discussion forum # To add direct links to evidence of Wikiversity edits or comments: view the page history, select the version of the page before and after your contributions, click "compare selected revisions", and paste the comparison URL on your user page. For more info, see [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Making and summarising social contributions|Making and summarising social contributions]]. This was demonstrated in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing#Social contributions|Tutorial 2]]. # Are these contributions based on AI-generated content? If so, please follow the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|using genAI guidelines]], otherwise it is a violation of academic integrity. # Well done on creating and uploading your own image! # Use a numbered list (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) # Descriptions of contributions could be more precise/accurate/detailed # Add a brief summary of each contribution # Remember to sign comments on talk pages # None summarised on user page with direct link(s) to evidence (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing#Social contributions|Tutorial 2]]). Looking ahead to the book chapter, see [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Socialcontribution|social contributions]]. }} ~~~~ </pre> gives <!-- Official topic development feedback --> {{METF/2026 |1= <!-- Title --> # Title and subtitle are correctly worded and use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] # Title and/or subtitle not correctly worded and/or didn't use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] (fixed) # User name removed from the page; for authorship see [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page's edit history]] |2= <!-- Headings --> # See earlier comment about [[#heading casing|heading casing]] <!-- Heading structure --> <!-- 2-level --> # Excellent – Well developed [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project/Structure|2-level heading structure]]. Meaningful headings clearly relate directly to the core topic. # Clear [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project/Structure|2-level heading structure]] # Promising [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project/Structure|2-level heading structure]] – could benefit from further development and/or refinement # Basic [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project/Structure|2-level heading structure]] – could benefit from further development (expand) <!-- 1-level --> # Promising [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project/Structure|1-level heading structure]] – could benefit from further development (e.g., consider using subheadings) # Basic, [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project/Structure|1-level heading structure]] – could benefit from further development, perhaps using a 2-level structure (i.e., use subheadings) # Under-developed, [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project/Structure|1-level heading structure]] – develop further, perhaps using a 2-level structure for larger section(s) (i.e., including subheadings) <!-- 3-level --> # Overly complicated [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project/Structure|3-level heading structure]] – consider simplifying <!-- Conceptual --> # Messy heading structure – needs work (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) # The headings lack sufficient incision into, and exposition of, the topic # Revise heading structure to place less emphasis on background concepts and more emphasis on the target topic (i.e., address the sub-title). The draft headings place too much emphasis on background concepts and too little on the relationship between the concepts. <!-- Other ---> # Aim for 3 to 6 top-level headings between the Overview and Conclusion, with 3 to 5 sub-headings for large sections # The Overview and Conclusion should not use sub-headings # Use default heading formatting (i.e., avoid additional formatting such as bold, italics, underline, changing the size etc.) # Avoid having sections with only 1 sub-heading – use 0 or 2+ sub-headings # "Introduction" heading isn't necessary – provide this information in Overview or move into subsequent sections # Cover definition(s) in the Overview and/or subsequent sections with embedded inter-wiki link(s) to further information # Case study doesn't need a separate heading; instead embed case study within relevant sections # Quiz doesn't need a separate heading; instead embed quiz questions within relevant sections # Check grammar (e.g,. missing question mark) # Remove [[wikt:acronym#Noun|acronym]]s from headings # Remove citations from headings <!-- Alignment with focus questions --> # Excellent alignment between sub-title, focus questions, and heading structure # Very good alignment between sub-title, focus questions, and heading structure, but there may be room for improvement # Good alignment between sub-title, focus questions, and heading structure, but there is room for improvement # Reasonably good alignment between focus questions and heading structure, but aim for closer alignment # Basic alignment between between sub-title, focus questions, and top-level headings. Aim to improve. # Develop closer alignment between sub-title, focus questions, and top-level headings # Insufficient alignment between sub-title, focus questions, and top-level headings <!-- GenAI ---> # Are the headings based on [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI content]]? If so, this needs to be acknowledged in the edit summaries, otherwise it violates academic integrity. |3= <!-- Overview--> # Excellent – Scenario, image, evocative description of the problem/topic, and focus questions # Very good # Good # Basic # Insufficient # Hasn't been developed – Needs scenario, image, evocative description of the problem/topic, and focus questions <!-- GenAI ---> # Does this section include [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI content]]? If so, it needs to be acknowledged as such in the edit summaries, otherwise it violates academic integrity. <!-- Scenario --> # A scenario or case study is presented in a feature box with an image at the start of this section # A scenario or case study is presented in a feature box at the start of this section # I moved an image into the feature box to help attract reader interest # Add an image to the scenario to help attract reader interest # Put the scenario or case study into a feature box at the start of this section (fixed) # Make the scenario concrete and down-to-earth, using a realistic real-world example of the target psychological phenomenon rather than an abstract description. # Make the relevance of the scenario to the topic more clear. It should be obvious to a reader how the scenario illustrates the topic (i.e., the sub-title question). Revise the scenario to make this connection more explicit. # Add a scenario or case study in a feature box (with an image) at the start of this section to help engage reader interest <!-- Description --> # A clear description of the problem/topic is planned or presented # A promising description of the problem/topic is planned or presented # A basic description of the problem/topic is planned or presented # Introduce topic using plain English; most citations can be moved into subsequent setions # Simplify/abbreviate the description of the problem/topic. Move detail into subsequent sections. # Add a brief, evocative description of the problem/topic <!-- Style --> # Use present, rather than future, tense # Use 3rd person point of view for main body text (except 1st/2nd person point of view can work within feature boxes for scenarios) <!-- Focus questions --> # Focus questions are aligned with sub-title and top-level headings # Reasonably good alignment between focus questions and heading structure, but consider closer alignment # Develop closer alignment between the sub-title, focus questions, and top-level headings # Use open- rather then close-ended focus questions # Use single- rather than double-barrelled focus questions # Use bullet-points (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) # Present focus questions in a feature box at the end of this section |4= <!-- Key points--> <!-- Overall --> # Excellent – key points are well developed for each section # Solid development # Promising development # Highlight the most relevant theories and synthesise the best research on the topic # Focus on providing an integrative review of the most relevant theories and research on the topic # Overly broad/comprehensive; not sufficiently focused/targetted on the topic; this often occurs when genAI content is used by a prompter with insufficient background reading and understanding of the topic and/or insufficient revising and rewriting of genAI content # Basic development # Partial development # Insufficient development # No development # Provide more detailed edit summaries <!-- Scope --> # The scope is excellent (i.e., not too little/narrow or too big/broad) # The scope is about right, but it may be that all planned aspects cannot be reasonably covered within the book chapter word count; in that case, be selective and concentrate on key aspects that address the question in the sub-title # It may be that all planned aspects cannot be reasonably covered within the book chapter word count, so be selective and concentrate on key aspects that address the question in the sub-title # It is unlikely that all planned aspects can be reasonably covered within the book chapter word count, so be selective and concentrate on the most important aspects which address the question in the sub-title # All planned aspects cannot reasonably be covered within the book chapter word count, so be selective and concentrate on the most important aspects which address the question in the sub-title <!-- Writing style --> # The writing style is clear and easy to follow # The writing style is generally clear but could be simplified or made more concise # The writing style is difficult to follow (e.g., due to vagueness, complex wording, long sentences, long paragraphs, repetition, etc.) # The writing style is typical of AI-generated material with minimal human oversight. See [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI content]] for guidance about ethical and professional practice. <!-- Theory and research --> # Good balance of theory and research # Promising balance of theory and research # Reasonably good coverage of theory; strive to balance the theoretical content with critical review of relevant research # Balance theoretical content with critical synthesis of relevant research # Too much theory. Not enough research. Strive for an integrated balance of the best psychological theory and research about this topic, with practical examples. # Strive for an integrated balance of the best psychological theory and research about this topic, with practical examples. # Select the best theories about this topic # Select the best research about this topic <!-- Citations --> # Excellent use of citations # Very good use of citations # Good use of citations # Promising use of citations # Basic use of citations # Insufficient use of citations # Non-peer-reviewed sources should be moved to the "External links" section # Tip: Rather than starting with an author name and citation, start with the more interesting part (i.e., the substance) and put the citation at the end or mid-way through the sentence <!-- Citation style --> # Use [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/citations/basic-principles APA style 7th edition for citations] (e.g., do not include author initials) # Use [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/citations/basic-principles APA style 7th edition for citations] with three or more authors (i.e., FirstAuthor et al., year) # [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/punctuation/serial-comma APA style uses serial commas][[w:Serial comma|1]][https://www.buzzfeed.com/adamdavis/the-oxford-comma-is-extremely-important-and-everyone-should 2][https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gBx8ooDupXY 3] (1 min) <!-- Other --> # For sections with sub-sections, provide key points for an overview paragraph prior to branching into the sub-headings # ''Avoid providing too much background information''. Aim to briefly summarise general concepts and provide internal links to relevant book chapters and/or Wikipedia pages for further information. Focus most of the chapter on ''directly answering the core question(s)'' posed by the chapter sub-title. # Direct quotes need page numbers (APA style) – even better, express the idea in your own words # Use correct capitalisation ([https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization APA style is a "down" style]) – [https://polishedpaper.com/blog/capitalization-apa-style more info] # Use [https://www.aresearchguide.com/write-in-third-person.html 3rd person perspective], although a case study or feature box could use 1st or 2nd person perspective # Use [https://www.abc.net.au/education/learn-english/australian-vs-american-spelling/11244196 Australian spelling] (e.g., analyze → analyse; behavior → behaviour) # Move references into the References section. Keep citations in the main body. # Consider using Studiosity Writing Feedback+ or a similar writing-support service (e.g., Grammarly) to improve the quality of written expression and check for grammatical and spelling errors in the book chapter draft. <!-- GenAI ---> # Well done on acknowledging genAI use in the edit summary. Also share link(s) to the conversation, as per the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|using genAI guidelines]]. # Do these key points include [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI content]]? If so, this needs to be acknowledged in the edit summaries, otherwise it violates academic integrity. <!-- Conclusion --> # Conclusion is well developed # Conclusion is well underway # Conclusion is underway # Conclusion is underdeveloped # Conclusion hasn't been developed # What are the practical, take-home messages? (address the focus questions) |5= <!-- Figure --> # Excellent - Relevant figure(s) presented, captioned, and cited # Relevant figure(s) are presented and captioned # Relevant figure(s) are presented # The relevance of the figure to the topic is unclear # A relevant figure is not presented and cited (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) <!-- Caption --> # Figure caption(s) provide(s) a clear, appropriately detailed description that is meaningfully connected with the main text # Figure caption(s) provide(s) a reasonably clear description that is connected with the main text # Figure caption(s) provide(s) a somewhat clear description that is connected with the main text, but could be improved # Figure caption(s) could better explain how the image connects to key points being made in the main text # Figure caption(s) should include '''Figure X'''. ... <!-- Cite --> # Figure(s) are cited at least once in the main text # Cite each figure at least once in the main text using APA style (e.g., see Figure 1) <!-- Size --> # Consider increasing image size(s) (especially if they have text) to make them easier to view # Consider decreasing image size(s) to make them less dominant <!-- Creation --> # Well done on creating and uploading your own image! {{smile}}—this can also be listed on your user page as a social contribution |6= <!-- Learning feature --> <!-- Interwiki links ---> # Excellent in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] for first mention of key terms to [[w:|Wikipedia]] and/or [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]] # Promising in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] for first mention of key terms to [[w:|Wikipedia]] and/or [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]] # Two in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] for first mention of key terms to [[w:|Wikipedia]]. Also embed links to [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. # One in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki link]] for first mention of key term to [[w:|Wikipedia]]. Also embed links to [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. # Add in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] for first mention of key terms to [[w:|Wikipedia]] and/or [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]] (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) <!-- Scenarios/examples/case studies --> # Excellent use of scenarios/examples/case studies # Promising use of scenarios/examples/case studies # Keep scenarios brief # Basic use of scenario/example/case study # Placeholder use of scenarios/examples/case studies Consider incorporating additional scenarios, examples, or case studies to illustrate key concepts. These could build on the Overview scenario or introduce new real-world situations in the main body of the chapter to demonstrate how the concepts apply in practice. <!-- Quiz --> # Excellent use of quiz question(s) # Promising use of quiz question(s) # Place each quiz question in the most relevant section # Focus the quiz question(s) on the take-home messages # Placeholder use of quiz question(s) # Consider including quiz question(s) about the take-home messages <!-- Tables --> # Excellent use of [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|table(s)]] # Promising use of [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|table(s)]] # Include acknowledgement (e.g., citation(s)) for sources of information presented in the table # Use APA style for table captions # Add table caption # Cite each table at least once in the text # Also consider using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|table(s)]] to summarise key information |7= <!-- References --> <!-- Overall --> # Excellent # Very good # Good # Basic # Insufficient # To be developed <!-- Systematic reviews --> # Well done on identifying relevant systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses # At least one relevant systematic review and/or meta-analysis has been identified # What are the most relevant systematic reviews/meta-analyses about this topic? <!-- Move --> # Move Wikipedia links to the "See also" section # Move non-academic / non-peer reviewed sources to the "External links" section <!-- Citations --> # All references need in-text citation # All citations need to be in the References # Only include references which have been accessed and read <!-- APA style --> # Check and correct [https://apastyle.apa.org/instructional-aids/reference-guide.pdf APA referencing style]: ## alphabetical order ## capitalisation ## [[Help:Wikitext quick reference|italicisation]] ## [https://apastyle.apa.org/instructional-aids/reference-guide.pdf doi formatting] ## make doi hyperlinks active (i.e., clickable) ## use dois where available instead of other links ## include hyperlinked dois ## page numbers should be separated by an en-dash (–) rather than a hyphen (-) # A more thorough literature search is recommended. The goal is to identify and use the best academic theory and research about this topic. # Use APA style or wiki referencing style, but not both (currently, a mixture of referencing styles is used # Don't cite AI-generated content because it is unreliable and not peer-reviewed. Instead, follow the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|using genAI guidelines]] which include acknowledging and linking to genAI use in edit summaries, otherwise it is a violation of academic integrity. |8= <!-- Resources --> <!-- See also --> # See also ## Excellent ## Very good ## Good ## Basic ## One of two link types provided ### Also link to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]] ### Also link to relevant [[w:|Wikipedia]] pages ## Use bullet-points (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) ## Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] ## Rename links so that they are more user friendly (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) ## Include source in brackets after link (e.g., (Wikipedia) or (Book chapter, year) for Wikiversity book chapters) ## Use alphabetical order ## To be developed (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) <!-- External links --> # External links ## Excellent ## Very good ## Good ## Basic ## One of two required external links provided ## Move Wikipedia link(s) to the "See also" section ## Move academic sources into the "References" sections and provide in-text citation ## Only include links directly related to the sub-title ## Target an international audience; Australians only represent 0.33% of the world population ## Good choice of links, but poorly formatted (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) ## Use bullet-points (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) ## Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] ## Rename links so that they are more user friendly (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) ## Include source in brackets after link ## Use alphabetical order ## To be developed (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) ## Link to the most relevant external resources about this topic |9= <!-- User page --> # Excellent # Used effectively # Very good # Good # Basic but effective # Not created – see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] <!-- Description about self --> # Excellent description about self provided # Description about self provided # Brief description about self – consider expanding # Very brief description about self – consider expanding # Add description about self <!-- Links to profile(s) --> # Link(s) provided to professional profile(s) # Consider linking to your [https://portfolio.canberra.edu.au/ eportfolio] page and/or any other professional online profile or resume such as [https://www.linkedin.com/ LinkedIn]. This is not required, but it can be useful to interlink your professional networks. <!-- Link to book chapter --> # A link to the book chapter is provided # Rename the link to the book chapter to make it more user-friendly (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) # Add link to book chapter |10= <!-- Social contribution --> # Excellent – at least three different types of contributions with direct link(s) to evidence # Good – two out of three types of contributions made with direct link(s) to evidence. The other type of contribution is making: # One out of three types of contributions made with direct link(s) to evidence. The other types of contribution are making: #* direct improvements to other [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters (past or current)]] #* comments on the [[Help:Talk page|talk page]]s of other [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters (past or current)]] #* posts about the unit or project on the {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} discussion forum # To add direct links to evidence of Wikiversity edits or comments: view the page history, select the version of the page before and after your contributions, click "compare selected revisions", and paste the comparison URL on your user page. For more info, see [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Making and summarising social contributions|Making and summarising social contributions]]. This was demonstrated in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing#Social contributions|Tutorial 2]]. # Are these contributions based on AI-generated content? If so, please follow the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|using genAI guidelines]], otherwise it is a violation of academic integrity. # Well done on creating and uploading your own image! # Use a numbered list (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) # Descriptions of contributions could be more precise/accurate/detailed # Add a brief summary of each contribution # Remember to sign comments on talk pages # None summarised on user page with direct link(s) to evidence (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing#Social contributions|Tutorial 2]]). Looking ahead to the book chapter, see [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Socialcontribution|social contributions]]. }} -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 08:58, 26 August 2026 (UTC) ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Template:MEBF]] * [[Template:MEMF]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Admin/2026]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic]] </noinclude> o3lb6yhu9pt3ogb4gvg1q8qd42jzw98 2832765 2832758 2026-09-11T04:59:15Z Jtneill 10242 2832765 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>{{note|Feedback [[wikiversity:FAQ/Template|template]] for the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]] exercise for [[motivation and emotion]].<br><br>[[Help:Transclusion|Transclude]] on a chapter [[Help:Talk page|talk page]].}} __NOTOC__</noinclude><includeonly> ==Topic development feedback== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}} The [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]] has been reviewed according to the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic#Marking criteria|marking criteria]]. Written feedback is provided below, plus see the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic/Feedback|general feedback]] page. Also check the [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|page history]] for changes made whilst reviewing the plan. If you don't understand the feedback or would like further information, [[Motivation and emotion/Staff|get in touch]] to discuss. Marks are available via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}}. Marks are based on the latest version before the due date. {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}} [[File:Autoroute icone.svg|right|85px]] ===1. [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic#Title|Title]]=== {{{1|No comment}}} ===2. [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic#Headings|Headings]]=== {{{2|No comment}}} ===3. [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic#Headings|Overview]]=== {{{3|No comment}}} ===4. [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic#Key points|Key points]]=== {{{4|No comment}}} ===5. [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic#Figure|Figure]]=== {{{5|No comment}}} ===6. [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic#Learning feature|Learning feature]]=== {{{6|No comment}}} ===7. [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic#References|References]]=== {{{7|No comment}}} ===8. [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic#Resources|Resources]]=== {{{8|No comment}}} ===9. [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic#User page|User page]]=== {{{9|No comment}}} ===10. [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic#Social contribution|Social contribution]]=== {{{10|No comment}}} {{RoundBoxBottom}}</includeonly><noinclude>{{collapse top|Simple example}} ==Simple example== See also [[#Detailed example|detailed example]] <pre> <!-- Official topic development feedback --> {{METF/2026 |1= <!-- Title --> # |2= <!-- Headings --> # |3= <!-- Overview --> # |4= <!-- Key points--> # |5= <!-- Figure --> # |6= <!-- Learning feature --> # |7= <!-- References --> # |8= <!-- Resources --> # |9= <!-- User page --> # |10= <!-- Social contribution --> # }} ~~~~ </pre> gives <!-- Official topic development feedback --> {{METF/2026 |1= <!-- Title --> # |2= <!-- Headings --> #|3= <!-- Overview --> # |4= <!-- Key points--> # |5= <!-- Figure --> # |6= <!-- Learning feature --> # |7= <!-- References --> # |8= <!-- Resources --> # |9= <!-- User page --> # |10= <!-- Social contribution --> # }} -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 04:42, 17 August 2025 (UTC) {{Collapse bottom}} ==Detailed example== Example use of the template which includes commonly used feedback comments: <small><small><small><pre> <!-- Official topic development feedback --> {{METF/2026 |1= <!-- Title --> # Title and subtitle are correctly worded and use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] # Title and/or subtitle not correctly worded and/or didn't use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] (fixed) # User name removed from the page; for authorship see [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page's edit history]] |2= <!-- Headings --> # See earlier comment about [[#heading casing|heading casing]] <!-- Heading structure --> <!-- 2-level --> # Excellent – Well developed [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project/Structure|2-level heading structure]]. Meaningful headings clearly relate directly to the core topic. # Clear [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project/Structure|2-level heading structure]] # Promising [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project/Structure|2-level heading structure]] – could benefit from further development and/or refinement # Basic [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project/Structure|2-level heading structure]] – could benefit from further development (expand) <!-- 1-level --> # Promising [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project/Structure|1-level heading structure]] – could benefit from further development (e.g., consider using subheadings) # Basic, [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project/Structure|1-level heading structure]] – could benefit from further development, perhaps using a 2-level structure (i.e., use subheadings) # Under-developed, [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project/Structure|1-level heading structure]] – develop further, perhaps using a 2-level structure for larger section(s) (i.e., including subheadings) <!-- 3-level --> # Overly complicated[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project/Structure|3-level heading structure]] – consider simplifying <!-- Conceptual --> # Messy heading structure – needs work (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) # The headings lack sufficient incision into, and exposition of, the topic # Revise heading structure to place less emphasis on background concepts and more emphasis on the target topic (i.e., address the sub-title). The draft headings place too much emphasis on background concepts and too little on the relationship between the concepts. <!-- Other ---> # Aim for 3 to 6 top-level headings between the Overview and Conclusion, with 3 to 5 sub-headings for large sections # The Overview and Conclusion should not use sub-headings # Use default heading formatting (i.e., avoid additional formatting such as bold, italics, underline, changing the size etc.) # Avoid having sections with only 1 sub-heading – use 0 or 2+ sub-headings # "Introduction" heading isn't necessary – provide this information in Overview or move into subsequent sections # Cover definition(s) in the Overview and/or subsequent sections with embedded inter-wiki link(s) to further information # Case study doesn't need a separate heading; instead embed case study within relevant sections # Quiz doesn't need a separate heading; instead embed quiz questions within relevant sections # Check grammar (e.g,. missing question mark) # Remove [[wikt:acronym#Noun|acronym]]s from headings # Remove citations from headings <!-- Alignment with focus questions --> # Excellent alignment between sub-title, focus questions, and heading structure # Very good alignment between sub-title, focus questions, and heading structure, but there may be room for improvement # Good alignment between sub-title, focus questions, and heading structure, but there is room for improvement # Reasonably good alignment between focus questions and heading structure, but aim for closer alignment # Basic alignment between between sub-title, focus questions, and top-level headings. Aim to improve. # Develop closer alignment between sub-title, focus questions, and top-level headings # Insufficient alignment between sub-title, focus questions, and top-level headings <!-- GenAI ---> # Are the headings based on [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI content]]? If so, this needs to be acknowledged in the edit summaries, otherwise it violates academic integrity. |3= <!-- Overview--> # Excellent – Scenario, image, evocative description of the problem/topic, and focus questions # Very good # Good # Basic # Insufficient # Hasn't been developed – Needs scenario, image, evocative description of the problem/topic, and focus questions <!-- GenAI ---> # Does this section include [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI content]]? If so, it needs to be acknowledged as such in the edit summaries, otherwise it violates academic integrity. <!-- Scenario --> # A scenario or case study is presented in a feature box with an image at the start of this section # A scenario or case study is presented in a feature box at the start of this section # I moved an image into the feature box to help attract reader interest # Add an image to the scenario to help attract reader interest # Put the scenario or case study into a feature box at the start of this section (fixed) # Make the scenario concrete and down-to-earth, using a realistic real-world example of the target psychological phenomenon rather than an abstract description. # Make the relevance of the scenario to the topic more clear. It should be obvious to a reader how the scenario illustrates the topic (i.e., the sub-title question). Revise the scenario to make this connection more explicit. # Add a scenario or case study in a feature box (with an image) at the start of this section to help engage reader interest <!-- Description --> # A clear description of the problem/topic is planned or presented # A promising description of the problem/topic is planned or presented # A basic description of the problem/topic is planned or presented # Introduce topic using plain English; most citations can be moved into subsequent setions # Simplify/abbreviate the description of the problem/topic. Move detail into subsequent sections. # Add a brief, evocative description of the problem/topic <!-- Style --> # Use present, rather than future, tense # Use 3rd person point of view for main body text (except 1st/2nd person point of view can work within feature boxes for scenarios) <!-- Focus questions --> # Focus questions are aligned with sub-title and top-level headings # Reasonably good alignment between focus questions and heading structure, but consider closer alignment # Develop closer alignment between the sub-title, focus questions, and top-level headings # Use open- rather then close-ended focus questions # Use single- rather than double-barrelled focus questions # Use bullet-points (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) # Present focus questions in a feature box at the end of this section |4= <!-- Key points--> <!-- Overall --> # Excellent – key points are well developed for each section # Solid development # Promising development # Highlight the most relevant theories and synthesise the best research on the topic # Focus on providing an integrative review of the most relevant theories and research on the topic # Overly broad/comprehensive; not sufficiently focused/targetted on the topic; this often occurs when genAI content is used by a prompter with insufficient background reading and understanding of the topic and/or insufficient revising and rewriting of genAI content # Basic development # Partial development # Insufficient development # No development # Provide more detailed edit summaries <!-- Scope --> # The scope is excellent (i.e., not too little/narrow or too big/broad) # The scope is about right, but it may be that all planned aspects cannot be reasonably covered within the book chapter word count; in that case, be selective and concentrate on key aspects that address the question in the sub-title # It may be that all planned aspects cannot be reasonably covered within the book chapter word count, so be selective and concentrate on key aspects that address the question in the sub-title # It is unlikely that all planned aspects can be reasonably covered within the book chapter word count, so be selective and concentrate on the most important aspects which address the question in the sub-title # All planned aspects cannot reasonably be covered within the book chapter word count, so be selective and concentrate on the most important aspects which address the question in the sub-title <!-- Writing style --> # The writing style is clear and easy to follow # The writing style is generally clear but could be simplified or made more concise # The writing style is difficult to follow (e.g., due to vagueness, complex wording, long sentences, long paragraphs, repetition, etc.) # The writing style is typical of AI-generated material with minimal human oversight. See [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI content]] for guidance about ethical and professional practice. <!-- Theory and research --> # Good balance of theory and research # Promising balance of theory and research # Reasonably good coverage of theory; strive to balance the theoretical content with critical review of relevant research # Balance theoretical content with critical synthesis of relevant research # Too much theory. Not enough research. Strive for an integrated balance of the best psychological theory and research about this topic, with practical examples. # Strive for an integrated balance of the best psychological theory and research about this topic, with practical examples. # Select the best theories about this topic # Select the best research about this topic <!-- Citations --> # Excellent use of citations # Very good use of citations # Good use of citations # Promising use of citations # Basic use of citations # Insufficient use of citations # Non-peer-reviewed sources should be moved to the "External links" section # Tip: Rather than starting with an author name and citation, start with the more interesting part (i.e., the substance) and put the citation at the end or mid-way through the sentence <!-- Citation style --> # Use [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/citations/basic-principles APA style 7th edition for citations] (e.g., do not include author initials) # Use [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/citations/basic-principles APA style 7th edition for citations] with three or more authors (i.e., FirstAuthor et al., year) # [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/punctuation/serial-comma APA style uses serial commas][[w:Serial comma|1]][https://www.buzzfeed.com/adamdavis/the-oxford-comma-is-extremely-important-and-everyone-should 2][https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gBx8ooDupXY 3] (1 min) <!-- Other --> # For sections with sub-sections, provide key points for an overview paragraph prior to branching into the sub-headings # ''Avoid providing too much background information''. Aim to briefly summarise general concepts and provide internal links to relevant book chapters and/or Wikipedia pages for further information. Focus most of the chapter on ''directly answering the core question(s)'' posed by the chapter sub-title. # Direct quotes need page numbers (APA style) – even better, express the idea in your own words # Use correct capitalisation ([https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization APA style is a "down" style]) – [https://polishedpaper.com/blog/capitalization-apa-style more info] # Use [https://www.aresearchguide.com/write-in-third-person.html 3rd person perspective], although a case study or feature box could use 1st or 2nd person perspective # Use [https://www.abc.net.au/education/learn-english/australian-vs-american-spelling/11244196 Australian spelling] (e.g., analyze → analyse; behavior → behaviour) # Move references into the References section. Keep citations in the main body. # Consider using Studiosity Writing Feedback+ or a similar writing-support service (e.g., Grammarly) to improve the quality of written expression and check for grammatical and spelling errors in the book chapter draft. <!-- GenAI ---> # Well done on acknowledging genAI use in the edit summary. Also share link(s) to the conversation, as per the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|using genAI guidelines]]. # Do these key points include [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI content]]? If so, this needs to be acknowledged in the edit summaries, otherwise it violates academic integrity. <!-- Conclusion --> # Conclusion is well developed # Conclusion is well underway # Conclusion is underway # Conclusion is underdeveloped # Conclusion hasn't been developed # What are the practical, take-home messages? (address the focus questions) |5= <!-- Figure --> # Excellent - Relevant figure(s) presented, captioned, and cited # Relevant figure(s) are presented and captioned # Relevant figure(s) are presented # The relevance of the figure to the topic is unclear # A relevant figure is not presented and cited (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) <!-- Caption --> # Figure caption(s) provide(s) a clear, appropriately detailed description that is meaningfully connected with the main text # Figure caption(s) provide(s) a reasonably clear description that is connected with the main text # Figure caption(s) provide(s) a somewhat clear description that is connected with the main text, but could be improved # Figure caption(s) could better explain how the image connects to key points being made in the main text # Figure caption(s) should include '''Figure X'''. ... <!-- Cite --> # Figure(s) are cited at least once in the main text # Cite each figure at least once in the main text using APA style (e.g., see Figure 1) <!-- Size --> # Consider increasing image size(s) (especially if they have text) to make them easier to view # Consider decreasing image size(s) to make them less dominant <!-- Creation --> # Well done on creating and uploading your own image! {{smile}}—this can also be listed on your user page as a social contribution |6= <!-- Learning feature --> <!-- Interwiki links ---> # Excellent in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] for first mention of key terms to [[w:|Wikipedia]] and/or [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]] # Promising in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] for first mention of key terms to [[w:|Wikipedia]] and/or [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]] # Two in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] for first mention of key terms to [[w:|Wikipedia]]. Also embed links to [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. # One in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki link]] for first mention of key term to [[w:|Wikipedia]]. Also embed links to [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. # Add in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] for first mention of key terms to [[w:|Wikipedia]] and/or [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]] (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) <!-- Scenarios/examples/case studies --> # Excellent use of scenarios/examples/case studies # Promising use of scenarios/examples/case studies # Keep scenarios brief # Basic use of scenario/example/case study # Placeholder use of scenarios/examples/case studies # Make the relevance of the scenario to the topic more clear # Consider incorporating additional scenarios, examples, or case studies to illustrate key concepts. These could build on the Overview scenario or introduce new real-world situations in the main body of the chapter to demonstrate how the concepts apply in practice. <!-- Quiz --> # Excellent use of quiz question(s) # Promising use of quiz question(s) # Place each quiz question in the most relevant section # Focus the quiz question(s) on the take-home messages # Placeholder use of quiz question(s) # Consider including quiz question(s) about the take-home messages <!-- Tables --> # Excellent use of [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|table(s)]] # Promising use of [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|table(s)]] # Include acknowledgement (e.g., citation(s)) for sources of information presented in the table # Use APA style for table captions # Add table caption # Cite each table at least once in the text # Also consider using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|table(s)]] to summarise key information |7= <!-- References --> <!-- Overall --> # Excellent # Very good # Good # Basic # Insufficient # To be developed <!-- Systematic reviews --> # Well done on identifying relevant systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses # At least one relevant systematic review and/or meta-analysis has been identified # What are the most relevant systematic reviews/meta-analyses about this topic? <!-- Move --> # Move Wikipedia links to the "See also" section # Move non-academic / non-peer reviewed sources to the "External links" section <!-- Citations --> # All references need in-text citation # All citations need to be in the References # Only include references which have been accessed and read <!-- APA style --> # Check and correct [https://apastyle.apa.org/instructional-aids/reference-guide.pdf APA referencing style]: ## alphabetical order ## capitalisation ## [[Help:Wikitext quick reference|italicisation]] ## [https://apastyle.apa.org/instructional-aids/reference-guide.pdf doi formatting] ## make doi hyperlinks active (i.e., clickable) ## use dois where available instead of other links ## include hyperlinked dois ## page numbers should be separated by an en-dash (–) rather than a hyphen (-) # A more thorough literature search is recommended. The goal is to identify and use the best academic theory and research about this topic. # Use APA style or wiki referencing style, but not both (currently, a mixture of referencing styles is used # Don't cite AI-generated content because it is unreliable and not peer-reviewed. Instead, follow the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|using genAI guidelines]] which include acknowledging and linking to genAI use in edit summaries, otherwise it is a violation of academic integrity. |8= <!-- Resources --> <!-- See also --> # See also ## Excellent ## Very good ## Good ## Basic ## One of two link types provided ### Also link to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]] ### Also link to relevant [[w:|Wikipedia]] pages ## Use bullet-points (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) ## Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] ## Rename links so that they are more user friendly (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) ## Include source in brackets after link (e.g., (Wikipedia) or (Book chapter, year) for Wikiversity book chapters) ## Use alphabetical order ## To be developed (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) <!-- External links --> # External links ## Excellent ## Very good ## Good ## Basic ## One of two required external links provided ## Move Wikipedia link(s) to the "See also" section ## Move academic sources into the "References" sections and provide in-text citation ## Only include links directly related to the sub-title ## Target an international audience; Australians only represent 0.33% of the world population ## Good choice of links, but poorly formatted (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) ## Use bullet-points (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) ## Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] ## Rename links so that they are more user friendly (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) ## Include source in brackets after link ## Use alphabetical order ## To be developed (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) ## Link to the most relevant external resources about this topic |9= <!-- User page --> # Excellent # Used effectively # Very good # Good # Basic but effective # Not created – see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] <!-- Description about self --> # Excellent description about self provided # Description about self provided # Brief description about self – consider expanding # Very brief description about self – consider expanding # Add description about self <!-- Links to profile(s) --> # Link(s) provided to professional profile(s) # Consider linking to your [https://portfolio.canberra.edu.au/ eportfolio] page and/or any other professional online profile or resume such as [https://www.linkedin.com/ LinkedIn]. This is not required, but it can be useful to interlink your professional networks. <!-- Link to book chapter --> # A link to the book chapter is provided # Rename the link to the book chapter to make it more user-friendly (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) # Add link to book chapter |10= <!-- Social contribution --> # Excellent – at least three different types of contributions with direct link(s) to evidence # Good – two out of three types of contributions made with direct link(s) to evidence. The other type of contribution is making: # One out of three types of contributions made with direct link(s) to evidence. The other types of contribution are making: #* direct improvements to other [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters (past or current)]] #* comments on the [[Help:Talk page|talk page]]s of other [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters (past or current)]] #* posts about the unit or project on the {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} discussion forum # To add direct links to evidence of Wikiversity edits or comments: view the page history, select the version of the page before and after your contributions, click "compare selected revisions", and paste the comparison URL on your user page. For more info, see [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Making and summarising social contributions|Making and summarising social contributions]]. This was demonstrated in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing#Social contributions|Tutorial 2]]. # Are these contributions based on AI-generated content? If so, please follow the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|using genAI guidelines]], otherwise it is a violation of academic integrity. # Well done on creating and uploading your own image! # Use a numbered list (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) # Descriptions of contributions could be more precise/accurate/detailed # Add a brief summary of each contribution # Remember to sign comments on talk pages # None summarised on user page with direct link(s) to evidence (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing#Social contributions|Tutorial 2]]). Looking ahead to the book chapter, see [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Socialcontribution|social contributions]]. }} ~~~~ </pre></small></small></small> gives <!-- Official topic development feedback --> {{METF/2026 |1= <!-- Title --> # Title and subtitle are correctly worded and use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] # Title and/or subtitle not correctly worded and/or didn't use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] (fixed) # User name removed from the page; for authorship see [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page's edit history]] |2= <!-- Headings --> # See earlier comment about [[#heading casing|heading casing]] <!-- Heading structure --> <!-- 2-level --> # Excellent – Well developed [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project/Structure|2-level heading structure]]. Meaningful headings clearly relate directly to the core topic. # Clear [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project/Structure|2-level heading structure]] # Promising [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project/Structure|2-level heading structure]] – could benefit from further development and/or refinement # Basic [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project/Structure|2-level heading structure]] – could benefit from further development (expand) <!-- 1-level --> # Promising [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project/Structure|1-level heading structure]] – could benefit from further development (e.g., consider using subheadings) # Basic, [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project/Structure|1-level heading structure]] – could benefit from further development, perhaps using a 2-level structure (i.e., use subheadings) # Under-developed, [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project/Structure|1-level heading structure]] – develop further, perhaps using a 2-level structure for larger section(s) (i.e., including subheadings) <!-- 3-level --> # Overly complicated [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project/Structure|3-level heading structure]] – consider simplifying <!-- Conceptual --> # Messy heading structure – needs work (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) # The headings lack sufficient incision into, and exposition of, the topic # Revise heading structure to place less emphasis on background concepts and more emphasis on the target topic (i.e., address the sub-title). The draft headings place too much emphasis on background concepts and too little on the relationship between the concepts. <!-- Other ---> # Aim for 3 to 6 top-level headings between the Overview and Conclusion, with 3 to 5 sub-headings for large sections # The Overview and Conclusion should not use sub-headings # Use default heading formatting (i.e., avoid additional formatting such as bold, italics, underline, changing the size etc.) # Avoid having sections with only 1 sub-heading – use 0 or 2+ sub-headings # "Introduction" heading isn't necessary – provide this information in Overview or move into subsequent sections # Cover definition(s) in the Overview and/or subsequent sections with embedded inter-wiki link(s) to further information # Case study doesn't need a separate heading; instead embed case study within relevant sections # Quiz doesn't need a separate heading; instead embed quiz questions within relevant sections # Check grammar (e.g,. missing question mark) # Remove [[wikt:acronym#Noun|acronym]]s from headings # Remove citations from headings <!-- Alignment with focus questions --> # Excellent alignment between sub-title, focus questions, and heading structure # Very good alignment between sub-title, focus questions, and heading structure, but there may be room for improvement # Good alignment between sub-title, focus questions, and heading structure, but there is room for improvement # Reasonably good alignment between focus questions and heading structure, but aim for closer alignment # Basic alignment between between sub-title, focus questions, and top-level headings. Aim to improve. # Develop closer alignment between sub-title, focus questions, and top-level headings # Insufficient alignment between sub-title, focus questions, and top-level headings <!-- GenAI ---> # Are the headings based on [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI content]]? If so, this needs to be acknowledged in the edit summaries, otherwise it violates academic integrity. |3= <!-- Overview--> # Excellent – Scenario, image, evocative description of the problem/topic, and focus questions # Very good # Good # Basic # Insufficient # Hasn't been developed – Needs scenario, image, evocative description of the problem/topic, and focus questions <!-- GenAI ---> # Does this section include [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI content]]? If so, it needs to be acknowledged as such in the edit summaries, otherwise it violates academic integrity. <!-- Scenario --> # A scenario or case study is presented in a feature box with an image at the start of this section # A scenario or case study is presented in a feature box at the start of this section # I moved an image into the feature box to help attract reader interest # Add an image to the scenario to help attract reader interest # Put the scenario or case study into a feature box at the start of this section (fixed) # Make the scenario concrete and down-to-earth, using a realistic real-world example of the target psychological phenomenon rather than an abstract description. # Make the relevance of the scenario to the topic more clear. It should be obvious to a reader how the scenario illustrates the topic (i.e., the sub-title question). Revise the scenario to make this connection more explicit. # Add a scenario or case study in a feature box (with an image) at the start of this section to help engage reader interest <!-- Description --> # A clear description of the problem/topic is planned or presented # A promising description of the problem/topic is planned or presented # A basic description of the problem/topic is planned or presented # Introduce topic using plain English; most citations can be moved into subsequent setions # Simplify/abbreviate the description of the problem/topic. Move detail into subsequent sections. # Add a brief, evocative description of the problem/topic <!-- Style --> # Use present, rather than future, tense # Use 3rd person point of view for main body text (except 1st/2nd person point of view can work within feature boxes for scenarios) <!-- Focus questions --> # Focus questions are aligned with sub-title and top-level headings # Reasonably good alignment between focus questions and heading structure, but consider closer alignment # Develop closer alignment between the sub-title, focus questions, and top-level headings # Use open- rather then close-ended focus questions # Use single- rather than double-barrelled focus questions # Use bullet-points (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) # Present focus questions in a feature box at the end of this section |4= <!-- Key points--> <!-- Overall --> # Excellent – key points are well developed for each section # Solid development # Promising development # Highlight the most relevant theories and synthesise the best research on the topic # Focus on providing an integrative review of the most relevant theories and research on the topic # Overly broad/comprehensive; not sufficiently focused/targetted on the topic; this often occurs when genAI content is used by a prompter with insufficient background reading and understanding of the topic and/or insufficient revising and rewriting of genAI content # Basic development # Partial development # Insufficient development # No development # Provide more detailed edit summaries <!-- Scope --> # The scope is excellent (i.e., not too little/narrow or too big/broad) # The scope is about right, but it may be that all planned aspects cannot be reasonably covered within the book chapter word count; in that case, be selective and concentrate on key aspects that address the question in the sub-title # It may be that all planned aspects cannot be reasonably covered within the book chapter word count, so be selective and concentrate on key aspects that address the question in the sub-title # It is unlikely that all planned aspects can be reasonably covered within the book chapter word count, so be selective and concentrate on the most important aspects which address the question in the sub-title # All planned aspects cannot reasonably be covered within the book chapter word count, so be selective and concentrate on the most important aspects which address the question in the sub-title <!-- Writing style --> # The writing style is clear and easy to follow # The writing style is generally clear but could be simplified or made more concise # The writing style is difficult to follow (e.g., due to vagueness, complex wording, long sentences, long paragraphs, repetition, etc.) # The writing style is typical of AI-generated material with minimal human oversight. See [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI content]] for guidance about ethical and professional practice. <!-- Theory and research --> # Good balance of theory and research # Promising balance of theory and research # Reasonably good coverage of theory; strive to balance the theoretical content with critical review of relevant research # Balance theoretical content with critical synthesis of relevant research # Too much theory. Not enough research. Strive for an integrated balance of the best psychological theory and research about this topic, with practical examples. # Strive for an integrated balance of the best psychological theory and research about this topic, with practical examples. # Select the best theories about this topic # Select the best research about this topic <!-- Citations --> # Excellent use of citations # Very good use of citations # Good use of citations # Promising use of citations # Basic use of citations # Insufficient use of citations # Non-peer-reviewed sources should be moved to the "External links" section # Tip: Rather than starting with an author name and citation, start with the more interesting part (i.e., the substance) and put the citation at the end or mid-way through the sentence <!-- Citation style --> # Use [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/citations/basic-principles APA style 7th edition for citations] (e.g., do not include author initials) # Use [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/citations/basic-principles APA style 7th edition for citations] with three or more authors (i.e., FirstAuthor et al., year) # [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/punctuation/serial-comma APA style uses serial commas][[w:Serial comma|1]][https://www.buzzfeed.com/adamdavis/the-oxford-comma-is-extremely-important-and-everyone-should 2][https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gBx8ooDupXY 3] (1 min) <!-- Other --> # For sections with sub-sections, provide key points for an overview paragraph prior to branching into the sub-headings # ''Avoid providing too much background information''. Aim to briefly summarise general concepts and provide internal links to relevant book chapters and/or Wikipedia pages for further information. Focus most of the chapter on ''directly answering the core question(s)'' posed by the chapter sub-title. # Direct quotes need page numbers (APA style) – even better, express the idea in your own words # Use correct capitalisation ([https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization APA style is a "down" style]) – [https://polishedpaper.com/blog/capitalization-apa-style more info] # Use [https://www.aresearchguide.com/write-in-third-person.html 3rd person perspective], although a case study or feature box could use 1st or 2nd person perspective # Use [https://www.abc.net.au/education/learn-english/australian-vs-american-spelling/11244196 Australian spelling] (e.g., analyze → analyse; behavior → behaviour) # Move references into the References section. Keep citations in the main body. # Consider using Studiosity Writing Feedback+ or a similar writing-support service (e.g., Grammarly) to improve the quality of written expression and check for grammatical and spelling errors in the book chapter draft. <!-- GenAI ---> # Well done on acknowledging genAI use in the edit summary. Also share link(s) to the conversation, as per the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|using genAI guidelines]]. # Do these key points include [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI content]]? If so, this needs to be acknowledged in the edit summaries, otherwise it violates academic integrity. <!-- Conclusion --> # Conclusion is well developed # Conclusion is well underway # Conclusion is underway # Conclusion is underdeveloped # Conclusion hasn't been developed # What are the practical, take-home messages? (address the focus questions) |5= <!-- Figure --> # Excellent - Relevant figure(s) presented, captioned, and cited # Relevant figure(s) are presented and captioned # Relevant figure(s) are presented # The relevance of the figure to the topic is unclear # A relevant figure is not presented and cited (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) <!-- Caption --> # Figure caption(s) provide(s) a clear, appropriately detailed description that is meaningfully connected with the main text # Figure caption(s) provide(s) a reasonably clear description that is connected with the main text # Figure caption(s) provide(s) a somewhat clear description that is connected with the main text, but could be improved # Figure caption(s) could better explain how the image connects to key points being made in the main text # Figure caption(s) should include '''Figure X'''. ... <!-- Cite --> # Figure(s) are cited at least once in the main text # Cite each figure at least once in the main text using APA style (e.g., see Figure 1) <!-- Size --> # Consider increasing image size(s) (especially if they have text) to make them easier to view # Consider decreasing image size(s) to make them less dominant <!-- Creation --> # Well done on creating and uploading your own image! {{smile}}—this can also be listed on your user page as a social contribution |6= <!-- Learning feature --> <!-- Interwiki links ---> # Excellent in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] for first mention of key terms to [[w:|Wikipedia]] and/or [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]] # Promising in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] for first mention of key terms to [[w:|Wikipedia]] and/or [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]] # Two in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] for first mention of key terms to [[w:|Wikipedia]]. Also embed links to [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. # One in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki link]] for first mention of key term to [[w:|Wikipedia]]. Also embed links to [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. # Add in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] for first mention of key terms to [[w:|Wikipedia]] and/or [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]] (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) <!-- Scenarios/examples/case studies --> # Excellent use of scenarios/examples/case studies # Promising use of scenarios/examples/case studies # Keep scenarios brief # Basic use of scenario/example/case study # Placeholder use of scenarios/examples/case studies Consider incorporating additional scenarios, examples, or case studies to illustrate key concepts. These could build on the Overview scenario or introduce new real-world situations in the main body of the chapter to demonstrate how the concepts apply in practice. <!-- Quiz --> # Excellent use of quiz question(s) # Promising use of quiz question(s) # Place each quiz question in the most relevant section # Focus the quiz question(s) on the take-home messages # Placeholder use of quiz question(s) # Consider including quiz question(s) about the take-home messages <!-- Tables --> # Excellent use of [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|table(s)]] # Promising use of [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|table(s)]] # Include acknowledgement (e.g., citation(s)) for sources of information presented in the table # Use APA style for table captions # Add table caption # Cite each table at least once in the text # Also consider using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|table(s)]] to summarise key information |7= <!-- References --> <!-- Overall --> # Excellent # Very good # Good # Basic # Insufficient # To be developed <!-- Systematic reviews --> # Well done on identifying relevant systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses # At least one relevant systematic review and/or meta-analysis has been identified # What are the most relevant systematic reviews/meta-analyses about this topic? <!-- Move --> # Move Wikipedia links to the "See also" section # Move non-academic / non-peer reviewed sources to the "External links" section <!-- Citations --> # All references need in-text citation # All citations need to be in the References # Only include references which have been accessed and read <!-- APA style --> # Check and correct [https://apastyle.apa.org/instructional-aids/reference-guide.pdf APA referencing style]: ## alphabetical order ## capitalisation ## [[Help:Wikitext quick reference|italicisation]] ## [https://apastyle.apa.org/instructional-aids/reference-guide.pdf doi formatting] ## make doi hyperlinks active (i.e., clickable) ## use dois where available instead of other links ## include hyperlinked dois ## page numbers should be separated by an en-dash (–) rather than a hyphen (-) # A more thorough literature search is recommended. The goal is to identify and use the best academic theory and research about this topic. # Use APA style or wiki referencing style, but not both (currently, a mixture of referencing styles is used # Don't cite AI-generated content because it is unreliable and not peer-reviewed. Instead, follow the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|using genAI guidelines]] which include acknowledging and linking to genAI use in edit summaries, otherwise it is a violation of academic integrity. |8= <!-- Resources --> <!-- See also --> # See also ## Excellent ## Very good ## Good ## Basic ## One of two link types provided ### Also link to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]] ### Also link to relevant [[w:|Wikipedia]] pages ## Use bullet-points (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) ## Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] ## Rename links so that they are more user friendly (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) ## Include source in brackets after link (e.g., (Wikipedia) or (Book chapter, year) for Wikiversity book chapters) ## Use alphabetical order ## To be developed (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) <!-- External links --> # External links ## Excellent ## Very good ## Good ## Basic ## One of two required external links provided ## Move Wikipedia link(s) to the "See also" section ## Move academic sources into the "References" sections and provide in-text citation ## Only include links directly related to the sub-title ## Target an international audience; Australians only represent 0.33% of the world population ## Good choice of links, but poorly formatted (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) ## Use bullet-points (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) ## Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] ## Rename links so that they are more user friendly (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) ## Include source in brackets after link ## Use alphabetical order ## To be developed (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) ## Link to the most relevant external resources about this topic |9= <!-- User page --> # Excellent # Used effectively # Very good # Good # Basic but effective # Not created – see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] <!-- Description about self --> # Excellent description about self provided # Description about self provided # Brief description about self – consider expanding # Very brief description about self – consider expanding # Add description about self <!-- Links to profile(s) --> # Link(s) provided to professional profile(s) # Consider linking to your [https://portfolio.canberra.edu.au/ eportfolio] page and/or any other professional online profile or resume such as [https://www.linkedin.com/ LinkedIn]. This is not required, but it can be useful to interlink your professional networks. <!-- Link to book chapter --> # A link to the book chapter is provided # Rename the link to the book chapter to make it more user-friendly (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) # Add link to book chapter |10= <!-- Social contribution --> # Excellent – at least three different types of contributions with direct link(s) to evidence # Good – two out of three types of contributions made with direct link(s) to evidence. The other type of contribution is making: # One out of three types of contributions made with direct link(s) to evidence. The other types of contribution are making: #* direct improvements to other [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters (past or current)]] #* comments on the [[Help:Talk page|talk page]]s of other [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters (past or current)]] #* posts about the unit or project on the {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} discussion forum # To add direct links to evidence of Wikiversity edits or comments: view the page history, select the version of the page before and after your contributions, click "compare selected revisions", and paste the comparison URL on your user page. For more info, see [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Making and summarising social contributions|Making and summarising social contributions]]. This was demonstrated in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing#Social contributions|Tutorial 2]]. # Are these contributions based on AI-generated content? If so, please follow the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|using genAI guidelines]], otherwise it is a violation of academic integrity. # Well done on creating and uploading your own image! # Use a numbered list (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) # Descriptions of contributions could be more precise/accurate/detailed # Add a brief summary of each contribution # Remember to sign comments on talk pages # None summarised on user page with direct link(s) to evidence (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing#Social contributions|Tutorial 2]]). Looking ahead to the book chapter, see [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Socialcontribution|social contributions]]. }} -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 08:58, 26 August 2026 (UTC) ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Template:MEBF]] * [[Template:MEMF]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Admin/2026]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic]] </noinclude> 0oxaz3zef9kp5st3nx4qivoqchz2fow 2832766 2832765 2026-09-11T05:10:32Z Jtneill 10242 # Choose an image that illustrates the scenario. Move theoretical diagrams into a subsequent section. 2832766 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>{{note|Feedback [[wikiversity:FAQ/Template|template]] for the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]] exercise for [[motivation and emotion]].<br><br>[[Help:Transclusion|Transclude]] on a chapter [[Help:Talk page|talk page]].}} __NOTOC__</noinclude><includeonly> ==Topic development feedback== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}} The [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]] has been reviewed according to the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic#Marking criteria|marking criteria]]. Written feedback is provided below, plus see the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic/Feedback|general feedback]] page. Also check the [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|page history]] for changes made whilst reviewing the plan. If you don't understand the feedback or would like further information, [[Motivation and emotion/Staff|get in touch]] to discuss. Marks are available via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}}. Marks are based on the latest version before the due date. {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}} [[File:Autoroute icone.svg|right|85px]] ===1. [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic#Title|Title]]=== {{{1|No comment}}} ===2. [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic#Headings|Headings]]=== {{{2|No comment}}} ===3. [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic#Headings|Overview]]=== {{{3|No comment}}} ===4. [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic#Key points|Key points]]=== {{{4|No comment}}} ===5. [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic#Figure|Figure]]=== {{{5|No comment}}} ===6. [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic#Learning feature|Learning feature]]=== {{{6|No comment}}} ===7. [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic#References|References]]=== {{{7|No comment}}} ===8. [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic#Resources|Resources]]=== {{{8|No comment}}} ===9. [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic#User page|User page]]=== {{{9|No comment}}} ===10. [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic#Social contribution|Social contribution]]=== {{{10|No comment}}} {{RoundBoxBottom}}</includeonly><noinclude>{{collapse top|Simple example}} ==Simple example== See also [[#Detailed example|detailed example]] <pre> <!-- Official topic development feedback --> {{METF/2026 |1= <!-- Title --> # |2= <!-- Headings --> # |3= <!-- Overview --> # |4= <!-- Key points--> # |5= <!-- Figure --> # |6= <!-- Learning feature --> # |7= <!-- References --> # |8= <!-- Resources --> # |9= <!-- User page --> # |10= <!-- Social contribution --> # }} ~~~~ </pre> gives <!-- Official topic development feedback --> {{METF/2026 |1= <!-- Title --> # |2= <!-- Headings --> #|3= <!-- Overview --> # |4= <!-- Key points--> # |5= <!-- Figure --> # |6= <!-- Learning feature --> # |7= <!-- References --> # |8= <!-- Resources --> # |9= <!-- User page --> # |10= <!-- Social contribution --> # }} -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 04:42, 17 August 2025 (UTC) {{Collapse bottom}} ==Detailed example== Example use of the template which includes commonly used feedback comments: <small><small><small><pre> <!-- Official topic development feedback --> {{METF/2026 |1= <!-- Title --> # Title and subtitle are correctly worded and use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] # Title and/or subtitle not correctly worded and/or didn't use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] (fixed) # User name removed from the page; for authorship see [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page's edit history]] |2= <!-- Headings --> # See earlier comment about [[#heading casing|heading casing]] <!-- Heading structure --> <!-- 2-level --> # Excellent – Well developed [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project/Structure|2-level heading structure]]. Meaningful headings clearly relate directly to the core topic. # Clear [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project/Structure|2-level heading structure]] # Promising [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project/Structure|2-level heading structure]] – could benefit from further development and/or refinement # Basic [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project/Structure|2-level heading structure]] – could benefit from further development (expand) <!-- 1-level --> # Promising [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project/Structure|1-level heading structure]] – could benefit from further development (e.g., consider using subheadings) # Basic, [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project/Structure|1-level heading structure]] – could benefit from further development, perhaps using a 2-level structure (i.e., use subheadings) # Under-developed, [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project/Structure|1-level heading structure]] – develop further, perhaps using a 2-level structure for larger section(s) (i.e., including subheadings) <!-- 3-level --> # Overly complicated[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project/Structure|3-level heading structure]] – consider simplifying <!-- Conceptual --> # Messy heading structure – needs work (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) # The headings lack sufficient incision into, and exposition of, the topic # Revise heading structure to place less emphasis on background concepts and more emphasis on the target topic (i.e., address the sub-title). The draft headings place too much emphasis on background concepts and too little on the relationship between the concepts. <!-- Other ---> # Aim for 3 to 6 top-level headings between the Overview and Conclusion, with 3 to 5 sub-headings for large sections # The Overview and Conclusion should not use sub-headings # Use default heading formatting (i.e., avoid additional formatting such as bold, italics, underline, changing the size etc.) # Avoid having sections with only 1 sub-heading – use 0 or 2+ sub-headings # "Introduction" heading isn't necessary – provide this information in Overview or move into subsequent sections # Cover definition(s) in the Overview and/or subsequent sections with embedded inter-wiki link(s) to further information # Case study doesn't need a separate heading; instead embed case study within relevant sections # Quiz doesn't need a separate heading; instead embed quiz questions within relevant sections # Check grammar (e.g,. missing question mark) # Remove [[wikt:acronym#Noun|acronym]]s from headings # Remove citations from headings <!-- Alignment with focus questions --> # Excellent alignment between sub-title, focus questions, and heading structure # Very good alignment between sub-title, focus questions, and heading structure, but there may be room for improvement # Good alignment between sub-title, focus questions, and heading structure, but there is room for improvement # Reasonably good alignment between focus questions and heading structure, but aim for closer alignment # Basic alignment between between sub-title, focus questions, and top-level headings. Aim to improve. # Develop closer alignment between sub-title, focus questions, and top-level headings # Insufficient alignment between sub-title, focus questions, and top-level headings <!-- GenAI ---> # Are the headings based on [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI content]]? If so, this needs to be acknowledged in the edit summaries, otherwise it violates academic integrity. |3= <!-- Overview--> # Excellent – Scenario, image, evocative description of the problem/topic, and focus questions # Very good # Good # Basic # Insufficient # Hasn't been developed – Needs scenario, image, evocative description of the problem/topic, and focus questions <!-- GenAI ---> # Does this section include [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI content]]? If so, it needs to be acknowledged as such in the edit summaries, otherwise it violates academic integrity. <!-- Scenario --> # A scenario or case study is presented in a feature box with an image at the start of this section # A scenario or case study is presented in a feature box at the start of this section # I moved an image into the feature box to help attract reader interest # Choose an image that illustrates the scenario. Move theoretical diagrams into a subsequent section. # Add an image to the scenario to help attract reader interest # Put the scenario or case study into a feature box at the start of this section (fixed) # Make the scenario concrete and down-to-earth, using a realistic real-world example of the target psychological phenomenon rather than an abstract description. # Make the relevance of the scenario to the topic more clear. It should be obvious to a reader how the scenario illustrates the topic (i.e., the sub-title question). Revise the scenario to make this connection more explicit. # Add a scenario or case study in a feature box (with an image) at the start of this section to help engage reader interest <!-- Description --> # A clear description of the problem/topic is planned or presented # A promising description of the problem/topic is planned or presented # A basic description of the problem/topic is planned or presented # Introduce topic using plain English; most citations can be moved into subsequent setions # Simplify/abbreviate the description of the problem/topic. Move detail into subsequent sections. # Add a brief, evocative description of the problem/topic <!-- Style --> # Use present, rather than future, tense # Use 3rd person point of view for main body text (except 1st/2nd person point of view can work within feature boxes for scenarios) <!-- Focus questions --> # Focus questions are aligned with sub-title and top-level headings # Reasonably good alignment between focus questions and heading structure, but consider closer alignment # Develop closer alignment between the sub-title, focus questions, and top-level headings # Use open- rather then close-ended focus questions # Use single- rather than double-barrelled focus questions # Use bullet-points (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) # Present focus questions in a feature box at the end of this section |4= <!-- Key points--> <!-- Overall --> # Excellent – key points are well developed for each section # Solid development # Promising development # Highlight the most relevant theories and synthesise the best research on the topic # Focus on providing an integrative review of the most relevant theories and research on the topic # Overly broad/comprehensive; not sufficiently focused/targetted on the topic; this often occurs when genAI content is used by a prompter with insufficient background reading and understanding of the topic and/or insufficient revising and rewriting of genAI content # Basic development # Partial development # Insufficient development # No development # Provide more detailed edit summaries <!-- Scope --> # The scope is excellent (i.e., not too little/narrow or too big/broad) # The scope is about right, but it may be that all planned aspects cannot be reasonably covered within the book chapter word count; in that case, be selective and concentrate on key aspects that address the question in the sub-title # It may be that all planned aspects cannot be reasonably covered within the book chapter word count, so be selective and concentrate on key aspects that address the question in the sub-title # It is unlikely that all planned aspects can be reasonably covered within the book chapter word count, so be selective and concentrate on the most important aspects which address the question in the sub-title # All planned aspects cannot reasonably be covered within the book chapter word count, so be selective and concentrate on the most important aspects which address the question in the sub-title <!-- Writing style --> # The writing style is clear and easy to follow # The writing style is generally clear but could be simplified or made more concise # The writing style is difficult to follow (e.g., due to vagueness, complex wording, long sentences, long paragraphs, repetition, etc.) # The writing style is typical of AI-generated material with minimal human oversight. See [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI content]] for guidance about ethical and professional practice. <!-- Theory and research --> # Good balance of theory and research # Promising balance of theory and research # Reasonably good coverage of theory; strive to balance the theoretical content with critical review of relevant research # Balance theoretical content with critical synthesis of relevant research # Too much theory. Not enough research. Strive for an integrated balance of the best psychological theory and research about this topic, with practical examples. # Strive for an integrated balance of the best psychological theory and research about this topic, with practical examples. # Select the best theories about this topic # Select the best research about this topic <!-- Citations --> # Excellent use of citations # Very good use of citations # Good use of citations # Promising use of citations # Basic use of citations # Insufficient use of citations # Non-peer-reviewed sources should be moved to the "External links" section # Tip: Rather than starting with an author name and citation, start with the more interesting part (i.e., the substance) and put the citation at the end or mid-way through the sentence <!-- Citation style --> # Use [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/citations/basic-principles APA style 7th edition for citations] (e.g., do not include author initials) # Use [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/citations/basic-principles APA style 7th edition for citations] with three or more authors (i.e., FirstAuthor et al., year) # [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/punctuation/serial-comma APA style uses serial commas][[w:Serial comma|1]][https://www.buzzfeed.com/adamdavis/the-oxford-comma-is-extremely-important-and-everyone-should 2][https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gBx8ooDupXY 3] (1 min) <!-- Other --> # For sections with sub-sections, provide key points for an overview paragraph prior to branching into the sub-headings # ''Avoid providing too much background information''. Aim to briefly summarise general concepts and provide internal links to relevant book chapters and/or Wikipedia pages for further information. Focus most of the chapter on ''directly answering the core question(s)'' posed by the chapter sub-title. # Direct quotes need page numbers (APA style) – even better, express the idea in your own words # Use correct capitalisation ([https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization APA style is a "down" style]) – [https://polishedpaper.com/blog/capitalization-apa-style more info] # Use [https://www.aresearchguide.com/write-in-third-person.html 3rd person perspective], although a case study or feature box could use 1st or 2nd person perspective # Use [https://www.abc.net.au/education/learn-english/australian-vs-american-spelling/11244196 Australian spelling] (e.g., analyze → analyse; behavior → behaviour) # Move references into the References section. Keep citations in the main body. # Consider using Studiosity Writing Feedback+ or a similar writing-support service (e.g., Grammarly) to improve the quality of written expression and check for grammatical and spelling errors in the book chapter draft. <!-- GenAI ---> # Well done on acknowledging genAI use in the edit summary. Also share link(s) to the conversation, as per the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|using genAI guidelines]]. # Do these key points include [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI content]]? If so, this needs to be acknowledged in the edit summaries, otherwise it violates academic integrity. <!-- Conclusion --> # Conclusion is well developed # Conclusion is well underway # Conclusion is underway # Conclusion is underdeveloped # Conclusion hasn't been developed # What are the practical, take-home messages? (address the focus questions) |5= <!-- Figure --> # Excellent - Relevant figure(s) presented, captioned, and cited # Relevant figure(s) are presented and captioned # Relevant figure(s) are presented # The relevance of the figure to the topic is unclear # A relevant figure is not presented and cited (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) <!-- Caption --> # Figure caption(s) provide(s) a clear, appropriately detailed description that is meaningfully connected with the main text # Figure caption(s) provide(s) a reasonably clear description that is connected with the main text # Figure caption(s) provide(s) a somewhat clear description that is connected with the main text, but could be improved # Figure caption(s) could better explain how the image connects to key points being made in the main text # Figure caption(s) should include '''Figure X'''. ... <!-- Cite --> # Figure(s) are cited at least once in the main text # Cite each figure at least once in the main text using APA style (e.g., see Figure 1) <!-- Size --> # Consider increasing image size(s) (especially if they have text) to make them easier to view # Consider decreasing image size(s) to make them less dominant <!-- Creation --> # Well done on creating and uploading your own image! {{smile}}—this can also be listed on your user page as a social contribution |6= <!-- Learning feature --> <!-- Interwiki links ---> # Excellent in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] for first mention of key terms to [[w:|Wikipedia]] and/or [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]] # Promising in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] for first mention of key terms to [[w:|Wikipedia]] and/or [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]] # Two in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] for first mention of key terms to [[w:|Wikipedia]]. Also embed links to [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. # One in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki link]] for first mention of key term to [[w:|Wikipedia]]. Also embed links to [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. # Add in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] for first mention of key terms to [[w:|Wikipedia]] and/or [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]] (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) <!-- Scenarios/examples/case studies --> # Excellent use of scenarios/examples/case studies # Promising use of scenarios/examples/case studies # Keep scenarios brief # Basic use of scenario/example/case study # Placeholder use of scenarios/examples/case studies # Make the relevance of the scenario to the topic more clear # Consider incorporating additional scenarios, examples, or case studies to illustrate key concepts. These could build on the Overview scenario or introduce new real-world situations in the main body of the chapter to demonstrate how the concepts apply in practice. <!-- Quiz --> # Excellent use of quiz question(s) # Promising use of quiz question(s) # Place each quiz question in the most relevant section # Focus the quiz question(s) on the take-home messages # Placeholder use of quiz question(s) # Consider including quiz question(s) about the take-home messages <!-- Tables --> # Excellent use of [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|table(s)]] # Promising use of [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|table(s)]] # Include acknowledgement (e.g., citation(s)) for sources of information presented in the table # Use APA style for table captions # Add table caption # Cite each table at least once in the text # Also consider using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|table(s)]] to summarise key information |7= <!-- References --> <!-- Overall --> # Excellent # Very good # Good # Basic # Insufficient # To be developed <!-- Systematic reviews --> # Well done on identifying relevant systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses # At least one relevant systematic review and/or meta-analysis has been identified # What are the most relevant systematic reviews/meta-analyses about this topic? <!-- Move --> # Move Wikipedia links to the "See also" section # Move non-academic / non-peer reviewed sources to the "External links" section <!-- Citations --> # All references need in-text citation # All citations need to be in the References # Only include references which have been accessed and read <!-- APA style --> # Check and correct [https://apastyle.apa.org/instructional-aids/reference-guide.pdf APA referencing style]: ## alphabetical order ## capitalisation ## [[Help:Wikitext quick reference|italicisation]] ## [https://apastyle.apa.org/instructional-aids/reference-guide.pdf doi formatting] ## make doi hyperlinks active (i.e., clickable) ## use dois where available instead of other links ## include hyperlinked dois ## page numbers should be separated by an en-dash (–) rather than a hyphen (-) # A more thorough literature search is recommended. The goal is to identify and use the best academic theory and research about this topic. # Use APA style or wiki referencing style, but not both (currently, a mixture of referencing styles is used # Don't cite AI-generated content because it is unreliable and not peer-reviewed. Instead, follow the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|using genAI guidelines]] which include acknowledging and linking to genAI use in edit summaries, otherwise it is a violation of academic integrity. |8= <!-- Resources --> <!-- See also --> # See also ## Excellent ## Very good ## Good ## Basic ## One of two link types provided ### Also link to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]] ### Also link to relevant [[w:|Wikipedia]] pages ## Use bullet-points (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) ## Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] ## Rename links so that they are more user friendly (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) ## Include source in brackets after link (e.g., (Wikipedia) or (Book chapter, year) for Wikiversity book chapters) ## Use alphabetical order ## To be developed (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) <!-- External links --> # External links ## Excellent ## Very good ## Good ## Basic ## One of two required external links provided ## Move Wikipedia link(s) to the "See also" section ## Move academic sources into the "References" sections and provide in-text citation ## Only include links directly related to the sub-title ## Target an international audience; Australians only represent 0.33% of the world population ## Good choice of links, but poorly formatted (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) ## Use bullet-points (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) ## Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] ## Rename links so that they are more user friendly (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) ## Include source in brackets after link ## Use alphabetical order ## To be developed (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) ## Link to the most relevant external resources about this topic |9= <!-- User page --> # Excellent # Used effectively # Very good # Good # Basic but effective # Not created – see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] <!-- Description about self --> # Excellent description about self provided # Description about self provided # Brief description about self – consider expanding # Very brief description about self – consider expanding # Add description about self <!-- Links to profile(s) --> # Link(s) provided to professional profile(s) # Consider linking to your [https://portfolio.canberra.edu.au/ eportfolio] page and/or any other professional online profile or resume such as [https://www.linkedin.com/ LinkedIn]. This is not required, but it can be useful to interlink your professional networks. <!-- Link to book chapter --> # A link to the book chapter is provided # Rename the link to the book chapter to make it more user-friendly (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) # Add link to book chapter |10= <!-- Social contribution --> # Excellent – at least three different types of contributions with direct link(s) to evidence # Good – two out of three types of contributions made with direct link(s) to evidence. The other type of contribution is making: # One out of three types of contributions made with direct link(s) to evidence. The other types of contribution are making: #* direct improvements to other [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters (past or current)]] #* comments on the [[Help:Talk page|talk page]]s of other [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters (past or current)]] #* posts about the unit or project on the {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} discussion forum # To add direct links to evidence of Wikiversity edits or comments: view the page history, select the version of the page before and after your contributions, click "compare selected revisions", and paste the comparison URL on your user page. For more info, see [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Making and summarising social contributions|Making and summarising social contributions]]. This was demonstrated in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing#Social contributions|Tutorial 2]]. # Are these contributions based on AI-generated content? If so, please follow the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|using genAI guidelines]], otherwise it is a violation of academic integrity. # Well done on creating and uploading your own image! # Use a numbered list (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) # Descriptions of contributions could be more precise/accurate/detailed # Add a brief summary of each contribution # Remember to sign comments on talk pages # None summarised on user page with direct link(s) to evidence (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing#Social contributions|Tutorial 2]]). Looking ahead to the book chapter, see [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Socialcontribution|social contributions]]. }} ~~~~ </pre></small></small></small> gives <!-- Official topic development feedback --> {{METF/2026 |1= <!-- Title --> # Title and subtitle are correctly worded and use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] # Title and/or subtitle not correctly worded and/or didn't use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] (fixed) # User name removed from the page; for authorship see [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page's edit history]] |2= <!-- Headings --> # See earlier comment about [[#heading casing|heading casing]] <!-- Heading structure --> <!-- 2-level --> # Excellent – Well developed [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project/Structure|2-level heading structure]]. Meaningful headings clearly relate directly to the core topic. # Clear [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project/Structure|2-level heading structure]] # Promising [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project/Structure|2-level heading structure]] – could benefit from further development and/or refinement # Basic [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project/Structure|2-level heading structure]] – could benefit from further development (expand) <!-- 1-level --> # Promising [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project/Structure|1-level heading structure]] – could benefit from further development (e.g., consider using subheadings) # Basic, [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project/Structure|1-level heading structure]] – could benefit from further development, perhaps using a 2-level structure (i.e., use subheadings) # Under-developed, [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project/Structure|1-level heading structure]] – develop further, perhaps using a 2-level structure for larger section(s) (i.e., including subheadings) <!-- 3-level --> # Overly complicated [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project/Structure|3-level heading structure]] – consider simplifying <!-- Conceptual --> # Messy heading structure – needs work (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) # The headings lack sufficient incision into, and exposition of, the topic # Revise heading structure to place less emphasis on background concepts and more emphasis on the target topic (i.e., address the sub-title). The draft headings place too much emphasis on background concepts and too little on the relationship between the concepts. <!-- Other ---> # Aim for 3 to 6 top-level headings between the Overview and Conclusion, with 3 to 5 sub-headings for large sections # The Overview and Conclusion should not use sub-headings # Use default heading formatting (i.e., avoid additional formatting such as bold, italics, underline, changing the size etc.) # Avoid having sections with only 1 sub-heading – use 0 or 2+ sub-headings # "Introduction" heading isn't necessary – provide this information in Overview or move into subsequent sections # Cover definition(s) in the Overview and/or subsequent sections with embedded inter-wiki link(s) to further information # Case study doesn't need a separate heading; instead embed case study within relevant sections # Quiz doesn't need a separate heading; instead embed quiz questions within relevant sections # Check grammar (e.g,. missing question mark) # Remove [[wikt:acronym#Noun|acronym]]s from headings # Remove citations from headings <!-- Alignment with focus questions --> # Excellent alignment between sub-title, focus questions, and heading structure # Very good alignment between sub-title, focus questions, and heading structure, but there may be room for improvement # Good alignment between sub-title, focus questions, and heading structure, but there is room for improvement # Reasonably good alignment between focus questions and heading structure, but aim for closer alignment # Basic alignment between between sub-title, focus questions, and top-level headings. Aim to improve. # Develop closer alignment between sub-title, focus questions, and top-level headings # Insufficient alignment between sub-title, focus questions, and top-level headings <!-- GenAI ---> # Are the headings based on [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI content]]? If so, this needs to be acknowledged in the edit summaries, otherwise it violates academic integrity. |3= <!-- Overview--> # Excellent – Scenario, image, evocative description of the problem/topic, and focus questions # Very good # Good # Basic # Insufficient # Hasn't been developed – Needs scenario, image, evocative description of the problem/topic, and focus questions <!-- GenAI ---> # Does this section include [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI content]]? If so, it needs to be acknowledged as such in the edit summaries, otherwise it violates academic integrity. <!-- Scenario --> # A scenario or case study is presented in a feature box with an image at the start of this section # A scenario or case study is presented in a feature box at the start of this section # I moved an image into the feature box to help attract reader interest # Choose an image that illustrates the scenario. Move theoretical diagrams into a subsequent section. # Add an image to the scenario to help attract reader interest # Put the scenario or case study into a feature box at the start of this section (fixed) # Make the scenario concrete and down-to-earth, using a realistic real-world example of the target psychological phenomenon rather than an abstract description. # Make the relevance of the scenario to the topic more clear. It should be obvious to a reader how the scenario illustrates the topic (i.e., the sub-title question). Revise the scenario to make this connection more explicit. # Add a scenario or case study in a feature box (with an image) at the start of this section to help engage reader interest <!-- Description --> # A clear description of the problem/topic is planned or presented # A promising description of the problem/topic is planned or presented # A basic description of the problem/topic is planned or presented # Introduce topic using plain English; most citations can be moved into subsequent setions # Simplify/abbreviate the description of the problem/topic. Move detail into subsequent sections. # Add a brief, evocative description of the problem/topic <!-- Style --> # Use present, rather than future, tense # Use 3rd person point of view for main body text (except 1st/2nd person point of view can work within feature boxes for scenarios) <!-- Focus questions --> # Focus questions are aligned with sub-title and top-level headings # Reasonably good alignment between focus questions and heading structure, but consider closer alignment # Develop closer alignment between the sub-title, focus questions, and top-level headings # Use open- rather then close-ended focus questions # Use single- rather than double-barrelled focus questions # Use bullet-points (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) # Present focus questions in a feature box at the end of this section |4= <!-- Key points--> <!-- Overall --> # Excellent – key points are well developed for each section # Solid development # Promising development # Highlight the most relevant theories and synthesise the best research on the topic # Focus on providing an integrative review of the most relevant theories and research on the topic # Overly broad/comprehensive; not sufficiently focused/targetted on the topic; this often occurs when genAI content is used by a prompter with insufficient background reading and understanding of the topic and/or insufficient revising and rewriting of genAI content # Basic development # Partial development # Insufficient development # No development # Provide more detailed edit summaries <!-- Scope --> # The scope is excellent (i.e., not too little/narrow or too big/broad) # The scope is about right, but it may be that all planned aspects cannot be reasonably covered within the book chapter word count; in that case, be selective and concentrate on key aspects that address the question in the sub-title # It may be that all planned aspects cannot be reasonably covered within the book chapter word count, so be selective and concentrate on key aspects that address the question in the sub-title # It is unlikely that all planned aspects can be reasonably covered within the book chapter word count, so be selective and concentrate on the most important aspects which address the question in the sub-title # All planned aspects cannot reasonably be covered within the book chapter word count, so be selective and concentrate on the most important aspects which address the question in the sub-title <!-- Writing style --> # The writing style is clear and easy to follow # The writing style is generally clear but could be simplified or made more concise # The writing style is difficult to follow (e.g., due to vagueness, complex wording, long sentences, long paragraphs, repetition, etc.) # The writing style is typical of AI-generated material with minimal human oversight. See [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI content]] for guidance about ethical and professional practice. <!-- Theory and research --> # Good balance of theory and research # Promising balance of theory and research # Reasonably good coverage of theory; strive to balance the theoretical content with critical review of relevant research # Balance theoretical content with critical synthesis of relevant research # Too much theory. Not enough research. Strive for an integrated balance of the best psychological theory and research about this topic, with practical examples. # Strive for an integrated balance of the best psychological theory and research about this topic, with practical examples. # Select the best theories about this topic # Select the best research about this topic <!-- Citations --> # Excellent use of citations # Very good use of citations # Good use of citations # Promising use of citations # Basic use of citations # Insufficient use of citations # Non-peer-reviewed sources should be moved to the "External links" section # Tip: Rather than starting with an author name and citation, start with the more interesting part (i.e., the substance) and put the citation at the end or mid-way through the sentence <!-- Citation style --> # Use [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/citations/basic-principles APA style 7th edition for citations] (e.g., do not include author initials) # Use [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/citations/basic-principles APA style 7th edition for citations] with three or more authors (i.e., FirstAuthor et al., year) # [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/punctuation/serial-comma APA style uses serial commas][[w:Serial comma|1]][https://www.buzzfeed.com/adamdavis/the-oxford-comma-is-extremely-important-and-everyone-should 2][https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gBx8ooDupXY 3] (1 min) <!-- Other --> # For sections with sub-sections, provide key points for an overview paragraph prior to branching into the sub-headings # ''Avoid providing too much background information''. Aim to briefly summarise general concepts and provide internal links to relevant book chapters and/or Wikipedia pages for further information. Focus most of the chapter on ''directly answering the core question(s)'' posed by the chapter sub-title. # Direct quotes need page numbers (APA style) – even better, express the idea in your own words # Use correct capitalisation ([https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization APA style is a "down" style]) – [https://polishedpaper.com/blog/capitalization-apa-style more info] # Use [https://www.aresearchguide.com/write-in-third-person.html 3rd person perspective], although a case study or feature box could use 1st or 2nd person perspective # Use [https://www.abc.net.au/education/learn-english/australian-vs-american-spelling/11244196 Australian spelling] (e.g., analyze → analyse; behavior → behaviour) # Move references into the References section. Keep citations in the main body. # Consider using Studiosity Writing Feedback+ or a similar writing-support service (e.g., Grammarly) to improve the quality of written expression and check for grammatical and spelling errors in the book chapter draft. <!-- GenAI ---> # Well done on acknowledging genAI use in the edit summary. Also share link(s) to the conversation, as per the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|using genAI guidelines]]. # Do these key points include [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI content]]? If so, this needs to be acknowledged in the edit summaries, otherwise it violates academic integrity. <!-- Conclusion --> # Conclusion is well developed # Conclusion is well underway # Conclusion is underway # Conclusion is underdeveloped # Conclusion hasn't been developed # What are the practical, take-home messages? (address the focus questions) |5= <!-- Figure --> # Excellent - Relevant figure(s) presented, captioned, and cited # Relevant figure(s) are presented and captioned # Relevant figure(s) are presented # The relevance of the figure to the topic is unclear # A relevant figure is not presented and cited (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) <!-- Caption --> # Figure caption(s) provide(s) a clear, appropriately detailed description that is meaningfully connected with the main text # Figure caption(s) provide(s) a reasonably clear description that is connected with the main text # Figure caption(s) provide(s) a somewhat clear description that is connected with the main text, but could be improved # Figure caption(s) could better explain how the image connects to key points being made in the main text # Figure caption(s) should include '''Figure X'''. ... <!-- Cite --> # Figure(s) are cited at least once in the main text # Cite each figure at least once in the main text using APA style (e.g., see Figure 1) <!-- Size --> # Consider increasing image size(s) (especially if they have text) to make them easier to view # Consider decreasing image size(s) to make them less dominant <!-- Creation --> # Well done on creating and uploading your own image! {{smile}}—this can also be listed on your user page as a social contribution |6= <!-- Learning feature --> <!-- Interwiki links ---> # Excellent in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] for first mention of key terms to [[w:|Wikipedia]] and/or [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]] # Promising in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] for first mention of key terms to [[w:|Wikipedia]] and/or [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]] # Two in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] for first mention of key terms to [[w:|Wikipedia]]. Also embed links to [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. # One in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki link]] for first mention of key term to [[w:|Wikipedia]]. Also embed links to [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. # Add in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] for first mention of key terms to [[w:|Wikipedia]] and/or [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]] (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) <!-- Scenarios/examples/case studies --> # Excellent use of scenarios/examples/case studies # Promising use of scenarios/examples/case studies # Keep scenarios brief # Basic use of scenario/example/case study # Placeholder use of scenarios/examples/case studies Consider incorporating additional scenarios, examples, or case studies to illustrate key concepts. These could build on the Overview scenario or introduce new real-world situations in the main body of the chapter to demonstrate how the concepts apply in practice. <!-- Quiz --> # Excellent use of quiz question(s) # Promising use of quiz question(s) # Place each quiz question in the most relevant section # Focus the quiz question(s) on the take-home messages # Placeholder use of quiz question(s) # Consider including quiz question(s) about the take-home messages <!-- Tables --> # Excellent use of [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|table(s)]] # Promising use of [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|table(s)]] # Include acknowledgement (e.g., citation(s)) for sources of information presented in the table # Use APA style for table captions # Add table caption # Cite each table at least once in the text # Also consider using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|table(s)]] to summarise key information |7= <!-- References --> <!-- Overall --> # Excellent # Very good # Good # Basic # Insufficient # To be developed <!-- Systematic reviews --> # Well done on identifying relevant systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses # At least one relevant systematic review and/or meta-analysis has been identified # What are the most relevant systematic reviews/meta-analyses about this topic? <!-- Move --> # Move Wikipedia links to the "See also" section # Move non-academic / non-peer reviewed sources to the "External links" section <!-- Citations --> # All references need in-text citation # All citations need to be in the References # Only include references which have been accessed and read <!-- APA style --> # Check and correct [https://apastyle.apa.org/instructional-aids/reference-guide.pdf APA referencing style]: ## alphabetical order ## capitalisation ## [[Help:Wikitext quick reference|italicisation]] ## [https://apastyle.apa.org/instructional-aids/reference-guide.pdf doi formatting] ## make doi hyperlinks active (i.e., clickable) ## use dois where available instead of other links ## include hyperlinked dois ## page numbers should be separated by an en-dash (–) rather than a hyphen (-) # A more thorough literature search is recommended. The goal is to identify and use the best academic theory and research about this topic. # Use APA style or wiki referencing style, but not both (currently, a mixture of referencing styles is used # Don't cite AI-generated content because it is unreliable and not peer-reviewed. Instead, follow the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|using genAI guidelines]] which include acknowledging and linking to genAI use in edit summaries, otherwise it is a violation of academic integrity. |8= <!-- Resources --> <!-- See also --> # See also ## Excellent ## Very good ## Good ## Basic ## One of two link types provided ### Also link to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]] ### Also link to relevant [[w:|Wikipedia]] pages ## Use bullet-points (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) ## Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] ## Rename links so that they are more user friendly (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) ## Include source in brackets after link (e.g., (Wikipedia) or (Book chapter, year) for Wikiversity book chapters) ## Use alphabetical order ## To be developed (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) <!-- External links --> # External links ## Excellent ## Very good ## Good ## Basic ## One of two required external links provided ## Move Wikipedia link(s) to the "See also" section ## Move academic sources into the "References" sections and provide in-text citation ## Only include links directly related to the sub-title ## Target an international audience; Australians only represent 0.33% of the world population ## Good choice of links, but poorly formatted (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) ## Use bullet-points (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) ## Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] ## Rename links so that they are more user friendly (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) ## Include source in brackets after link ## Use alphabetical order ## To be developed (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) ## Link to the most relevant external resources about this topic |9= <!-- User page --> # Excellent # Used effectively # Very good # Good # Basic but effective # Not created – see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] <!-- Description about self --> # Excellent description about self provided # Description about self provided # Brief description about self – consider expanding # Very brief description about self – consider expanding # Add description about self <!-- Links to profile(s) --> # Link(s) provided to professional profile(s) # Consider linking to your [https://portfolio.canberra.edu.au/ eportfolio] page and/or any other professional online profile or resume such as [https://www.linkedin.com/ LinkedIn]. This is not required, but it can be useful to interlink your professional networks. <!-- Link to book chapter --> # A link to the book chapter is provided # Rename the link to the book chapter to make it more user-friendly (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) # Add link to book chapter |10= <!-- Social contribution --> # Excellent – at least three different types of contributions with direct link(s) to evidence # Good – two out of three types of contributions made with direct link(s) to evidence. The other type of contribution is making: # One out of three types of contributions made with direct link(s) to evidence. The other types of contribution are making: #* direct improvements to other [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters (past or current)]] #* comments on the [[Help:Talk page|talk page]]s of other [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters (past or current)]] #* posts about the unit or project on the {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} discussion forum # To add direct links to evidence of Wikiversity edits or comments: view the page history, select the version of the page before and after your contributions, click "compare selected revisions", and paste the comparison URL on your user page. For more info, see [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Making and summarising social contributions|Making and summarising social contributions]]. This was demonstrated in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing#Social contributions|Tutorial 2]]. # Are these contributions based on AI-generated content? If so, please follow the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|using genAI guidelines]], otherwise it is a violation of academic integrity. # Well done on creating and uploading your own image! # Use a numbered list (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) # Descriptions of contributions could be more precise/accurate/detailed # Add a brief summary of each contribution # Remember to sign comments on talk pages # None summarised on user page with direct link(s) to evidence (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing#Social contributions|Tutorial 2]]). Looking ahead to the book chapter, see [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Socialcontribution|social contributions]]. }} -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 08:58, 26 August 2026 (UTC) ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Template:MEBF]] * [[Template:MEMF]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Admin/2026]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic]] </noinclude> sn7krncwgbvlhdc0e046b3z1dtyc5nq 0 331021 2832596 2832594 2026-09-10T11:59:58Z StretchBeyond 3105744 2832596 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment:<br>How does it work and what are the effects?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''Scenario: Immersive PTSD therapies''' Andriy, a Ukranian soldier, harnessed to a treadmill, walks towards a screen displaying an image he spent months avoiding. His therapist beside him. This is multi-modular motion assisted memory desensitisation and reconsolidation (3MDR), one of a new generation of immersive therapies being used to treat post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). [[File:Andriy 3MDR enhanced.gif|center|600x600px]] '''Figure 1.''' Andriy, alongside his therapist, moves through his 3MDR treatment. Learn about more about immersive therapy and Andriy’s* experience in the chapter below (*Andriy is a fictional name used for this scenario). {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[File:Post-traumatic_stress_disorder_world_map_-_DALY_-_WHO2004.svg|alt=|thumb|271x271px|'''Figure 2:''' The 2024 World Health Organisation estimates 3.9% of the world population has had post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) at some stage in their lives.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/post-traumatic-stress-disorder|title=Post-traumatic stress disorder|website=www.who.int|language=en|access-date=2026-08-17}}</ref>]] [[w:Post-traumatic_stress_disorder|Post-traumatic stress disorder]] (PTSD) develops after exposure to severe or life-threatening trauma and carries a substantial personal and societal cost, estimated in the hundreds of billions of dollars annually worldwide (Figure 2), with sub-communities such as military personnel having an increased likelihood of representation (Boska et al., 2025). Further detail in costs and limitations below (Davis et al., 2022; Montgomery-Marks et al., 2025). PTSDs emotional impact is shaped by [[w:Emotional_dysregulation|emotional dysregulation]], in which people struggle to manage intense feelings such as guilt, fear or shame (Westphal et al., 2017).This commonly triggers a cycle of [[Cognitive psychology|cognitive]] and behavioural avoidance that offers short-term relief but prevents traumatic memory from being adaptively processed, leaving the person trapped in a cycle of avoidance and a state of chronic, hyper arousal (Efremov, 2025; de Haart et al., 2026; van Gelderen et al., 2018). Immersive interventions, including [[w:Virtual_reality_therapy|virtual reality exposure therapy]] (VRET) and multi-modular motion assisted memory desensitisation and reconsolidation (3MDR) aim to break this cognitive avoidance cycle by creating controlled environments in which trauma cues can be safely approached rather than avoided (van Gelderen et al., 2018; Wiederhold & Wiederhold, 2025). This chapter explains the psychological theory behind these approaches, reviews the research evidence for their effects and considers current limitations. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''Focus questions'''[[File:Crystal Clear app ktip.svg|left|20px|]] * Why is emotional processing important in PTSD? * How can immersive therapies influence the emotional processes underlying PTSD? * What does the research evidence show? * What are the costs and limitations of immersive therapies? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Why is emotional processing important in PTSD? == PTSD frequently develops after exposure to severe or life-threatening trauma and it is formally diagnosed according to [[w:DSM-5|DSM-5]] criteria. Sufferers experience chronic hyper-vigilance, mental hyper arousal and a disruption to executive and emotional processing systems (Kukharuk et al., 2025; Osman et al., 2016). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}[[Image:Crystal Clear app help index.svg|left|50px]] ;Predict the outcome A soldier with PTSD encounters a trauma-related image and expects: '''TRAUMA CUE → DANGER → DISTRESS → AVOID''' However, during immersive treatment, the expected danger does not occur. What is the most likely consequence?<quiz display=simple> { |type="()"} - Fear increases permanently. - Memory cannot change. + Prediction error creates an opportunity for new learning. - Emotional processing stops.  } </quiz> <div style="text-align:right; color:red; font-weight:bold;"> Click "show" below to understand more⤵ </div> {{Hidden begin|title=Please pause and predict the answer before opening this section}}The correct answer is '''C'''. <div style="text-align:left; color:black; font-weight:regular;"> The mismatch between expected danger and actual safety creates a '''prediction error'''. This may contribute to fear extinction, emotion regulation, and memory reconsolidation.'''Think about it:''' If approaching rather than avoiding trauma can create new learning, what role might emotion regulation, fear extinction, prediction error and memory reconsolidation play? </div>   {{Hidden end}} <div style="text-align:left; color:black; font-weight:regular;">''Keep your thoughts in mind as you read the chapter below and explore the evidence for these mechanisms, and their role in immersive PTSD treatment''. * A fictional name assigned for the learning scenario. </div> {{RoundBoxBottom}} === Understanding PTSD and emotions === PTSD is characterised by difficulty in adaptively processing traumatic events. This disruption produces symptoms such as intrusive memories, flashbacks and nightmares, heightened threat perception, hyper-vigilance and persistent negative emotional states as depicted in Figure 3 (Felemban et al., 2026; López-Ojeda & Hurley, 2022). [[File:PTSD.png|left|thumb|'''Figure 3. PTSD can have a deep and lasting impact on our emotions.''']]Emotional processing theory suggests that recovering from trauma requires the fear structure held in the memory to be activated and updated with corrective information. In PTSD this process is blocked and to manage this intense physiological and emotional stress, many individuals will adopt cognitive and behavioural avoidance as a primary defence mechanism (López-Ojeda & Hurley, 2022). Avoidance offers short-term relief but prevents the traumatic memory from being safely reactivated, so it can update with new, safe information. Trauma reminders such as flashbacks continue to trigger extreme distress and fear (Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). This traps the individual in a maladaptive, self-reinforcing avoidance cycle (Figure 4 below). At a neural level, Wesphal et al. (2017) link this to [[wikipedia:Transdiagnostic_process|transdiagnostic]] [[w:Emotional_dysregulation|emotion dysregulation]], in which the traumatic memory network (TMN) remains isolated from the brains [[w:Salience_network|salience]] and central executive networks. Effective treatment requires safely reactivating this network so the memory can be integrated rather than avoided (Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b; Westphal et al., 2017). A 2025 study of Danish military veterans (''n''=142) found emotional regulation difficulties explained an additional 28% of the variance in PTSD symptoms, which when combined with [[w:Comorbidity|comorbid]] symptoms, these factors accounted for 52% of the variance in PTSD severity (''F''(13, 92) = 9.58, ''p'' <0.001). Impulse control difficulties (ß = 0.32'', p'' = 0.005) and non-acceptance of emotional responses (ß = 0.20'', p'' = 0.05) were among the strongest predictors (Elklit & Dahl, 2025).[[File:Avoidance and Processing Cycles.png|500x500px|thumb|'''Figure 4'''. Highlights the typical flow of an avoidance cycle and the anticipated positive responses generated via immersive therapies. Based on concepts introduced in journal articles by Lopez-Ojeda et al. (2022), Felemban et al. (2026), and Vermetten et. al. (2025b).|center]] === Why treatment can be difficult === Traditional trauma-focused psychotherapies such as [[w:Prolonged_exposure_therapy|prolonged exposure]] (PE) and [[w:Cognitive_processing_therapy|cognitive processing therapy]] (CPT) work by asking patients to actively engage with distressing memories in to generate fear extinction (van Toorenburg et al., 2020). However, this is precisely what avoidance prevents, with many patients unable to tolerate the emotional exposure and memory activation these therapies require (Lopes et al., 2025; van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). As the individual cannot confront the trauma trigger in a safe environment, the brain cannot experience a prediction error and learn that a threat is no longer present. Consequently, the threat perception and threat response remain persistent within the PTSD patient, perpetuating the PTSD symptoms indefinitely. (de Haart et al., 2026; López-Ojeda & Hurley, 2022). This difficulty is reflected in treatment outcomes where an estimated 39.2% of patients fail to respond to standard trauma-focused therapy, while dropout rates range between 16-48% (de Haart et al., 2026; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). Non-response is not uniform, among military veterans younger patients tend to show heightened symptom severity when the trauma is central to their personal identity, while others turn to poor diet or coping orientated substance abuse to suppress negative emotions, further eroding emotional regulation (Efremov, 2025; Niles et al., 2023). [[w:Emotional_dysregulation|Emotional dysregulation]] was historically viewed as a fixed barrier requiring a lengthy stabilisation phase before treatment could begin (van Toorenburg et al., 2020). More recent evidence however suggests otherwise, as emotional regulation has dynamic capacity and standard trauma-focused treatments can improve emotion regulation as a natural consequence of successful memory processing (van Toorenburg et al., 2020). This reframes the clinical challenge from being fixed barrier, to one of actively helping an individual safely approach and process the traumatic memory. [[File:UC PhD VR study.png|right|thumb|'''Figure 5.''' PhD work by R. Selvakumaran at the University of Canberra explores cultural and linguistic factors using the US ''Bravemind'' system and Australian veterans and first responders.]]Cultural context adds another layer of difficulty. Doctoral research at the the [[University of Canberra]] is examining how immersive therapy protocols developed in the United States such as the US-centric ''Bravemind''<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://medvr.ict.usc.edu/projects/bravemind.html|title=Bravemind {{!}} MedVR|website=medvr.ict.usc.edu|access-date=2026-08-25}}</ref> (Figure 5) need to be culturally adapted for Australian military veterans and first responders, whose operational backgrounds and rules of engagement differ from their US counterparts (Selvakumaran, 2025). This work integrates exposure therapy with gamified, posture-adaptive cognitive rehabilitation to support motor acuity and improved physical and emotional regulation (Selvakumaran, 2025). These PTSD treatment gaps carry a substantial economic and personal cost, which is part of the motivation for developing more effective alternatives such as immersive therapies.    == How can immersive therapies influence emotional processes? == Developments in immersive PTSD treatments represent a notable shift from traditional approaches to psychological trauma care. Rather than relying on sedentary, largely passive therapeutic environments, these interventions shift clinical practice toward active, embodied, highly interactive, and engaging contexts (van Gelderen et al., 2018). To understand how these emerging interventions alter emotional responses and behaviours, it is necessary to examine three psychological mechanisms and their interaction: multisensory presence, embodied cognition, and divergent thinking (López-Ojeda & Hurley, 2022; van Gelderen et al., 2018). Immersion therapy goes beyond the simple visual replication of a trauma memory; instead, it begins to capture the participant’s visceral and cognitive focus by limiting distractions and developing a state of physical and mental engagement (Macey et al., 2026). Embodied cognition is the concept of how physical states of the body can directly modify states of the mind (van Gelderen et al., 2018). In active immersive therapies such as 3MDR, physically walking toward a virtual trauma reminder can alter the patient’s appraisal of safety, promoting associative memory access and facilitating open-ended divergent thinking patterns that disrupt previously learned rigid, repetitive trauma loops (van Gelderen et al., 2018). === What is immersive therapy? === [[File:XR and Human Senses.png|right|thumb|'''Figure 6.''' The Extended Reality environment and its interaction with the human brain. Designed to give readers a simple understanding of emerging technologies used in immersive PTSD environments.]]Immersive therapies<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-01|title=Immersion therapy|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Immersion_therapy&oldid=1357152847|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> use [[w:Extended_reality|extended reality]](XR) platforms, encompassing [[virtual reality]] (VR), [[Augmented Reality|augmented reality]] (AR), and [[w:Mixed_reality_game|mixed reality]] (MR), to create customisable, controlled, and standardised therapeutic environments (López-Ojeda & Hurley, 2022; Wiederhold & Wiederhold, 2025). This XR digital ecosystem, as depicted in Figure 6. Two clinical therapy applications are the focus of this chapter: virtual reality exposure therapy (VRET) where therapists reconstruct traumatic scenarios in safe, graded environments; and multi-modal motion assisted memory desensitisation and reconsolidation (3MDR), which extends this by having the patient move on a treadmill towards a panoramic display, side by side with their therapist, rather than a stationary, face to face session (de Haart et al., 2026; Felemban et al., 2026). === '''Presence and embodied cognition''' === Immersive therapy’s distinguishing feature is its ability to generate presence, or the psychological illusion of being ‘there’. This illusion is amplified by integrating synchronised audio, visual, olfactory, haptic, and movement stimuli (Lopes et al., 2025; López-Ojeda & Hurley, 2022). The presence effect then increases engagement with the trauma memory and supports emotional processing (van Gelderen et al., 2018). In active therapies such as 3MDR, presence combines with cognition. The working principle is that physical states of the body can directly shape states of the mind (van Gelderen et al., 2018). Physically walking towards a virtual trauma reminder functions as a fear antagonistic action (FAA) and rather than retreating in avoidance, the patient approaches, converting passive helplessness into active, empowered participation (de Haart et al., 2026; van Gelderen et al., 2018). This movement towards the active approach generates immediate neurocognitive stress responses that include bypassing severe avoidance behaviours and boosting divergent thinking approaches, which can disrupt rigid and repetitive trauma narratives (Boska et al., 2025; Osman et al., 2016; van Gelderen et al., 2018). Notably, this benefit does not seem to be driven by exercise physiology which suggests moderate-to-high-intensity physical activity is required to consolidate extinction learning by stimulating [[w:Brain-derived_neurotrophic_factor|brain-derived neurotrophic factor]] (BDNF); however, the walking pace in 3MDR therapy (< 4 km/h) is too low to generate meaningful BDNF secretion. This suggests the mechanisms of benefit is primarily psychological and behavioural. It is the approach action itself and the cognitive restructuring it enables, rather than physiological causes (de Haart et al., 2026). === '''Prediction error and inhibitory learning''' === Immersive therapy builds on the inhibitory learning model of exposure therapy, in which a new, safe association actively competes with and suppresses the original conditioned fear response. Walking towards a trauma cue and encountering safety instead of the expected catastrophe creates a profound prediction error, a mismatch between the anticipated, catastrophic, life-threatening event and the actual reality of a safe clinical environment. This destabilises the traumatic memory, allowing successful memory reconsolidation work to occur (Felemban et al., 2026; van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b; Wiederhold & Wiederhold, 2025). === '''Memory reconsolidation''' === According to [[w:Memory_consolidation|memory reconsolidation]] theory, traumatic memories retrieved in a safe, highly immersive context can enter a [[w:Lability|labile]] '','' or [[w:Malleability_of_intelligence|malleable]] state of memory, during which introducing safe, supportive contextual information allows the memory to be reconsolidated in a non-threatening form (van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). To prevent the patient from becoming overwhelmed during retrieval, 3MDR uses dual-attention tasks such as tracking an oscillating ball (see example in Figure 1). This dual task intentionally taxes the patient’s limited working memory resources and can help reduce the vividness and emotional intensity of the memory (Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). Emerging linguistic research suggests that this processing is also reflected in the patient’s language. Through [[w:Affect_labeling|affective labelling]] visceral feelings such as GUILT are projected into text, patients display substantive cognitive reorganisation. Across successive 3MDR sessions, objective [[w:Marker_(linguistics)|linguistic markers]] indicated a shift from past-tense trauma narratives to present-tense verb use, all this consistent with a renewed ability to articulate emotional states and integrate traumatic moments into present-moment awareness (Vermetten, Barcaro, et al., 2025a). == '''What does the research evidence show?''' == Immersive therapies help translate or facilitate psychological change by serving as a medium for Emotional Processing Theory and inhibitory learning (López-Ojeda & Hurley, 2022; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). Within these highly controlled clinical environments, patients can be systematically exposed to trauma cues that provide specific discomfort to the individual undergoing treatment. This exposure helps disconfirm existing threat expectations and overcome cognitive and behavioural barriers such as active resistance or amnesia, which have been associated with barriers in traditional therapies (Macey et al., 2026; Wiederhold & Wiederhold, 2025). Addressing these treatment barriers is important for any PTSD population, but in the literature concerning military populations, it appears particularly critical, as they suffer high psychotherapy failure rates. van Gelderen et al. (2018) cite two-thirds of veterans retaining a PTSD diagnosis after standard treatments and clinical dropout rates of up to 78%. Immersive therapies such as the virtual reality ones discussed above can tailor increasingly specific, patient-selected trauma cues to enhance memory accessibility by enabling precise retrieval of traumatic memory networks (Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). === '''Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy''' === [[w:Virtual_reality_therapy|VRET]] reconstructs traumatic events within a safe, structured context (Felemban et al., 2026; López-Ojeda & Hurley, 2022). Bypassing imagination challenges such as emotional numbing or amnesia that can prevent a PTSD patient engaging with traditional image exposure therapy (Macey et al., 2026). A meta-analysis of the VRET for PTSD found substantial within-group symptom reductions, averaging a 33.73-point decrease in the 0-80 point [[w:Clinician_Administered_PTSD_Scale|Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale]] (CAPS) and a 20.96-point decrease in the 0-80 point [https://www.ptsd.va.gov/professional/assessment/adult-sr/ptsd-checklist.asp PTSD Checklist PCL-5) scale] (Felemban et al., 2026). Because changes of 10-20 points on these scales are usually considered clinically significant, this could mean the difference between severe functional impairment and mild or subclinical symptoms (Boska et al., 2025; de Haart et al., 2026; Felemban et al., 2026).  Comparative effects against other active PTSD treatments remain modest, but VRET appears to be a more engaging alternative to conventional treatment options (Felemban et al., 2026) === '''3MDR''' === 3MDR takes the same multisensory presence effect used in VRET and adds an activating context. Rather than a sedentary, face-to-face session, the patient and the therapist face the virtual display together, side by side (van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). It follows a three-phase protocol: pre-platform preparation, platform treadmill exposure, and post-platform re-consolidation (Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). In a trial involving treatment-resistant PTSD; 3MDR showed large effect sizes from pre-treatment to six month follow up (''n'' = 134, ''d'' = 1.0) and high acceptability, with dropout rates of 7-20%, substantially lower than the 16-48% typical of standard trauma-focused therapy in military populations (de Haart et al., 2026; Lewis et al., 2020; van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). Improvements are not limited to PTSD symptoms. A trial of 62 adults with severe PTSD, including childhood sexual trauma, found intensive trauma-focused treatment improved emotion-regulation abilities regardless of PTSD outcome, even among patients with severe baseline difficulties (van Toorenburg et al., 2020). Some researchers link this broader improvement to positive psychology [[w:Broaden-and-build|Broaden-and-Build Theory]]. The theory being that as patients regain a sense of safety and control, this may support a positive of emotional flexibility that reinforces the recovery process (Fredrickson, 2001; Niles et al., 2023; Westphal et al., 2017). Table 1 below summarises the main differences and psychological mechanisms discussed above. {{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Quiz}} <quiz display=simple> {Which of the following is an expected outcome of immersive therapy ? |type="()"} - Patients are at risk because of an uncontrolled environment. - The environments represent traditional face-to-face treatments. - Failure and dropout rates are higher than traditional PTSD treatment. + Patients often broaden and build an upward spiral of emotion and optimism. </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} '''Table 1:''' Treatment Effects and Psychological Mechanisms {| class="wikitable" | valign="top" |'''Clinical Dimension''' | valign="top" |'''Traditional Exposure''' | valign="top" |'''Immersive Approach''' | valign="top" |'''Psychological Mechanisms''' |- | valign="top" |'''Therapeutic Context''' | valign="top" |'''''Sedentary'''''. Face-to-face, verbally describes trauma. | valign="top" |'''''Activating.''''' Dynamic, multi-sensory environment. | valign="top" |'''''Fear Antagonistic Action.''''' '''''Approach behaviours.''''' '''''Prediction Errors.''''' |- | valign="top" |'''Trauma cue delivery''' | valign="top" |'''''Imaginary Retrieval''''' Patient capacity | valign="top" |'''''Multisensory Immersion''''' Highly tailored | valign="top" |'''''External Scaffolding.''''' Bypasses internal barriers to activate memory networks. |- | valign="top" |'''Processing''' '''and attention''' | valign="top" |'''''Convergent processing.''''' Repeated narration and fear habituation. | valign="top" |'''''Active Narrative Processing.''''' Interactive, real-time affective labelling and dual attention tasks. | valign="top" |'''''Working Memory.''''' Memory taxation reduces vividness and emotional intensity. |- | valign="top" |'''Engagement''' | valign="top" |'''''Attrition.''''' High dropout rates 16-48%. | valign="top" |'''''Acceptability.''''' Attractive. Dropout rates 7-20%. | valign="top" |'''''Sustained Motivation.''''' Presence and safety in immersive environment. |} === Applied Example: 3MDR treatment in Ukraine - 2025 === {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''Scenario: The Hotspots of War; Ukraine War: an applied 3MDR example''' Andriy* used to be a baker in Kyiv. He is now a volunteer in the Ukrainian Armed Forces struggling with hyper-vigilance, anxiety, and depression (Kukharuk et al., 2025). Traditional ‘talk’ therapy feels impossible; his mind stays in a constant state of combat readiness, even in a quiet room. In the pre-platform phase of 3MDR, Andriy worked with his therapist to identify a ‘hotspot’ memory, represented by a photograph. On the treadmill, harnessed and walking beside his therapist, he faces a panoramic screen as personalised warm-up music plays, selected to keep him in touch with his traumatic memory network (Vermetten et al., 2025b). As his hotspot image fills the screen, his therapist asks three structured questions (Vermetten et al., 2025b): 1. What do you '''SEE''' ? 2. What does it '''TELL''' you? 3. What do you '''FEEL''' in your body NOW? When Andriy identifies a surge of shame, the word '''GUILT''' is displayed as an affective label and a dual-attention task begins. He tracks an oscillating, numbered ball while he stays with the emotion, taxing his working memory and reducing the intensity of the recalled trauma. [[File:Andriy 3MDR enhanced.gif|center|600x600px]] '''Figure 7.''' Andriy, alongside his therapist, moves through his 3MDR treatment, integrating multi-sensory input and motion while harnessed to a treadmill. By the end of the session, Andriy has physically walked towards what he used to avoid, creating a mismatch between his expectation of threat and his current safety, turning a rigid, stuck memory into a manageable narrative *''Andriy is a fictional name given to one of 69 male Ukrainian veterans who participated in a 2023 Randomised Controlled Trial in Kyiv. Many were demobilised after one year because of mental or neurological injuries'' (Kukharuk et al., 2025). {{RoundBoxBottom}} == '''What are the costs and limitations of immersive therapies?''' == PTSD carries a substantial economic burden. It was associated with an estimated US$232 billion in excess costs in the United States in 2018 and over $£40 billion, in the United Kingdom, 92.4% of which was indirect rather than direct clinical cost (Davis et al., 2022; Montgomery-Marks et al., 2025). In Australia, the average annual cost of PTSD per military veteran was estimated at $112,172 in 2025 (Magnusson & Dey, 2025). In addition, individual healthcare costs surge by 142% in the year following a PTSD diagnosis, with comorbidities tripling this effect (Bothe et al., 2020). These figures span several countries and years and should be best read as an indication of scale rather than as directly comparable totals. Immersive therapy’s ability to move from small trials into mainstream PTSD treatment remains limited by methodological [[w:Homogeneity_and_heterogeneity|heterogeneity]], small sample sizes, and a lack of long-term data (Felemban et al., 2026). Practical issues such as [[w:Virtual_reality_sickness|cyber sickness]] or motion sickness can also disrupt participation (Kukharuk et al., 2025). Structural barriers include workforce training and equipment costs. Basic VR systems cost an estimated US$3,500 per provider headset annually, and advanced simulation environments can cost up to US$200,000 (Garrett et al., 2018). Despite this, adoption of immersive therapy is scaling. The [[w:United_States_Department_of_Veterans_Affairs|United States Veterans Affairs]] have expanded VR use from five medical centres in 2017 to over 154 centres and 2,300 trained staff, with applications now including over 40 documented clinical interventions such as chronic pain and suicide intervention (Bailey et al., 2024). Market analysts estimate the global PTSD-focused VR therapy market was worth US$1.59 billion in 2025, forecast to reach US$5.94 billion by 2032, driven largely by growing mental health awareness and the absence of standard clinical protocols (Stratistics MRC, 2025). These limitations do not undermine the case for immersive therapy, but they show its evidence base and infrastructure are still maturing. Demonstrating rigorously why these therapies work, rather than assuming their novelty accounts for their effects is essential to avoid misallocating resources to unproven interventions and supports a paradigm shift, from a narrow, disease model towards one that values post-traumatic growth and renewed optimism (Trejo et al., 2015; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b; Wiederhold & Wiederhold, 2025). == '''Conclusion''' == PTSD traps people in a self-reinforcing cycle of avoidance that blocks the adaptive processing trauma memories need to resolve (see: ''Understanding PTSD and emotions''). Standard trauma-focused therapies require patients to confront exactly what this cycle causes them to avoid, which contributes to high, non-response and dropout rates (see ''Why treatment can be difficult''). Immersive therapies such as VRET and 3MDR address this by using presence, embodied cognition, prediction error and memory reconsolidation to help patients safely approach trauma cues rather than avoid them (see: ''What does the research evidence show''). The technology itself is only a delivery mechanism, it is the psychological processes that drive change. The evidence to date shows meaningful reductions in PTSD symptoms and comparatively low drop-out rates, alongside broader gains in emotional regulation. However, small samples, methodological variation, and a lack of long-term data mean the evidence base is still developing, and cost and infrastructure barriers remain significant (see ''costs and limitations'').{{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} [[File:Nuvola apps kuser.svg|Nuvola apps kuser|left|20px]] ''' Take-home message:''' Immersive therapies do not heal PTSD trauma through technological novelty or digital feedback. Instead, they create a safe, dynamic space that lets individuals confront trauma and reprocess memories into something they can live with. In doing so, people’s lives may once again shift toward value, optimism, and wellness.{{RoundBoxBottom}} == See also == {{ic|Add bullet points and rename links; add Wikipedia links}} * [[Evidence-based assessment/Posttraumatic stress disorder (disorder portfolio)]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Textbook/Emotion/Anxiety]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Phobias]] (Book Chapter) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Sense hacking]] (Book Chapter) == References == {{Hanging indent|Bailey, A. L., Kirsh, S., Rawlins, C., Persky, S., & Clancy, C. (2024). Early scaling of immersive technology within the Veterans Health Administration. NEJM Catalyst Innovations in Care Delivery, 5(4). https://doi.org/10.1056/cat.23.0356 Boska, R. L., Bishop, T. M., Capron, D. W., Paxton Willing, M. M., & Ashrafioun, L. (2025). Difficulties with emotion regulation within PTSD clusters and moral injury subtypes. Military Psychology, 37(2), 159-167. https://doi.org/10.1080/08995605.2024.2322904 de Haart, R., Daniels, J. K., Timmerman, M. E., Cath, D. C., & Lommen, M. J. J. (2026). Augmenting virtual reality exposure for PTSD with physical activity: Study protocol of a randomised controlled trial. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 17(1), 2605803. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008066.2025.2605803 Efremov, A. (2025). Age-specific mental health profiles of combat veterans: Post-traumatic stress disorder and related disorders. Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive-Behavior Therapy, 44(4), 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10942-025-00637-7 Elklit, A., & Dahl, N. H. (2025). Emotion regulation difficulties, aggression, and PTSD symptoms in Danish treatment-seeking veterans. Scandinavian Journal of Military Studies, 8(1), 308-326. https://doi.org/10.31374/sjms.264 Felemban, R. G., Alzahrani, R. R., Alrefaei, N. F., Alharbi, N. M., Alghamdi, A. S., & Alqadi, S. (2026). Efficacy of virtual reality-based exposure therapy for post-traumatic stress disorder in military veterans: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 17, 1857109. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1857109 Fredrickson, B. L. (2001). The role of positive emotions in positive psychology: The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. American Psychologist, 56(3), 218-226. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.56.3.218 Garrett, B., Taverner, T., Gromala, D., Tao, G., Cordingley, E., & Sun, C. (2018). Virtual reality clinical research: Promises and challenges. JMIR Serious Games, 6(4), e10839. https://doi.org/10.2196/10839 Kukharuk, O., Tkalich, K., Kamash, N., & Georgiou, O. (2025). Effectiveness of immersive VR therapy in reducing stress-associated symptoms in Ukraine. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 16(1), 2488097. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008066.2025.2488097 Lewis, C., Roberts, N. P., Andrew, M., Starling, E., & Bisson, J. I. (2020). Psychological therapies for post-traumatic stress disorder in adults: Systematic review and meta-analysis. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 11(1), 1729633. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2020.1729633 Lopes, M. K. S., Perreault, L., de Jesus, B. Jr., Roberge, M. C., & Falk, T. H. (2025). Subjective and objective evaluation of the benefits of multisensory virtual nature immersion for patients with post-traumatic stress disorder. In Proceedings of the 17th International Conference on Quality of Multimedia Experience (QoMEX) (pp.1-5). IEEE. https://doi.org/10.1109/QoMEX65720.2025.11219945 López-Ojeda, W., & Hurley, R. A. (2022). Extended reality technologies: Expanding therapeutic approaches for PTSD. The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 34(1), 1-5. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.neuropsych.21100244 Macey, A.-L., Macey, J., & Hamari, J. (2026). Emotion regulation in immersive virtual reality environments: A scoping review. Interacting with Computers, 29, 1-20. https://doi.org/10.1093/iwc/iwag029 Niles, B., Lang, A., & Olff, M. (2023). Complementary and integrative interventions for PTSD. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 14(2), 2247888. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008066.2023.2247888 Osman, A., Paczynski, M., & Jha, A. P. (2016). Affective expectations influence neural responses to stressful images in soldiers. Military Psychology, 29(1), 41-57. https://doi.org/10.1037/mil0000128 Selvakumaran, R. V. (2025). Developing virtual reality (VR) simulations with embedded user analytics for cognitive rehabilitation in PTSD veterans. In Proceedings of the 27th International Conference on Multimodal Interaction (pp. 740-744). ACM. https://doi.org/10.1145/3716553.3750826 Stratistics MRC. (2025). Virtual reality therapy for PTSD market forecasts to 2032: Global analysis by component (hardware, software and service), therapy type, application, end user and by geography. https://www.strategymrc.com/report/virtual-reality-therapy-for-ptsd-market Trejo, B. C., Richard, E. M., van Driel, M., & McDonald, D. P. (2015). Cross-cultural competence: The role of emotion regulation ability and optimism. Military Psychology, 27(5), 276-286. https://doi.org/10.1037/mil0000081 van Gelderen, M. J., Nijdam, M. J., & Vermetten, E. (2018). An innovative framework for delivering psychotherapy to patients with treatment-resistant posttraumatic stress disorder: Rationale for interactive motion-assisted therapy. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 9, 176. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00176 van Toorenburg, M. M., Sanches, S. A., Linders, B., Rozendaal, L., Voorendonk, E. M., Van Minnen, A., & De Jongh, A. (2020). Do emotion regulation difficulties affect outcome of intensive trauma-focused treatment of patients with severe PTSD? European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 11(1), 1724417. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2020.1724417 Vermetten, E., Barcaro, S., Espejo, E., Bellini, P., Roy, M. J., & Bremault-Phillips, S. (2025a). Linguistic analysis of patients’ labels during 3MDR psychotherapy. Psychiatry and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 35(Suppl. 1), S29. https://doi.org/10.5152/pcp.2025.241024 Vermetten, E., Burback, L., Sevigny, P. R., Nijdam, M. J., Winkler, O., Espejo, E., Sessoms, P., Bright, K., Roy, M. J., & Brémault-Phillips, S. (2025b). Brief manual for multi-modal motion-assisted memory desensitization and reconsolidation therapy for the treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder. Psychiatry and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 35(Suppl. 1), S122. https://doi.org/10.5152/pcp.2025.241028 Westphal, M., Aldao, A., & Jackson, C. (2017). Emotion dysregulation in comorbid posttraumatic stress disorder and substance use disorders: A narrative review. Military Psychology, 29(3), 216-233. https://doi.org/10.1037/mil0000157 Wiederhold, B. K., & Wiederhold, M. D. (2025). Virtual reality therapy combined with physiological monitoring provides effective treatment, with objective metrics, for post-traumatic stress disorder. Expert Review of Medical Devices, 22(2), 117-119. https://doi.org/10.1080/17434440.2025.2454930 }} == External links == {{ic|Add bullet points, hyperlink name of link, including source in parentheses}} '''Web:''' National Center for PTSD (USA) https://www.ptsd.va.gov/index.asp '''Web:''' VA Immersive Pilot Programs & Collaborations<nowiki/>https://www.innovation.va.gov/hil/views/immersive/immersive-programs.html '''Web:''' Australian Government Health advice - PTSD https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/post-traumatic-stress-disorder-ptsd '''Web:''' Australian Royal Commission into Defence and Veteran Suicide: Final Report<nowiki/>https://defenceveteransuicide.royalcommission.gov.au/publications/final-report '''Podcast:''' Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)https://shows.acast.com/5c3353e484e2e79370e1d135/5c3353ef84e2e79370e1d13c '''Video:''' 3MDR: Virtual reality treatment for veterans with PTSD https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bD43R_oa6qo '''Video:''' VR Exposure for Combat PTSD with EMDR Integration https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jL2bKmniMTc '''Final Report:''' Randomised control trial of 3MDR for treatment of resistant PTSD in military veterans<nowiki/>https://www.ncmh.info/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/Cardiff-3MDR-Study-Final-Report-with-cover-21.5.20.pdf [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Psychotherapy]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Trauma]] ddpuc4u1a1p214d0eh0xgi4tbn3av4n 2832598 2832596 2026-09-10T12:02:45Z StretchBeyond 3105744 Heading formats 2832598 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment:<br>How does it work and what are the effects?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''Scenario: Immersive PTSD therapies''' Andriy, a Ukranian soldier, harnessed to a treadmill, walks towards a screen displaying an image he spent months avoiding. His therapist beside him. This is multi-modular motion assisted memory desensitisation and reconsolidation (3MDR), one of a new generation of immersive therapies being used to treat post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). [[File:Andriy 3MDR enhanced.gif|center|600x600px]] '''Figure 1.''' Andriy, alongside his therapist, moves through his 3MDR treatment. Learn about more about immersive therapy and Andriy’s* experience in the chapter below (*Andriy is a fictional name used for this scenario). {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[File:Post-traumatic_stress_disorder_world_map_-_DALY_-_WHO2004.svg|alt=|thumb|271x271px|'''Figure 2:''' The 2024 World Health Organisation estimates 3.9% of the world population has had post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) at some stage in their lives.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/post-traumatic-stress-disorder|title=Post-traumatic stress disorder|website=www.who.int|language=en|access-date=2026-08-17}}</ref>]] [[w:Post-traumatic_stress_disorder|Post-traumatic stress disorder]] (PTSD) develops after exposure to severe or life-threatening trauma and carries a substantial personal and societal cost, estimated in the hundreds of billions of dollars annually worldwide (Figure 2), with sub-communities such as military personnel having an increased likelihood of representation (Boska et al., 2025). Further detail in costs and limitations below (Davis et al., 2022; Montgomery-Marks et al., 2025). PTSDs emotional impact is shaped by [[w:Emotional_dysregulation|emotional dysregulation]], in which people struggle to manage intense feelings such as guilt, fear or shame (Westphal et al., 2017).This commonly triggers a cycle of [[Cognitive psychology|cognitive]] and behavioural avoidance that offers short-term relief but prevents traumatic memory from being adaptively processed, leaving the person trapped in a cycle of avoidance and a state of chronic, hyper arousal (Efremov, 2025; de Haart et al., 2026; van Gelderen et al., 2018). Immersive interventions, including [[w:Virtual_reality_therapy|virtual reality exposure therapy]] (VRET) and multi-modular motion assisted memory desensitisation and reconsolidation (3MDR) aim to break this cognitive avoidance cycle by creating controlled environments in which trauma cues can be safely approached rather than avoided (van Gelderen et al., 2018; Wiederhold & Wiederhold, 2025). This chapter explains the psychological theory behind these approaches, reviews the research evidence for their effects and considers current limitations. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''Focus questions'''[[File:Crystal Clear app ktip.svg|left|20px|]] * Why is emotional processing important in PTSD? * How can immersive therapies influence the emotional processes underlying PTSD? * What does the research evidence show? * What are the costs and limitations of immersive therapies? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Why is emotional processing important in PTSD? == PTSD frequently develops after exposure to severe or life-threatening trauma and it is formally diagnosed according to [[w:DSM-5|DSM-5]] criteria. Sufferers experience chronic hyper-vigilance, mental hyper arousal and a disruption to executive and emotional processing systems (Kukharuk et al., 2025; Osman et al., 2016). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}[[Image:Crystal Clear app help index.svg|left|50px]] ;Predict the outcome A soldier with PTSD encounters a trauma-related image and expects: '''TRAUMA CUE → DANGER → DISTRESS → AVOID''' However, during immersive treatment, the expected danger does not occur. What is the most likely consequence?<quiz display=simple> { |type="()"} - Fear increases permanently. - Memory cannot change. + Prediction error creates an opportunity for new learning. - Emotional processing stops.  } </quiz> <div style="text-align:right; color:red; font-weight:bold;"> Click "show" below to understand more⤵ </div> {{Hidden begin|title=Please pause and predict the answer before opening this section}}The correct answer is '''C'''. <div style="text-align:left; color:black; font-weight:regular;"> The mismatch between expected danger and actual safety creates a '''prediction error'''. This may contribute to fear extinction, emotion regulation, and memory reconsolidation.'''Think about it:''' If approaching rather than avoiding trauma can create new learning, what role might emotion regulation, fear extinction, prediction error and memory reconsolidation play? </div>   {{Hidden end}} <div style="text-align:left; color:black; font-weight:regular;">''Keep your thoughts in mind as you read the chapter below and explore the evidence for these mechanisms, and their role in immersive PTSD treatment''. * A fictional name assigned for the learning scenario. </div> {{RoundBoxBottom}} === Understanding PTSD and emotions === PTSD is characterised by difficulty in adaptively processing traumatic events. This disruption produces symptoms such as intrusive memories, flashbacks and nightmares, heightened threat perception, hyper-vigilance and persistent negative emotional states as depicted in Figure 3 (Felemban et al., 2026; López-Ojeda & Hurley, 2022). [[File:PTSD.png|left|thumb|'''Figure 3. PTSD can have a deep and lasting impact on our emotions.''']]Emotional processing theory suggests that recovering from trauma requires the fear structure held in the memory to be activated and updated with corrective information. In PTSD this process is blocked and to manage this intense physiological and emotional stress, many individuals will adopt cognitive and behavioural avoidance as a primary defence mechanism (López-Ojeda & Hurley, 2022). Avoidance offers short-term relief but prevents the traumatic memory from being safely reactivated, so it can update with new, safe information. Trauma reminders such as flashbacks continue to trigger extreme distress and fear (Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). This traps the individual in a maladaptive, self-reinforcing avoidance cycle (Figure 4 below). At a neural level, Wesphal et al. (2017) link this to [[wikipedia:Transdiagnostic_process|transdiagnostic]] [[w:Emotional_dysregulation|emotion dysregulation]], in which the traumatic memory network (TMN) remains isolated from the brains [[w:Salience_network|salience]] and central executive networks. Effective treatment requires safely reactivating this network so the memory can be integrated rather than avoided (Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b; Westphal et al., 2017). A 2025 study of Danish military veterans (''n''=142) found emotional regulation difficulties explained an additional 28% of the variance in PTSD symptoms, which when combined with [[w:Comorbidity|comorbid]] symptoms, these factors accounted for 52% of the variance in PTSD severity (''F''(13, 92) = 9.58, ''p'' <0.001). Impulse control difficulties (ß = 0.32'', p'' = 0.005) and non-acceptance of emotional responses (ß = 0.20'', p'' = 0.05) were among the strongest predictors (Elklit & Dahl, 2025).[[File:Avoidance and Processing Cycles.png|500x500px|thumb|'''Figure 4'''. Highlights the typical flow of an avoidance cycle and the anticipated positive responses generated via immersive therapies. Based on concepts introduced in journal articles by Lopez-Ojeda et al. (2022), Felemban et al. (2026), and Vermetten et. al. (2025b).|center]] === Why treatment can be difficult === Traditional trauma-focused psychotherapies such as [[w:Prolonged_exposure_therapy|prolonged exposure]] (PE) and [[w:Cognitive_processing_therapy|cognitive processing therapy]] (CPT) work by asking patients to actively engage with distressing memories in to generate fear extinction (van Toorenburg et al., 2020). However, this is precisely what avoidance prevents, with many patients unable to tolerate the emotional exposure and memory activation these therapies require (Lopes et al., 2025; van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). As the individual cannot confront the trauma trigger in a safe environment, the brain cannot experience a prediction error and learn that a threat is no longer present. Consequently, the threat perception and threat response remain persistent within the PTSD patient, perpetuating the PTSD symptoms indefinitely. (de Haart et al., 2026; López-Ojeda & Hurley, 2022). This difficulty is reflected in treatment outcomes where an estimated 39.2% of patients fail to respond to standard trauma-focused therapy, while dropout rates range between 16-48% (de Haart et al., 2026; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). Non-response is not uniform, among military veterans younger patients tend to show heightened symptom severity when the trauma is central to their personal identity, while others turn to poor diet or coping orientated substance abuse to suppress negative emotions, further eroding emotional regulation (Efremov, 2025; Niles et al., 2023). [[w:Emotional_dysregulation|Emotional dysregulation]] was historically viewed as a fixed barrier requiring a lengthy stabilisation phase before treatment could begin (van Toorenburg et al., 2020). More recent evidence however suggests otherwise, as emotional regulation has dynamic capacity and standard trauma-focused treatments can improve emotion regulation as a natural consequence of successful memory processing (van Toorenburg et al., 2020). This reframes the clinical challenge from being fixed barrier, to one of actively helping an individual safely approach and process the traumatic memory. [[File:UC PhD VR study.png|right|thumb|'''Figure 5.''' PhD work by R. Selvakumaran at the University of Canberra explores cultural and linguistic factors using the US ''Bravemind'' system and Australian veterans and first responders.]]Cultural context adds another layer of difficulty. Doctoral research at the the [[University of Canberra]] is examining how immersive therapy protocols developed in the United States such as the US-centric ''Bravemind''<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://medvr.ict.usc.edu/projects/bravemind.html|title=Bravemind {{!}} MedVR|website=medvr.ict.usc.edu|access-date=2026-08-25}}</ref> (Figure 5) need to be culturally adapted for Australian military veterans and first responders, whose operational backgrounds and rules of engagement differ from their US counterparts (Selvakumaran, 2025). This work integrates exposure therapy with gamified, posture-adaptive cognitive rehabilitation to support motor acuity and improved physical and emotional regulation (Selvakumaran, 2025). These PTSD treatment gaps carry a substantial economic and personal cost, which is part of the motivation for developing more effective alternatives such as immersive therapies.    == How can immersive therapies influence emotional processes? == Developments in immersive PTSD treatments represent a notable shift from traditional approaches to psychological trauma care. Rather than relying on sedentary, largely passive therapeutic environments, these interventions shift clinical practice toward active, embodied, highly interactive, and engaging contexts (van Gelderen et al., 2018). To understand how these emerging interventions alter emotional responses and behaviours, it is necessary to examine three psychological mechanisms and their interaction: multisensory presence, embodied cognition, and divergent thinking (López-Ojeda & Hurley, 2022; van Gelderen et al., 2018). Immersion therapy goes beyond the simple visual replication of a trauma memory; instead, it begins to capture the participant’s visceral and cognitive focus by limiting distractions and developing a state of physical and mental engagement (Macey et al., 2026). Embodied cognition is the concept of how physical states of the body can directly modify states of the mind (van Gelderen et al., 2018). In active immersive therapies such as 3MDR, physically walking toward a virtual trauma reminder can alter the patient’s appraisal of safety, promoting associative memory access and facilitating open-ended divergent thinking patterns that disrupt previously learned rigid, repetitive trauma loops (van Gelderen et al., 2018). === What is immersive therapy? === [[File:XR and Human Senses.png|right|thumb|'''Figure 6.''' The Extended Reality environment and its interaction with the human brain. Designed to give readers a simple understanding of emerging technologies used in immersive PTSD environments.]]Immersive therapies<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-01|title=Immersion therapy|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Immersion_therapy&oldid=1357152847|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> use [[w:Extended_reality|extended reality]](XR) platforms, encompassing [[virtual reality]] (VR), [[Augmented Reality|augmented reality]] (AR), and [[w:Mixed_reality_game|mixed reality]] (MR), to create customisable, controlled, and standardised therapeutic environments (López-Ojeda & Hurley, 2022; Wiederhold & Wiederhold, 2025). This XR digital ecosystem, as depicted in Figure 6. Two clinical therapy applications are the focus of this chapter: virtual reality exposure therapy (VRET) where therapists reconstruct traumatic scenarios in safe, graded environments; and multi-modal motion assisted memory desensitisation and reconsolidation (3MDR), which extends this by having the patient move on a treadmill towards a panoramic display, side by side with their therapist, rather than a stationary, face to face session (de Haart et al., 2026; Felemban et al., 2026). === Presence and embodied cognition === Immersive therapy’s distinguishing feature is its ability to generate presence, or the psychological illusion of being ‘there’. This illusion is amplified by integrating synchronised audio, visual, olfactory, haptic, and movement stimuli (Lopes et al., 2025; López-Ojeda & Hurley, 2022). The presence effect then increases engagement with the trauma memory and supports emotional processing (van Gelderen et al., 2018). In active therapies such as 3MDR, presence combines with cognition. The working principle is that physical states of the body can directly shape states of the mind (van Gelderen et al., 2018). Physically walking towards a virtual trauma reminder functions as a fear antagonistic action (FAA) and rather than retreating in avoidance, the patient approaches, converting passive helplessness into active, empowered participation (de Haart et al., 2026; van Gelderen et al., 2018). This movement towards the active approach generates immediate neurocognitive stress responses that include bypassing severe avoidance behaviours and boosting divergent thinking approaches, which can disrupt rigid and repetitive trauma narratives (Boska et al., 2025; Osman et al., 2016; van Gelderen et al., 2018). Notably, this benefit does not seem to be driven by exercise physiology which suggests moderate-to-high-intensity physical activity is required to consolidate extinction learning by stimulating [[w:Brain-derived_neurotrophic_factor|brain-derived neurotrophic factor]] (BDNF); however, the walking pace in 3MDR therapy (< 4 km/h) is too low to generate meaningful BDNF secretion. This suggests the mechanisms of benefit is primarily psychological and behavioural. It is the approach action itself and the cognitive restructuring it enables, rather than physiological causes (de Haart et al., 2026). === Prediction error and inhibitory learning === Immersive therapy builds on the inhibitory learning model of exposure therapy, in which a new, safe association actively competes with and suppresses the original conditioned fear response. Walking towards a trauma cue and encountering safety instead of the expected catastrophe creates a profound prediction error, a mismatch between the anticipated, catastrophic, life-threatening event and the actual reality of a safe clinical environment. This destabilises the traumatic memory, allowing successful memory reconsolidation work to occur (Felemban et al., 2026; van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b; Wiederhold & Wiederhold, 2025). === Memory reconsolidation === According to [[w:Memory_consolidation|memory reconsolidation]] theory, traumatic memories retrieved in a safe, highly immersive context can enter a [[w:Lability|labile]] '','' or [[w:Malleability_of_intelligence|malleable]] state of memory, during which introducing safe, supportive contextual information allows the memory to be reconsolidated in a non-threatening form (van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). To prevent the patient from becoming overwhelmed during retrieval, 3MDR uses dual-attention tasks such as tracking an oscillating ball (see example in Figure 1). This dual task intentionally taxes the patient’s limited working memory resources and can help reduce the vividness and emotional intensity of the memory (Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). Emerging linguistic research suggests that this processing is also reflected in the patient’s language. Through [[w:Affect_labeling|affective labelling]] visceral feelings such as GUILT are projected into text, patients display substantive cognitive reorganisation. Across successive 3MDR sessions, objective [[w:Marker_(linguistics)|linguistic markers]] indicated a shift from past-tense trauma narratives to present-tense verb use, all this consistent with a renewed ability to articulate emotional states and integrate traumatic moments into present-moment awareness (Vermetten, Barcaro, et al., 2025a). == '''What does the research evidence show?''' == Immersive therapies help translate or facilitate psychological change by serving as a medium for Emotional Processing Theory and inhibitory learning (López-Ojeda & Hurley, 2022; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). Within these highly controlled clinical environments, patients can be systematically exposed to trauma cues that provide specific discomfort to the individual undergoing treatment. This exposure helps disconfirm existing threat expectations and overcome cognitive and behavioural barriers such as active resistance or amnesia, which have been associated with barriers in traditional therapies (Macey et al., 2026; Wiederhold & Wiederhold, 2025). Addressing these treatment barriers is important for any PTSD population, but in the literature concerning military populations, it appears particularly critical, as they suffer high psychotherapy failure rates. van Gelderen et al. (2018) cite two-thirds of veterans retaining a PTSD diagnosis after standard treatments and clinical dropout rates of up to 78%. Immersive therapies such as the virtual reality ones discussed above can tailor increasingly specific, patient-selected trauma cues to enhance memory accessibility by enabling precise retrieval of traumatic memory networks (Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). === Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy === [[w:Virtual_reality_therapy|VRET]] reconstructs traumatic events within a safe, structured context (Felemban et al., 2026; López-Ojeda & Hurley, 2022). Bypassing imagination challenges such as emotional numbing or amnesia that can prevent a PTSD patient engaging with traditional image exposure therapy (Macey et al., 2026). A meta-analysis of the VRET for PTSD found substantial within-group symptom reductions, averaging a 33.73-point decrease in the 0-80 point [[w:Clinician_Administered_PTSD_Scale|Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale]] (CAPS) and a 20.96-point decrease in the 0-80 point [https://www.ptsd.va.gov/professional/assessment/adult-sr/ptsd-checklist.asp PTSD Checklist PCL-5) scale] (Felemban et al., 2026). Because changes of 10-20 points on these scales are usually considered clinically significant, this could mean the difference between severe functional impairment and mild or subclinical symptoms (Boska et al., 2025; de Haart et al., 2026; Felemban et al., 2026).  Comparative effects against other active PTSD treatments remain modest, but VRET appears to be a more engaging alternative to conventional treatment options (Felemban et al., 2026) === 3MDR === 3MDR takes the same multisensory presence effect used in VRET and adds an activating context. Rather than a sedentary, face-to-face session, the patient and the therapist face the virtual display together, side by side (van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). It follows a three-phase protocol: pre-platform preparation, platform treadmill exposure, and post-platform re-consolidation (Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). In a trial involving treatment-resistant PTSD; 3MDR showed large effect sizes from pre-treatment to six month follow up (''n'' = 134, ''d'' = 1.0) and high acceptability, with dropout rates of 7-20%, substantially lower than the 16-48% typical of standard trauma-focused therapy in military populations (de Haart et al., 2026; Lewis et al., 2020; van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). Improvements are not limited to PTSD symptoms. A trial of 62 adults with severe PTSD, including childhood sexual trauma, found intensive trauma-focused treatment improved emotion-regulation abilities regardless of PTSD outcome, even among patients with severe baseline difficulties (van Toorenburg et al., 2020). Some researchers link this broader improvement to positive psychology [[w:Broaden-and-build|Broaden-and-Build Theory]]. The theory being that as patients regain a sense of safety and control, this may support a positive of emotional flexibility that reinforces the recovery process (Fredrickson, 2001; Niles et al., 2023; Westphal et al., 2017). Table 1 below summarises the main differences and psychological mechanisms discussed above. {{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Quiz}} <quiz display=simple> {Which of the following is an expected outcome of immersive therapy ? |type="()"} - Patients are at risk because of an uncontrolled environment. - The environments represent traditional face-to-face treatments. - Failure and dropout rates are higher than traditional PTSD treatment. + Patients often broaden and build an upward spiral of emotion and optimism. </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} '''Table 1:''' Treatment Effects and Psychological Mechanisms {| class="wikitable" | valign="top" |'''Clinical Dimension''' | valign="top" |'''Traditional Exposure''' | valign="top" |'''Immersive Approach''' | valign="top" |'''Psychological Mechanisms''' |- | valign="top" |'''Therapeutic Context''' | valign="top" |'''''Sedentary'''''. Face-to-face, verbally describes trauma. | valign="top" |'''''Activating.''''' Dynamic, multi-sensory environment. | valign="top" |'''''Fear Antagonistic Action.''''' '''''Approach behaviours.''''' '''''Prediction Errors.''''' |- | valign="top" |'''Trauma cue delivery''' | valign="top" |'''''Imaginary Retrieval''''' Patient capacity | valign="top" |'''''Multisensory Immersion''''' Highly tailored | valign="top" |'''''External Scaffolding.''''' Bypasses internal barriers to activate memory networks. |- | valign="top" |'''Processing''' '''and attention''' | valign="top" |'''''Convergent processing.''''' Repeated narration and fear habituation. | valign="top" |'''''Active Narrative Processing.''''' Interactive, real-time affective labelling and dual attention tasks. | valign="top" |'''''Working Memory.''''' Memory taxation reduces vividness and emotional intensity. |- | valign="top" |'''Engagement''' | valign="top" |'''''Attrition.''''' High dropout rates 16-48%. | valign="top" |'''''Acceptability.''''' Attractive. Dropout rates 7-20%. | valign="top" |'''''Sustained Motivation.''''' Presence and safety in immersive environment. |} === Applied Example: 3MDR treatment in Ukraine === {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''Scenario: The Hotspots of War; Ukraine War: an applied 3MDR example''' Andriy* used to be a baker in Kyiv. He is now a volunteer in the Ukrainian Armed Forces struggling with hyper-vigilance, anxiety, and depression (Kukharuk et al., 2025). Traditional ‘talk’ therapy feels impossible; his mind stays in a constant state of combat readiness, even in a quiet room. In the pre-platform phase of 3MDR, Andriy worked with his therapist to identify a ‘hotspot’ memory, represented by a photograph. On the treadmill, harnessed and walking beside his therapist, he faces a panoramic screen as personalised warm-up music plays, selected to keep him in touch with his traumatic memory network (Vermetten et al., 2025b). As his hotspot image fills the screen, his therapist asks three structured questions (Vermetten et al., 2025b): 1. What do you '''SEE''' ? 2. What does it '''TELL''' you? 3. What do you '''FEEL''' in your body NOW? When Andriy identifies a surge of shame, the word '''GUILT''' is displayed as an affective label and a dual-attention task begins. He tracks an oscillating, numbered ball while he stays with the emotion, taxing his working memory and reducing the intensity of the recalled trauma. [[File:Andriy 3MDR enhanced.gif|center|600x600px]] '''Figure 7.''' Andriy, alongside his therapist, moves through his 3MDR treatment, integrating multi-sensory input and motion while harnessed to a treadmill. By the end of the session, Andriy has physically walked towards what he used to avoid, creating a mismatch between his expectation of threat and his current safety, turning a rigid, stuck memory into a manageable narrative *''Andriy is a fictional name given to one of 69 male Ukrainian veterans who participated in a 2023 Randomised Controlled Trial in Kyiv. Many were demobilised after one year because of mental or neurological injuries'' (Kukharuk et al., 2025). {{RoundBoxBottom}} == What are the costs and limitations of immersive therapies? == PTSD carries a substantial economic burden. It was associated with an estimated US$232 billion in excess costs in the United States in 2018 and over $£40 billion, in the United Kingdom, 92.4% of which was indirect rather than direct clinical cost (Davis et al., 2022; Montgomery-Marks et al., 2025). In Australia, the average annual cost of PTSD per military veteran was estimated at $112,172 in 2025 (Magnusson & Dey, 2025). In addition, individual healthcare costs surge by 142% in the year following a PTSD diagnosis, with comorbidities tripling this effect (Bothe et al., 2020). These figures span several countries and years and should be best read as an indication of scale rather than as directly comparable totals. Immersive therapy’s ability to move from small trials into mainstream PTSD treatment remains limited by methodological [[w:Homogeneity_and_heterogeneity|heterogeneity]], small sample sizes, and a lack of long-term data (Felemban et al., 2026). Practical issues such as [[w:Virtual_reality_sickness|cyber sickness]] or motion sickness can also disrupt participation (Kukharuk et al., 2025). Structural barriers include workforce training and equipment costs. Basic VR systems cost an estimated US$3,500 per provider headset annually, and advanced simulation environments can cost up to US$200,000 (Garrett et al., 2018). Despite this, adoption of immersive therapy is scaling. The [[w:United_States_Department_of_Veterans_Affairs|United States Veterans Affairs]] have expanded VR use from five medical centres in 2017 to over 154 centres and 2,300 trained staff, with applications now including over 40 documented clinical interventions such as chronic pain and suicide intervention (Bailey et al., 2024). Market analysts estimate the global PTSD-focused VR therapy market was worth US$1.59 billion in 2025, forecast to reach US$5.94 billion by 2032, driven largely by growing mental health awareness and the absence of standard clinical protocols (Stratistics MRC, 2025). These limitations do not undermine the case for immersive therapy, but they show its evidence base and infrastructure are still maturing. Demonstrating rigorously why these therapies work, rather than assuming their novelty accounts for their effects is essential to avoid misallocating resources to unproven interventions and supports a paradigm shift, from a narrow, disease model towards one that values post-traumatic growth and renewed optimism (Trejo et al., 2015; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b; Wiederhold & Wiederhold, 2025). == Conclusion == PTSD traps people in a self-reinforcing cycle of avoidance that blocks the adaptive processing trauma memories need to resolve (see: ''Understanding PTSD and emotions''). Standard trauma-focused therapies require patients to confront exactly what this cycle causes them to avoid, which contributes to high, non-response and dropout rates (see ''Why treatment can be difficult''). Immersive therapies such as VRET and 3MDR address this by using presence, embodied cognition, prediction error and memory reconsolidation to help patients safely approach trauma cues rather than avoid them (see: ''What does the research evidence show''). The technology itself is only a delivery mechanism, it is the psychological processes that drive change. The evidence to date shows meaningful reductions in PTSD symptoms and comparatively low drop-out rates, alongside broader gains in emotional regulation. However, small samples, methodological variation, and a lack of long-term data mean the evidence base is still developing, and cost and infrastructure barriers remain significant (see ''costs and limitations'').{{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} [[File:Nuvola apps kuser.svg|Nuvola apps kuser|left|20px]] ''' Take-home message:''' Immersive therapies do not heal PTSD trauma through technological novelty or digital feedback. Instead, they create a safe, dynamic space that lets individuals confront trauma and reprocess memories into something they can live with. In doing so, people’s lives may once again shift toward value, optimism, and wellness.{{RoundBoxBottom}} == See also == {{ic|Add bullet points and rename links; add Wikipedia links}} * [[Evidence-based assessment/Posttraumatic stress disorder (disorder portfolio)]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Textbook/Emotion/Anxiety]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Phobias]] (Book Chapter) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Sense hacking]] (Book Chapter) == References == {{Hanging indent|Bailey, A. L., Kirsh, S., Rawlins, C., Persky, S., & Clancy, C. (2024). Early scaling of immersive technology within the Veterans Health Administration. NEJM Catalyst Innovations in Care Delivery, 5(4). https://doi.org/10.1056/cat.23.0356 Boska, R. L., Bishop, T. M., Capron, D. W., Paxton Willing, M. M., & Ashrafioun, L. (2025). 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Emotion regulation in immersive virtual reality environments: A scoping review. Interacting with Computers, 29, 1-20. https://doi.org/10.1093/iwc/iwag029 Niles, B., Lang, A., & Olff, M. (2023). Complementary and integrative interventions for PTSD. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 14(2), 2247888. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008066.2023.2247888 Osman, A., Paczynski, M., & Jha, A. P. (2016). Affective expectations influence neural responses to stressful images in soldiers. Military Psychology, 29(1), 41-57. https://doi.org/10.1037/mil0000128 Selvakumaran, R. V. (2025). Developing virtual reality (VR) simulations with embedded user analytics for cognitive rehabilitation in PTSD veterans. In Proceedings of the 27th International Conference on Multimodal Interaction (pp. 740-744). ACM. https://doi.org/10.1145/3716553.3750826 Stratistics MRC. (2025). Virtual reality therapy for PTSD market forecasts to 2032: Global analysis by component (hardware, software and service), therapy type, application, end user and by geography. https://www.strategymrc.com/report/virtual-reality-therapy-for-ptsd-market Trejo, B. C., Richard, E. M., van Driel, M., & McDonald, D. P. (2015). Cross-cultural competence: The role of emotion regulation ability and optimism. Military Psychology, 27(5), 276-286. https://doi.org/10.1037/mil0000081 van Gelderen, M. J., Nijdam, M. J., & Vermetten, E. (2018). An innovative framework for delivering psychotherapy to patients with treatment-resistant posttraumatic stress disorder: Rationale for interactive motion-assisted therapy. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 9, 176. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00176 van Toorenburg, M. M., Sanches, S. A., Linders, B., Rozendaal, L., Voorendonk, E. M., Van Minnen, A., & De Jongh, A. (2020). Do emotion regulation difficulties affect outcome of intensive trauma-focused treatment of patients with severe PTSD? European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 11(1), 1724417. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2020.1724417 Vermetten, E., Barcaro, S., Espejo, E., Bellini, P., Roy, M. J., & Bremault-Phillips, S. (2025a). Linguistic analysis of patients’ labels during 3MDR psychotherapy. Psychiatry and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 35(Suppl. 1), S29. https://doi.org/10.5152/pcp.2025.241024 Vermetten, E., Burback, L., Sevigny, P. R., Nijdam, M. J., Winkler, O., Espejo, E., Sessoms, P., Bright, K., Roy, M. J., & Brémault-Phillips, S. (2025b). Brief manual for multi-modal motion-assisted memory desensitization and reconsolidation therapy for the treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder. Psychiatry and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 35(Suppl. 1), S122. https://doi.org/10.5152/pcp.2025.241028 Westphal, M., Aldao, A., & Jackson, C. (2017). Emotion dysregulation in comorbid posttraumatic stress disorder and substance use disorders: A narrative review. Military Psychology, 29(3), 216-233. https://doi.org/10.1037/mil0000157 Wiederhold, B. K., & Wiederhold, M. D. (2025). Virtual reality therapy combined with physiological monitoring provides effective treatment, with objective metrics, for post-traumatic stress disorder. Expert Review of Medical Devices, 22(2), 117-119. https://doi.org/10.1080/17434440.2025.2454930 }} == External links == {{ic|Add bullet points, hyperlink name of link, including source in parentheses}} '''Web:''' National Center for PTSD (USA) https://www.ptsd.va.gov/index.asp '''Web:''' VA Immersive Pilot Programs & Collaborations<nowiki/>https://www.innovation.va.gov/hil/views/immersive/immersive-programs.html '''Web:''' Australian Government Health advice - PTSD https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/post-traumatic-stress-disorder-ptsd '''Web:''' Australian Royal Commission into Defence and Veteran Suicide: Final Report<nowiki/>https://defenceveteransuicide.royalcommission.gov.au/publications/final-report '''Podcast:''' Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)https://shows.acast.com/5c3353e484e2e79370e1d135/5c3353ef84e2e79370e1d13c '''Video:''' 3MDR: Virtual reality treatment for veterans with PTSD https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bD43R_oa6qo '''Video:''' VR Exposure for Combat PTSD with EMDR Integration https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jL2bKmniMTc '''Final Report:''' Randomised control trial of 3MDR for treatment of resistant PTSD in military veterans<nowiki/>https://www.ncmh.info/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/Cardiff-3MDR-Study-Final-Report-with-cover-21.5.20.pdf [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Psychotherapy]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Trauma]] jv6i0bkos70e9gnhmc63dl9jk4zb9rf 2832599 2832598 2026-09-10T12:03:12Z StretchBeyond 3105744 /* What does the research evidence show? */ 2832599 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment:<br>How does it work and what are the effects?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''Scenario: Immersive PTSD therapies''' Andriy, a Ukranian soldier, harnessed to a treadmill, walks towards a screen displaying an image he spent months avoiding. His therapist beside him. This is multi-modular motion assisted memory desensitisation and reconsolidation (3MDR), one of a new generation of immersive therapies being used to treat post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). [[File:Andriy 3MDR enhanced.gif|center|600x600px]] '''Figure 1.''' Andriy, alongside his therapist, moves through his 3MDR treatment. Learn about more about immersive therapy and Andriy’s* experience in the chapter below (*Andriy is a fictional name used for this scenario). {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[File:Post-traumatic_stress_disorder_world_map_-_DALY_-_WHO2004.svg|alt=|thumb|271x271px|'''Figure 2:''' The 2024 World Health Organisation estimates 3.9% of the world population has had post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) at some stage in their lives.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/post-traumatic-stress-disorder|title=Post-traumatic stress disorder|website=www.who.int|language=en|access-date=2026-08-17}}</ref>]] [[w:Post-traumatic_stress_disorder|Post-traumatic stress disorder]] (PTSD) develops after exposure to severe or life-threatening trauma and carries a substantial personal and societal cost, estimated in the hundreds of billions of dollars annually worldwide (Figure 2), with sub-communities such as military personnel having an increased likelihood of representation (Boska et al., 2025). Further detail in costs and limitations below (Davis et al., 2022; Montgomery-Marks et al., 2025). PTSDs emotional impact is shaped by [[w:Emotional_dysregulation|emotional dysregulation]], in which people struggle to manage intense feelings such as guilt, fear or shame (Westphal et al., 2017).This commonly triggers a cycle of [[Cognitive psychology|cognitive]] and behavioural avoidance that offers short-term relief but prevents traumatic memory from being adaptively processed, leaving the person trapped in a cycle of avoidance and a state of chronic, hyper arousal (Efremov, 2025; de Haart et al., 2026; van Gelderen et al., 2018). Immersive interventions, including [[w:Virtual_reality_therapy|virtual reality exposure therapy]] (VRET) and multi-modular motion assisted memory desensitisation and reconsolidation (3MDR) aim to break this cognitive avoidance cycle by creating controlled environments in which trauma cues can be safely approached rather than avoided (van Gelderen et al., 2018; Wiederhold & Wiederhold, 2025). This chapter explains the psychological theory behind these approaches, reviews the research evidence for their effects and considers current limitations. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''Focus questions'''[[File:Crystal Clear app ktip.svg|left|20px|]] * Why is emotional processing important in PTSD? * How can immersive therapies influence the emotional processes underlying PTSD? * What does the research evidence show? * What are the costs and limitations of immersive therapies? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Why is emotional processing important in PTSD? == PTSD frequently develops after exposure to severe or life-threatening trauma and it is formally diagnosed according to [[w:DSM-5|DSM-5]] criteria. Sufferers experience chronic hyper-vigilance, mental hyper arousal and a disruption to executive and emotional processing systems (Kukharuk et al., 2025; Osman et al., 2016). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}[[Image:Crystal Clear app help index.svg|left|50px]] ;Predict the outcome A soldier with PTSD encounters a trauma-related image and expects: '''TRAUMA CUE → DANGER → DISTRESS → AVOID''' However, during immersive treatment, the expected danger does not occur. What is the most likely consequence?<quiz display=simple> { |type="()"} - Fear increases permanently. - Memory cannot change. + Prediction error creates an opportunity for new learning. - Emotional processing stops.  } </quiz> <div style="text-align:right; color:red; font-weight:bold;"> Click "show" below to understand more⤵ </div> {{Hidden begin|title=Please pause and predict the answer before opening this section}}The correct answer is '''C'''. <div style="text-align:left; color:black; font-weight:regular;"> The mismatch between expected danger and actual safety creates a '''prediction error'''. This may contribute to fear extinction, emotion regulation, and memory reconsolidation.'''Think about it:''' If approaching rather than avoiding trauma can create new learning, what role might emotion regulation, fear extinction, prediction error and memory reconsolidation play? </div>   {{Hidden end}} <div style="text-align:left; color:black; font-weight:regular;">''Keep your thoughts in mind as you read the chapter below and explore the evidence for these mechanisms, and their role in immersive PTSD treatment''. * A fictional name assigned for the learning scenario. </div> {{RoundBoxBottom}} === Understanding PTSD and emotions === PTSD is characterised by difficulty in adaptively processing traumatic events. This disruption produces symptoms such as intrusive memories, flashbacks and nightmares, heightened threat perception, hyper-vigilance and persistent negative emotional states as depicted in Figure 3 (Felemban et al., 2026; López-Ojeda & Hurley, 2022). [[File:PTSD.png|left|thumb|'''Figure 3. PTSD can have a deep and lasting impact on our emotions.''']]Emotional processing theory suggests that recovering from trauma requires the fear structure held in the memory to be activated and updated with corrective information. In PTSD this process is blocked and to manage this intense physiological and emotional stress, many individuals will adopt cognitive and behavioural avoidance as a primary defence mechanism (López-Ojeda & Hurley, 2022). Avoidance offers short-term relief but prevents the traumatic memory from being safely reactivated, so it can update with new, safe information. Trauma reminders such as flashbacks continue to trigger extreme distress and fear (Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). This traps the individual in a maladaptive, self-reinforcing avoidance cycle (Figure 4 below). At a neural level, Wesphal et al. (2017) link this to [[wikipedia:Transdiagnostic_process|transdiagnostic]] [[w:Emotional_dysregulation|emotion dysregulation]], in which the traumatic memory network (TMN) remains isolated from the brains [[w:Salience_network|salience]] and central executive networks. Effective treatment requires safely reactivating this network so the memory can be integrated rather than avoided (Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b; Westphal et al., 2017). A 2025 study of Danish military veterans (''n''=142) found emotional regulation difficulties explained an additional 28% of the variance in PTSD symptoms, which when combined with [[w:Comorbidity|comorbid]] symptoms, these factors accounted for 52% of the variance in PTSD severity (''F''(13, 92) = 9.58, ''p'' <0.001). Impulse control difficulties (ß = 0.32'', p'' = 0.005) and non-acceptance of emotional responses (ß = 0.20'', p'' = 0.05) were among the strongest predictors (Elklit & Dahl, 2025).[[File:Avoidance and Processing Cycles.png|500x500px|thumb|'''Figure 4'''. Highlights the typical flow of an avoidance cycle and the anticipated positive responses generated via immersive therapies. Based on concepts introduced in journal articles by Lopez-Ojeda et al. (2022), Felemban et al. (2026), and Vermetten et. al. (2025b).|center]] === Why treatment can be difficult === Traditional trauma-focused psychotherapies such as [[w:Prolonged_exposure_therapy|prolonged exposure]] (PE) and [[w:Cognitive_processing_therapy|cognitive processing therapy]] (CPT) work by asking patients to actively engage with distressing memories in to generate fear extinction (van Toorenburg et al., 2020). However, this is precisely what avoidance prevents, with many patients unable to tolerate the emotional exposure and memory activation these therapies require (Lopes et al., 2025; van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). As the individual cannot confront the trauma trigger in a safe environment, the brain cannot experience a prediction error and learn that a threat is no longer present. Consequently, the threat perception and threat response remain persistent within the PTSD patient, perpetuating the PTSD symptoms indefinitely. (de Haart et al., 2026; López-Ojeda & Hurley, 2022). This difficulty is reflected in treatment outcomes where an estimated 39.2% of patients fail to respond to standard trauma-focused therapy, while dropout rates range between 16-48% (de Haart et al., 2026; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). Non-response is not uniform, among military veterans younger patients tend to show heightened symptom severity when the trauma is central to their personal identity, while others turn to poor diet or coping orientated substance abuse to suppress negative emotions, further eroding emotional regulation (Efremov, 2025; Niles et al., 2023). [[w:Emotional_dysregulation|Emotional dysregulation]] was historically viewed as a fixed barrier requiring a lengthy stabilisation phase before treatment could begin (van Toorenburg et al., 2020). More recent evidence however suggests otherwise, as emotional regulation has dynamic capacity and standard trauma-focused treatments can improve emotion regulation as a natural consequence of successful memory processing (van Toorenburg et al., 2020). This reframes the clinical challenge from being fixed barrier, to one of actively helping an individual safely approach and process the traumatic memory. [[File:UC PhD VR study.png|right|thumb|'''Figure 5.''' PhD work by R. Selvakumaran at the University of Canberra explores cultural and linguistic factors using the US ''Bravemind'' system and Australian veterans and first responders.]]Cultural context adds another layer of difficulty. Doctoral research at the the [[University of Canberra]] is examining how immersive therapy protocols developed in the United States such as the US-centric ''Bravemind''<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://medvr.ict.usc.edu/projects/bravemind.html|title=Bravemind {{!}} MedVR|website=medvr.ict.usc.edu|access-date=2026-08-25}}</ref> (Figure 5) need to be culturally adapted for Australian military veterans and first responders, whose operational backgrounds and rules of engagement differ from their US counterparts (Selvakumaran, 2025). This work integrates exposure therapy with gamified, posture-adaptive cognitive rehabilitation to support motor acuity and improved physical and emotional regulation (Selvakumaran, 2025). These PTSD treatment gaps carry a substantial economic and personal cost, which is part of the motivation for developing more effective alternatives such as immersive therapies.    == How can immersive therapies influence emotional processes? == Developments in immersive PTSD treatments represent a notable shift from traditional approaches to psychological trauma care. Rather than relying on sedentary, largely passive therapeutic environments, these interventions shift clinical practice toward active, embodied, highly interactive, and engaging contexts (van Gelderen et al., 2018). To understand how these emerging interventions alter emotional responses and behaviours, it is necessary to examine three psychological mechanisms and their interaction: multisensory presence, embodied cognition, and divergent thinking (López-Ojeda & Hurley, 2022; van Gelderen et al., 2018). Immersion therapy goes beyond the simple visual replication of a trauma memory; instead, it begins to capture the participant’s visceral and cognitive focus by limiting distractions and developing a state of physical and mental engagement (Macey et al., 2026). Embodied cognition is the concept of how physical states of the body can directly modify states of the mind (van Gelderen et al., 2018). In active immersive therapies such as 3MDR, physically walking toward a virtual trauma reminder can alter the patient’s appraisal of safety, promoting associative memory access and facilitating open-ended divergent thinking patterns that disrupt previously learned rigid, repetitive trauma loops (van Gelderen et al., 2018). === What is immersive therapy? === [[File:XR and Human Senses.png|right|thumb|'''Figure 6.''' The Extended Reality environment and its interaction with the human brain. Designed to give readers a simple understanding of emerging technologies used in immersive PTSD environments.]]Immersive therapies<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-01|title=Immersion therapy|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Immersion_therapy&oldid=1357152847|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> use [[w:Extended_reality|extended reality]](XR) platforms, encompassing [[virtual reality]] (VR), [[Augmented Reality|augmented reality]] (AR), and [[w:Mixed_reality_game|mixed reality]] (MR), to create customisable, controlled, and standardised therapeutic environments (López-Ojeda & Hurley, 2022; Wiederhold & Wiederhold, 2025). This XR digital ecosystem, as depicted in Figure 6. Two clinical therapy applications are the focus of this chapter: virtual reality exposure therapy (VRET) where therapists reconstruct traumatic scenarios in safe, graded environments; and multi-modal motion assisted memory desensitisation and reconsolidation (3MDR), which extends this by having the patient move on a treadmill towards a panoramic display, side by side with their therapist, rather than a stationary, face to face session (de Haart et al., 2026; Felemban et al., 2026). === Presence and embodied cognition === Immersive therapy’s distinguishing feature is its ability to generate presence, or the psychological illusion of being ‘there’. This illusion is amplified by integrating synchronised audio, visual, olfactory, haptic, and movement stimuli (Lopes et al., 2025; López-Ojeda & Hurley, 2022). The presence effect then increases engagement with the trauma memory and supports emotional processing (van Gelderen et al., 2018). In active therapies such as 3MDR, presence combines with cognition. The working principle is that physical states of the body can directly shape states of the mind (van Gelderen et al., 2018). Physically walking towards a virtual trauma reminder functions as a fear antagonistic action (FAA) and rather than retreating in avoidance, the patient approaches, converting passive helplessness into active, empowered participation (de Haart et al., 2026; van Gelderen et al., 2018). This movement towards the active approach generates immediate neurocognitive stress responses that include bypassing severe avoidance behaviours and boosting divergent thinking approaches, which can disrupt rigid and repetitive trauma narratives (Boska et al., 2025; Osman et al., 2016; van Gelderen et al., 2018). Notably, this benefit does not seem to be driven by exercise physiology which suggests moderate-to-high-intensity physical activity is required to consolidate extinction learning by stimulating [[w:Brain-derived_neurotrophic_factor|brain-derived neurotrophic factor]] (BDNF); however, the walking pace in 3MDR therapy (< 4 km/h) is too low to generate meaningful BDNF secretion. This suggests the mechanisms of benefit is primarily psychological and behavioural. It is the approach action itself and the cognitive restructuring it enables, rather than physiological causes (de Haart et al., 2026). === Prediction error and inhibitory learning === Immersive therapy builds on the inhibitory learning model of exposure therapy, in which a new, safe association actively competes with and suppresses the original conditioned fear response. Walking towards a trauma cue and encountering safety instead of the expected catastrophe creates a profound prediction error, a mismatch between the anticipated, catastrophic, life-threatening event and the actual reality of a safe clinical environment. This destabilises the traumatic memory, allowing successful memory reconsolidation work to occur (Felemban et al., 2026; van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b; Wiederhold & Wiederhold, 2025). === Memory reconsolidation === According to [[w:Memory_consolidation|memory reconsolidation]] theory, traumatic memories retrieved in a safe, highly immersive context can enter a [[w:Lability|labile]] '','' or [[w:Malleability_of_intelligence|malleable]] state of memory, during which introducing safe, supportive contextual information allows the memory to be reconsolidated in a non-threatening form (van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). To prevent the patient from becoming overwhelmed during retrieval, 3MDR uses dual-attention tasks such as tracking an oscillating ball (see example in Figure 1). This dual task intentionally taxes the patient’s limited working memory resources and can help reduce the vividness and emotional intensity of the memory (Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). Emerging linguistic research suggests that this processing is also reflected in the patient’s language. Through [[w:Affect_labeling|affective labelling]] visceral feelings such as GUILT are projected into text, patients display substantive cognitive reorganisation. Across successive 3MDR sessions, objective [[w:Marker_(linguistics)|linguistic markers]] indicated a shift from past-tense trauma narratives to present-tense verb use, all this consistent with a renewed ability to articulate emotional states and integrate traumatic moments into present-moment awareness (Vermetten, Barcaro, et al., 2025a). == What does the research evidence show? == Immersive therapies help translate or facilitate psychological change by serving as a medium for Emotional Processing Theory and inhibitory learning (López-Ojeda & Hurley, 2022; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). Within these highly controlled clinical environments, patients can be systematically exposed to trauma cues that provide specific discomfort to the individual undergoing treatment. This exposure helps disconfirm existing threat expectations and overcome cognitive and behavioural barriers such as active resistance or amnesia, which have been associated with barriers in traditional therapies (Macey et al., 2026; Wiederhold & Wiederhold, 2025). Addressing these treatment barriers is important for any PTSD population, but in the literature concerning military populations, it appears particularly critical, as they suffer high psychotherapy failure rates. van Gelderen et al. (2018) cite two-thirds of veterans retaining a PTSD diagnosis after standard treatments and clinical dropout rates of up to 78%. Immersive therapies such as the virtual reality ones discussed above can tailor increasingly specific, patient-selected trauma cues to enhance memory accessibility by enabling precise retrieval of traumatic memory networks (Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). === Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy === [[w:Virtual_reality_therapy|VRET]] reconstructs traumatic events within a safe, structured context (Felemban et al., 2026; López-Ojeda & Hurley, 2022). Bypassing imagination challenges such as emotional numbing or amnesia that can prevent a PTSD patient engaging with traditional image exposure therapy (Macey et al., 2026). A meta-analysis of the VRET for PTSD found substantial within-group symptom reductions, averaging a 33.73-point decrease in the 0-80 point [[w:Clinician_Administered_PTSD_Scale|Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale]] (CAPS) and a 20.96-point decrease in the 0-80 point [https://www.ptsd.va.gov/professional/assessment/adult-sr/ptsd-checklist.asp PTSD Checklist PCL-5) scale] (Felemban et al., 2026). Because changes of 10-20 points on these scales are usually considered clinically significant, this could mean the difference between severe functional impairment and mild or subclinical symptoms (Boska et al., 2025; de Haart et al., 2026; Felemban et al., 2026).  Comparative effects against other active PTSD treatments remain modest, but VRET appears to be a more engaging alternative to conventional treatment options (Felemban et al., 2026) === 3MDR === 3MDR takes the same multisensory presence effect used in VRET and adds an activating context. Rather than a sedentary, face-to-face session, the patient and the therapist face the virtual display together, side by side (van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). It follows a three-phase protocol: pre-platform preparation, platform treadmill exposure, and post-platform re-consolidation (Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). In a trial involving treatment-resistant PTSD; 3MDR showed large effect sizes from pre-treatment to six month follow up (''n'' = 134, ''d'' = 1.0) and high acceptability, with dropout rates of 7-20%, substantially lower than the 16-48% typical of standard trauma-focused therapy in military populations (de Haart et al., 2026; Lewis et al., 2020; van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). Improvements are not limited to PTSD symptoms. A trial of 62 adults with severe PTSD, including childhood sexual trauma, found intensive trauma-focused treatment improved emotion-regulation abilities regardless of PTSD outcome, even among patients with severe baseline difficulties (van Toorenburg et al., 2020). Some researchers link this broader improvement to positive psychology [[w:Broaden-and-build|Broaden-and-Build Theory]]. The theory being that as patients regain a sense of safety and control, this may support a positive of emotional flexibility that reinforces the recovery process (Fredrickson, 2001; Niles et al., 2023; Westphal et al., 2017). Table 1 below summarises the main differences and psychological mechanisms discussed above. {{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Quiz}} <quiz display=simple> {Which of the following is an expected outcome of immersive therapy ? |type="()"} - Patients are at risk because of an uncontrolled environment. - The environments represent traditional face-to-face treatments. - Failure and dropout rates are higher than traditional PTSD treatment. + Patients often broaden and build an upward spiral of emotion and optimism. </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} '''Table 1:''' Treatment Effects and Psychological Mechanisms {| class="wikitable" | valign="top" |'''Clinical Dimension''' | valign="top" |'''Traditional Exposure''' | valign="top" |'''Immersive Approach''' | valign="top" |'''Psychological Mechanisms''' |- | valign="top" |'''Therapeutic Context''' | valign="top" |'''''Sedentary'''''. Face-to-face, verbally describes trauma. | valign="top" |'''''Activating.''''' Dynamic, multi-sensory environment. | valign="top" |'''''Fear Antagonistic Action.''''' '''''Approach behaviours.''''' '''''Prediction Errors.''''' |- | valign="top" |'''Trauma cue delivery''' | valign="top" |'''''Imaginary Retrieval''''' Patient capacity | valign="top" |'''''Multisensory Immersion''''' Highly tailored | valign="top" |'''''External Scaffolding.''''' Bypasses internal barriers to activate memory networks. |- | valign="top" |'''Processing''' '''and attention''' | valign="top" |'''''Convergent processing.''''' Repeated narration and fear habituation. | valign="top" |'''''Active Narrative Processing.''''' Interactive, real-time affective labelling and dual attention tasks. | valign="top" |'''''Working Memory.''''' Memory taxation reduces vividness and emotional intensity. |- | valign="top" |'''Engagement''' | valign="top" |'''''Attrition.''''' High dropout rates 16-48%. | valign="top" |'''''Acceptability.''''' Attractive. Dropout rates 7-20%. | valign="top" |'''''Sustained Motivation.''''' Presence and safety in immersive environment. |} === Applied Example: 3MDR treatment in Ukraine === {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''Scenario: The Hotspots of War; Ukraine War: an applied 3MDR example''' Andriy* used to be a baker in Kyiv. He is now a volunteer in the Ukrainian Armed Forces struggling with hyper-vigilance, anxiety, and depression (Kukharuk et al., 2025). Traditional ‘talk’ therapy feels impossible; his mind stays in a constant state of combat readiness, even in a quiet room. In the pre-platform phase of 3MDR, Andriy worked with his therapist to identify a ‘hotspot’ memory, represented by a photograph. On the treadmill, harnessed and walking beside his therapist, he faces a panoramic screen as personalised warm-up music plays, selected to keep him in touch with his traumatic memory network (Vermetten et al., 2025b). As his hotspot image fills the screen, his therapist asks three structured questions (Vermetten et al., 2025b): 1. What do you '''SEE''' ? 2. What does it '''TELL''' you? 3. What do you '''FEEL''' in your body NOW? When Andriy identifies a surge of shame, the word '''GUILT''' is displayed as an affective label and a dual-attention task begins. He tracks an oscillating, numbered ball while he stays with the emotion, taxing his working memory and reducing the intensity of the recalled trauma. [[File:Andriy 3MDR enhanced.gif|center|600x600px]] '''Figure 7.''' Andriy, alongside his therapist, moves through his 3MDR treatment, integrating multi-sensory input and motion while harnessed to a treadmill. By the end of the session, Andriy has physically walked towards what he used to avoid, creating a mismatch between his expectation of threat and his current safety, turning a rigid, stuck memory into a manageable narrative *''Andriy is a fictional name given to one of 69 male Ukrainian veterans who participated in a 2023 Randomised Controlled Trial in Kyiv. Many were demobilised after one year because of mental or neurological injuries'' (Kukharuk et al., 2025). {{RoundBoxBottom}} == What are the costs and limitations of immersive therapies? == PTSD carries a substantial economic burden. It was associated with an estimated US$232 billion in excess costs in the United States in 2018 and over $£40 billion, in the United Kingdom, 92.4% of which was indirect rather than direct clinical cost (Davis et al., 2022; Montgomery-Marks et al., 2025). In Australia, the average annual cost of PTSD per military veteran was estimated at $112,172 in 2025 (Magnusson & Dey, 2025). In addition, individual healthcare costs surge by 142% in the year following a PTSD diagnosis, with comorbidities tripling this effect (Bothe et al., 2020). These figures span several countries and years and should be best read as an indication of scale rather than as directly comparable totals. Immersive therapy’s ability to move from small trials into mainstream PTSD treatment remains limited by methodological [[w:Homogeneity_and_heterogeneity|heterogeneity]], small sample sizes, and a lack of long-term data (Felemban et al., 2026). Practical issues such as [[w:Virtual_reality_sickness|cyber sickness]] or motion sickness can also disrupt participation (Kukharuk et al., 2025). Structural barriers include workforce training and equipment costs. Basic VR systems cost an estimated US$3,500 per provider headset annually, and advanced simulation environments can cost up to US$200,000 (Garrett et al., 2018). Despite this, adoption of immersive therapy is scaling. The [[w:United_States_Department_of_Veterans_Affairs|United States Veterans Affairs]] have expanded VR use from five medical centres in 2017 to over 154 centres and 2,300 trained staff, with applications now including over 40 documented clinical interventions such as chronic pain and suicide intervention (Bailey et al., 2024). Market analysts estimate the global PTSD-focused VR therapy market was worth US$1.59 billion in 2025, forecast to reach US$5.94 billion by 2032, driven largely by growing mental health awareness and the absence of standard clinical protocols (Stratistics MRC, 2025). These limitations do not undermine the case for immersive therapy, but they show its evidence base and infrastructure are still maturing. Demonstrating rigorously why these therapies work, rather than assuming their novelty accounts for their effects is essential to avoid misallocating resources to unproven interventions and supports a paradigm shift, from a narrow, disease model towards one that values post-traumatic growth and renewed optimism (Trejo et al., 2015; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b; Wiederhold & Wiederhold, 2025). == Conclusion == PTSD traps people in a self-reinforcing cycle of avoidance that blocks the adaptive processing trauma memories need to resolve (see: ''Understanding PTSD and emotions''). Standard trauma-focused therapies require patients to confront exactly what this cycle causes them to avoid, which contributes to high, non-response and dropout rates (see ''Why treatment can be difficult''). Immersive therapies such as VRET and 3MDR address this by using presence, embodied cognition, prediction error and memory reconsolidation to help patients safely approach trauma cues rather than avoid them (see: ''What does the research evidence show''). The technology itself is only a delivery mechanism, it is the psychological processes that drive change. The evidence to date shows meaningful reductions in PTSD symptoms and comparatively low drop-out rates, alongside broader gains in emotional regulation. However, small samples, methodological variation, and a lack of long-term data mean the evidence base is still developing, and cost and infrastructure barriers remain significant (see ''costs and limitations'').{{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} [[File:Nuvola apps kuser.svg|Nuvola apps kuser|left|20px]] ''' Take-home message:''' Immersive therapies do not heal PTSD trauma through technological novelty or digital feedback. Instead, they create a safe, dynamic space that lets individuals confront trauma and reprocess memories into something they can live with. In doing so, people’s lives may once again shift toward value, optimism, and wellness.{{RoundBoxBottom}} == See also == {{ic|Add bullet points and rename links; add Wikipedia links}} * [[Evidence-based assessment/Posttraumatic stress disorder (disorder portfolio)]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Textbook/Emotion/Anxiety]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Phobias]] (Book Chapter) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Sense hacking]] (Book Chapter) == References == {{Hanging indent|Bailey, A. L., Kirsh, S., Rawlins, C., Persky, S., & Clancy, C. (2024). Early scaling of immersive technology within the Veterans Health Administration. NEJM Catalyst Innovations in Care Delivery, 5(4). https://doi.org/10.1056/cat.23.0356 Boska, R. L., Bishop, T. M., Capron, D. W., Paxton Willing, M. M., & Ashrafioun, L. (2025). Difficulties with emotion regulation within PTSD clusters and moral injury subtypes. Military Psychology, 37(2), 159-167. https://doi.org/10.1080/08995605.2024.2322904 de Haart, R., Daniels, J. K., Timmerman, M. E., Cath, D. C., & Lommen, M. J. J. (2026). Augmenting virtual reality exposure for PTSD with physical activity: Study protocol of a randomised controlled trial. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 17(1), 2605803. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008066.2025.2605803 Efremov, A. (2025). Age-specific mental health profiles of combat veterans: Post-traumatic stress disorder and related disorders. Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive-Behavior Therapy, 44(4), 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10942-025-00637-7 Elklit, A., & Dahl, N. H. (2025). Emotion regulation difficulties, aggression, and PTSD symptoms in Danish treatment-seeking veterans. Scandinavian Journal of Military Studies, 8(1), 308-326. https://doi.org/10.31374/sjms.264 Felemban, R. G., Alzahrani, R. R., Alrefaei, N. F., Alharbi, N. M., Alghamdi, A. S., & Alqadi, S. (2026). Efficacy of virtual reality-based exposure therapy for post-traumatic stress disorder in military veterans: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 17, 1857109. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1857109 Fredrickson, B. L. (2001). The role of positive emotions in positive psychology: The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. American Psychologist, 56(3), 218-226. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.56.3.218 Garrett, B., Taverner, T., Gromala, D., Tao, G., Cordingley, E., & Sun, C. (2018). Virtual reality clinical research: Promises and challenges. JMIR Serious Games, 6(4), e10839. https://doi.org/10.2196/10839 Kukharuk, O., Tkalich, K., Kamash, N., & Georgiou, O. (2025). Effectiveness of immersive VR therapy in reducing stress-associated symptoms in Ukraine. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 16(1), 2488097. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008066.2025.2488097 Lewis, C., Roberts, N. P., Andrew, M., Starling, E., & Bisson, J. I. (2020). Psychological therapies for post-traumatic stress disorder in adults: Systematic review and meta-analysis. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 11(1), 1729633. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2020.1729633 Lopes, M. K. S., Perreault, L., de Jesus, B. Jr., Roberge, M. C., & Falk, T. H. (2025). Subjective and objective evaluation of the benefits of multisensory virtual nature immersion for patients with post-traumatic stress disorder. In Proceedings of the 17th International Conference on Quality of Multimedia Experience (QoMEX) (pp.1-5). IEEE. https://doi.org/10.1109/QoMEX65720.2025.11219945 López-Ojeda, W., & Hurley, R. A. (2022). Extended reality technologies: Expanding therapeutic approaches for PTSD. The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 34(1), 1-5. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.neuropsych.21100244 Macey, A.-L., Macey, J., & Hamari, J. (2026). Emotion regulation in immersive virtual reality environments: A scoping review. Interacting with Computers, 29, 1-20. https://doi.org/10.1093/iwc/iwag029 Niles, B., Lang, A., & Olff, M. (2023). Complementary and integrative interventions for PTSD. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 14(2), 2247888. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008066.2023.2247888 Osman, A., Paczynski, M., & Jha, A. P. (2016). Affective expectations influence neural responses to stressful images in soldiers. Military Psychology, 29(1), 41-57. https://doi.org/10.1037/mil0000128 Selvakumaran, R. V. (2025). Developing virtual reality (VR) simulations with embedded user analytics for cognitive rehabilitation in PTSD veterans. In Proceedings of the 27th International Conference on Multimodal Interaction (pp. 740-744). ACM. https://doi.org/10.1145/3716553.3750826 Stratistics MRC. (2025). Virtual reality therapy for PTSD market forecasts to 2032: Global analysis by component (hardware, software and service), therapy type, application, end user and by geography. https://www.strategymrc.com/report/virtual-reality-therapy-for-ptsd-market Trejo, B. C., Richard, E. M., van Driel, M., & McDonald, D. P. (2015). Cross-cultural competence: The role of emotion regulation ability and optimism. Military Psychology, 27(5), 276-286. https://doi.org/10.1037/mil0000081 van Gelderen, M. J., Nijdam, M. J., & Vermetten, E. (2018). An innovative framework for delivering psychotherapy to patients with treatment-resistant posttraumatic stress disorder: Rationale for interactive motion-assisted therapy. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 9, 176. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00176 van Toorenburg, M. M., Sanches, S. A., Linders, B., Rozendaal, L., Voorendonk, E. M., Van Minnen, A., & De Jongh, A. (2020). Do emotion regulation difficulties affect outcome of intensive trauma-focused treatment of patients with severe PTSD? European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 11(1), 1724417. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2020.1724417 Vermetten, E., Barcaro, S., Espejo, E., Bellini, P., Roy, M. J., & Bremault-Phillips, S. (2025a). Linguistic analysis of patients’ labels during 3MDR psychotherapy. Psychiatry and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 35(Suppl. 1), S29. https://doi.org/10.5152/pcp.2025.241024 Vermetten, E., Burback, L., Sevigny, P. R., Nijdam, M. J., Winkler, O., Espejo, E., Sessoms, P., Bright, K., Roy, M. J., & Brémault-Phillips, S. (2025b). Brief manual for multi-modal motion-assisted memory desensitization and reconsolidation therapy for the treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder. Psychiatry and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 35(Suppl. 1), S122. https://doi.org/10.5152/pcp.2025.241028 Westphal, M., Aldao, A., & Jackson, C. (2017). Emotion dysregulation in comorbid posttraumatic stress disorder and substance use disorders: A narrative review. Military Psychology, 29(3), 216-233. https://doi.org/10.1037/mil0000157 Wiederhold, B. K., & Wiederhold, M. D. (2025). Virtual reality therapy combined with physiological monitoring provides effective treatment, with objective metrics, for post-traumatic stress disorder. Expert Review of Medical Devices, 22(2), 117-119. https://doi.org/10.1080/17434440.2025.2454930 }} == External links == {{ic|Add bullet points, hyperlink name of link, including source in parentheses}} '''Web:''' National Center for PTSD (USA) https://www.ptsd.va.gov/index.asp '''Web:''' VA Immersive Pilot Programs & Collaborations<nowiki/>https://www.innovation.va.gov/hil/views/immersive/immersive-programs.html '''Web:''' Australian Government Health advice - PTSD https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/post-traumatic-stress-disorder-ptsd '''Web:''' Australian Royal Commission into Defence and Veteran Suicide: Final Report<nowiki/>https://defenceveteransuicide.royalcommission.gov.au/publications/final-report '''Podcast:''' Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)https://shows.acast.com/5c3353e484e2e79370e1d135/5c3353ef84e2e79370e1d13c '''Video:''' 3MDR: Virtual reality treatment for veterans with PTSD https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bD43R_oa6qo '''Video:''' VR Exposure for Combat PTSD with EMDR Integration https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jL2bKmniMTc '''Final Report:''' Randomised control trial of 3MDR for treatment of resistant PTSD in military veterans<nowiki/>https://www.ncmh.info/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/Cardiff-3MDR-Study-Final-Report-with-cover-21.5.20.pdf [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Psychotherapy]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Trauma]] h3f1pak38dgcjg5szal2enarsdboorc 2832725 2832599 2026-09-10T21:49:24Z StretchBeyond 3105744 /* Overview */ 2832725 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment:<br>How does it work and what are the effects?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''Scenario: Immersive PTSD therapies''' Andriy, a soldier, harnessed to a treadmill, walks towards a screen displaying an image he spent months avoiding. His therapist beside him. This is multi-modular motion assisted memory desensitisation and reconsolidation (3MDR), one of a new generation of immersive therapies being used to treat post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). [[File:Andriy 3MDR enhanced.gif|center|600x600px]] '''Figure 1.''' Andriy, alongside his therapist, moves through his 3MDR treatment. Learn about more about immersive therapy and Andriy’s* experience in the chapter below (*Andriy is a fictional name used for this scenario). {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[File:Post-traumatic_stress_disorder_world_map_-_DALY_-_WHO2004.svg|alt=|thumb|271x271px|'''Figure 2:''' The 2024 World Health Organisation estimates 3.9% of the world population has had post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) at some stage in their lives.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/post-traumatic-stress-disorder|title=Post-traumatic stress disorder|website=www.who.int|language=en|access-date=2026-08-17}}</ref>]] [[w:Post-traumatic_stress_disorder|Post-traumatic stress disorder]] (PTSD) develops after exposure to severe or life-threatening trauma and carries a substantial personal and societal cost, estimated in the hundreds of billions of dollars annually worldwide (Figure 2), with sub-communities such as military personnel having an increased likelihood of representation (Boska et al., 2025). Further detail in costs and limitations below (Davis et al., 2022; Montgomery-Marks et al., 2025). PTSDs emotional impact is shaped by [[w:Emotional_dysregulation|emotional dysregulation]], in which people struggle to manage intense feelings such as guilt, fear or shame (Westphal et al., 2017).This commonly triggers a cycle of [[Cognitive psychology|cognitive]] and behavioural avoidance that offers short-term relief but prevents traumatic memory from being adaptively processed, leaving the person trapped in a cycle of avoidance and a state of chronic, hyper arousal (Efremov, 2025; de Haart et al., 2026; van Gelderen et al., 2018). Immersive interventions, including [[w:Virtual_reality_therapy|virtual reality exposure therapy]] (VRET) and multi-modular motion assisted memory desensitisation and reconsolidation (3MDR) aim to break this cognitive avoidance cycle by creating controlled environments in which trauma cues can be safely approached rather than avoided (van Gelderen et al., 2018; Wiederhold & Wiederhold, 2025). This chapter explains the psychological theory behind these approaches, reviews the research evidence for their effects and considers current limitations. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''Focus questions'''[[File:Crystal Clear app ktip.svg|left|20px|]] * Why is emotional processing important in PTSD? * How can immersive therapies influence the emotional processes underlying PTSD? * What does the research evidence show? * What are the costs and limitations of immersive therapies? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Why is emotional processing important in PTSD? == PTSD frequently develops after exposure to severe or life-threatening trauma and it is formally diagnosed according to [[w:DSM-5|DSM-5]] criteria. Sufferers experience chronic hyper-vigilance, mental hyper arousal and a disruption to executive and emotional processing systems (Kukharuk et al., 2025; Osman et al., 2016). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}[[Image:Crystal Clear app help index.svg|left|50px]] ;Predict the outcome A soldier with PTSD encounters a trauma-related image and expects: '''TRAUMA CUE → DANGER → DISTRESS → AVOID''' However, during immersive treatment, the expected danger does not occur. What is the most likely consequence?<quiz display=simple> { |type="()"} - Fear increases permanently. - Memory cannot change. + Prediction error creates an opportunity for new learning. - Emotional processing stops.  } </quiz> <div style="text-align:right; color:red; font-weight:bold;"> Click "show" below to understand more⤵ </div> {{Hidden begin|title=Please pause and predict the answer before opening this section}}The correct answer is '''C'''. <div style="text-align:left; color:black; font-weight:regular;"> The mismatch between expected danger and actual safety creates a '''prediction error'''. This may contribute to fear extinction, emotion regulation, and memory reconsolidation.'''Think about it:''' If approaching rather than avoiding trauma can create new learning, what role might emotion regulation, fear extinction, prediction error and memory reconsolidation play? </div>   {{Hidden end}} <div style="text-align:left; color:black; font-weight:regular;">''Keep your thoughts in mind as you read the chapter below and explore the evidence for these mechanisms, and their role in immersive PTSD treatment''. * A fictional name assigned for the learning scenario. </div> {{RoundBoxBottom}} === Understanding PTSD and emotions === PTSD is characterised by difficulty in adaptively processing traumatic events. This disruption produces symptoms such as intrusive memories, flashbacks and nightmares, heightened threat perception, hyper-vigilance and persistent negative emotional states as depicted in Figure 3 (Felemban et al., 2026; López-Ojeda & Hurley, 2022). [[File:PTSD.png|left|thumb|'''Figure 3. PTSD can have a deep and lasting impact on our emotions.''']]Emotional processing theory suggests that recovering from trauma requires the fear structure held in the memory to be activated and updated with corrective information. In PTSD this process is blocked and to manage this intense physiological and emotional stress, many individuals will adopt cognitive and behavioural avoidance as a primary defence mechanism (López-Ojeda & Hurley, 2022). Avoidance offers short-term relief but prevents the traumatic memory from being safely reactivated, so it can update with new, safe information. Trauma reminders such as flashbacks continue to trigger extreme distress and fear (Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). This traps the individual in a maladaptive, self-reinforcing avoidance cycle (Figure 4 below). At a neural level, Wesphal et al. (2017) link this to [[wikipedia:Transdiagnostic_process|transdiagnostic]] [[w:Emotional_dysregulation|emotion dysregulation]], in which the traumatic memory network (TMN) remains isolated from the brains [[w:Salience_network|salience]] and central executive networks. Effective treatment requires safely reactivating this network so the memory can be integrated rather than avoided (Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b; Westphal et al., 2017). A 2025 study of Danish military veterans (''n''=142) found emotional regulation difficulties explained an additional 28% of the variance in PTSD symptoms, which when combined with [[w:Comorbidity|comorbid]] symptoms, these factors accounted for 52% of the variance in PTSD severity (''F''(13, 92) = 9.58, ''p'' <0.001). Impulse control difficulties (ß = 0.32'', p'' = 0.005) and non-acceptance of emotional responses (ß = 0.20'', p'' = 0.05) were among the strongest predictors (Elklit & Dahl, 2025).[[File:Avoidance and Processing Cycles.png|500x500px|thumb|'''Figure 4'''. Highlights the typical flow of an avoidance cycle and the anticipated positive responses generated via immersive therapies. Based on concepts introduced in journal articles by Lopez-Ojeda et al. (2022), Felemban et al. (2026), and Vermetten et. al. (2025b).|center]] === Why treatment can be difficult === Traditional trauma-focused psychotherapies such as [[w:Prolonged_exposure_therapy|prolonged exposure]] (PE) and [[w:Cognitive_processing_therapy|cognitive processing therapy]] (CPT) work by asking patients to actively engage with distressing memories in to generate fear extinction (van Toorenburg et al., 2020). However, this is precisely what avoidance prevents, with many patients unable to tolerate the emotional exposure and memory activation these therapies require (Lopes et al., 2025; van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). As the individual cannot confront the trauma trigger in a safe environment, the brain cannot experience a prediction error and learn that a threat is no longer present. Consequently, the threat perception and threat response remain persistent within the PTSD patient, perpetuating the PTSD symptoms indefinitely. (de Haart et al., 2026; López-Ojeda & Hurley, 2022). This difficulty is reflected in treatment outcomes where an estimated 39.2% of patients fail to respond to standard trauma-focused therapy, while dropout rates range between 16-48% (de Haart et al., 2026; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). Non-response is not uniform, among military veterans younger patients tend to show heightened symptom severity when the trauma is central to their personal identity, while others turn to poor diet or coping orientated substance abuse to suppress negative emotions, further eroding emotional regulation (Efremov, 2025; Niles et al., 2023). [[w:Emotional_dysregulation|Emotional dysregulation]] was historically viewed as a fixed barrier requiring a lengthy stabilisation phase before treatment could begin (van Toorenburg et al., 2020). More recent evidence however suggests otherwise, as emotional regulation has dynamic capacity and standard trauma-focused treatments can improve emotion regulation as a natural consequence of successful memory processing (van Toorenburg et al., 2020). This reframes the clinical challenge from being fixed barrier, to one of actively helping an individual safely approach and process the traumatic memory. [[File:UC PhD VR study.png|right|thumb|'''Figure 5.''' PhD work by R. Selvakumaran at the University of Canberra explores cultural and linguistic factors using the US ''Bravemind'' system and Australian veterans and first responders.]]Cultural context adds another layer of difficulty. Doctoral research at the the [[University of Canberra]] is examining how immersive therapy protocols developed in the United States such as the US-centric ''Bravemind''<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://medvr.ict.usc.edu/projects/bravemind.html|title=Bravemind {{!}} MedVR|website=medvr.ict.usc.edu|access-date=2026-08-25}}</ref> (Figure 5) need to be culturally adapted for Australian military veterans and first responders, whose operational backgrounds and rules of engagement differ from their US counterparts (Selvakumaran, 2025). This work integrates exposure therapy with gamified, posture-adaptive cognitive rehabilitation to support motor acuity and improved physical and emotional regulation (Selvakumaran, 2025). These PTSD treatment gaps carry a substantial economic and personal cost, which is part of the motivation for developing more effective alternatives such as immersive therapies.    == How can immersive therapies influence emotional processes? == Developments in immersive PTSD treatments represent a notable shift from traditional approaches to psychological trauma care. Rather than relying on sedentary, largely passive therapeutic environments, these interventions shift clinical practice toward active, embodied, highly interactive, and engaging contexts (van Gelderen et al., 2018). To understand how these emerging interventions alter emotional responses and behaviours, it is necessary to examine three psychological mechanisms and their interaction: multisensory presence, embodied cognition, and divergent thinking (López-Ojeda & Hurley, 2022; van Gelderen et al., 2018). Immersion therapy goes beyond the simple visual replication of a trauma memory; instead, it begins to capture the participant’s visceral and cognitive focus by limiting distractions and developing a state of physical and mental engagement (Macey et al., 2026). Embodied cognition is the concept of how physical states of the body can directly modify states of the mind (van Gelderen et al., 2018). In active immersive therapies such as 3MDR, physically walking toward a virtual trauma reminder can alter the patient’s appraisal of safety, promoting associative memory access and facilitating open-ended divergent thinking patterns that disrupt previously learned rigid, repetitive trauma loops (van Gelderen et al., 2018). === What is immersive therapy? === [[File:XR and Human Senses.png|right|thumb|'''Figure 6.''' The Extended Reality environment and its interaction with the human brain. Designed to give readers a simple understanding of emerging technologies used in immersive PTSD environments.]]Immersive therapies<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-01|title=Immersion therapy|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Immersion_therapy&oldid=1357152847|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> use [[w:Extended_reality|extended reality]](XR) platforms, encompassing [[virtual reality]] (VR), [[Augmented Reality|augmented reality]] (AR), and [[w:Mixed_reality_game|mixed reality]] (MR), to create customisable, controlled, and standardised therapeutic environments (López-Ojeda & Hurley, 2022; Wiederhold & Wiederhold, 2025). This XR digital ecosystem, as depicted in Figure 6. Two clinical therapy applications are the focus of this chapter: virtual reality exposure therapy (VRET) where therapists reconstruct traumatic scenarios in safe, graded environments; and multi-modal motion assisted memory desensitisation and reconsolidation (3MDR), which extends this by having the patient move on a treadmill towards a panoramic display, side by side with their therapist, rather than a stationary, face to face session (de Haart et al., 2026; Felemban et al., 2026). === Presence and embodied cognition === Immersive therapy’s distinguishing feature is its ability to generate presence, or the psychological illusion of being ‘there’. This illusion is amplified by integrating synchronised audio, visual, olfactory, haptic, and movement stimuli (Lopes et al., 2025; López-Ojeda & Hurley, 2022). The presence effect then increases engagement with the trauma memory and supports emotional processing (van Gelderen et al., 2018). In active therapies such as 3MDR, presence combines with cognition. The working principle is that physical states of the body can directly shape states of the mind (van Gelderen et al., 2018). Physically walking towards a virtual trauma reminder functions as a fear antagonistic action (FAA) and rather than retreating in avoidance, the patient approaches, converting passive helplessness into active, empowered participation (de Haart et al., 2026; van Gelderen et al., 2018). This movement towards the active approach generates immediate neurocognitive stress responses that include bypassing severe avoidance behaviours and boosting divergent thinking approaches, which can disrupt rigid and repetitive trauma narratives (Boska et al., 2025; Osman et al., 2016; van Gelderen et al., 2018). Notably, this benefit does not seem to be driven by exercise physiology which suggests moderate-to-high-intensity physical activity is required to consolidate extinction learning by stimulating [[w:Brain-derived_neurotrophic_factor|brain-derived neurotrophic factor]] (BDNF); however, the walking pace in 3MDR therapy (< 4 km/h) is too low to generate meaningful BDNF secretion. This suggests the mechanisms of benefit is primarily psychological and behavioural. It is the approach action itself and the cognitive restructuring it enables, rather than physiological causes (de Haart et al., 2026). === Prediction error and inhibitory learning === Immersive therapy builds on the inhibitory learning model of exposure therapy, in which a new, safe association actively competes with and suppresses the original conditioned fear response. Walking towards a trauma cue and encountering safety instead of the expected catastrophe creates a profound prediction error, a mismatch between the anticipated, catastrophic, life-threatening event and the actual reality of a safe clinical environment. This destabilises the traumatic memory, allowing successful memory reconsolidation work to occur (Felemban et al., 2026; van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b; Wiederhold & Wiederhold, 2025). === Memory reconsolidation === According to [[w:Memory_consolidation|memory reconsolidation]] theory, traumatic memories retrieved in a safe, highly immersive context can enter a [[w:Lability|labile]] '','' or [[w:Malleability_of_intelligence|malleable]] state of memory, during which introducing safe, supportive contextual information allows the memory to be reconsolidated in a non-threatening form (van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). To prevent the patient from becoming overwhelmed during retrieval, 3MDR uses dual-attention tasks such as tracking an oscillating ball (see example in Figure 1). This dual task intentionally taxes the patient’s limited working memory resources and can help reduce the vividness and emotional intensity of the memory (Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). Emerging linguistic research suggests that this processing is also reflected in the patient’s language. Through [[w:Affect_labeling|affective labelling]] visceral feelings such as GUILT are projected into text, patients display substantive cognitive reorganisation. Across successive 3MDR sessions, objective [[w:Marker_(linguistics)|linguistic markers]] indicated a shift from past-tense trauma narratives to present-tense verb use, all this consistent with a renewed ability to articulate emotional states and integrate traumatic moments into present-moment awareness (Vermetten, Barcaro, et al., 2025a). == What does the research evidence show? == Immersive therapies help translate or facilitate psychological change by serving as a medium for Emotional Processing Theory and inhibitory learning (López-Ojeda & Hurley, 2022; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). Within these highly controlled clinical environments, patients can be systematically exposed to trauma cues that provide specific discomfort to the individual undergoing treatment. This exposure helps disconfirm existing threat expectations and overcome cognitive and behavioural barriers such as active resistance or amnesia, which have been associated with barriers in traditional therapies (Macey et al., 2026; Wiederhold & Wiederhold, 2025). Addressing these treatment barriers is important for any PTSD population, but in the literature concerning military populations, it appears particularly critical, as they suffer high psychotherapy failure rates. van Gelderen et al. (2018) cite two-thirds of veterans retaining a PTSD diagnosis after standard treatments and clinical dropout rates of up to 78%. Immersive therapies such as the virtual reality ones discussed above can tailor increasingly specific, patient-selected trauma cues to enhance memory accessibility by enabling precise retrieval of traumatic memory networks (Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). === Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy === [[w:Virtual_reality_therapy|VRET]] reconstructs traumatic events within a safe, structured context (Felemban et al., 2026; López-Ojeda & Hurley, 2022). Bypassing imagination challenges such as emotional numbing or amnesia that can prevent a PTSD patient engaging with traditional image exposure therapy (Macey et al., 2026). A meta-analysis of the VRET for PTSD found substantial within-group symptom reductions, averaging a 33.73-point decrease in the 0-80 point [[w:Clinician_Administered_PTSD_Scale|Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale]] (CAPS) and a 20.96-point decrease in the 0-80 point [https://www.ptsd.va.gov/professional/assessment/adult-sr/ptsd-checklist.asp PTSD Checklist PCL-5) scale] (Felemban et al., 2026). Because changes of 10-20 points on these scales are usually considered clinically significant, this could mean the difference between severe functional impairment and mild or subclinical symptoms (Boska et al., 2025; de Haart et al., 2026; Felemban et al., 2026).  Comparative effects against other active PTSD treatments remain modest, but VRET appears to be a more engaging alternative to conventional treatment options (Felemban et al., 2026) === 3MDR === 3MDR takes the same multisensory presence effect used in VRET and adds an activating context. Rather than a sedentary, face-to-face session, the patient and the therapist face the virtual display together, side by side (van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). It follows a three-phase protocol: pre-platform preparation, platform treadmill exposure, and post-platform re-consolidation (Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). In a trial involving treatment-resistant PTSD; 3MDR showed large effect sizes from pre-treatment to six month follow up (''n'' = 134, ''d'' = 1.0) and high acceptability, with dropout rates of 7-20%, substantially lower than the 16-48% typical of standard trauma-focused therapy in military populations (de Haart et al., 2026; Lewis et al., 2020; van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). Improvements are not limited to PTSD symptoms. A trial of 62 adults with severe PTSD, including childhood sexual trauma, found intensive trauma-focused treatment improved emotion-regulation abilities regardless of PTSD outcome, even among patients with severe baseline difficulties (van Toorenburg et al., 2020). Some researchers link this broader improvement to positive psychology [[w:Broaden-and-build|Broaden-and-Build Theory]]. The theory being that as patients regain a sense of safety and control, this may support a positive of emotional flexibility that reinforces the recovery process (Fredrickson, 2001; Niles et al., 2023; Westphal et al., 2017). Table 1 below summarises the main differences and psychological mechanisms discussed above. {{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Quiz}} <quiz display=simple> {Which of the following is an expected outcome of immersive therapy ? |type="()"} - Patients are at risk because of an uncontrolled environment. - The environments represent traditional face-to-face treatments. - Failure and dropout rates are higher than traditional PTSD treatment. + Patients often broaden and build an upward spiral of emotion and optimism. </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} '''Table 1:''' Treatment Effects and Psychological Mechanisms {| class="wikitable" | valign="top" |'''Clinical Dimension''' | valign="top" |'''Traditional Exposure''' | valign="top" |'''Immersive Approach''' | valign="top" |'''Psychological Mechanisms''' |- | valign="top" |'''Therapeutic Context''' | valign="top" |'''''Sedentary'''''. Face-to-face, verbally describes trauma. | valign="top" |'''''Activating.''''' Dynamic, multi-sensory environment. | valign="top" |'''''Fear Antagonistic Action.''''' '''''Approach behaviours.''''' '''''Prediction Errors.''''' |- | valign="top" |'''Trauma cue delivery''' | valign="top" |'''''Imaginary Retrieval''''' Patient capacity | valign="top" |'''''Multisensory Immersion''''' Highly tailored | valign="top" |'''''External Scaffolding.''''' Bypasses internal barriers to activate memory networks. |- | valign="top" |'''Processing''' '''and attention''' | valign="top" |'''''Convergent processing.''''' Repeated narration and fear habituation. | valign="top" |'''''Active Narrative Processing.''''' Interactive, real-time affective labelling and dual attention tasks. | valign="top" |'''''Working Memory.''''' Memory taxation reduces vividness and emotional intensity. |- | valign="top" |'''Engagement''' | valign="top" |'''''Attrition.''''' High dropout rates 16-48%. | valign="top" |'''''Acceptability.''''' Attractive. Dropout rates 7-20%. | valign="top" |'''''Sustained Motivation.''''' Presence and safety in immersive environment. |} === Applied Example: 3MDR treatment in Ukraine === {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''Scenario: The Hotspots of War; Ukraine War: an applied 3MDR example''' Andriy* used to be a baker in Kyiv. He is now a volunteer in the Ukrainian Armed Forces struggling with hyper-vigilance, anxiety, and depression (Kukharuk et al., 2025). Traditional ‘talk’ therapy feels impossible; his mind stays in a constant state of combat readiness, even in a quiet room. In the pre-platform phase of 3MDR, Andriy worked with his therapist to identify a ‘hotspot’ memory, represented by a photograph. On the treadmill, harnessed and walking beside his therapist, he faces a panoramic screen as personalised warm-up music plays, selected to keep him in touch with his traumatic memory network (Vermetten et al., 2025b). As his hotspot image fills the screen, his therapist asks three structured questions (Vermetten et al., 2025b): 1. What do you '''SEE''' ? 2. What does it '''TELL''' you? 3. What do you '''FEEL''' in your body NOW? When Andriy identifies a surge of shame, the word '''GUILT''' is displayed as an affective label and a dual-attention task begins. He tracks an oscillating, numbered ball while he stays with the emotion, taxing his working memory and reducing the intensity of the recalled trauma. [[File:Andriy 3MDR enhanced.gif|center|600x600px]] '''Figure 7.''' Andriy, alongside his therapist, moves through his 3MDR treatment, integrating multi-sensory input and motion while harnessed to a treadmill. By the end of the session, Andriy has physically walked towards what he used to avoid, creating a mismatch between his expectation of threat and his current safety, turning a rigid, stuck memory into a manageable narrative *''Andriy is a fictional name given to one of 69 male Ukrainian veterans who participated in a 2023 Randomised Controlled Trial in Kyiv. Many were demobilised after one year because of mental or neurological injuries'' (Kukharuk et al., 2025). {{RoundBoxBottom}} == What are the costs and limitations of immersive therapies? == PTSD carries a substantial economic burden. It was associated with an estimated US$232 billion in excess costs in the United States in 2018 and over $£40 billion, in the United Kingdom, 92.4% of which was indirect rather than direct clinical cost (Davis et al., 2022; Montgomery-Marks et al., 2025). In Australia, the average annual cost of PTSD per military veteran was estimated at $112,172 in 2025 (Magnusson & Dey, 2025). In addition, individual healthcare costs surge by 142% in the year following a PTSD diagnosis, with comorbidities tripling this effect (Bothe et al., 2020). These figures span several countries and years and should be best read as an indication of scale rather than as directly comparable totals. Immersive therapy’s ability to move from small trials into mainstream PTSD treatment remains limited by methodological [[w:Homogeneity_and_heterogeneity|heterogeneity]], small sample sizes, and a lack of long-term data (Felemban et al., 2026). Practical issues such as [[w:Virtual_reality_sickness|cyber sickness]] or motion sickness can also disrupt participation (Kukharuk et al., 2025). Structural barriers include workforce training and equipment costs. Basic VR systems cost an estimated US$3,500 per provider headset annually, and advanced simulation environments can cost up to US$200,000 (Garrett et al., 2018). Despite this, adoption of immersive therapy is scaling. The [[w:United_States_Department_of_Veterans_Affairs|United States Veterans Affairs]] have expanded VR use from five medical centres in 2017 to over 154 centres and 2,300 trained staff, with applications now including over 40 documented clinical interventions such as chronic pain and suicide intervention (Bailey et al., 2024). Market analysts estimate the global PTSD-focused VR therapy market was worth US$1.59 billion in 2025, forecast to reach US$5.94 billion by 2032, driven largely by growing mental health awareness and the absence of standard clinical protocols (Stratistics MRC, 2025). These limitations do not undermine the case for immersive therapy, but they show its evidence base and infrastructure are still maturing. Demonstrating rigorously why these therapies work, rather than assuming their novelty accounts for their effects is essential to avoid misallocating resources to unproven interventions and supports a paradigm shift, from a narrow, disease model towards one that values post-traumatic growth and renewed optimism (Trejo et al., 2015; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b; Wiederhold & Wiederhold, 2025). == Conclusion == PTSD traps people in a self-reinforcing cycle of avoidance that blocks the adaptive processing trauma memories need to resolve (see: ''Understanding PTSD and emotions''). Standard trauma-focused therapies require patients to confront exactly what this cycle causes them to avoid, which contributes to high, non-response and dropout rates (see ''Why treatment can be difficult''). Immersive therapies such as VRET and 3MDR address this by using presence, embodied cognition, prediction error and memory reconsolidation to help patients safely approach trauma cues rather than avoid them (see: ''What does the research evidence show''). The technology itself is only a delivery mechanism, it is the psychological processes that drive change. The evidence to date shows meaningful reductions in PTSD symptoms and comparatively low drop-out rates, alongside broader gains in emotional regulation. However, small samples, methodological variation, and a lack of long-term data mean the evidence base is still developing, and cost and infrastructure barriers remain significant (see ''costs and limitations'').{{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} [[File:Nuvola apps kuser.svg|Nuvola apps kuser|left|20px]] ''' Take-home message:''' Immersive therapies do not heal PTSD trauma through technological novelty or digital feedback. Instead, they create a safe, dynamic space that lets individuals confront trauma and reprocess memories into something they can live with. In doing so, people’s lives may once again shift toward value, optimism, and wellness.{{RoundBoxBottom}} == See also == {{ic|Add bullet points and rename links; add Wikipedia links}} * [[Evidence-based assessment/Posttraumatic stress disorder (disorder portfolio)]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Textbook/Emotion/Anxiety]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Phobias]] (Book Chapter) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Sense hacking]] (Book Chapter) == References == {{Hanging indent|Bailey, A. L., Kirsh, S., Rawlins, C., Persky, S., & Clancy, C. (2024). Early scaling of immersive technology within the Veterans Health Administration. NEJM Catalyst Innovations in Care Delivery, 5(4). https://doi.org/10.1056/cat.23.0356 Boska, R. L., Bishop, T. M., Capron, D. W., Paxton Willing, M. M., & Ashrafioun, L. (2025). Difficulties with emotion regulation within PTSD clusters and moral injury subtypes. Military Psychology, 37(2), 159-167. https://doi.org/10.1080/08995605.2024.2322904 de Haart, R., Daniels, J. K., Timmerman, M. E., Cath, D. C., & Lommen, M. J. J. (2026). Augmenting virtual reality exposure for PTSD with physical activity: Study protocol of a randomised controlled trial. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 17(1), 2605803. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008066.2025.2605803 Efremov, A. (2025). Age-specific mental health profiles of combat veterans: Post-traumatic stress disorder and related disorders. Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive-Behavior Therapy, 44(4), 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10942-025-00637-7 Elklit, A., & Dahl, N. H. (2025). Emotion regulation difficulties, aggression, and PTSD symptoms in Danish treatment-seeking veterans. Scandinavian Journal of Military Studies, 8(1), 308-326. https://doi.org/10.31374/sjms.264 Felemban, R. G., Alzahrani, R. R., Alrefaei, N. F., Alharbi, N. M., Alghamdi, A. S., & Alqadi, S. (2026). Efficacy of virtual reality-based exposure therapy for post-traumatic stress disorder in military veterans: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 17, 1857109. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1857109 Fredrickson, B. L. (2001). The role of positive emotions in positive psychology: The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. American Psychologist, 56(3), 218-226. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.56.3.218 Garrett, B., Taverner, T., Gromala, D., Tao, G., Cordingley, E., & Sun, C. (2018). Virtual reality clinical research: Promises and challenges. JMIR Serious Games, 6(4), e10839. https://doi.org/10.2196/10839 Kukharuk, O., Tkalich, K., Kamash, N., & Georgiou, O. (2025). Effectiveness of immersive VR therapy in reducing stress-associated symptoms in Ukraine. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 16(1), 2488097. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008066.2025.2488097 Lewis, C., Roberts, N. P., Andrew, M., Starling, E., & Bisson, J. I. (2020). Psychological therapies for post-traumatic stress disorder in adults: Systematic review and meta-analysis. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 11(1), 1729633. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2020.1729633 Lopes, M. K. S., Perreault, L., de Jesus, B. Jr., Roberge, M. C., & Falk, T. H. (2025). Subjective and objective evaluation of the benefits of multisensory virtual nature immersion for patients with post-traumatic stress disorder. In Proceedings of the 17th International Conference on Quality of Multimedia Experience (QoMEX) (pp.1-5). IEEE. https://doi.org/10.1109/QoMEX65720.2025.11219945 López-Ojeda, W., & Hurley, R. A. (2022). Extended reality technologies: Expanding therapeutic approaches for PTSD. The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 34(1), 1-5. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.neuropsych.21100244 Macey, A.-L., Macey, J., & Hamari, J. (2026). Emotion regulation in immersive virtual reality environments: A scoping review. Interacting with Computers, 29, 1-20. https://doi.org/10.1093/iwc/iwag029 Niles, B., Lang, A., & Olff, M. (2023). Complementary and integrative interventions for PTSD. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 14(2), 2247888. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008066.2023.2247888 Osman, A., Paczynski, M., & Jha, A. P. (2016). Affective expectations influence neural responses to stressful images in soldiers. Military Psychology, 29(1), 41-57. https://doi.org/10.1037/mil0000128 Selvakumaran, R. V. (2025). Developing virtual reality (VR) simulations with embedded user analytics for cognitive rehabilitation in PTSD veterans. In Proceedings of the 27th International Conference on Multimodal Interaction (pp. 740-744). ACM. https://doi.org/10.1145/3716553.3750826 Stratistics MRC. (2025). Virtual reality therapy for PTSD market forecasts to 2032: Global analysis by component (hardware, software and service), therapy type, application, end user and by geography. https://www.strategymrc.com/report/virtual-reality-therapy-for-ptsd-market Trejo, B. C., Richard, E. M., van Driel, M., & McDonald, D. P. (2015). Cross-cultural competence: The role of emotion regulation ability and optimism. Military Psychology, 27(5), 276-286. https://doi.org/10.1037/mil0000081 van Gelderen, M. J., Nijdam, M. J., & Vermetten, E. (2018). An innovative framework for delivering psychotherapy to patients with treatment-resistant posttraumatic stress disorder: Rationale for interactive motion-assisted therapy. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 9, 176. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00176 van Toorenburg, M. M., Sanches, S. A., Linders, B., Rozendaal, L., Voorendonk, E. M., Van Minnen, A., & De Jongh, A. (2020). Do emotion regulation difficulties affect outcome of intensive trauma-focused treatment of patients with severe PTSD? European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 11(1), 1724417. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2020.1724417 Vermetten, E., Barcaro, S., Espejo, E., Bellini, P., Roy, M. J., & Bremault-Phillips, S. (2025a). Linguistic analysis of patients’ labels during 3MDR psychotherapy. Psychiatry and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 35(Suppl. 1), S29. https://doi.org/10.5152/pcp.2025.241024 Vermetten, E., Burback, L., Sevigny, P. R., Nijdam, M. J., Winkler, O., Espejo, E., Sessoms, P., Bright, K., Roy, M. J., & Brémault-Phillips, S. (2025b). Brief manual for multi-modal motion-assisted memory desensitization and reconsolidation therapy for the treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder. Psychiatry and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 35(Suppl. 1), S122. https://doi.org/10.5152/pcp.2025.241028 Westphal, M., Aldao, A., & Jackson, C. (2017). Emotion dysregulation in comorbid posttraumatic stress disorder and substance use disorders: A narrative review. Military Psychology, 29(3), 216-233. https://doi.org/10.1037/mil0000157 Wiederhold, B. K., & Wiederhold, M. D. (2025). Virtual reality therapy combined with physiological monitoring provides effective treatment, with objective metrics, for post-traumatic stress disorder. Expert Review of Medical Devices, 22(2), 117-119. https://doi.org/10.1080/17434440.2025.2454930 }} == External links == {{ic|Add bullet points, hyperlink name of link, including source in parentheses}} '''Web:''' National Center for PTSD (USA) https://www.ptsd.va.gov/index.asp '''Web:''' VA Immersive Pilot Programs & Collaborations<nowiki/>https://www.innovation.va.gov/hil/views/immersive/immersive-programs.html '''Web:''' Australian Government Health advice - PTSD https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/post-traumatic-stress-disorder-ptsd '''Web:''' Australian Royal Commission into Defence and Veteran Suicide: Final Report<nowiki/>https://defenceveteransuicide.royalcommission.gov.au/publications/final-report '''Podcast:''' Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)https://shows.acast.com/5c3353e484e2e79370e1d135/5c3353ef84e2e79370e1d13c '''Video:''' 3MDR: Virtual reality treatment for veterans with PTSD https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bD43R_oa6qo '''Video:''' VR Exposure for Combat PTSD with EMDR Integration https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jL2bKmniMTc '''Final Report:''' Randomised control trial of 3MDR for treatment of resistant PTSD in military veterans<nowiki/>https://www.ncmh.info/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/Cardiff-3MDR-Study-Final-Report-with-cover-21.5.20.pdf [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Psychotherapy]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Trauma]] mocylge50pn1bi2brzp8jdtzdd9jpjw 2832728 2832725 2026-09-10T22:02:16Z StretchBeyond 3105744 /* What does the research evidence show? */Minor grammar edits: change to title case and remove the superfluous paragraph. 2832728 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment:<br>How does it work and what are the effects?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''Scenario: Immersive PTSD therapies''' Andriy, a soldier, harnessed to a treadmill, walks towards a screen displaying an image he spent months avoiding. His therapist beside him. This is multi-modular motion assisted memory desensitisation and reconsolidation (3MDR), one of a new generation of immersive therapies being used to treat post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). [[File:Andriy 3MDR enhanced.gif|center|600x600px]] '''Figure 1.''' Andriy, alongside his therapist, moves through his 3MDR treatment. Learn about more about immersive therapy and Andriy’s* experience in the chapter below (*Andriy is a fictional name used for this scenario). {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[File:Post-traumatic_stress_disorder_world_map_-_DALY_-_WHO2004.svg|alt=|thumb|271x271px|'''Figure 2:''' The 2024 World Health Organisation estimates 3.9% of the world population has had post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) at some stage in their lives.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/post-traumatic-stress-disorder|title=Post-traumatic stress disorder|website=www.who.int|language=en|access-date=2026-08-17}}</ref>]] [[w:Post-traumatic_stress_disorder|Post-traumatic stress disorder]] (PTSD) develops after exposure to severe or life-threatening trauma and carries a substantial personal and societal cost, estimated in the hundreds of billions of dollars annually worldwide (Figure 2), with sub-communities such as military personnel having an increased likelihood of representation (Boska et al., 2025). Further detail in costs and limitations below (Davis et al., 2022; Montgomery-Marks et al., 2025). PTSDs emotional impact is shaped by [[w:Emotional_dysregulation|emotional dysregulation]], in which people struggle to manage intense feelings such as guilt, fear or shame (Westphal et al., 2017).This commonly triggers a cycle of [[Cognitive psychology|cognitive]] and behavioural avoidance that offers short-term relief but prevents traumatic memory from being adaptively processed, leaving the person trapped in a cycle of avoidance and a state of chronic, hyper arousal (Efremov, 2025; de Haart et al., 2026; van Gelderen et al., 2018). Immersive interventions, including [[w:Virtual_reality_therapy|virtual reality exposure therapy]] (VRET) and multi-modular motion assisted memory desensitisation and reconsolidation (3MDR) aim to break this cognitive avoidance cycle by creating controlled environments in which trauma cues can be safely approached rather than avoided (van Gelderen et al., 2018; Wiederhold & Wiederhold, 2025). This chapter explains the psychological theory behind these approaches, reviews the research evidence for their effects and considers current limitations. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''Focus questions'''[[File:Crystal Clear app ktip.svg|left|20px|]] * Why is emotional processing important in PTSD? * How can immersive therapies influence the emotional processes underlying PTSD? * What does the research evidence show? * What are the costs and limitations of immersive therapies? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Why is emotional processing important in PTSD? == PTSD frequently develops after exposure to severe or life-threatening trauma and it is formally diagnosed according to [[w:DSM-5|DSM-5]] criteria. Sufferers experience chronic hyper-vigilance, mental hyper arousal and a disruption to executive and emotional processing systems (Kukharuk et al., 2025; Osman et al., 2016). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}[[Image:Crystal Clear app help index.svg|left|50px]] ;Predict the outcome A soldier with PTSD encounters a trauma-related image and expects: '''TRAUMA CUE → DANGER → DISTRESS → AVOID''' However, during immersive treatment, the expected danger does not occur. What is the most likely consequence?<quiz display=simple> { |type="()"} - Fear increases permanently. - Memory cannot change. + Prediction error creates an opportunity for new learning. - Emotional processing stops.  } </quiz> <div style="text-align:right; color:red; font-weight:bold;"> Click "show" below to understand more⤵ </div> {{Hidden begin|title=Please pause and predict the answer before opening this section}}The correct answer is '''C'''. <div style="text-align:left; color:black; font-weight:regular;"> The mismatch between expected danger and actual safety creates a '''prediction error'''. This may contribute to fear extinction, emotion regulation, and memory reconsolidation.'''Think about it:''' If approaching rather than avoiding trauma can create new learning, what role might emotion regulation, fear extinction, prediction error and memory reconsolidation play? </div>   {{Hidden end}} <div style="text-align:left; color:black; font-weight:regular;">''Keep your thoughts in mind as you read the chapter below and explore the evidence for these mechanisms, and their role in immersive PTSD treatment''. * A fictional name assigned for the learning scenario. </div> {{RoundBoxBottom}} === Understanding PTSD and emotions === PTSD is characterised by difficulty in adaptively processing traumatic events. This disruption produces symptoms such as intrusive memories, flashbacks and nightmares, heightened threat perception, hyper-vigilance and persistent negative emotional states as depicted in Figure 3 (Felemban et al., 2026; López-Ojeda & Hurley, 2022). [[File:PTSD.png|left|thumb|'''Figure 3. PTSD can have a deep and lasting impact on our emotions.''']]Emotional processing theory suggests that recovering from trauma requires the fear structure held in the memory to be activated and updated with corrective information. In PTSD this process is blocked and to manage this intense physiological and emotional stress, many individuals will adopt cognitive and behavioural avoidance as a primary defence mechanism (López-Ojeda & Hurley, 2022). Avoidance offers short-term relief but prevents the traumatic memory from being safely reactivated, so it can update with new, safe information. Trauma reminders such as flashbacks continue to trigger extreme distress and fear (Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). This traps the individual in a maladaptive, self-reinforcing avoidance cycle (Figure 4 below). At a neural level, Wesphal et al. (2017) link this to [[wikipedia:Transdiagnostic_process|transdiagnostic]] [[w:Emotional_dysregulation|emotion dysregulation]], in which the traumatic memory network (TMN) remains isolated from the brain's [[w:Salience_network|salience]] and central executive networks. Effective treatment requires safely reactivating this network so the memory can be integrated rather than avoided (Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b; Westphal et al., 2017). A 2025 study of Danish military veterans (''n''=142) found emotional regulation difficulties explained an additional 28% of the variance in PTSD symptoms, which when combined with [[w:Comorbidity|comorbid]] symptoms, these factors accounted for 52% of the variance in PTSD severity (''F''(13, 92) = 9.58, ''p'' <0.001). Impulse control difficulties (ß = 0.32'', p'' = 0.005) and non-acceptance of emotional responses (ß = 0.20'', p'' = 0.05) were among the strongest predictors (Elklit & Dahl, 2025).[[File:Avoidance and Processing Cycles.png|500x500px|thumb|'''Figure 4'''. Highlights the typical flow of an avoidance cycle and the anticipated positive responses generated via immersive therapies. Based on concepts introduced in journal articles by Lopez-Ojeda et al. (2022), Felemban et al. (2026), and Vermetten et. al. (2025b).|center]] === Why treatment can be difficult === Traditional trauma-focused psychotherapies such as [[w:Prolonged_exposure_therapy|prolonged exposure]] (PE) and [[w:Cognitive_processing_therapy|cognitive processing therapy]] (CPT) work by asking patients to actively engage with distressing memories in to generate fear extinction (van Toorenburg et al., 2020). However, this is precisely what avoidance prevents, with many patients unable to tolerate the emotional exposure and memory activation these therapies require (Lopes et al., 2025; van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). As the individual cannot confront the trauma trigger in a safe environment, the brain cannot experience a prediction error and learn that a threat is no longer present. Consequently, the threat perception and threat response remain persistent within the PTSD patient, perpetuating the PTSD symptoms indefinitely. (de Haart et al., 2026; López-Ojeda & Hurley, 2022). This difficulty is reflected in treatment outcomes where an estimated 39.2% of patients fail to respond to standard trauma-focused therapy, while dropout rates range between 16-48% (de Haart et al., 2026; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). Non-response is not uniform, among military veterans younger patients tend to show heightened symptom severity when the trauma is central to their personal identity, while others turn to poor diet or coping orientated substance abuse to suppress negative emotions, further eroding emotional regulation (Efremov, 2025; Niles et al., 2023). [[w:Emotional_dysregulation|Emotional dysregulation]] was historically viewed as a fixed barrier requiring a lengthy stabilisation phase before treatment could begin (van Toorenburg et al., 2020). More recent evidence however suggests otherwise, as emotional regulation has dynamic capacity and standard trauma-focused treatments can improve emotion regulation as a natural consequence of successful memory processing (van Toorenburg et al., 2020). This reframes the clinical challenge from being fixed barrier, to one of actively helping an individual safely approach and process the traumatic memory. [[File:UC PhD VR study.png|right|thumb|'''Figure 5.''' PhD work by R. Selvakumaran at the University of Canberra explores cultural and linguistic factors using the US ''Bravemind'' system and Australian veterans and first responders.]]Cultural context adds another layer of difficulty. Doctoral research at the the [[University of Canberra]] is examining how immersive therapy protocols developed in the United States such as the US-centric ''Bravemind''<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://medvr.ict.usc.edu/projects/bravemind.html|title=Bravemind {{!}} MedVR|website=medvr.ict.usc.edu|access-date=2026-08-25}}</ref> (Figure 5) need to be culturally adapted for Australian military veterans and first responders, whose operational backgrounds and rules of engagement differ from their US counterparts (Selvakumaran, 2025). This work integrates exposure therapy with gamified, posture-adaptive cognitive rehabilitation to support motor acuity and improved physical and emotional regulation (Selvakumaran, 2025). The PTSD treatment gaps described above carry a substantial economic and personal cost, which is part of the motivation for developing more effective alternatives such as immersive therapies.    == How can immersive therapies influence emotional processes? == Developments in immersive PTSD treatments represent a notable shift from traditional approaches to psychological trauma care. Rather than relying on sedentary, largely passive therapeutic environments, these interventions shift clinical practice toward active, embodied, highly interactive, and engaging contexts (van Gelderen et al., 2018). To understand how these emerging interventions alter emotional responses and behaviours, it is necessary to examine three psychological mechanisms and their interaction: multisensory presence, embodied cognition, and divergent thinking (López-Ojeda & Hurley, 2022; van Gelderen et al., 2018). Immersion therapy goes beyond the simple visual replication of a trauma memory; instead, it begins to capture the participant’s visceral and cognitive focus by limiting distractions and developing a state of physical and mental engagement (Macey et al., 2026). Embodied cognition is the concept of how physical states of the body can directly modify states of the mind (van Gelderen et al., 2018). In active immersive therapies such as 3MDR, physically walking toward a virtual trauma reminder can alter the patient’s appraisal of safety, promoting associative memory access and facilitating open-ended divergent thinking patterns that disrupt previously learned rigid, repetitive trauma loops (van Gelderen et al., 2018). === What is immersive therapy? === [[File:XR and Human Senses.png|right|thumb|'''Figure 6.''' The Extended Reality environment and its interaction with the human brain. Designed to give readers a simple understanding of emerging technologies used in immersive PTSD environments.]]Immersive therapies<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-01|title=Immersion therapy|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Immersion_therapy&oldid=1357152847|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> use [[w:Extended_reality|extended reality]](XR) platforms, encompassing [[virtual reality]] (VR), [[Augmented Reality|augmented reality]] (AR), and [[w:Mixed_reality_game|mixed reality]] (MR), to create customisable, controlled, and standardised therapeutic environments (López-Ojeda & Hurley, 2022; Wiederhold & Wiederhold, 2025). This XR digital ecosystem, as depicted in Figure 6. Two clinical therapy applications are the focus of this chapter: virtual reality exposure therapy (VRET) where therapists reconstruct traumatic scenarios in safe, graded environments; and multi-modal motion assisted memory desensitisation and reconsolidation (3MDR), which extends this by having the patient move on a treadmill towards a panoramic display, side by side with their therapist, rather than a stationary, face to face session (de Haart et al., 2026; Felemban et al., 2026). === Presence and embodied cognition === Immersive therapy’s distinguishing feature is its ability to generate presence, or the psychological illusion of being ‘there’. This illusion is amplified by integrating synchronised audio, visual, olfactory, haptic, and movement stimuli (Lopes et al., 2025; López-Ojeda & Hurley, 2022). The presence effect then increases engagement with the trauma memory and supports emotional processing (van Gelderen et al., 2018). In active therapies such as 3MDR, presence combines with cognition. The working principle is that physical states of the body can directly shape states of the mind (van Gelderen et al., 2018). Physically walking towards a virtual trauma reminder functions as a fear antagonistic action (FAA) and rather than retreating in avoidance, the patient approaches, converting passive helplessness into active, empowered participation (de Haart et al., 2026; van Gelderen et al., 2018). This movement towards the active approach generates immediate neurocognitive stress responses that include bypassing severe avoidance behaviours and boosting divergent thinking approaches, which can disrupt rigid and repetitive trauma narratives (Boska et al., 2025; Osman et al., 2016; van Gelderen et al., 2018). Notably, this benefit does not seem to be driven by exercise physiology which suggests moderate-to-high-intensity physical activity is required to consolidate extinction learning by stimulating [[w:Brain-derived_neurotrophic_factor|brain-derived neurotrophic factor]] (BDNF); however, the walking pace in 3MDR therapy (< 4 km/h) is too low to generate meaningful BDNF secretion. This suggests the mechanisms of benefit is primarily psychological and behavioural. It is the approach action itself and the cognitive restructuring it enables, rather than physiological causes (de Haart et al., 2026). === Prediction error and inhibitory learning === Immersive therapy builds on the inhibitory learning model of exposure therapy, in which a new, safe association actively competes with and suppresses the original conditioned fear response. Walking towards a trauma cue and encountering safety instead of the expected catastrophe creates a profound prediction error, a mismatch between the anticipated, catastrophic, life-threatening event and the actual reality of a safe clinical environment. This destabilises the traumatic memory, allowing successful memory reconsolidation work to occur (Felemban et al., 2026; van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b; Wiederhold & Wiederhold, 2025). === Memory reconsolidation === According to [[w:Memory_consolidation|memory reconsolidation]] theory, traumatic memories retrieved in a safe, highly immersive context can enter a [[w:Lability|labile]] '','' or [[w:Malleability_of_intelligence|malleable]] state of memory, during which introducing safe, supportive contextual information allows the memory to be reconsolidated in a non-threatening form (van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). To prevent the patient from becoming overwhelmed during retrieval, 3MDR uses dual-attention tasks such as tracking an oscillating ball (see example in Figure 1). This dual task intentionally taxes the patient’s limited working memory resources and can help reduce the vividness and emotional intensity of the memory (Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). Emerging linguistic research suggests that this processing is also reflected in the patient’s language. Through [[w:Affect_labeling|affective labelling]] visceral feelings such as GUILT are projected into text, patients display substantive cognitive reorganisation. Across successive 3MDR sessions, objective [[w:Marker_(linguistics)|linguistic markers]] indicated a shift from past-tense trauma narratives to present-tense verb use, all this consistent with a renewed ability to articulate emotional states and integrate traumatic moments into present-moment awareness (Vermetten, Barcaro, et al., 2025a). == What does the research evidence show? == Addressing potential treatment barriers is important for any PTSD population, but in the literature concerning military populations, it appears particularly critical, as they suffer high psychotherapy failure rates. van Gelderen et al. (2018) cite two-thirds of veterans retaining a PTSD diagnosis after standard treatments and face some of the highest clinical dropout rates. Immersive therapies such as the virtual reality ones discussed above can tailor increasingly specific, patient-selected trauma cues to enhance memory accessibility by enabling precise retrieval of traumatic memory networks (Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). === Virtual reality exposure therapy === [[w:Virtual_reality_therapy|VRET]] reconstructs traumatic events within a safe, structured context (Felemban et al., 2026; López-Ojeda & Hurley, 2022). Bypassing imagination challenges such as emotional numbing or amnesia that can prevent a PTSD patient engaging with traditional image exposure therapy (Macey et al., 2026). A meta-analysis of the VRET for PTSD found substantial within-group symptom reductions, averaging a 33.73-point decrease in the 0-80 point [[w:Clinician_Administered_PTSD_Scale|Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale]] (CAPS) and a 20.96-point decrease in the 0-80 point [https://www.ptsd.va.gov/professional/assessment/adult-sr/ptsd-checklist.asp PTSD Checklist PCL-5) scale] (Felemban et al., 2026). Because changes of 10-20 points on these scales are usually considered clinically significant, this could mean the difference between severe functional impairment and mild or subclinical symptoms (Boska et al., 2025; de Haart et al., 2026; Felemban et al., 2026).  Comparative effects against other active PTSD treatments remain modest, but VRET appears to be a more engaging alternative to conventional treatment options (Felemban et al., 2026) === 3MDR === 3MDR takes the same multisensory presence effect used in VRET and adds an activating context. Rather than a sedentary, face-to-face session, the patient and the therapist face the virtual display together, side by side (van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). It follows a three-phase protocol: pre-platform preparation, platform treadmill exposure, and post-platform re-consolidation (Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). In a trial involving treatment-resistant PTSD; 3MDR showed large effect sizes from pre-treatment to six month follow up (''n'' = 134, ''d'' = 1.0) and high acceptability, with dropout rates of 7-20%, substantially lower than the 16-48% typical of standard trauma-focused therapy in military populations (de Haart et al., 2026; Lewis et al., 2020; van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). Improvements are not limited to PTSD symptoms. A trial of 62 adults with severe PTSD, including childhood sexual trauma, found intensive trauma-focused treatment improved emotion-regulation abilities regardless of PTSD outcome, even among patients with severe baseline difficulties (van Toorenburg et al., 2020). Some researchers link this broader improvement to positive psychology [[w:Broaden-and-build|Broaden-and-Build Theory]]. The theory being that as patients regain a sense of safety and control, this may support a positive spiral of emotional flexibility that reinforces the recovery process (Fredrickson, 2001; Niles et al., 2023; Westphal et al., 2017). Table 1 below summarises the main differences and psychological mechanisms discussed above. {{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Quiz}} <quiz display=simple> {Which of the following is an expected outcome of immersive therapy ? |type="()"} - Patients are at risk because of an uncontrolled environment. - The environments represent traditional face-to-face treatments. - Failure and dropout rates are higher than traditional PTSD treatment. + Patients often broaden and build an upward spiral of emotion and optimism. </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} '''Table 1:''' Treatment Effects and Psychological Mechanisms {| class="wikitable" | valign="top" |'''Clinical Dimension''' | valign="top" |'''Traditional Exposure''' | valign="top" |'''Immersive Approach''' | valign="top" |'''Psychological Mechanisms''' |- | valign="top" |'''Therapeutic Context''' | valign="top" |'''''Sedentary'''''. Face-to-face, verbally describes trauma. | valign="top" |'''''Activating.''''' Dynamic, multi-sensory environment. | valign="top" |'''''Fear Antagonistic Action.''''' '''''Approach behaviours.''''' '''''Prediction Errors.''''' |- | valign="top" |'''Trauma cue delivery''' | valign="top" |'''''Imaginary Retrieval''''' Patient capacity | valign="top" |'''''Multisensory Immersion''''' Highly tailored | valign="top" |'''''External Scaffolding.''''' Bypasses internal barriers to activate memory networks. |- | valign="top" |'''Processing''' '''and attention''' | valign="top" |'''''Convergent processing.''''' Repeated narration and fear habituation. | valign="top" |'''''Active Narrative Processing.''''' Interactive, real-time affective labelling and dual attention tasks. | valign="top" |'''''Working Memory.''''' Memory taxation reduces vividness and emotional intensity. |- | valign="top" |'''Engagement''' | valign="top" |'''''Attrition.''''' High dropout rates 16-48%. | valign="top" |'''''Acceptability.''''' Attractive. Dropout rates 7-20%. | valign="top" |'''''Sustained Motivation.''''' Presence and safety in immersive environment. |} === Applied example: 3MDR treatment in Ukraine === {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''Scenario: Ukraine War: an applied 3MDR example''' Andriy* used to be a baker in Kyiv. He is now a volunteer in the Ukrainian Armed Forces struggling with hyper-vigilance, anxiety, and depression (Kukharuk et al., 2025). Traditional ‘talk’ therapy feels impossible; his mind stays in a constant state of combat readiness, even in a quiet room. In the pre-platform phase of 3MDR, Andriy worked with his therapist to identify a ‘hotspot’ memory, represented by a photograph. On the treadmill, harnessed and walking beside his therapist, he faces a panoramic screen as personalised warm-up music plays, selected to keep him in touch with his traumatic memory network (Vermetten et al., 2025b). As his hotspot image fills the screen, his therapist asks three structured questions (Vermetten et al., 2025b): 1. What do you '''SEE''' ? 2. What does it '''TELL''' you? 3. What do you '''FEEL''' in your body NOW? When Andriy identifies a surge of shame, the word '''GUILT''' is displayed as an affective label and a dual-attention task begins. He tracks an oscillating, numbered ball while he stays with the emotion, taxing his working memory and reducing the intensity of the recalled trauma. [[File:Andriy 3MDR enhanced.gif|center|600x600px]] '''Figure 7.''' Andriy, alongside his therapist, moves through his 3MDR treatment, integrating multi-sensory input and motion while harnessed to a treadmill. By the end of the session, Andriy has physically walked towards what he used to avoid, creating a mismatch between his expectation of threat and his current safety, turning a rigid, stuck memory into a manageable narrative *''Andriy is a fictional name given to one of 69 male Ukrainian veterans who participated in a 2023 Randomised Controlled Trial in Kyiv. Many were demobilised after one year because of mental or neurological injuries'' (Kukharuk et al., 2025). {{RoundBoxBottom}} == What are the costs and limitations of immersive therapies? == PTSD carries a substantial economic burden. It was associated with an estimated US$232 billion in excess costs in the United States in 2018 and over $£40 billion, in the United Kingdom, 92.4% of which was indirect rather than direct clinical cost (Davis et al., 2022; Montgomery-Marks et al., 2025). In Australia, the average annual cost of PTSD per military veteran was estimated at $112,172 in 2025 (Magnusson & Dey, 2025). In addition, individual healthcare costs surge by 142% in the year following a PTSD diagnosis, with comorbidities tripling this effect (Bothe et al., 2020). These figures span several countries and years and should be best read as an indication of scale rather than as directly comparable totals. Immersive therapy’s ability to move from small trials into mainstream PTSD treatment remains limited by methodological [[w:Homogeneity_and_heterogeneity|heterogeneity]], small sample sizes, and a lack of long-term data (Felemban et al., 2026). Practical issues such as [[w:Virtual_reality_sickness|cyber sickness]] or motion sickness can also disrupt participation (Kukharuk et al., 2025). Structural barriers include workforce training and equipment costs. Basic VR systems cost an estimated US$3,500 per provider headset annually, and advanced simulation environments can cost up to US$200,000 (Garrett et al., 2018). Despite this, adoption of immersive therapy is scaling. The [[w:United_States_Department_of_Veterans_Affairs|United States Veterans Affairs]] have expanded VR use from five medical centres in 2017 to over 154 centres and 2,300 trained staff, with applications now including over 40 documented clinical interventions such as chronic pain and suicide intervention (Bailey et al., 2024). Market analysts estimate the global PTSD-focused VR therapy market was worth US$1.59 billion in 2025, forecast to reach US$5.94 billion by 2032, driven largely by growing mental health awareness and the absence of standard clinical protocols (Stratistics MRC, 2025). These limitations do not undermine the case for immersive therapy, but they show its evidence base and infrastructure are still maturing. Demonstrating rigorously why these therapies work, rather than assuming their novelty accounts for their effects is essential to avoid misallocating resources to unproven interventions and supports a paradigm shift, from a narrow, disease model towards one that values post-traumatic growth and renewed optimism (Trejo et al., 2015; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b; Wiederhold & Wiederhold, 2025). == Conclusion == PTSD traps people in a self-reinforcing cycle of avoidance that blocks the adaptive processing trauma memories need to resolve (see: ''Understanding PTSD and emotions''). Standard trauma-focused therapies require patients to confront exactly what this cycle causes them to avoid, which contributes to high, non-response and dropout rates (see ''Why treatment can be difficult''). Immersive therapies such as VRET and 3MDR address this by using presence, embodied cognition, prediction error and memory reconsolidation to help patients safely approach trauma cues rather than avoid them (see: ''What does the research evidence show''). The technology itself is only a delivery mechanism, it is the psychological processes that drive change. The evidence to date shows meaningful reductions in PTSD symptoms and comparatively low drop-out rates, alongside broader gains in emotional regulation. However, small samples, methodological variation, and a lack of long-term data mean the evidence base is still developing, and cost and infrastructure barriers remain significant (see ''costs and limitations'').{{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} [[File:Nuvola apps kuser.svg|Nuvola apps kuser|left|20px]] ''' Take-home message:''' Immersive therapies do not heal PTSD trauma through technological novelty or digital feedback. Instead, they create a safe, dynamic space that lets individuals confront trauma and reprocess memories into something they can live with. In doing so, people’s lives may once again shift toward value, optimism, and wellness.{{RoundBoxBottom}} == See also == {{ic|Add bullet points and rename links; add Wikipedia links}} * [[Evidence-based assessment/Posttraumatic stress disorder (disorder portfolio)]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Textbook/Emotion/Anxiety]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Phobias]] (Book Chapter) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Sense hacking]] (Book Chapter) == References == {{Hanging indent|Bailey, A. L., Kirsh, S., Rawlins, C., Persky, S., & Clancy, C. (2024). Early scaling of immersive technology within the Veterans Health Administration. NEJM Catalyst Innovations in Care Delivery, 5(4). https://doi.org/10.1056/cat.23.0356 Boska, R. L., Bishop, T. M., Capron, D. W., Paxton Willing, M. M., & Ashrafioun, L. (2025). Difficulties with emotion regulation within PTSD clusters and moral injury subtypes. Military Psychology, 37(2), 159-167. https://doi.org/10.1080/08995605.2024.2322904 de Haart, R., Daniels, J. K., Timmerman, M. E., Cath, D. C., & Lommen, M. J. J. (2026). Augmenting virtual reality exposure for PTSD with physical activity: Study protocol of a randomised controlled trial. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 17(1), 2605803. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008066.2025.2605803 Efremov, A. (2025). Age-specific mental health profiles of combat veterans: Post-traumatic stress disorder and related disorders. Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive-Behavior Therapy, 44(4), 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10942-025-00637-7 Elklit, A., & Dahl, N. H. (2025). Emotion regulation difficulties, aggression, and PTSD symptoms in Danish treatment-seeking veterans. Scandinavian Journal of Military Studies, 8(1), 308-326. https://doi.org/10.31374/sjms.264 Felemban, R. G., Alzahrani, R. R., Alrefaei, N. F., Alharbi, N. M., Alghamdi, A. S., & Alqadi, S. (2026). Efficacy of virtual reality-based exposure therapy for post-traumatic stress disorder in military veterans: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 17, 1857109. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1857109 Fredrickson, B. L. (2001). The role of positive emotions in positive psychology: The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. American Psychologist, 56(3), 218-226. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.56.3.218 Garrett, B., Taverner, T., Gromala, D., Tao, G., Cordingley, E., & Sun, C. (2018). Virtual reality clinical research: Promises and challenges. JMIR Serious Games, 6(4), e10839. https://doi.org/10.2196/10839 Kukharuk, O., Tkalich, K., Kamash, N., & Georgiou, O. (2025). Effectiveness of immersive VR therapy in reducing stress-associated symptoms in Ukraine. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 16(1), 2488097. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008066.2025.2488097 Lewis, C., Roberts, N. P., Andrew, M., Starling, E., & Bisson, J. I. (2020). Psychological therapies for post-traumatic stress disorder in adults: Systematic review and meta-analysis. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 11(1), 1729633. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2020.1729633 Lopes, M. K. S., Perreault, L., de Jesus, B. Jr., Roberge, M. C., & Falk, T. H. (2025). Subjective and objective evaluation of the benefits of multisensory virtual nature immersion for patients with post-traumatic stress disorder. In Proceedings of the 17th International Conference on Quality of Multimedia Experience (QoMEX) (pp.1-5). IEEE. https://doi.org/10.1109/QoMEX65720.2025.11219945 López-Ojeda, W., & Hurley, R. A. (2022). Extended reality technologies: Expanding therapeutic approaches for PTSD. The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 34(1), 1-5. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.neuropsych.21100244 Macey, A.-L., Macey, J., & Hamari, J. (2026). Emotion regulation in immersive virtual reality environments: A scoping review. Interacting with Computers, 29, 1-20. https://doi.org/10.1093/iwc/iwag029 Niles, B., Lang, A., & Olff, M. (2023). Complementary and integrative interventions for PTSD. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 14(2), 2247888. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008066.2023.2247888 Osman, A., Paczynski, M., & Jha, A. P. (2016). Affective expectations influence neural responses to stressful images in soldiers. Military Psychology, 29(1), 41-57. https://doi.org/10.1037/mil0000128 Selvakumaran, R. V. (2025). Developing virtual reality (VR) simulations with embedded user analytics for cognitive rehabilitation in PTSD veterans. In Proceedings of the 27th International Conference on Multimodal Interaction (pp. 740-744). ACM. https://doi.org/10.1145/3716553.3750826 Stratistics MRC. (2025). Virtual reality therapy for PTSD market forecasts to 2032: Global analysis by component (hardware, software and service), therapy type, application, end user and by geography. https://www.strategymrc.com/report/virtual-reality-therapy-for-ptsd-market Trejo, B. C., Richard, E. M., van Driel, M., & McDonald, D. P. (2015). Cross-cultural competence: The role of emotion regulation ability and optimism. Military Psychology, 27(5), 276-286. https://doi.org/10.1037/mil0000081 van Gelderen, M. J., Nijdam, M. J., & Vermetten, E. (2018). An innovative framework for delivering psychotherapy to patients with treatment-resistant posttraumatic stress disorder: Rationale for interactive motion-assisted therapy. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 9, 176. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00176 van Toorenburg, M. M., Sanches, S. A., Linders, B., Rozendaal, L., Voorendonk, E. M., Van Minnen, A., & De Jongh, A. (2020). Do emotion regulation difficulties affect outcome of intensive trauma-focused treatment of patients with severe PTSD? European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 11(1), 1724417. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2020.1724417 Vermetten, E., Barcaro, S., Espejo, E., Bellini, P., Roy, M. J., & Bremault-Phillips, S. (2025a). Linguistic analysis of patients’ labels during 3MDR psychotherapy. Psychiatry and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 35(Suppl. 1), S29. https://doi.org/10.5152/pcp.2025.241024 Vermetten, E., Burback, L., Sevigny, P. R., Nijdam, M. J., Winkler, O., Espejo, E., Sessoms, P., Bright, K., Roy, M. J., & Brémault-Phillips, S. (2025b). Brief manual for multi-modal motion-assisted memory desensitization and reconsolidation therapy for the treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder. Psychiatry and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 35(Suppl. 1), S122. https://doi.org/10.5152/pcp.2025.241028 Westphal, M., Aldao, A., & Jackson, C. (2017). Emotion dysregulation in comorbid posttraumatic stress disorder and substance use disorders: A narrative review. Military Psychology, 29(3), 216-233. https://doi.org/10.1037/mil0000157 Wiederhold, B. K., & Wiederhold, M. D. (2025). Virtual reality therapy combined with physiological monitoring provides effective treatment, with objective metrics, for post-traumatic stress disorder. Expert Review of Medical Devices, 22(2), 117-119. https://doi.org/10.1080/17434440.2025.2454930 }} == External links == {{ic|Add bullet points, hyperlink name of link, including source in parentheses}} '''Web:''' National Center for PTSD (USA) https://www.ptsd.va.gov/index.asp '''Web:''' VA Immersive Pilot Programs & Collaborations<nowiki/>https://www.innovation.va.gov/hil/views/immersive/immersive-programs.html '''Web:''' Australian Government Health advice - PTSD https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/post-traumatic-stress-disorder-ptsd '''Web:''' Australian Royal Commission into Defence and Veteran Suicide: Final Report<nowiki/>https://defenceveteransuicide.royalcommission.gov.au/publications/final-report '''Podcast:''' Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)https://shows.acast.com/5c3353e484e2e79370e1d135/5c3353ef84e2e79370e1d13c '''Video:''' 3MDR: Virtual reality treatment for veterans with PTSD https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bD43R_oa6qo '''Video:''' VR Exposure for Combat PTSD with EMDR Integration https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jL2bKmniMTc '''Final Report:''' Randomised control trial of 3MDR for treatment of resistant PTSD in military veterans<nowiki/>https://www.ncmh.info/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/Cardiff-3MDR-Study-Final-Report-with-cover-21.5.20.pdf [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Psychotherapy]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Trauma]] 30x0vvcknj6lbzs2201iybon5o7xakk 2832729 2832728 2026-09-10T22:03:58Z StretchBeyond 3105744 /* External links */ 2832729 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment:<br>How does it work and what are the effects?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''Scenario: Immersive PTSD therapies''' Andriy, a soldier, harnessed to a treadmill, walks towards a screen displaying an image he spent months avoiding. His therapist beside him. This is multi-modular motion assisted memory desensitisation and reconsolidation (3MDR), one of a new generation of immersive therapies being used to treat post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). [[File:Andriy 3MDR enhanced.gif|center|600x600px]] '''Figure 1.''' Andriy, alongside his therapist, moves through his 3MDR treatment. Learn about more about immersive therapy and Andriy’s* experience in the chapter below (*Andriy is a fictional name used for this scenario). {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[File:Post-traumatic_stress_disorder_world_map_-_DALY_-_WHO2004.svg|alt=|thumb|271x271px|'''Figure 2:''' The 2024 World Health Organisation estimates 3.9% of the world population has had post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) at some stage in their lives.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/post-traumatic-stress-disorder|title=Post-traumatic stress disorder|website=www.who.int|language=en|access-date=2026-08-17}}</ref>]] [[w:Post-traumatic_stress_disorder|Post-traumatic stress disorder]] (PTSD) develops after exposure to severe or life-threatening trauma and carries a substantial personal and societal cost, estimated in the hundreds of billions of dollars annually worldwide (Figure 2), with sub-communities such as military personnel having an increased likelihood of representation (Boska et al., 2025). Further detail in costs and limitations below (Davis et al., 2022; Montgomery-Marks et al., 2025). PTSDs emotional impact is shaped by [[w:Emotional_dysregulation|emotional dysregulation]], in which people struggle to manage intense feelings such as guilt, fear or shame (Westphal et al., 2017).This commonly triggers a cycle of [[Cognitive psychology|cognitive]] and behavioural avoidance that offers short-term relief but prevents traumatic memory from being adaptively processed, leaving the person trapped in a cycle of avoidance and a state of chronic, hyper arousal (Efremov, 2025; de Haart et al., 2026; van Gelderen et al., 2018). Immersive interventions, including [[w:Virtual_reality_therapy|virtual reality exposure therapy]] (VRET) and multi-modular motion assisted memory desensitisation and reconsolidation (3MDR) aim to break this cognitive avoidance cycle by creating controlled environments in which trauma cues can be safely approached rather than avoided (van Gelderen et al., 2018; Wiederhold & Wiederhold, 2025). This chapter explains the psychological theory behind these approaches, reviews the research evidence for their effects and considers current limitations. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''Focus questions'''[[File:Crystal Clear app ktip.svg|left|20px|]] * Why is emotional processing important in PTSD? * How can immersive therapies influence the emotional processes underlying PTSD? * What does the research evidence show? * What are the costs and limitations of immersive therapies? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Why is emotional processing important in PTSD? == PTSD frequently develops after exposure to severe or life-threatening trauma and it is formally diagnosed according to [[w:DSM-5|DSM-5]] criteria. Sufferers experience chronic hyper-vigilance, mental hyper arousal and a disruption to executive and emotional processing systems (Kukharuk et al., 2025; Osman et al., 2016). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}[[Image:Crystal Clear app help index.svg|left|50px]] ;Predict the outcome A soldier with PTSD encounters a trauma-related image and expects: '''TRAUMA CUE → DANGER → DISTRESS → AVOID''' However, during immersive treatment, the expected danger does not occur. What is the most likely consequence?<quiz display=simple> { |type="()"} - Fear increases permanently. - Memory cannot change. + Prediction error creates an opportunity for new learning. - Emotional processing stops.  } </quiz> <div style="text-align:right; color:red; font-weight:bold;"> Click "show" below to understand more⤵ </div> {{Hidden begin|title=Please pause and predict the answer before opening this section}}The correct answer is '''C'''. <div style="text-align:left; color:black; font-weight:regular;"> The mismatch between expected danger and actual safety creates a '''prediction error'''. This may contribute to fear extinction, emotion regulation, and memory reconsolidation.'''Think about it:''' If approaching rather than avoiding trauma can create new learning, what role might emotion regulation, fear extinction, prediction error and memory reconsolidation play? </div>   {{Hidden end}} <div style="text-align:left; color:black; font-weight:regular;">''Keep your thoughts in mind as you read the chapter below and explore the evidence for these mechanisms, and their role in immersive PTSD treatment''. * A fictional name assigned for the learning scenario. </div> {{RoundBoxBottom}} === Understanding PTSD and emotions === PTSD is characterised by difficulty in adaptively processing traumatic events. This disruption produces symptoms such as intrusive memories, flashbacks and nightmares, heightened threat perception, hyper-vigilance and persistent negative emotional states as depicted in Figure 3 (Felemban et al., 2026; López-Ojeda & Hurley, 2022). [[File:PTSD.png|left|thumb|'''Figure 3. PTSD can have a deep and lasting impact on our emotions.''']]Emotional processing theory suggests that recovering from trauma requires the fear structure held in the memory to be activated and updated with corrective information. In PTSD this process is blocked and to manage this intense physiological and emotional stress, many individuals will adopt cognitive and behavioural avoidance as a primary defence mechanism (López-Ojeda & Hurley, 2022). Avoidance offers short-term relief but prevents the traumatic memory from being safely reactivated, so it can update with new, safe information. Trauma reminders such as flashbacks continue to trigger extreme distress and fear (Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). This traps the individual in a maladaptive, self-reinforcing avoidance cycle (Figure 4 below). At a neural level, Wesphal et al. (2017) link this to [[wikipedia:Transdiagnostic_process|transdiagnostic]] [[w:Emotional_dysregulation|emotion dysregulation]], in which the traumatic memory network (TMN) remains isolated from the brain's [[w:Salience_network|salience]] and central executive networks. Effective treatment requires safely reactivating this network so the memory can be integrated rather than avoided (Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b; Westphal et al., 2017). A 2025 study of Danish military veterans (''n''=142) found emotional regulation difficulties explained an additional 28% of the variance in PTSD symptoms, which when combined with [[w:Comorbidity|comorbid]] symptoms, these factors accounted for 52% of the variance in PTSD severity (''F''(13, 92) = 9.58, ''p'' <0.001). Impulse control difficulties (ß = 0.32'', p'' = 0.005) and non-acceptance of emotional responses (ß = 0.20'', p'' = 0.05) were among the strongest predictors (Elklit & Dahl, 2025).[[File:Avoidance and Processing Cycles.png|500x500px|thumb|'''Figure 4'''. Highlights the typical flow of an avoidance cycle and the anticipated positive responses generated via immersive therapies. Based on concepts introduced in journal articles by Lopez-Ojeda et al. (2022), Felemban et al. (2026), and Vermetten et. al. (2025b).|center]] === Why treatment can be difficult === Traditional trauma-focused psychotherapies such as [[w:Prolonged_exposure_therapy|prolonged exposure]] (PE) and [[w:Cognitive_processing_therapy|cognitive processing therapy]] (CPT) work by asking patients to actively engage with distressing memories in to generate fear extinction (van Toorenburg et al., 2020). However, this is precisely what avoidance prevents, with many patients unable to tolerate the emotional exposure and memory activation these therapies require (Lopes et al., 2025; van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). As the individual cannot confront the trauma trigger in a safe environment, the brain cannot experience a prediction error and learn that a threat is no longer present. Consequently, the threat perception and threat response remain persistent within the PTSD patient, perpetuating the PTSD symptoms indefinitely. (de Haart et al., 2026; López-Ojeda & Hurley, 2022). This difficulty is reflected in treatment outcomes where an estimated 39.2% of patients fail to respond to standard trauma-focused therapy, while dropout rates range between 16-48% (de Haart et al., 2026; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). Non-response is not uniform, among military veterans younger patients tend to show heightened symptom severity when the trauma is central to their personal identity, while others turn to poor diet or coping orientated substance abuse to suppress negative emotions, further eroding emotional regulation (Efremov, 2025; Niles et al., 2023). [[w:Emotional_dysregulation|Emotional dysregulation]] was historically viewed as a fixed barrier requiring a lengthy stabilisation phase before treatment could begin (van Toorenburg et al., 2020). More recent evidence however suggests otherwise, as emotional regulation has dynamic capacity and standard trauma-focused treatments can improve emotion regulation as a natural consequence of successful memory processing (van Toorenburg et al., 2020). This reframes the clinical challenge from being fixed barrier, to one of actively helping an individual safely approach and process the traumatic memory. [[File:UC PhD VR study.png|right|thumb|'''Figure 5.''' PhD work by R. Selvakumaran at the University of Canberra explores cultural and linguistic factors using the US ''Bravemind'' system and Australian veterans and first responders.]]Cultural context adds another layer of difficulty. Doctoral research at the the [[University of Canberra]] is examining how immersive therapy protocols developed in the United States such as the US-centric ''Bravemind''<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://medvr.ict.usc.edu/projects/bravemind.html|title=Bravemind {{!}} MedVR|website=medvr.ict.usc.edu|access-date=2026-08-25}}</ref> (Figure 5) need to be culturally adapted for Australian military veterans and first responders, whose operational backgrounds and rules of engagement differ from their US counterparts (Selvakumaran, 2025). This work integrates exposure therapy with gamified, posture-adaptive cognitive rehabilitation to support motor acuity and improved physical and emotional regulation (Selvakumaran, 2025). The PTSD treatment gaps described above carry a substantial economic and personal cost, which is part of the motivation for developing more effective alternatives such as immersive therapies.    == How can immersive therapies influence emotional processes? == Developments in immersive PTSD treatments represent a notable shift from traditional approaches to psychological trauma care. Rather than relying on sedentary, largely passive therapeutic environments, these interventions shift clinical practice toward active, embodied, highly interactive, and engaging contexts (van Gelderen et al., 2018). To understand how these emerging interventions alter emotional responses and behaviours, it is necessary to examine three psychological mechanisms and their interaction: multisensory presence, embodied cognition, and divergent thinking (López-Ojeda & Hurley, 2022; van Gelderen et al., 2018). Immersion therapy goes beyond the simple visual replication of a trauma memory; instead, it begins to capture the participant’s visceral and cognitive focus by limiting distractions and developing a state of physical and mental engagement (Macey et al., 2026). Embodied cognition is the concept of how physical states of the body can directly modify states of the mind (van Gelderen et al., 2018). In active immersive therapies such as 3MDR, physically walking toward a virtual trauma reminder can alter the patient’s appraisal of safety, promoting associative memory access and facilitating open-ended divergent thinking patterns that disrupt previously learned rigid, repetitive trauma loops (van Gelderen et al., 2018). === What is immersive therapy? === [[File:XR and Human Senses.png|right|thumb|'''Figure 6.''' The Extended Reality environment and its interaction with the human brain. Designed to give readers a simple understanding of emerging technologies used in immersive PTSD environments.]]Immersive therapies<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-01|title=Immersion therapy|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Immersion_therapy&oldid=1357152847|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> use [[w:Extended_reality|extended reality]](XR) platforms, encompassing [[virtual reality]] (VR), [[Augmented Reality|augmented reality]] (AR), and [[w:Mixed_reality_game|mixed reality]] (MR), to create customisable, controlled, and standardised therapeutic environments (López-Ojeda & Hurley, 2022; Wiederhold & Wiederhold, 2025). This XR digital ecosystem, as depicted in Figure 6. Two clinical therapy applications are the focus of this chapter: virtual reality exposure therapy (VRET) where therapists reconstruct traumatic scenarios in safe, graded environments; and multi-modal motion assisted memory desensitisation and reconsolidation (3MDR), which extends this by having the patient move on a treadmill towards a panoramic display, side by side with their therapist, rather than a stationary, face to face session (de Haart et al., 2026; Felemban et al., 2026). === Presence and embodied cognition === Immersive therapy’s distinguishing feature is its ability to generate presence, or the psychological illusion of being ‘there’. This illusion is amplified by integrating synchronised audio, visual, olfactory, haptic, and movement stimuli (Lopes et al., 2025; López-Ojeda & Hurley, 2022). The presence effect then increases engagement with the trauma memory and supports emotional processing (van Gelderen et al., 2018). In active therapies such as 3MDR, presence combines with cognition. The working principle is that physical states of the body can directly shape states of the mind (van Gelderen et al., 2018). Physically walking towards a virtual trauma reminder functions as a fear antagonistic action (FAA) and rather than retreating in avoidance, the patient approaches, converting passive helplessness into active, empowered participation (de Haart et al., 2026; van Gelderen et al., 2018). This movement towards the active approach generates immediate neurocognitive stress responses that include bypassing severe avoidance behaviours and boosting divergent thinking approaches, which can disrupt rigid and repetitive trauma narratives (Boska et al., 2025; Osman et al., 2016; van Gelderen et al., 2018). Notably, this benefit does not seem to be driven by exercise physiology which suggests moderate-to-high-intensity physical activity is required to consolidate extinction learning by stimulating [[w:Brain-derived_neurotrophic_factor|brain-derived neurotrophic factor]] (BDNF); however, the walking pace in 3MDR therapy (< 4 km/h) is too low to generate meaningful BDNF secretion. This suggests the mechanisms of benefit is primarily psychological and behavioural. It is the approach action itself and the cognitive restructuring it enables, rather than physiological causes (de Haart et al., 2026). === Prediction error and inhibitory learning === Immersive therapy builds on the inhibitory learning model of exposure therapy, in which a new, safe association actively competes with and suppresses the original conditioned fear response. Walking towards a trauma cue and encountering safety instead of the expected catastrophe creates a profound prediction error, a mismatch between the anticipated, catastrophic, life-threatening event and the actual reality of a safe clinical environment. This destabilises the traumatic memory, allowing successful memory reconsolidation work to occur (Felemban et al., 2026; van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b; Wiederhold & Wiederhold, 2025). === Memory reconsolidation === According to [[w:Memory_consolidation|memory reconsolidation]] theory, traumatic memories retrieved in a safe, highly immersive context can enter a [[w:Lability|labile]] '','' or [[w:Malleability_of_intelligence|malleable]] state of memory, during which introducing safe, supportive contextual information allows the memory to be reconsolidated in a non-threatening form (van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). To prevent the patient from becoming overwhelmed during retrieval, 3MDR uses dual-attention tasks such as tracking an oscillating ball (see example in Figure 1). This dual task intentionally taxes the patient’s limited working memory resources and can help reduce the vividness and emotional intensity of the memory (Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). Emerging linguistic research suggests that this processing is also reflected in the patient’s language. Through [[w:Affect_labeling|affective labelling]] visceral feelings such as GUILT are projected into text, patients display substantive cognitive reorganisation. Across successive 3MDR sessions, objective [[w:Marker_(linguistics)|linguistic markers]] indicated a shift from past-tense trauma narratives to present-tense verb use, all this consistent with a renewed ability to articulate emotional states and integrate traumatic moments into present-moment awareness (Vermetten, Barcaro, et al., 2025a). == What does the research evidence show? == Addressing potential treatment barriers is important for any PTSD population, but in the literature concerning military populations, it appears particularly critical, as they suffer high psychotherapy failure rates. van Gelderen et al. (2018) cite two-thirds of veterans retaining a PTSD diagnosis after standard treatments and face some of the highest clinical dropout rates. Immersive therapies such as the virtual reality ones discussed above can tailor increasingly specific, patient-selected trauma cues to enhance memory accessibility by enabling precise retrieval of traumatic memory networks (Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). === Virtual reality exposure therapy === [[w:Virtual_reality_therapy|VRET]] reconstructs traumatic events within a safe, structured context (Felemban et al., 2026; López-Ojeda & Hurley, 2022). Bypassing imagination challenges such as emotional numbing or amnesia that can prevent a PTSD patient engaging with traditional image exposure therapy (Macey et al., 2026). A meta-analysis of the VRET for PTSD found substantial within-group symptom reductions, averaging a 33.73-point decrease in the 0-80 point [[w:Clinician_Administered_PTSD_Scale|Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale]] (CAPS) and a 20.96-point decrease in the 0-80 point [https://www.ptsd.va.gov/professional/assessment/adult-sr/ptsd-checklist.asp PTSD Checklist PCL-5) scale] (Felemban et al., 2026). Because changes of 10-20 points on these scales are usually considered clinically significant, this could mean the difference between severe functional impairment and mild or subclinical symptoms (Boska et al., 2025; de Haart et al., 2026; Felemban et al., 2026).  Comparative effects against other active PTSD treatments remain modest, but VRET appears to be a more engaging alternative to conventional treatment options (Felemban et al., 2026) === 3MDR === 3MDR takes the same multisensory presence effect used in VRET and adds an activating context. Rather than a sedentary, face-to-face session, the patient and the therapist face the virtual display together, side by side (van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). It follows a three-phase protocol: pre-platform preparation, platform treadmill exposure, and post-platform re-consolidation (Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). In a trial involving treatment-resistant PTSD; 3MDR showed large effect sizes from pre-treatment to six month follow up (''n'' = 134, ''d'' = 1.0) and high acceptability, with dropout rates of 7-20%, substantially lower than the 16-48% typical of standard trauma-focused therapy in military populations (de Haart et al., 2026; Lewis et al., 2020; van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). Improvements are not limited to PTSD symptoms. A trial of 62 adults with severe PTSD, including childhood sexual trauma, found intensive trauma-focused treatment improved emotion-regulation abilities regardless of PTSD outcome, even among patients with severe baseline difficulties (van Toorenburg et al., 2020). Some researchers link this broader improvement to positive psychology [[w:Broaden-and-build|Broaden-and-Build Theory]]. The theory being that as patients regain a sense of safety and control, this may support a positive spiral of emotional flexibility that reinforces the recovery process (Fredrickson, 2001; Niles et al., 2023; Westphal et al., 2017). Table 1 below summarises the main differences and psychological mechanisms discussed above. {{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Quiz}} <quiz display=simple> {Which of the following is an expected outcome of immersive therapy ? |type="()"} - Patients are at risk because of an uncontrolled environment. - The environments represent traditional face-to-face treatments. - Failure and dropout rates are higher than traditional PTSD treatment. + Patients often broaden and build an upward spiral of emotion and optimism. </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} '''Table 1:''' Treatment Effects and Psychological Mechanisms {| class="wikitable" | valign="top" |'''Clinical Dimension''' | valign="top" |'''Traditional Exposure''' | valign="top" |'''Immersive Approach''' | valign="top" |'''Psychological Mechanisms''' |- | valign="top" |'''Therapeutic Context''' | valign="top" |'''''Sedentary'''''. Face-to-face, verbally describes trauma. | valign="top" |'''''Activating.''''' Dynamic, multi-sensory environment. | valign="top" |'''''Fear Antagonistic Action.''''' '''''Approach behaviours.''''' '''''Prediction Errors.''''' |- | valign="top" |'''Trauma cue delivery''' | valign="top" |'''''Imaginary Retrieval''''' Patient capacity | valign="top" |'''''Multisensory Immersion''''' Highly tailored | valign="top" |'''''External Scaffolding.''''' Bypasses internal barriers to activate memory networks. |- | valign="top" |'''Processing''' '''and attention''' | valign="top" |'''''Convergent processing.''''' Repeated narration and fear habituation. | valign="top" |'''''Active Narrative Processing.''''' Interactive, real-time affective labelling and dual attention tasks. | valign="top" |'''''Working Memory.''''' Memory taxation reduces vividness and emotional intensity. |- | valign="top" |'''Engagement''' | valign="top" |'''''Attrition.''''' High dropout rates 16-48%. | valign="top" |'''''Acceptability.''''' Attractive. Dropout rates 7-20%. | valign="top" |'''''Sustained Motivation.''''' Presence and safety in immersive environment. |} === Applied example: 3MDR treatment in Ukraine === {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''Scenario: Ukraine War: an applied 3MDR example''' Andriy* used to be a baker in Kyiv. He is now a volunteer in the Ukrainian Armed Forces struggling with hyper-vigilance, anxiety, and depression (Kukharuk et al., 2025). Traditional ‘talk’ therapy feels impossible; his mind stays in a constant state of combat readiness, even in a quiet room. In the pre-platform phase of 3MDR, Andriy worked with his therapist to identify a ‘hotspot’ memory, represented by a photograph. On the treadmill, harnessed and walking beside his therapist, he faces a panoramic screen as personalised warm-up music plays, selected to keep him in touch with his traumatic memory network (Vermetten et al., 2025b). As his hotspot image fills the screen, his therapist asks three structured questions (Vermetten et al., 2025b): 1. What do you '''SEE''' ? 2. What does it '''TELL''' you? 3. What do you '''FEEL''' in your body NOW? When Andriy identifies a surge of shame, the word '''GUILT''' is displayed as an affective label and a dual-attention task begins. He tracks an oscillating, numbered ball while he stays with the emotion, taxing his working memory and reducing the intensity of the recalled trauma. [[File:Andriy 3MDR enhanced.gif|center|600x600px]] '''Figure 7.''' Andriy, alongside his therapist, moves through his 3MDR treatment, integrating multi-sensory input and motion while harnessed to a treadmill. By the end of the session, Andriy has physically walked towards what he used to avoid, creating a mismatch between his expectation of threat and his current safety, turning a rigid, stuck memory into a manageable narrative *''Andriy is a fictional name given to one of 69 male Ukrainian veterans who participated in a 2023 Randomised Controlled Trial in Kyiv. Many were demobilised after one year because of mental or neurological injuries'' (Kukharuk et al., 2025). {{RoundBoxBottom}} == What are the costs and limitations of immersive therapies? == PTSD carries a substantial economic burden. It was associated with an estimated US$232 billion in excess costs in the United States in 2018 and over $£40 billion, in the United Kingdom, 92.4% of which was indirect rather than direct clinical cost (Davis et al., 2022; Montgomery-Marks et al., 2025). In Australia, the average annual cost of PTSD per military veteran was estimated at $112,172 in 2025 (Magnusson & Dey, 2025). In addition, individual healthcare costs surge by 142% in the year following a PTSD diagnosis, with comorbidities tripling this effect (Bothe et al., 2020). These figures span several countries and years and should be best read as an indication of scale rather than as directly comparable totals. Immersive therapy’s ability to move from small trials into mainstream PTSD treatment remains limited by methodological [[w:Homogeneity_and_heterogeneity|heterogeneity]], small sample sizes, and a lack of long-term data (Felemban et al., 2026). Practical issues such as [[w:Virtual_reality_sickness|cyber sickness]] or motion sickness can also disrupt participation (Kukharuk et al., 2025). Structural barriers include workforce training and equipment costs. Basic VR systems cost an estimated US$3,500 per provider headset annually, and advanced simulation environments can cost up to US$200,000 (Garrett et al., 2018). Despite this, adoption of immersive therapy is scaling. The [[w:United_States_Department_of_Veterans_Affairs|United States Veterans Affairs]] have expanded VR use from five medical centres in 2017 to over 154 centres and 2,300 trained staff, with applications now including over 40 documented clinical interventions such as chronic pain and suicide intervention (Bailey et al., 2024). Market analysts estimate the global PTSD-focused VR therapy market was worth US$1.59 billion in 2025, forecast to reach US$5.94 billion by 2032, driven largely by growing mental health awareness and the absence of standard clinical protocols (Stratistics MRC, 2025). These limitations do not undermine the case for immersive therapy, but they show its evidence base and infrastructure are still maturing. Demonstrating rigorously why these therapies work, rather than assuming their novelty accounts for their effects is essential to avoid misallocating resources to unproven interventions and supports a paradigm shift, from a narrow, disease model towards one that values post-traumatic growth and renewed optimism (Trejo et al., 2015; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b; Wiederhold & Wiederhold, 2025). == Conclusion == PTSD traps people in a self-reinforcing cycle of avoidance that blocks the adaptive processing trauma memories need to resolve (see: ''Understanding PTSD and emotions''). Standard trauma-focused therapies require patients to confront exactly what this cycle causes them to avoid, which contributes to high, non-response and dropout rates (see ''Why treatment can be difficult''). Immersive therapies such as VRET and 3MDR address this by using presence, embodied cognition, prediction error and memory reconsolidation to help patients safely approach trauma cues rather than avoid them (see: ''What does the research evidence show''). The technology itself is only a delivery mechanism, it is the psychological processes that drive change. The evidence to date shows meaningful reductions in PTSD symptoms and comparatively low drop-out rates, alongside broader gains in emotional regulation. However, small samples, methodological variation, and a lack of long-term data mean the evidence base is still developing, and cost and infrastructure barriers remain significant (see ''costs and limitations'').{{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} [[File:Nuvola apps kuser.svg|Nuvola apps kuser|left|20px]] ''' Take-home message:''' Immersive therapies do not heal PTSD trauma through technological novelty or digital feedback. Instead, they create a safe, dynamic space that lets individuals confront trauma and reprocess memories into something they can live with. In doing so, people’s lives may once again shift toward value, optimism, and wellness.{{RoundBoxBottom}} == See also == {{ic|Add bullet points and rename links; add Wikipedia links}} * [[Evidence-based assessment/Posttraumatic stress disorder (disorder portfolio)]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Textbook/Emotion/Anxiety]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Phobias]] (Book Chapter) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Sense hacking]] (Book Chapter) == References == {{Hanging indent|Bailey, A. L., Kirsh, S., Rawlins, C., Persky, S., & Clancy, C. (2024). Early scaling of immersive technology within the Veterans Health Administration. NEJM Catalyst Innovations in Care Delivery, 5(4). https://doi.org/10.1056/cat.23.0356 Boska, R. L., Bishop, T. M., Capron, D. W., Paxton Willing, M. M., & Ashrafioun, L. (2025). Difficulties with emotion regulation within PTSD clusters and moral injury subtypes. Military Psychology, 37(2), 159-167. https://doi.org/10.1080/08995605.2024.2322904 de Haart, R., Daniels, J. K., Timmerman, M. E., Cath, D. C., & Lommen, M. J. J. (2026). Augmenting virtual reality exposure for PTSD with physical activity: Study protocol of a randomised controlled trial. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 17(1), 2605803. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008066.2025.2605803 Efremov, A. (2025). Age-specific mental health profiles of combat veterans: Post-traumatic stress disorder and related disorders. Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive-Behavior Therapy, 44(4), 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10942-025-00637-7 Elklit, A., & Dahl, N. H. (2025). Emotion regulation difficulties, aggression, and PTSD symptoms in Danish treatment-seeking veterans. Scandinavian Journal of Military Studies, 8(1), 308-326. https://doi.org/10.31374/sjms.264 Felemban, R. G., Alzahrani, R. R., Alrefaei, N. F., Alharbi, N. M., Alghamdi, A. S., & Alqadi, S. (2026). Efficacy of virtual reality-based exposure therapy for post-traumatic stress disorder in military veterans: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 17, 1857109. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1857109 Fredrickson, B. L. (2001). The role of positive emotions in positive psychology: The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. American Psychologist, 56(3), 218-226. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.56.3.218 Garrett, B., Taverner, T., Gromala, D., Tao, G., Cordingley, E., & Sun, C. (2018). Virtual reality clinical research: Promises and challenges. JMIR Serious Games, 6(4), e10839. https://doi.org/10.2196/10839 Kukharuk, O., Tkalich, K., Kamash, N., & Georgiou, O. (2025). Effectiveness of immersive VR therapy in reducing stress-associated symptoms in Ukraine. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 16(1), 2488097. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008066.2025.2488097 Lewis, C., Roberts, N. P., Andrew, M., Starling, E., & Bisson, J. I. (2020). Psychological therapies for post-traumatic stress disorder in adults: Systematic review and meta-analysis. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 11(1), 1729633. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2020.1729633 Lopes, M. K. S., Perreault, L., de Jesus, B. Jr., Roberge, M. C., & Falk, T. H. (2025). Subjective and objective evaluation of the benefits of multisensory virtual nature immersion for patients with post-traumatic stress disorder. In Proceedings of the 17th International Conference on Quality of Multimedia Experience (QoMEX) (pp.1-5). IEEE. https://doi.org/10.1109/QoMEX65720.2025.11219945 López-Ojeda, W., & Hurley, R. A. (2022). Extended reality technologies: Expanding therapeutic approaches for PTSD. The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 34(1), 1-5. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.neuropsych.21100244 Macey, A.-L., Macey, J., & Hamari, J. (2026). Emotion regulation in immersive virtual reality environments: A scoping review. Interacting with Computers, 29, 1-20. https://doi.org/10.1093/iwc/iwag029 Niles, B., Lang, A., & Olff, M. (2023). Complementary and integrative interventions for PTSD. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 14(2), 2247888. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008066.2023.2247888 Osman, A., Paczynski, M., & Jha, A. P. (2016). Affective expectations influence neural responses to stressful images in soldiers. Military Psychology, 29(1), 41-57. https://doi.org/10.1037/mil0000128 Selvakumaran, R. V. (2025). Developing virtual reality (VR) simulations with embedded user analytics for cognitive rehabilitation in PTSD veterans. In Proceedings of the 27th International Conference on Multimodal Interaction (pp. 740-744). ACM. https://doi.org/10.1145/3716553.3750826 Stratistics MRC. (2025). Virtual reality therapy for PTSD market forecasts to 2032: Global analysis by component (hardware, software and service), therapy type, application, end user and by geography. https://www.strategymrc.com/report/virtual-reality-therapy-for-ptsd-market Trejo, B. C., Richard, E. M., van Driel, M., & McDonald, D. P. (2015). Cross-cultural competence: The role of emotion regulation ability and optimism. Military Psychology, 27(5), 276-286. https://doi.org/10.1037/mil0000081 van Gelderen, M. J., Nijdam, M. J., & Vermetten, E. (2018). An innovative framework for delivering psychotherapy to patients with treatment-resistant posttraumatic stress disorder: Rationale for interactive motion-assisted therapy. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 9, 176. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00176 van Toorenburg, M. M., Sanches, S. A., Linders, B., Rozendaal, L., Voorendonk, E. M., Van Minnen, A., & De Jongh, A. (2020). Do emotion regulation difficulties affect outcome of intensive trauma-focused treatment of patients with severe PTSD? European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 11(1), 1724417. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2020.1724417 Vermetten, E., Barcaro, S., Espejo, E., Bellini, P., Roy, M. J., & Bremault-Phillips, S. (2025a). Linguistic analysis of patients’ labels during 3MDR psychotherapy. Psychiatry and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 35(Suppl. 1), S29. https://doi.org/10.5152/pcp.2025.241024 Vermetten, E., Burback, L., Sevigny, P. R., Nijdam, M. J., Winkler, O., Espejo, E., Sessoms, P., Bright, K., Roy, M. J., & Brémault-Phillips, S. (2025b). Brief manual for multi-modal motion-assisted memory desensitization and reconsolidation therapy for the treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder. Psychiatry and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 35(Suppl. 1), S122. https://doi.org/10.5152/pcp.2025.241028 Westphal, M., Aldao, A., & Jackson, C. (2017). Emotion dysregulation in comorbid posttraumatic stress disorder and substance use disorders: A narrative review. Military Psychology, 29(3), 216-233. https://doi.org/10.1037/mil0000157 Wiederhold, B. K., & Wiederhold, M. D. (2025). Virtual reality therapy combined with physiological monitoring provides effective treatment, with objective metrics, for post-traumatic stress disorder. Expert Review of Medical Devices, 22(2), 117-119. https://doi.org/10.1080/17434440.2025.2454930 }} == External links == {{ic|Add bullet points, hyperlink name of link, including source in parentheses}} * '''Web:''' National Center for PTSD (USA) https://www.ptsd.va.gov/index.asp * '''Web:''' VA Immersive Pilot Programs & Collaborations<nowiki/>https://www.innovation.va.gov/hil/views/immersive/immersive-programs.html * '''Web:''' Australian Government Health advice - PTSD https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/post-traumatic-stress-disorder-ptsd * '''Web:''' Australian Royal Commission into Defence and Veteran Suicide: Final Report<nowiki/>https://defenceveteransuicide.royalcommission.gov.au/publications/final-report * '''Podcast:''' Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)https://shows.acast.com/5c3353e484e2e79370e1d135/5c3353ef84e2e79370e1d13c * '''Video:''' 3MDR: Virtual reality treatment for veterans with PTSD https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bD43R_oa6qo * '''Video:''' VR Exposure for Combat PTSD with EMDR Integration https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jL2bKmniMTc * '''Final Report:''' Randomised control trial of 3MDR for treatment of resistant PTSD in military veterans<nowiki/>https://www.ncmh.info/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/Cardiff-3MDR-Study-Final-Report-with-cover-21.5.20.pdf [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Psychotherapy]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Trauma]] dcfk0t4250pbf5crjiirtau9iqfsb5s 2832730 2832729 2026-09-10T22:17:17Z StretchBeyond 3105744 /* External links */ updated see also and external links to comply with template and chapter feedback 2832730 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment:<br>How does it work and what are the effects?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''Scenario: Immersive PTSD therapies''' Andriy, a soldier, harnessed to a treadmill, walks towards a screen displaying an image he spent months avoiding. His therapist beside him. This is multi-modular motion assisted memory desensitisation and reconsolidation (3MDR), one of a new generation of immersive therapies being used to treat post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). [[File:Andriy 3MDR enhanced.gif|center|600x600px]] '''Figure 1.''' Andriy, alongside his therapist, moves through his 3MDR treatment. Learn about more about immersive therapy and Andriy’s* experience in the chapter below (*Andriy is a fictional name used for this scenario). {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[File:Post-traumatic_stress_disorder_world_map_-_DALY_-_WHO2004.svg|alt=|thumb|271x271px|'''Figure 2:''' The 2024 World Health Organisation estimates 3.9% of the world population has had post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) at some stage in their lives.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/post-traumatic-stress-disorder|title=Post-traumatic stress disorder|website=www.who.int|language=en|access-date=2026-08-17}}</ref>]] [[w:Post-traumatic_stress_disorder|Post-traumatic stress disorder]] (PTSD) develops after exposure to severe or life-threatening trauma and carries a substantial personal and societal cost, estimated in the hundreds of billions of dollars annually worldwide (Figure 2), with sub-communities such as military personnel having an increased likelihood of representation (Boska et al., 2025). Further detail in costs and limitations below (Davis et al., 2022; Montgomery-Marks et al., 2025). PTSDs emotional impact is shaped by [[w:Emotional_dysregulation|emotional dysregulation]], in which people struggle to manage intense feelings such as guilt, fear or shame (Westphal et al., 2017).This commonly triggers a cycle of [[Cognitive psychology|cognitive]] and behavioural avoidance that offers short-term relief but prevents traumatic memory from being adaptively processed, leaving the person trapped in a cycle of avoidance and a state of chronic, hyper arousal (Efremov, 2025; de Haart et al., 2026; van Gelderen et al., 2018). Immersive interventions, including [[w:Virtual_reality_therapy|virtual reality exposure therapy]] (VRET) and multi-modular motion assisted memory desensitisation and reconsolidation (3MDR) aim to break this cognitive avoidance cycle by creating controlled environments in which trauma cues can be safely approached rather than avoided (van Gelderen et al., 2018; Wiederhold & Wiederhold, 2025). This chapter explains the psychological theory behind these approaches, reviews the research evidence for their effects and considers current limitations. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''Focus questions'''[[File:Crystal Clear app ktip.svg|left|20px|]] * Why is emotional processing important in PTSD? * How can immersive therapies influence the emotional processes underlying PTSD? * What does the research evidence show? * What are the costs and limitations of immersive therapies? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Why is emotional processing important in PTSD? == PTSD frequently develops after exposure to severe or life-threatening trauma and it is formally diagnosed according to [[w:DSM-5|DSM-5]] criteria. Sufferers experience chronic hyper-vigilance, mental hyper arousal and a disruption to executive and emotional processing systems (Kukharuk et al., 2025; Osman et al., 2016). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}[[Image:Crystal Clear app help index.svg|left|50px]] ;Predict the outcome A soldier with PTSD encounters a trauma-related image and expects: '''TRAUMA CUE → DANGER → DISTRESS → AVOID''' However, during immersive treatment, the expected danger does not occur. What is the most likely consequence?<quiz display=simple> { |type="()"} - Fear increases permanently. - Memory cannot change. + Prediction error creates an opportunity for new learning. - Emotional processing stops.  } </quiz> <div style="text-align:right; color:red; font-weight:bold;"> Click "show" below to understand more⤵ </div> {{Hidden begin|title=Please pause and predict the answer before opening this section}}The correct answer is '''C'''. <div style="text-align:left; color:black; font-weight:regular;"> The mismatch between expected danger and actual safety creates a '''prediction error'''. This may contribute to fear extinction, emotion regulation, and memory reconsolidation.'''Think about it:''' If approaching rather than avoiding trauma can create new learning, what role might emotion regulation, fear extinction, prediction error and memory reconsolidation play? </div>   {{Hidden end}} <div style="text-align:left; color:black; font-weight:regular;">''Keep your thoughts in mind as you read the chapter below and explore the evidence for these mechanisms, and their role in immersive PTSD treatment''. * A fictional name assigned for the learning scenario. </div> {{RoundBoxBottom}} === Understanding PTSD and emotions === PTSD is characterised by difficulty in adaptively processing traumatic events. This disruption produces symptoms such as intrusive memories, flashbacks and nightmares, heightened threat perception, hyper-vigilance and persistent negative emotional states as depicted in Figure 3 (Felemban et al., 2026; López-Ojeda & Hurley, 2022). [[File:PTSD.png|left|thumb|'''Figure 3. PTSD can have a deep and lasting impact on our emotions.''']]Emotional processing theory suggests that recovering from trauma requires the fear structure held in the memory to be activated and updated with corrective information. In PTSD this process is blocked and to manage this intense physiological and emotional stress, many individuals will adopt cognitive and behavioural avoidance as a primary defence mechanism (López-Ojeda & Hurley, 2022). Avoidance offers short-term relief but prevents the traumatic memory from being safely reactivated, so it can update with new, safe information. Trauma reminders such as flashbacks continue to trigger extreme distress and fear (Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). This traps the individual in a maladaptive, self-reinforcing avoidance cycle (Figure 4 below). At a neural level, Wesphal et al. (2017) link this to [[wikipedia:Transdiagnostic_process|transdiagnostic]] [[w:Emotional_dysregulation|emotion dysregulation]], in which the traumatic memory network (TMN) remains isolated from the brain's [[w:Salience_network|salience]] and central executive networks. Effective treatment requires safely reactivating this network so the memory can be integrated rather than avoided (Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b; Westphal et al., 2017). A 2025 study of Danish military veterans (''n''=142) found emotional regulation difficulties explained an additional 28% of the variance in PTSD symptoms, which when combined with [[w:Comorbidity|comorbid]] symptoms, these factors accounted for 52% of the variance in PTSD severity (''F''(13, 92) = 9.58, ''p'' <0.001). Impulse control difficulties (ß = 0.32'', p'' = 0.005) and non-acceptance of emotional responses (ß = 0.20'', p'' = 0.05) were among the strongest predictors (Elklit & Dahl, 2025).[[File:Avoidance and Processing Cycles.png|500x500px|thumb|'''Figure 4'''. Highlights the typical flow of an avoidance cycle and the anticipated positive responses generated via immersive therapies. Based on concepts introduced in journal articles by Lopez-Ojeda et al. (2022), Felemban et al. (2026), and Vermetten et. al. (2025b).|center]] === Why treatment can be difficult === Traditional trauma-focused psychotherapies such as [[w:Prolonged_exposure_therapy|prolonged exposure]] (PE) and [[w:Cognitive_processing_therapy|cognitive processing therapy]] (CPT) work by asking patients to actively engage with distressing memories in to generate fear extinction (van Toorenburg et al., 2020). However, this is precisely what avoidance prevents, with many patients unable to tolerate the emotional exposure and memory activation these therapies require (Lopes et al., 2025; van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). As the individual cannot confront the trauma trigger in a safe environment, the brain cannot experience a prediction error and learn that a threat is no longer present. Consequently, the threat perception and threat response remain persistent within the PTSD patient, perpetuating the PTSD symptoms indefinitely. (de Haart et al., 2026; López-Ojeda & Hurley, 2022). This difficulty is reflected in treatment outcomes where an estimated 39.2% of patients fail to respond to standard trauma-focused therapy, while dropout rates range between 16-48% (de Haart et al., 2026; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). Non-response is not uniform, among military veterans younger patients tend to show heightened symptom severity when the trauma is central to their personal identity, while others turn to poor diet or coping orientated substance abuse to suppress negative emotions, further eroding emotional regulation (Efremov, 2025; Niles et al., 2023). [[w:Emotional_dysregulation|Emotional dysregulation]] was historically viewed as a fixed barrier requiring a lengthy stabilisation phase before treatment could begin (van Toorenburg et al., 2020). More recent evidence however suggests otherwise, as emotional regulation has dynamic capacity and standard trauma-focused treatments can improve emotion regulation as a natural consequence of successful memory processing (van Toorenburg et al., 2020). This reframes the clinical challenge from being fixed barrier, to one of actively helping an individual safely approach and process the traumatic memory. [[File:UC PhD VR study.png|right|thumb|'''Figure 5.''' PhD work by R. Selvakumaran at the University of Canberra explores cultural and linguistic factors using the US ''Bravemind'' system and Australian veterans and first responders.]]Cultural context adds another layer of difficulty. Doctoral research at the the [[University of Canberra]] is examining how immersive therapy protocols developed in the United States such as the US-centric ''Bravemind''<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://medvr.ict.usc.edu/projects/bravemind.html|title=Bravemind {{!}} MedVR|website=medvr.ict.usc.edu|access-date=2026-08-25}}</ref> (Figure 5) need to be culturally adapted for Australian military veterans and first responders, whose operational backgrounds and rules of engagement differ from their US counterparts (Selvakumaran, 2025). This work integrates exposure therapy with gamified, posture-adaptive cognitive rehabilitation to support motor acuity and improved physical and emotional regulation (Selvakumaran, 2025). The PTSD treatment gaps described above carry a substantial economic and personal cost, which is part of the motivation for developing more effective alternatives such as immersive therapies.    == How can immersive therapies influence emotional processes? == Developments in immersive PTSD treatments represent a notable shift from traditional approaches to psychological trauma care. Rather than relying on sedentary, largely passive therapeutic environments, these interventions shift clinical practice toward active, embodied, highly interactive, and engaging contexts (van Gelderen et al., 2018). To understand how these emerging interventions alter emotional responses and behaviours, it is necessary to examine three psychological mechanisms and their interaction: multisensory presence, embodied cognition, and divergent thinking (López-Ojeda & Hurley, 2022; van Gelderen et al., 2018). Immersion therapy goes beyond the simple visual replication of a trauma memory; instead, it begins to capture the participant’s visceral and cognitive focus by limiting distractions and developing a state of physical and mental engagement (Macey et al., 2026). Embodied cognition is the concept of how physical states of the body can directly modify states of the mind (van Gelderen et al., 2018). In active immersive therapies such as 3MDR, physically walking toward a virtual trauma reminder can alter the patient’s appraisal of safety, promoting associative memory access and facilitating open-ended divergent thinking patterns that disrupt previously learned rigid, repetitive trauma loops (van Gelderen et al., 2018). === What is immersive therapy? === [[File:XR and Human Senses.png|right|thumb|'''Figure 6.''' The Extended Reality environment and its interaction with the human brain. Designed to give readers a simple understanding of emerging technologies used in immersive PTSD environments.]]Immersive therapies<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-01|title=Immersion therapy|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Immersion_therapy&oldid=1357152847|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> use [[w:Extended_reality|extended reality]](XR) platforms, encompassing [[virtual reality]] (VR), [[Augmented Reality|augmented reality]] (AR), and [[w:Mixed_reality_game|mixed reality]] (MR), to create customisable, controlled, and standardised therapeutic environments (López-Ojeda & Hurley, 2022; Wiederhold & Wiederhold, 2025). This XR digital ecosystem, as depicted in Figure 6. Two clinical therapy applications are the focus of this chapter: virtual reality exposure therapy (VRET) where therapists reconstruct traumatic scenarios in safe, graded environments; and multi-modal motion assisted memory desensitisation and reconsolidation (3MDR), which extends this by having the patient move on a treadmill towards a panoramic display, side by side with their therapist, rather than a stationary, face to face session (de Haart et al., 2026; Felemban et al., 2026). === Presence and embodied cognition === Immersive therapy’s distinguishing feature is its ability to generate presence, or the psychological illusion of being ‘there’. This illusion is amplified by integrating synchronised audio, visual, olfactory, haptic, and movement stimuli (Lopes et al., 2025; López-Ojeda & Hurley, 2022). The presence effect then increases engagement with the trauma memory and supports emotional processing (van Gelderen et al., 2018). In active therapies such as 3MDR, presence combines with cognition. The working principle is that physical states of the body can directly shape states of the mind (van Gelderen et al., 2018). Physically walking towards a virtual trauma reminder functions as a fear antagonistic action (FAA) and rather than retreating in avoidance, the patient approaches, converting passive helplessness into active, empowered participation (de Haart et al., 2026; van Gelderen et al., 2018). This movement towards the active approach generates immediate neurocognitive stress responses that include bypassing severe avoidance behaviours and boosting divergent thinking approaches, which can disrupt rigid and repetitive trauma narratives (Boska et al., 2025; Osman et al., 2016; van Gelderen et al., 2018). Notably, this benefit does not seem to be driven by exercise physiology which suggests moderate-to-high-intensity physical activity is required to consolidate extinction learning by stimulating [[w:Brain-derived_neurotrophic_factor|brain-derived neurotrophic factor]] (BDNF); however, the walking pace in 3MDR therapy (< 4 km/h) is too low to generate meaningful BDNF secretion. This suggests the mechanisms of benefit is primarily psychological and behavioural. It is the approach action itself and the cognitive restructuring it enables, rather than physiological causes (de Haart et al., 2026). === Prediction error and inhibitory learning === Immersive therapy builds on the inhibitory learning model of exposure therapy, in which a new, safe association actively competes with and suppresses the original conditioned fear response. Walking towards a trauma cue and encountering safety instead of the expected catastrophe creates a profound prediction error, a mismatch between the anticipated, catastrophic, life-threatening event and the actual reality of a safe clinical environment. This destabilises the traumatic memory, allowing successful memory reconsolidation work to occur (Felemban et al., 2026; van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b; Wiederhold & Wiederhold, 2025). === Memory reconsolidation === According to [[w:Memory_consolidation|memory reconsolidation]] theory, traumatic memories retrieved in a safe, highly immersive context can enter a [[w:Lability|labile]] '','' or [[w:Malleability_of_intelligence|malleable]] state of memory, during which introducing safe, supportive contextual information allows the memory to be reconsolidated in a non-threatening form (van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). To prevent the patient from becoming overwhelmed during retrieval, 3MDR uses dual-attention tasks such as tracking an oscillating ball (see example in Figure 1). This dual task intentionally taxes the patient’s limited working memory resources and can help reduce the vividness and emotional intensity of the memory (Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). Emerging linguistic research suggests that this processing is also reflected in the patient’s language. Through [[w:Affect_labeling|affective labelling]] visceral feelings such as GUILT are projected into text, patients display substantive cognitive reorganisation. Across successive 3MDR sessions, objective [[w:Marker_(linguistics)|linguistic markers]] indicated a shift from past-tense trauma narratives to present-tense verb use, all this consistent with a renewed ability to articulate emotional states and integrate traumatic moments into present-moment awareness (Vermetten, Barcaro, et al., 2025a). == What does the research evidence show? == Addressing potential treatment barriers is important for any PTSD population, but in the literature concerning military populations, it appears particularly critical, as they suffer high psychotherapy failure rates. van Gelderen et al. (2018) cite two-thirds of veterans retaining a PTSD diagnosis after standard treatments and face some of the highest clinical dropout rates. Immersive therapies such as the virtual reality ones discussed above can tailor increasingly specific, patient-selected trauma cues to enhance memory accessibility by enabling precise retrieval of traumatic memory networks (Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). === Virtual reality exposure therapy === [[w:Virtual_reality_therapy|VRET]] reconstructs traumatic events within a safe, structured context (Felemban et al., 2026; López-Ojeda & Hurley, 2022). Bypassing imagination challenges such as emotional numbing or amnesia that can prevent a PTSD patient engaging with traditional image exposure therapy (Macey et al., 2026). A meta-analysis of the VRET for PTSD found substantial within-group symptom reductions, averaging a 33.73-point decrease in the 0-80 point [[w:Clinician_Administered_PTSD_Scale|Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale]] (CAPS) and a 20.96-point decrease in the 0-80 point [https://www.ptsd.va.gov/professional/assessment/adult-sr/ptsd-checklist.asp PTSD Checklist PCL-5) scale] (Felemban et al., 2026). Because changes of 10-20 points on these scales are usually considered clinically significant, this could mean the difference between severe functional impairment and mild or subclinical symptoms (Boska et al., 2025; de Haart et al., 2026; Felemban et al., 2026).  Comparative effects against other active PTSD treatments remain modest, but VRET appears to be a more engaging alternative to conventional treatment options (Felemban et al., 2026) === 3MDR === 3MDR takes the same multisensory presence effect used in VRET and adds an activating context. Rather than a sedentary, face-to-face session, the patient and the therapist face the virtual display together, side by side (van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). It follows a three-phase protocol: pre-platform preparation, platform treadmill exposure, and post-platform re-consolidation (Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). In a trial involving treatment-resistant PTSD; 3MDR showed large effect sizes from pre-treatment to six month follow up (''n'' = 134, ''d'' = 1.0) and high acceptability, with dropout rates of 7-20%, substantially lower than the 16-48% typical of standard trauma-focused therapy in military populations (de Haart et al., 2026; Lewis et al., 2020; van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). Improvements are not limited to PTSD symptoms. A trial of 62 adults with severe PTSD, including childhood sexual trauma, found intensive trauma-focused treatment improved emotion-regulation abilities regardless of PTSD outcome, even among patients with severe baseline difficulties (van Toorenburg et al., 2020). Some researchers link this broader improvement to positive psychology [[w:Broaden-and-build|Broaden-and-Build Theory]]. The theory being that as patients regain a sense of safety and control, this may support a positive spiral of emotional flexibility that reinforces the recovery process (Fredrickson, 2001; Niles et al., 2023; Westphal et al., 2017). Table 1 below summarises the main differences and psychological mechanisms discussed above. {{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Quiz}} <quiz display=simple> {Which of the following is an expected outcome of immersive therapy ? |type="()"} - Patients are at risk because of an uncontrolled environment. - The environments represent traditional face-to-face treatments. - Failure and dropout rates are higher than traditional PTSD treatment. + Patients often broaden and build an upward spiral of emotion and optimism. </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} '''Table 1:''' Treatment Effects and Psychological Mechanisms {| class="wikitable" | valign="top" |'''Clinical Dimension''' | valign="top" |'''Traditional Exposure''' | valign="top" |'''Immersive Approach''' | valign="top" |'''Psychological Mechanisms''' |- | valign="top" |'''Therapeutic Context''' | valign="top" |'''''Sedentary'''''. Face-to-face, verbally describes trauma. | valign="top" |'''''Activating.''''' Dynamic, multi-sensory environment. | valign="top" |'''''Fear Antagonistic Action.''''' '''''Approach behaviours.''''' '''''Prediction Errors.''''' |- | valign="top" |'''Trauma cue delivery''' | valign="top" |'''''Imaginary Retrieval''''' Patient capacity | valign="top" |'''''Multisensory Immersion''''' Highly tailored | valign="top" |'''''External Scaffolding.''''' Bypasses internal barriers to activate memory networks. |- | valign="top" |'''Processing''' '''and attention''' | valign="top" |'''''Convergent processing.''''' Repeated narration and fear habituation. | valign="top" |'''''Active Narrative Processing.''''' Interactive, real-time affective labelling and dual attention tasks. | valign="top" |'''''Working Memory.''''' Memory taxation reduces vividness and emotional intensity. |- | valign="top" |'''Engagement''' | valign="top" |'''''Attrition.''''' High dropout rates 16-48%. | valign="top" |'''''Acceptability.''''' Attractive. Dropout rates 7-20%. | valign="top" |'''''Sustained Motivation.''''' Presence and safety in immersive environment. |} === Applied example: 3MDR treatment in Ukraine === {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''Scenario: Ukraine War: an applied 3MDR example''' Andriy* used to be a baker in Kyiv. He is now a volunteer in the Ukrainian Armed Forces struggling with hyper-vigilance, anxiety, and depression (Kukharuk et al., 2025). Traditional ‘talk’ therapy feels impossible; his mind stays in a constant state of combat readiness, even in a quiet room. In the pre-platform phase of 3MDR, Andriy worked with his therapist to identify a ‘hotspot’ memory, represented by a photograph. On the treadmill, harnessed and walking beside his therapist, he faces a panoramic screen as personalised warm-up music plays, selected to keep him in touch with his traumatic memory network (Vermetten et al., 2025b). As his hotspot image fills the screen, his therapist asks three structured questions (Vermetten et al., 2025b): 1. What do you '''SEE''' ? 2. What does it '''TELL''' you? 3. What do you '''FEEL''' in your body NOW? When Andriy identifies a surge of shame, the word '''GUILT''' is displayed as an affective label and a dual-attention task begins. He tracks an oscillating, numbered ball while he stays with the emotion, taxing his working memory and reducing the intensity of the recalled trauma. [[File:Andriy 3MDR enhanced.gif|center|600x600px]] '''Figure 7.''' Andriy, alongside his therapist, moves through his 3MDR treatment, integrating multi-sensory input and motion while harnessed to a treadmill. By the end of the session, Andriy has physically walked towards what he used to avoid, creating a mismatch between his expectation of threat and his current safety, turning a rigid, stuck memory into a manageable narrative *''Andriy is a fictional name given to one of 69 male Ukrainian veterans who participated in a 2023 Randomised Controlled Trial in Kyiv. Many were demobilised after one year because of mental or neurological injuries'' (Kukharuk et al., 2025). {{RoundBoxBottom}} == What are the costs and limitations of immersive therapies? == PTSD carries a substantial economic burden. It was associated with an estimated US$232 billion in excess costs in the United States in 2018 and over $£40 billion, in the United Kingdom, 92.4% of which was indirect rather than direct clinical cost (Davis et al., 2022; Montgomery-Marks et al., 2025). In Australia, the average annual cost of PTSD per military veteran was estimated at $112,172 in 2025 (Magnusson & Dey, 2025). In addition, individual healthcare costs surge by 142% in the year following a PTSD diagnosis, with comorbidities tripling this effect (Bothe et al., 2020). These figures span several countries and years and should be best read as an indication of scale rather than as directly comparable totals. Immersive therapy’s ability to move from small trials into mainstream PTSD treatment remains limited by methodological [[w:Homogeneity_and_heterogeneity|heterogeneity]], small sample sizes, and a lack of long-term data (Felemban et al., 2026). Practical issues such as [[w:Virtual_reality_sickness|cyber sickness]] or motion sickness can also disrupt participation (Kukharuk et al., 2025). Structural barriers include workforce training and equipment costs. Basic VR systems cost an estimated US$3,500 per provider headset annually, and advanced simulation environments can cost up to US$200,000 (Garrett et al., 2018). Despite this, adoption of immersive therapy is scaling. The [[w:United_States_Department_of_Veterans_Affairs|United States Veterans Affairs]] have expanded VR use from five medical centres in 2017 to over 154 centres and 2,300 trained staff, with applications now including over 40 documented clinical interventions such as chronic pain and suicide intervention (Bailey et al., 2024). Market analysts estimate the global PTSD-focused VR therapy market was worth US$1.59 billion in 2025, forecast to reach US$5.94 billion by 2032, driven largely by growing mental health awareness and the absence of standard clinical protocols (Stratistics MRC, 2025). These limitations do not undermine the case for immersive therapy, but they show its evidence base and infrastructure are still maturing. Demonstrating rigorously why these therapies work, rather than assuming their novelty accounts for their effects is essential to avoid misallocating resources to unproven interventions and supports a paradigm shift, from a narrow, disease model towards one that values post-traumatic growth and renewed optimism (Trejo et al., 2015; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b; Wiederhold & Wiederhold, 2025). == Conclusion == PTSD traps people in a self-reinforcing cycle of avoidance that blocks the adaptive processing trauma memories need to resolve (see: ''Understanding PTSD and emotions''). Standard trauma-focused therapies require patients to confront exactly what this cycle causes them to avoid, which contributes to high, non-response and dropout rates (see ''Why treatment can be difficult''). Immersive therapies such as VRET and 3MDR address this by using presence, embodied cognition, prediction error and memory reconsolidation to help patients safely approach trauma cues rather than avoid them (see: ''What does the research evidence show''). The technology itself is only a delivery mechanism, it is the psychological processes that drive change. The evidence to date shows meaningful reductions in PTSD symptoms and comparatively low drop-out rates, alongside broader gains in emotional regulation. However, small samples, methodological variation, and a lack of long-term data mean the evidence base is still developing, and cost and infrastructure barriers remain significant (see ''costs and limitations'').{{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} [[File:Nuvola apps kuser.svg|Nuvola apps kuser|left|20px]] ''' Take-home message:''' Immersive therapies do not heal PTSD trauma through technological novelty or digital feedback. Instead, they create a safe, dynamic space that lets individuals confront trauma and reprocess memories into something they can live with. In doing so, people’s lives may once again shift toward value, optimism, and wellness.{{RoundBoxBottom}} == See also == {{ic|Add bullet points and rename links; add Wikipedia links}} '''Wikiversity''' * [[Evidence-based assessment/Posttraumatic stress disorder (disorder portfolio)|Evidence-based PTSD assessment]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Textbook/Emotion/Anxiety|Anxiety book chapter]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Phobias|Phobias book chapter]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Sense hacking|Sense hacking book chapter]] == References == {{Hanging indent|Bailey, A. L., Kirsh, S., Rawlins, C., Persky, S., & Clancy, C. (2024). Early scaling of immersive technology within the Veterans Health Administration. NEJM Catalyst Innovations in Care Delivery, 5(4). https://doi.org/10.1056/cat.23.0356 Boska, R. L., Bishop, T. M., Capron, D. W., Paxton Willing, M. M., & Ashrafioun, L. (2025). Difficulties with emotion regulation within PTSD clusters and moral injury subtypes. Military Psychology, 37(2), 159-167. https://doi.org/10.1080/08995605.2024.2322904 de Haart, R., Daniels, J. K., Timmerman, M. E., Cath, D. C., & Lommen, M. J. J. (2026). Augmenting virtual reality exposure for PTSD with physical activity: Study protocol of a randomised controlled trial. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 17(1), 2605803. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008066.2025.2605803 Efremov, A. (2025). Age-specific mental health profiles of combat veterans: Post-traumatic stress disorder and related disorders. Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive-Behavior Therapy, 44(4), 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10942-025-00637-7 Elklit, A., & Dahl, N. H. (2025). Emotion regulation difficulties, aggression, and PTSD symptoms in Danish treatment-seeking veterans. Scandinavian Journal of Military Studies, 8(1), 308-326. https://doi.org/10.31374/sjms.264 Felemban, R. G., Alzahrani, R. R., Alrefaei, N. F., Alharbi, N. M., Alghamdi, A. S., & Alqadi, S. (2026). Efficacy of virtual reality-based exposure therapy for post-traumatic stress disorder in military veterans: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 17, 1857109. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1857109 Fredrickson, B. L. (2001). The role of positive emotions in positive psychology: The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. American Psychologist, 56(3), 218-226. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.56.3.218 Garrett, B., Taverner, T., Gromala, D., Tao, G., Cordingley, E., & Sun, C. (2018). Virtual reality clinical research: Promises and challenges. JMIR Serious Games, 6(4), e10839. https://doi.org/10.2196/10839 Kukharuk, O., Tkalich, K., Kamash, N., & Georgiou, O. (2025). Effectiveness of immersive VR therapy in reducing stress-associated symptoms in Ukraine. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 16(1), 2488097. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008066.2025.2488097 Lewis, C., Roberts, N. P., Andrew, M., Starling, E., & Bisson, J. I. (2020). Psychological therapies for post-traumatic stress disorder in adults: Systematic review and meta-analysis. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 11(1), 1729633. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2020.1729633 Lopes, M. K. S., Perreault, L., de Jesus, B. Jr., Roberge, M. C., & Falk, T. H. (2025). Subjective and objective evaluation of the benefits of multisensory virtual nature immersion for patients with post-traumatic stress disorder. In Proceedings of the 17th International Conference on Quality of Multimedia Experience (QoMEX) (pp.1-5). IEEE. https://doi.org/10.1109/QoMEX65720.2025.11219945 López-Ojeda, W., & Hurley, R. A. (2022). Extended reality technologies: Expanding therapeutic approaches for PTSD. 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ACM. https://doi.org/10.1145/3716553.3750826 Stratistics MRC. (2025). Virtual reality therapy for PTSD market forecasts to 2032: Global analysis by component (hardware, software and service), therapy type, application, end user and by geography. https://www.strategymrc.com/report/virtual-reality-therapy-for-ptsd-market Trejo, B. C., Richard, E. M., van Driel, M., & McDonald, D. P. (2015). Cross-cultural competence: The role of emotion regulation ability and optimism. Military Psychology, 27(5), 276-286. https://doi.org/10.1037/mil0000081 van Gelderen, M. J., Nijdam, M. J., & Vermetten, E. (2018). An innovative framework for delivering psychotherapy to patients with treatment-resistant posttraumatic stress disorder: Rationale for interactive motion-assisted therapy. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 9, 176. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00176 van Toorenburg, M. M., Sanches, S. A., Linders, B., Rozendaal, L., Voorendonk, E. M., Van Minnen, A., & De Jongh, A. (2020). Do emotion regulation difficulties affect outcome of intensive trauma-focused treatment of patients with severe PTSD? European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 11(1), 1724417. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2020.1724417 Vermetten, E., Barcaro, S., Espejo, E., Bellini, P., Roy, M. J., & Bremault-Phillips, S. (2025a). Linguistic analysis of patients’ labels during 3MDR psychotherapy. Psychiatry and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 35(Suppl. 1), S29. https://doi.org/10.5152/pcp.2025.241024 Vermetten, E., Burback, L., Sevigny, P. R., Nijdam, M. J., Winkler, O., Espejo, E., Sessoms, P., Bright, K., Roy, M. J., & Brémault-Phillips, S. (2025b). Brief manual for multi-modal motion-assisted memory desensitization and reconsolidation therapy for the treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder. Psychiatry and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 35(Suppl. 1), S122. https://doi.org/10.5152/pcp.2025.241028 Westphal, M., Aldao, A., & Jackson, C. (2017). Emotion dysregulation in comorbid posttraumatic stress disorder and substance use disorders: A narrative review. Military Psychology, 29(3), 216-233. https://doi.org/10.1037/mil0000157 Wiederhold, B. K., & Wiederhold, M. D. (2025). Virtual reality therapy combined with physiological monitoring provides effective treatment, with objective metrics, for post-traumatic stress disorder. Expert Review of Medical Devices, 22(2), 117-119. https://doi.org/10.1080/17434440.2025.2454930 }} == External links == * '''Web:''' https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/post-traumatic-stress-disorder-ptsd (Australian Government Health advice - PTSD) * '''Web:''' https://www.ptsd.va.gov/index.asp (National Center for PTSD (USA)) * '''Web:''' [https://www.innovation.va.gov/hil/views/immersive/immersive-programs.html https://www.innovation.va.gov/hil/views/imme]<nowiki/>[https://www.innovation.va.gov/hil/views/immersive/immersive-programs.html rsive/immersive-programs.html] (VA Immersive Pilot Programs & Collaborations) * '''Web:''' [https://defenceveteransuicide.royalcommission.gov.au/publications/final-report https://defenceveteransuicide.royalcommission.gov.au/publications/final-re]<nowiki/>[https://defenceveteransuicide.royalcommission.gov.au/publications/final-report port] (Australian Royal Commission into Defence and Veteran Suicide: Final Report) * '''Podcast:''' https://shows.acast.com/5c3353e484e2e79370e1d135/5c3353ef84e2e79370e1d13c (Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)) * '''Video:''' https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bD43R_oa6qo (3MDR: Virtual reality treatment for veterans with PTSD) * '''Video:''' https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jL2bKmniMTc VR Exposure for Combat PTSD with EMDR Integration * '''Final Report:''' [https://www.ncmh.info/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/Cardiff-3MDR-Study-Final-Report-with-cover-21.5.20.pdf https://www.ncmh.info/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/Cardiff-3MDR-Study-Final-Report-with]<nowiki/>[https://www.ncmh.info/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/Cardiff-3MDR-Study-Final-Report-with-cover-21.5.20.pdf -cover-21.5.20.pdf] (Randomised control trial of 3MDR for treatment of resistant PTSD in military veterans) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Psychotherapy]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Trauma]] k2593yp1g24lzwc3qm1uxxbkwg712px 2832735 2832730 2026-09-10T22:33:22Z StretchBeyond 3105744 Correction of external link format 2832735 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment:<br>How does it work and what are the effects?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''Scenario: Immersive PTSD therapies''' Andriy, a soldier, harnessed to a treadmill, walks towards a screen displaying an image he spent months avoiding. His therapist beside him. This is multi-modular motion assisted memory desensitisation and reconsolidation (3MDR), one of a new generation of immersive therapies being used to treat post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). [[File:Andriy 3MDR enhanced.gif|center|600x600px]] '''Figure 1.''' Andriy, alongside his therapist, moves through his 3MDR treatment. Learn about more about immersive therapy and Andriy’s* experience in the chapter below (*Andriy is a fictional name used for this scenario). {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[File:Post-traumatic_stress_disorder_world_map_-_DALY_-_WHO2004.svg|alt=|thumb|271x271px|'''Figure 2:''' The 2024 World Health Organisation estimates 3.9% of the world population has had post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) at some stage in their lives.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/post-traumatic-stress-disorder|title=Post-traumatic stress disorder|website=www.who.int|language=en|access-date=2026-08-17}}</ref>]] [[w:Post-traumatic_stress_disorder|Post-traumatic stress disorder]] (PTSD) develops after exposure to severe or life-threatening trauma and carries a substantial personal and societal cost, estimated in the hundreds of billions of dollars annually worldwide (Figure 2), with sub-communities such as military personnel having an increased likelihood of representation (Boska et al., 2025). Further detail in costs and limitations below (Davis et al., 2022; Montgomery-Marks et al., 2025). PTSDs emotional impact is shaped by [[w:Emotional_dysregulation|emotional dysregulation]], in which people struggle to manage intense feelings such as guilt, fear or shame (Westphal et al., 2017).This commonly triggers a cycle of [[Cognitive psychology|cognitive]] and behavioural avoidance that offers short-term relief but prevents traumatic memory from being adaptively processed, leaving the person trapped in a cycle of avoidance and a state of chronic, hyper arousal (Efremov, 2025; de Haart et al., 2026; van Gelderen et al., 2018). Immersive interventions, including [[w:Virtual_reality_therapy|virtual reality exposure therapy]] (VRET) and multi-modular motion assisted memory desensitisation and reconsolidation (3MDR) aim to break this cognitive avoidance cycle by creating controlled environments in which trauma cues can be safely approached rather than avoided (van Gelderen et al., 2018; Wiederhold & Wiederhold, 2025). This chapter explains the psychological theory behind these approaches, reviews the research evidence for their effects and considers current limitations. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''Focus questions'''[[File:Crystal Clear app ktip.svg|left|20px|]] * Why is emotional processing important in PTSD? * How can immersive therapies influence the emotional processes underlying PTSD? * What does the research evidence show? * What are the costs and limitations of immersive therapies? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Why is emotional processing important in PTSD? == PTSD frequently develops after exposure to severe or life-threatening trauma and it is formally diagnosed according to [[w:DSM-5|DSM-5]] criteria. Sufferers experience chronic hyper-vigilance, mental hyper arousal and a disruption to executive and emotional processing systems (Kukharuk et al., 2025; Osman et al., 2016). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}[[Image:Crystal Clear app help index.svg|left|50px]] ;Predict the outcome A soldier with PTSD encounters a trauma-related image and expects: '''TRAUMA CUE → DANGER → DISTRESS → AVOID''' However, during immersive treatment, the expected danger does not occur. What is the most likely consequence?<quiz display=simple> { |type="()"} - Fear increases permanently. - Memory cannot change. + Prediction error creates an opportunity for new learning. - Emotional processing stops.  } </quiz> <div style="text-align:right; color:red; font-weight:bold;"> Click "show" below to understand more⤵ </div> {{Hidden begin|title=Please pause and predict the answer before opening this section}}The correct answer is '''C'''. <div style="text-align:left; color:black; font-weight:regular;"> The mismatch between expected danger and actual safety creates a '''prediction error'''. This may contribute to fear extinction, emotion regulation, and memory reconsolidation.'''Think about it:''' If approaching rather than avoiding trauma can create new learning, what role might emotion regulation, fear extinction, prediction error and memory reconsolidation play? </div>   {{Hidden end}} <div style="text-align:left; color:black; font-weight:regular;">''Keep your thoughts in mind as you read the chapter below and explore the evidence for these mechanisms, and their role in immersive PTSD treatment''. * A fictional name assigned for the learning scenario. </div> {{RoundBoxBottom}} === Understanding PTSD and emotions === PTSD is characterised by difficulty in adaptively processing traumatic events. This disruption produces symptoms such as intrusive memories, flashbacks and nightmares, heightened threat perception, hyper-vigilance and persistent negative emotional states as depicted in Figure 3 (Felemban et al., 2026; López-Ojeda & Hurley, 2022). [[File:PTSD.png|left|thumb|'''Figure 3. PTSD can have a deep and lasting impact on our emotions.''']]Emotional processing theory suggests that recovering from trauma requires the fear structure held in the memory to be activated and updated with corrective information. In PTSD this process is blocked and to manage this intense physiological and emotional stress, many individuals will adopt cognitive and behavioural avoidance as a primary defence mechanism (López-Ojeda & Hurley, 2022). Avoidance offers short-term relief but prevents the traumatic memory from being safely reactivated, so it can update with new, safe information. Trauma reminders such as flashbacks continue to trigger extreme distress and fear (Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). This traps the individual in a maladaptive, self-reinforcing avoidance cycle (Figure 4 below). At a neural level, Wesphal et al. (2017) link this to [[wikipedia:Transdiagnostic_process|transdiagnostic]] [[w:Emotional_dysregulation|emotion dysregulation]], in which the traumatic memory network (TMN) remains isolated from the brain's [[w:Salience_network|salience]] and central executive networks. Effective treatment requires safely reactivating this network so the memory can be integrated rather than avoided (Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b; Westphal et al., 2017). A 2025 study of Danish military veterans (''n''=142) found emotional regulation difficulties explained an additional 28% of the variance in PTSD symptoms, which when combined with [[w:Comorbidity|comorbid]] symptoms, these factors accounted for 52% of the variance in PTSD severity (''F''(13, 92) = 9.58, ''p'' <0.001). Impulse control difficulties (ß = 0.32'', p'' = 0.005) and non-acceptance of emotional responses (ß = 0.20'', p'' = 0.05) were among the strongest predictors (Elklit & Dahl, 2025).[[File:Avoidance and Processing Cycles.png|500x500px|thumb|'''Figure 4'''. Highlights the typical flow of an avoidance cycle and the anticipated positive responses generated via immersive therapies. Based on concepts introduced in journal articles by Lopez-Ojeda et al. (2022), Felemban et al. (2026), and Vermetten et. al. (2025b).|center]] === Why treatment can be difficult === Traditional trauma-focused psychotherapies such as [[w:Prolonged_exposure_therapy|prolonged exposure]] (PE) and [[w:Cognitive_processing_therapy|cognitive processing therapy]] (CPT) work by asking patients to actively engage with distressing memories in to generate fear extinction (van Toorenburg et al., 2020). However, this is precisely what avoidance prevents, with many patients unable to tolerate the emotional exposure and memory activation these therapies require (Lopes et al., 2025; van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). As the individual cannot confront the trauma trigger in a safe environment, the brain cannot experience a prediction error and learn that a threat is no longer present. Consequently, the threat perception and threat response remain persistent within the PTSD patient, perpetuating the PTSD symptoms indefinitely. (de Haart et al., 2026; López-Ojeda & Hurley, 2022). This difficulty is reflected in treatment outcomes where an estimated 39.2% of patients fail to respond to standard trauma-focused therapy, while dropout rates range between 16-48% (de Haart et al., 2026; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). Non-response is not uniform, among military veterans younger patients tend to show heightened symptom severity when the trauma is central to their personal identity, while others turn to poor diet or coping orientated substance abuse to suppress negative emotions, further eroding emotional regulation (Efremov, 2025; Niles et al., 2023). [[w:Emotional_dysregulation|Emotional dysregulation]] was historically viewed as a fixed barrier requiring a lengthy stabilisation phase before treatment could begin (van Toorenburg et al., 2020). More recent evidence however suggests otherwise, as emotional regulation has dynamic capacity and standard trauma-focused treatments can improve emotion regulation as a natural consequence of successful memory processing (van Toorenburg et al., 2020). This reframes the clinical challenge from being fixed barrier, to one of actively helping an individual safely approach and process the traumatic memory. [[File:UC PhD VR study.png|right|thumb|'''Figure 5.''' PhD work by R. Selvakumaran at the University of Canberra explores cultural and linguistic factors using the US ''Bravemind'' system and Australian veterans and first responders.]]Cultural context adds another layer of difficulty. Doctoral research at the the [[University of Canberra]] is examining how immersive therapy protocols developed in the United States such as the US-centric ''Bravemind''<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://medvr.ict.usc.edu/projects/bravemind.html|title=Bravemind {{!}} MedVR|website=medvr.ict.usc.edu|access-date=2026-08-25}}</ref> (Figure 5) need to be culturally adapted for Australian military veterans and first responders, whose operational backgrounds and rules of engagement differ from their US counterparts (Selvakumaran, 2025). This work integrates exposure therapy with gamified, posture-adaptive cognitive rehabilitation to support motor acuity and improved physical and emotional regulation (Selvakumaran, 2025). The PTSD treatment gaps described above carry a substantial economic and personal cost, which is part of the motivation for developing more effective alternatives such as immersive therapies.    == How can immersive therapies influence emotional processes? == Developments in immersive PTSD treatments represent a notable shift from traditional approaches to psychological trauma care. Rather than relying on sedentary, largely passive therapeutic environments, these interventions shift clinical practice toward active, embodied, highly interactive, and engaging contexts (van Gelderen et al., 2018). To understand how these emerging interventions alter emotional responses and behaviours, it is necessary to examine three psychological mechanisms and their interaction: multisensory presence, embodied cognition, and divergent thinking (López-Ojeda & Hurley, 2022; van Gelderen et al., 2018). Immersion therapy goes beyond the simple visual replication of a trauma memory; instead, it begins to capture the participant’s visceral and cognitive focus by limiting distractions and developing a state of physical and mental engagement (Macey et al., 2026). Embodied cognition is the concept of how physical states of the body can directly modify states of the mind (van Gelderen et al., 2018). In active immersive therapies such as 3MDR, physically walking toward a virtual trauma reminder can alter the patient’s appraisal of safety, promoting associative memory access and facilitating open-ended divergent thinking patterns that disrupt previously learned rigid, repetitive trauma loops (van Gelderen et al., 2018). === What is immersive therapy? === [[File:XR and Human Senses.png|right|thumb|'''Figure 6.''' The Extended Reality environment and its interaction with the human brain. Designed to give readers a simple understanding of emerging technologies used in immersive PTSD environments.]]Immersive therapies<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-01|title=Immersion therapy|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Immersion_therapy&oldid=1357152847|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> use [[w:Extended_reality|extended reality]](XR) platforms, encompassing [[virtual reality]] (VR), [[Augmented Reality|augmented reality]] (AR), and [[w:Mixed_reality_game|mixed reality]] (MR), to create customisable, controlled, and standardised therapeutic environments (López-Ojeda & Hurley, 2022; Wiederhold & Wiederhold, 2025). This XR digital ecosystem, as depicted in Figure 6. Two clinical therapy applications are the focus of this chapter: virtual reality exposure therapy (VRET) where therapists reconstruct traumatic scenarios in safe, graded environments; and multi-modal motion assisted memory desensitisation and reconsolidation (3MDR), which extends this by having the patient move on a treadmill towards a panoramic display, side by side with their therapist, rather than a stationary, face to face session (de Haart et al., 2026; Felemban et al., 2026). === Presence and embodied cognition === Immersive therapy’s distinguishing feature is its ability to generate presence, or the psychological illusion of being ‘there’. This illusion is amplified by integrating synchronised audio, visual, olfactory, haptic, and movement stimuli (Lopes et al., 2025; López-Ojeda & Hurley, 2022). The presence effect then increases engagement with the trauma memory and supports emotional processing (van Gelderen et al., 2018). In active therapies such as 3MDR, presence combines with cognition. The working principle is that physical states of the body can directly shape states of the mind (van Gelderen et al., 2018). Physically walking towards a virtual trauma reminder functions as a fear antagonistic action (FAA) and rather than retreating in avoidance, the patient approaches, converting passive helplessness into active, empowered participation (de Haart et al., 2026; van Gelderen et al., 2018). This movement towards the active approach generates immediate neurocognitive stress responses that include bypassing severe avoidance behaviours and boosting divergent thinking approaches, which can disrupt rigid and repetitive trauma narratives (Boska et al., 2025; Osman et al., 2016; van Gelderen et al., 2018). Notably, this benefit does not seem to be driven by exercise physiology which suggests moderate-to-high-intensity physical activity is required to consolidate extinction learning by stimulating [[w:Brain-derived_neurotrophic_factor|brain-derived neurotrophic factor]] (BDNF); however, the walking pace in 3MDR therapy (< 4 km/h) is too low to generate meaningful BDNF secretion. This suggests the mechanisms of benefit is primarily psychological and behavioural. It is the approach action itself and the cognitive restructuring it enables, rather than physiological causes (de Haart et al., 2026). === Prediction error and inhibitory learning === Immersive therapy builds on the inhibitory learning model of exposure therapy, in which a new, safe association actively competes with and suppresses the original conditioned fear response. Walking towards a trauma cue and encountering safety instead of the expected catastrophe creates a profound prediction error, a mismatch between the anticipated, catastrophic, life-threatening event and the actual reality of a safe clinical environment. This destabilises the traumatic memory, allowing successful memory reconsolidation work to occur (Felemban et al., 2026; van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b; Wiederhold & Wiederhold, 2025). === Memory reconsolidation === According to [[w:Memory_consolidation|memory reconsolidation]] theory, traumatic memories retrieved in a safe, highly immersive context can enter a [[w:Lability|labile]] '','' or [[w:Malleability_of_intelligence|malleable]] state of memory, during which introducing safe, supportive contextual information allows the memory to be reconsolidated in a non-threatening form (van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). To prevent the patient from becoming overwhelmed during retrieval, 3MDR uses dual-attention tasks such as tracking an oscillating ball (see example in Figure 1). This dual task intentionally taxes the patient’s limited working memory resources and can help reduce the vividness and emotional intensity of the memory (Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). Emerging linguistic research suggests that this processing is also reflected in the patient’s language. Through [[w:Affect_labeling|affective labelling]] visceral feelings such as GUILT are projected into text, patients display substantive cognitive reorganisation. Across successive 3MDR sessions, objective [[w:Marker_(linguistics)|linguistic markers]] indicated a shift from past-tense trauma narratives to present-tense verb use, all this consistent with a renewed ability to articulate emotional states and integrate traumatic moments into present-moment awareness (Vermetten, Barcaro, et al., 2025a). == What does the research evidence show? == Addressing potential treatment barriers is important for any PTSD population, but in the literature concerning military populations, it appears particularly critical, as they suffer high psychotherapy failure rates. van Gelderen et al. (2018) cite two-thirds of veterans retaining a PTSD diagnosis after standard treatments and face some of the highest clinical dropout rates. Immersive therapies such as the virtual reality ones discussed above can tailor increasingly specific, patient-selected trauma cues to enhance memory accessibility by enabling precise retrieval of traumatic memory networks (Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). === Virtual reality exposure therapy === [[w:Virtual_reality_therapy|VRET]] reconstructs traumatic events within a safe, structured context (Felemban et al., 2026; López-Ojeda & Hurley, 2022). Bypassing imagination challenges such as emotional numbing or amnesia that can prevent a PTSD patient engaging with traditional image exposure therapy (Macey et al., 2026). A meta-analysis of the VRET for PTSD found substantial within-group symptom reductions, averaging a 33.73-point decrease in the 0-80 point [[w:Clinician_Administered_PTSD_Scale|Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale]] (CAPS) and a 20.96-point decrease in the 0-80 point [https://www.ptsd.va.gov/professional/assessment/adult-sr/ptsd-checklist.asp PTSD Checklist PCL-5) scale] (Felemban et al., 2026). Because changes of 10-20 points on these scales are usually considered clinically significant, this could mean the difference between severe functional impairment and mild or subclinical symptoms (Boska et al., 2025; de Haart et al., 2026; Felemban et al., 2026).  Comparative effects against other active PTSD treatments remain modest, but VRET appears to be a more engaging alternative to conventional treatment options (Felemban et al., 2026) === 3MDR === 3MDR takes the same multisensory presence effect used in VRET and adds an activating context. Rather than a sedentary, face-to-face session, the patient and the therapist face the virtual display together, side by side (van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). It follows a three-phase protocol: pre-platform preparation, platform treadmill exposure, and post-platform re-consolidation (Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). In a trial involving treatment-resistant PTSD; 3MDR showed large effect sizes from pre-treatment to six month follow up (''n'' = 134, ''d'' = 1.0) and high acceptability, with dropout rates of 7-20%, substantially lower than the 16-48% typical of standard trauma-focused therapy in military populations (de Haart et al., 2026; Lewis et al., 2020; van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). Improvements are not limited to PTSD symptoms. A trial of 62 adults with severe PTSD, including childhood sexual trauma, found intensive trauma-focused treatment improved emotion-regulation abilities regardless of PTSD outcome, even among patients with severe baseline difficulties (van Toorenburg et al., 2020). Some researchers link this broader improvement to positive psychology [[w:Broaden-and-build|Broaden-and-Build Theory]]. The theory being that as patients regain a sense of safety and control, this may support a positive spiral of emotional flexibility that reinforces the recovery process (Fredrickson, 2001; Niles et al., 2023; Westphal et al., 2017). Table 1 below summarises the main differences and psychological mechanisms discussed above. {{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Quiz}} <quiz display=simple> {Which of the following is an expected outcome of immersive therapy ? |type="()"} - Patients are at risk because of an uncontrolled environment. - The environments represent traditional face-to-face treatments. - Failure and dropout rates are higher than traditional PTSD treatment. + Patients often broaden and build an upward spiral of emotion and optimism. </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} '''Table 1:''' Treatment Effects and Psychological Mechanisms {| class="wikitable" | valign="top" |'''Clinical Dimension''' | valign="top" |'''Traditional Exposure''' | valign="top" |'''Immersive Approach''' | valign="top" |'''Psychological Mechanisms''' |- | valign="top" |'''Therapeutic Context''' | valign="top" |'''''Sedentary'''''. Face-to-face, verbally describes trauma. | valign="top" |'''''Activating.''''' Dynamic, multi-sensory environment. | valign="top" |'''''Fear Antagonistic Action.''''' '''''Approach behaviours.''''' '''''Prediction Errors.''''' |- | valign="top" |'''Trauma cue delivery''' | valign="top" |'''''Imaginary Retrieval''''' Patient capacity | valign="top" |'''''Multisensory Immersion''''' Highly tailored | valign="top" |'''''External Scaffolding.''''' Bypasses internal barriers to activate memory networks. |- | valign="top" |'''Processing''' '''and attention''' | valign="top" |'''''Convergent processing.''''' Repeated narration and fear habituation. | valign="top" |'''''Active Narrative Processing.''''' Interactive, real-time affective labelling and dual attention tasks. | valign="top" |'''''Working Memory.''''' Memory taxation reduces vividness and emotional intensity. |- | valign="top" |'''Engagement''' | valign="top" |'''''Attrition.''''' High dropout rates 16-48%. | valign="top" |'''''Acceptability.''''' Attractive. Dropout rates 7-20%. | valign="top" |'''''Sustained Motivation.''''' Presence and safety in immersive environment. |} === Applied example: 3MDR treatment in Ukraine === {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''Scenario: Ukraine War: an applied 3MDR example''' Andriy* used to be a baker in Kyiv. He is now a volunteer in the Ukrainian Armed Forces struggling with hyper-vigilance, anxiety, and depression (Kukharuk et al., 2025). Traditional ‘talk’ therapy feels impossible; his mind stays in a constant state of combat readiness, even in a quiet room. In the pre-platform phase of 3MDR, Andriy worked with his therapist to identify a ‘hotspot’ memory, represented by a photograph. On the treadmill, harnessed and walking beside his therapist, he faces a panoramic screen as personalised warm-up music plays, selected to keep him in touch with his traumatic memory network (Vermetten et al., 2025b). As his hotspot image fills the screen, his therapist asks three structured questions (Vermetten et al., 2025b): 1. What do you '''SEE''' ? 2. What does it '''TELL''' you? 3. What do you '''FEEL''' in your body NOW? When Andriy identifies a surge of shame, the word '''GUILT''' is displayed as an affective label and a dual-attention task begins. He tracks an oscillating, numbered ball while he stays with the emotion, taxing his working memory and reducing the intensity of the recalled trauma. [[File:Andriy 3MDR enhanced.gif|center|600x600px]] '''Figure 7.''' Andriy, alongside his therapist, moves through his 3MDR treatment, integrating multi-sensory input and motion while harnessed to a treadmill. By the end of the session, Andriy has physically walked towards what he used to avoid, creating a mismatch between his expectation of threat and his current safety, turning a rigid, stuck memory into a manageable narrative *''Andriy is a fictional name given to one of 69 male Ukrainian veterans who participated in a 2023 Randomised Controlled Trial in Kyiv. Many were demobilised after one year because of mental or neurological injuries'' (Kukharuk et al., 2025). {{RoundBoxBottom}} == What are the costs and limitations of immersive therapies? == PTSD carries a substantial economic burden. It was associated with an estimated US$232 billion in excess costs in the United States in 2018 and over $£40 billion, in the United Kingdom, 92.4% of which was indirect rather than direct clinical cost (Davis et al., 2022; Montgomery-Marks et al., 2025). In Australia, the average annual cost of PTSD per military veteran was estimated at $112,172 in 2025 (Magnusson & Dey, 2025). In addition, individual healthcare costs surge by 142% in the year following a PTSD diagnosis, with comorbidities tripling this effect (Bothe et al., 2020). These figures span several countries and years and should be best read as an indication of scale rather than as directly comparable totals. Immersive therapy’s ability to move from small trials into mainstream PTSD treatment remains limited by methodological [[w:Homogeneity_and_heterogeneity|heterogeneity]], small sample sizes, and a lack of long-term data (Felemban et al., 2026). Practical issues such as [[w:Virtual_reality_sickness|cyber sickness]] or motion sickness can also disrupt participation (Kukharuk et al., 2025). Structural barriers include workforce training and equipment costs. Basic VR systems cost an estimated US$3,500 per provider headset annually, and advanced simulation environments can cost up to US$200,000 (Garrett et al., 2018). Despite this, adoption of immersive therapy is scaling. The [[w:United_States_Department_of_Veterans_Affairs|United States Veterans Affairs]] have expanded VR use from five medical centres in 2017 to over 154 centres and 2,300 trained staff, with applications now including over 40 documented clinical interventions such as chronic pain and suicide intervention (Bailey et al., 2024). Market analysts estimate the global PTSD-focused VR therapy market was worth US$1.59 billion in 2025, forecast to reach US$5.94 billion by 2032, driven largely by growing mental health awareness and the absence of standard clinical protocols (Stratistics MRC, 2025). These limitations do not undermine the case for immersive therapy, but they show its evidence base and infrastructure are still maturing. Demonstrating rigorously why these therapies work, rather than assuming their novelty accounts for their effects is essential to avoid misallocating resources to unproven interventions and supports a paradigm shift, from a narrow, disease model towards one that values post-traumatic growth and renewed optimism (Trejo et al., 2015; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b; Wiederhold & Wiederhold, 2025). == Conclusion == PTSD traps people in a self-reinforcing cycle of avoidance that blocks the adaptive processing trauma memories need to resolve (see: ''Understanding PTSD and emotions''). Standard trauma-focused therapies require patients to confront exactly what this cycle causes them to avoid, which contributes to high, non-response and dropout rates (see ''Why treatment can be difficult''). Immersive therapies such as VRET and 3MDR address this by using presence, embodied cognition, prediction error and memory reconsolidation to help patients safely approach trauma cues rather than avoid them (see: ''What does the research evidence show''). The technology itself is only a delivery mechanism, it is the psychological processes that drive change. The evidence to date shows meaningful reductions in PTSD symptoms and comparatively low drop-out rates, alongside broader gains in emotional regulation. However, small samples, methodological variation, and a lack of long-term data mean the evidence base is still developing, and cost and infrastructure barriers remain significant (see ''costs and limitations'').{{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} [[File:Nuvola apps kuser.svg|Nuvola apps kuser|left|20px]] ''' Take-home message:''' Immersive therapies do not heal PTSD trauma through technological novelty or digital feedback. Instead, they create a safe, dynamic space that lets individuals confront trauma and reprocess memories into something they can live with. In doing so, people’s lives may once again shift toward value, optimism, and wellness.{{RoundBoxBottom}} == See also == {{ic|Add bullet points and rename links; add Wikipedia links}} '''Wikiversity''' * [[Evidence-based assessment/Posttraumatic stress disorder (disorder portfolio)|Evidence-based PTSD assessment]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Textbook/Emotion/Anxiety|Anxiety book chapter]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Phobias|Phobias book chapter]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Sense hacking|Sense hacking book chapter]] == References == {{Hanging indent|Bailey, A. L., Kirsh, S., Rawlins, C., Persky, S., & Clancy, C. (2024). Early scaling of immersive technology within the Veterans Health Administration. NEJM Catalyst Innovations in Care Delivery, 5(4). https://doi.org/10.1056/cat.23.0356 Boska, R. L., Bishop, T. M., Capron, D. W., Paxton Willing, M. M., & Ashrafioun, L. (2025). Difficulties with emotion regulation within PTSD clusters and moral injury subtypes. Military Psychology, 37(2), 159-167. https://doi.org/10.1080/08995605.2024.2322904 de Haart, R., Daniels, J. K., Timmerman, M. E., Cath, D. C., & Lommen, M. J. J. (2026). Augmenting virtual reality exposure for PTSD with physical activity: Study protocol of a randomised controlled trial. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 17(1), 2605803. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008066.2025.2605803 Efremov, A. (2025). Age-specific mental health profiles of combat veterans: Post-traumatic stress disorder and related disorders. Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive-Behavior Therapy, 44(4), 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10942-025-00637-7 Elklit, A., & Dahl, N. H. (2025). Emotion regulation difficulties, aggression, and PTSD symptoms in Danish treatment-seeking veterans. Scandinavian Journal of Military Studies, 8(1), 308-326. https://doi.org/10.31374/sjms.264 Felemban, R. G., Alzahrani, R. R., Alrefaei, N. F., Alharbi, N. M., Alghamdi, A. S., & Alqadi, S. (2026). Efficacy of virtual reality-based exposure therapy for post-traumatic stress disorder in military veterans: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 17, 1857109. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1857109 Fredrickson, B. L. (2001). The role of positive emotions in positive psychology: The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. American Psychologist, 56(3), 218-226. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.56.3.218 Garrett, B., Taverner, T., Gromala, D., Tao, G., Cordingley, E., & Sun, C. (2018). Virtual reality clinical research: Promises and challenges. JMIR Serious Games, 6(4), e10839. https://doi.org/10.2196/10839 Kukharuk, O., Tkalich, K., Kamash, N., & Georgiou, O. (2025). Effectiveness of immersive VR therapy in reducing stress-associated symptoms in Ukraine. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 16(1), 2488097. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008066.2025.2488097 Lewis, C., Roberts, N. P., Andrew, M., Starling, E., & Bisson, J. I. (2020). Psychological therapies for post-traumatic stress disorder in adults: Systematic review and meta-analysis. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 11(1), 1729633. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2020.1729633 Lopes, M. K. S., Perreault, L., de Jesus, B. Jr., Roberge, M. C., & Falk, T. H. (2025). Subjective and objective evaluation of the benefits of multisensory virtual nature immersion for patients with post-traumatic stress disorder. In Proceedings of the 17th International Conference on Quality of Multimedia Experience (QoMEX) (pp.1-5). IEEE. https://doi.org/10.1109/QoMEX65720.2025.11219945 López-Ojeda, W., & Hurley, R. A. (2022). Extended reality technologies: Expanding therapeutic approaches for PTSD. The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 34(1), 1-5. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.neuropsych.21100244 Macey, A.-L., Macey, J., & Hamari, J. (2026). Emotion regulation in immersive virtual reality environments: A scoping review. Interacting with Computers, 29, 1-20. https://doi.org/10.1093/iwc/iwag029 Niles, B., Lang, A., & Olff, M. (2023). Complementary and integrative interventions for PTSD. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 14(2), 2247888. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008066.2023.2247888 Osman, A., Paczynski, M., & Jha, A. P. (2016). Affective expectations influence neural responses to stressful images in soldiers. Military Psychology, 29(1), 41-57. https://doi.org/10.1037/mil0000128 Selvakumaran, R. V. (2025). Developing virtual reality (VR) simulations with embedded user analytics for cognitive rehabilitation in PTSD veterans. In Proceedings of the 27th International Conference on Multimodal Interaction (pp. 740-744). ACM. https://doi.org/10.1145/3716553.3750826 Stratistics MRC. (2025). Virtual reality therapy for PTSD market forecasts to 2032: Global analysis by component (hardware, software and service), therapy type, application, end user and by geography. https://www.strategymrc.com/report/virtual-reality-therapy-for-ptsd-market Trejo, B. C., Richard, E. M., van Driel, M., & McDonald, D. P. (2015). Cross-cultural competence: The role of emotion regulation ability and optimism. Military Psychology, 27(5), 276-286. https://doi.org/10.1037/mil0000081 van Gelderen, M. J., Nijdam, M. J., & Vermetten, E. (2018). An innovative framework for delivering psychotherapy to patients with treatment-resistant posttraumatic stress disorder: Rationale for interactive motion-assisted therapy. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 9, 176. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00176 van Toorenburg, M. M., Sanches, S. A., Linders, B., Rozendaal, L., Voorendonk, E. M., Van Minnen, A., & De Jongh, A. (2020). Do emotion regulation difficulties affect outcome of intensive trauma-focused treatment of patients with severe PTSD? European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 11(1), 1724417. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2020.1724417 Vermetten, E., Barcaro, S., Espejo, E., Bellini, P., Roy, M. J., & Bremault-Phillips, S. (2025a). Linguistic analysis of patients’ labels during 3MDR psychotherapy. Psychiatry and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 35(Suppl. 1), S29. https://doi.org/10.5152/pcp.2025.241024 Vermetten, E., Burback, L., Sevigny, P. R., Nijdam, M. J., Winkler, O., Espejo, E., Sessoms, P., Bright, K., Roy, M. J., & Brémault-Phillips, S. (2025b). Brief manual for multi-modal motion-assisted memory desensitization and reconsolidation therapy for the treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder. Psychiatry and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 35(Suppl. 1), S122. https://doi.org/10.5152/pcp.2025.241028 Westphal, M., Aldao, A., & Jackson, C. (2017). Emotion dysregulation in comorbid posttraumatic stress disorder and substance use disorders: A narrative review. Military Psychology, 29(3), 216-233. https://doi.org/10.1037/mil0000157 Wiederhold, B. K., & Wiederhold, M. D. (2025). Virtual reality therapy combined with physiological monitoring provides effective treatment, with objective metrics, for post-traumatic stress disorder. Expert Review of Medical Devices, 22(2), 117-119. https://doi.org/10.1080/17434440.2025.2454930 }} == External links == * '''Web:''' [https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/post-traumatic-stress-disorder-ptsd Post traumatic stress disorder] (Australian Government) * '''Web:''' [https://www.ptsd.va.gov/index.asp National Center for PTSD information home page] (US Government) * '''Web:''' [https://www.innovation.va.gov/hil/views/immersive/immersive-programs.html US Veterans Affairs Immersive Programs Innov]<nowiki/>[https://www.innovation.va.gov/hil/views/immersive/immersive-programs.html ation] (US Government) * '''Web:''' [https://defenceveteransuicide.royalcommission.gov.au/publications/final-report Australian Royal Commission into Defence and Veteran Suicide - Final Repor]<nowiki/>[https://defenceveteransuicide.royalcommission.gov.au/publications/final-report t] (Australian Government) * '''Podcast:''' [https://shows.acast.com/5c3353e484e2e79370e1d135/5c3353ef84e2e79370e1d13c PTSD Podcast] (Peace of Mind: Mental Health and Psychiatry, ACAST, 43 min) * '''Video:''' [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bD43R_oa6qo 3MDR: Virtual reality treatment for veterans] (National Centre for Mental Health,Youtube, 2:46 min) * '''Video:''' [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jL2bKmniMTc VR exposure for combat PTSD] (PsyTech VR, Youtube, 2:20 min) * '''Final Report:''' [https://www.ncmh.info/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/Cardiff-3MDR-Study-Final-Report-with-cover-21.5.20.pdf 3MDR randomised control trial - Final-Report] (Cardiff University) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Psychotherapy]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Trauma]] tm6nxal0dj0bih0nevnfzqg72x1zr6q 2832736 2832735 2026-09-10T22:51:00Z StretchBeyond 3105744 See also: Wikiversity and wikipedia pages and links included 2832736 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment:<br>How does it work and what are the effects?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''Scenario: Immersive PTSD therapies''' Andriy, a soldier, harnessed to a treadmill, walks towards a screen displaying an image he spent months avoiding. His therapist beside him. This is multi-modular motion assisted memory desensitisation and reconsolidation (3MDR), one of a new generation of immersive therapies being used to treat post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). [[File:Andriy 3MDR enhanced.gif|center|600x600px]] '''Figure 1.''' Andriy, alongside his therapist, moves through his 3MDR treatment. Learn about more about immersive therapy and Andriy’s* experience in the chapter below (*Andriy is a fictional name used for this scenario). {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[File:Post-traumatic_stress_disorder_world_map_-_DALY_-_WHO2004.svg|alt=|thumb|271x271px|'''Figure 2:''' The 2024 World Health Organisation estimates 3.9% of the world population has had post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) at some stage in their lives.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/post-traumatic-stress-disorder|title=Post-traumatic stress disorder|website=www.who.int|language=en|access-date=2026-08-17}}</ref>]] [[w:Post-traumatic_stress_disorder|Post-traumatic stress disorder]] (PTSD) develops after exposure to severe or life-threatening trauma and carries a substantial personal and societal cost, estimated in the hundreds of billions of dollars annually worldwide (Figure 2), with sub-communities such as military personnel having an increased likelihood of representation (Boska et al., 2025). Further detail in costs and limitations below (Davis et al., 2022; Montgomery-Marks et al., 2025). PTSDs emotional impact is shaped by [[w:Emotional_dysregulation|emotional dysregulation]], in which people struggle to manage intense feelings such as guilt, fear or shame (Westphal et al., 2017).This commonly triggers a cycle of [[Cognitive psychology|cognitive]] and behavioural avoidance that offers short-term relief but prevents traumatic memory from being adaptively processed, leaving the person trapped in a cycle of avoidance and a state of chronic, hyper arousal (Efremov, 2025; de Haart et al., 2026; van Gelderen et al., 2018). Immersive interventions, including [[w:Virtual_reality_therapy|virtual reality exposure therapy]] (VRET) and multi-modular motion assisted memory desensitisation and reconsolidation (3MDR) aim to break this cognitive avoidance cycle by creating controlled environments in which trauma cues can be safely approached rather than avoided (van Gelderen et al., 2018; Wiederhold & Wiederhold, 2025). This chapter explains the psychological theory behind these approaches, reviews the research evidence for their effects and considers current limitations. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''Focus questions'''[[File:Crystal Clear app ktip.svg|left|20px|]] * Why is emotional processing important in PTSD? * How can immersive therapies influence the emotional processes underlying PTSD? * What does the research evidence show? * What are the costs and limitations of immersive therapies? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Why is emotional processing important in PTSD? == PTSD frequently develops after exposure to severe or life-threatening trauma and it is formally diagnosed according to [[w:DSM-5|DSM-5]] criteria. Sufferers experience chronic hyper-vigilance, mental hyper arousal and a disruption to executive and emotional processing systems (Kukharuk et al., 2025; Osman et al., 2016). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}[[Image:Crystal Clear app help index.svg|left|50px]] ;Predict the outcome A soldier with PTSD encounters a trauma-related image and expects: '''TRAUMA CUE → DANGER → DISTRESS → AVOID''' However, during immersive treatment, the expected danger does not occur. What is the most likely consequence?<quiz display=simple> { |type="()"} - Fear increases permanently. - Memory cannot change. + Prediction error creates an opportunity for new learning. - Emotional processing stops.  } </quiz> <div style="text-align:right; color:red; font-weight:bold;"> Click "show" below to understand more⤵ </div> {{Hidden begin|title=Please pause and predict the answer before opening this section}}The correct answer is '''C'''. <div style="text-align:left; color:black; font-weight:regular;"> The mismatch between expected danger and actual safety creates a '''prediction error'''. This may contribute to fear extinction, emotion regulation, and memory reconsolidation.'''Think about it:''' If approaching rather than avoiding trauma can create new learning, what role might emotion regulation, fear extinction, prediction error and memory reconsolidation play? </div>   {{Hidden end}} <div style="text-align:left; color:black; font-weight:regular;">''Keep your thoughts in mind as you read the chapter below and explore the evidence for these mechanisms, and their role in immersive PTSD treatment''. * A fictional name assigned for the learning scenario. </div> {{RoundBoxBottom}} === Understanding PTSD and emotions === PTSD is characterised by difficulty in adaptively processing traumatic events. This disruption produces symptoms such as intrusive memories, flashbacks and nightmares, heightened threat perception, hyper-vigilance and persistent negative emotional states as depicted in Figure 3 (Felemban et al., 2026; López-Ojeda & Hurley, 2022). [[File:PTSD.png|left|thumb|'''Figure 3. PTSD can have a deep and lasting impact on our emotions.''']]Emotional processing theory suggests that recovering from trauma requires the fear structure held in the memory to be activated and updated with corrective information. In PTSD this process is blocked and to manage this intense physiological and emotional stress, many individuals will adopt cognitive and behavioural avoidance as a primary defence mechanism (López-Ojeda & Hurley, 2022). Avoidance offers short-term relief but prevents the traumatic memory from being safely reactivated, so it can update with new, safe information. Trauma reminders such as flashbacks continue to trigger extreme distress and fear (Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). This traps the individual in a maladaptive, self-reinforcing avoidance cycle (Figure 4 below). At a neural level, Wesphal et al. (2017) link this to [[wikipedia:Transdiagnostic_process|transdiagnostic]] [[w:Emotional_dysregulation|emotion dysregulation]], in which the traumatic memory network (TMN) remains isolated from the brain's [[w:Salience_network|salience]] and central executive networks. Effective treatment requires safely reactivating this network so the memory can be integrated rather than avoided (Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b; Westphal et al., 2017). A 2025 study of Danish military veterans (''n''=142) found emotional regulation difficulties explained an additional 28% of the variance in PTSD symptoms, which when combined with [[w:Comorbidity|comorbid]] symptoms, these factors accounted for 52% of the variance in PTSD severity (''F''(13, 92) = 9.58, ''p'' <0.001). Impulse control difficulties (ß = 0.32'', p'' = 0.005) and non-acceptance of emotional responses (ß = 0.20'', p'' = 0.05) were among the strongest predictors (Elklit & Dahl, 2025).[[File:Avoidance and Processing Cycles.png|500x500px|thumb|'''Figure 4'''. Highlights the typical flow of an avoidance cycle and the anticipated positive responses generated via immersive therapies. Based on concepts introduced in journal articles by Lopez-Ojeda et al. (2022), Felemban et al. (2026), and Vermetten et. al. (2025b).|center]] === Why treatment can be difficult === Traditional trauma-focused psychotherapies such as [[w:Prolonged_exposure_therapy|prolonged exposure]] (PE) and [[w:Cognitive_processing_therapy|cognitive processing therapy]] (CPT) work by asking patients to actively engage with distressing memories in to generate fear extinction (van Toorenburg et al., 2020). However, this is precisely what avoidance prevents, with many patients unable to tolerate the emotional exposure and memory activation these therapies require (Lopes et al., 2025; van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). As the individual cannot confront the trauma trigger in a safe environment, the brain cannot experience a prediction error and learn that a threat is no longer present. Consequently, the threat perception and threat response remain persistent within the PTSD patient, perpetuating the PTSD symptoms indefinitely. (de Haart et al., 2026; López-Ojeda & Hurley, 2022). This difficulty is reflected in treatment outcomes where an estimated 39.2% of patients fail to respond to standard trauma-focused therapy, while dropout rates range between 16-48% (de Haart et al., 2026; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). Non-response is not uniform, among military veterans younger patients tend to show heightened symptom severity when the trauma is central to their personal identity, while others turn to poor diet or coping orientated substance abuse to suppress negative emotions, further eroding emotional regulation (Efremov, 2025; Niles et al., 2023). [[w:Emotional_dysregulation|Emotional dysregulation]] was historically viewed as a fixed barrier requiring a lengthy stabilisation phase before treatment could begin (van Toorenburg et al., 2020). More recent evidence however suggests otherwise, as emotional regulation has dynamic capacity and standard trauma-focused treatments can improve emotion regulation as a natural consequence of successful memory processing (van Toorenburg et al., 2020). This reframes the clinical challenge from being fixed barrier, to one of actively helping an individual safely approach and process the traumatic memory. [[File:UC PhD VR study.png|right|thumb|'''Figure 5.''' PhD work by R. Selvakumaran at the University of Canberra explores cultural and linguistic factors using the US ''Bravemind'' system and Australian veterans and first responders.]]Cultural context adds another layer of difficulty. Doctoral research at the the [[University of Canberra]] is examining how immersive therapy protocols developed in the United States such as the US-centric ''Bravemind''<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://medvr.ict.usc.edu/projects/bravemind.html|title=Bravemind {{!}} MedVR|website=medvr.ict.usc.edu|access-date=2026-08-25}}</ref> (Figure 5) need to be culturally adapted for Australian military veterans and first responders, whose operational backgrounds and rules of engagement differ from their US counterparts (Selvakumaran, 2025). This work integrates exposure therapy with gamified, posture-adaptive cognitive rehabilitation to support motor acuity and improved physical and emotional regulation (Selvakumaran, 2025). The PTSD treatment gaps described above carry a substantial economic and personal cost, which is part of the motivation for developing more effective alternatives such as immersive therapies.    == How can immersive therapies influence emotional processes? == Developments in immersive PTSD treatments represent a notable shift from traditional approaches to psychological trauma care. Rather than relying on sedentary, largely passive therapeutic environments, these interventions shift clinical practice toward active, embodied, highly interactive, and engaging contexts (van Gelderen et al., 2018). To understand how these emerging interventions alter emotional responses and behaviours, it is necessary to examine three psychological mechanisms and their interaction: multisensory presence, embodied cognition, and divergent thinking (López-Ojeda & Hurley, 2022; van Gelderen et al., 2018). Immersion therapy goes beyond the simple visual replication of a trauma memory; instead, it begins to capture the participant’s visceral and cognitive focus by limiting distractions and developing a state of physical and mental engagement (Macey et al., 2026). Embodied cognition is the concept of how physical states of the body can directly modify states of the mind (van Gelderen et al., 2018). In active immersive therapies such as 3MDR, physically walking toward a virtual trauma reminder can alter the patient’s appraisal of safety, promoting associative memory access and facilitating open-ended divergent thinking patterns that disrupt previously learned rigid, repetitive trauma loops (van Gelderen et al., 2018). === What is immersive therapy? === [[File:XR and Human Senses.png|right|thumb|'''Figure 6.''' The Extended Reality environment and its interaction with the human brain. Designed to give readers a simple understanding of emerging technologies used in immersive PTSD environments.]]Immersive therapies<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-01|title=Immersion therapy|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Immersion_therapy&oldid=1357152847|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> use [[w:Extended_reality|extended reality]](XR) platforms, encompassing [[virtual reality]] (VR), [[Augmented Reality|augmented reality]] (AR), and [[w:Mixed_reality_game|mixed reality]] (MR), to create customisable, controlled, and standardised therapeutic environments (López-Ojeda & Hurley, 2022; Wiederhold & Wiederhold, 2025). This XR digital ecosystem, as depicted in Figure 6. Two clinical therapy applications are the focus of this chapter: virtual reality exposure therapy (VRET) where therapists reconstruct traumatic scenarios in safe, graded environments; and multi-modal motion assisted memory desensitisation and reconsolidation (3MDR), which extends this by having the patient move on a treadmill towards a panoramic display, side by side with their therapist, rather than a stationary, face to face session (de Haart et al., 2026; Felemban et al., 2026). === Presence and embodied cognition === Immersive therapy’s distinguishing feature is its ability to generate presence, or the psychological illusion of being ‘there’. This illusion is amplified by integrating synchronised audio, visual, olfactory, haptic, and movement stimuli (Lopes et al., 2025; López-Ojeda & Hurley, 2022). The presence effect then increases engagement with the trauma memory and supports emotional processing (van Gelderen et al., 2018). In active therapies such as 3MDR, presence combines with cognition. The working principle is that physical states of the body can directly shape states of the mind (van Gelderen et al., 2018). Physically walking towards a virtual trauma reminder functions as a fear antagonistic action (FAA) and rather than retreating in avoidance, the patient approaches, converting passive helplessness into active, empowered participation (de Haart et al., 2026; van Gelderen et al., 2018). This movement towards the active approach generates immediate neurocognitive stress responses that include bypassing severe avoidance behaviours and boosting divergent thinking approaches, which can disrupt rigid and repetitive trauma narratives (Boska et al., 2025; Osman et al., 2016; van Gelderen et al., 2018). Notably, this benefit does not seem to be driven by exercise physiology which suggests moderate-to-high-intensity physical activity is required to consolidate extinction learning by stimulating [[w:Brain-derived_neurotrophic_factor|brain-derived neurotrophic factor]] (BDNF); however, the walking pace in 3MDR therapy (< 4 km/h) is too low to generate meaningful BDNF secretion. This suggests the mechanisms of benefit is primarily psychological and behavioural. It is the approach action itself and the cognitive restructuring it enables, rather than physiological causes (de Haart et al., 2026). === Prediction error and inhibitory learning === Immersive therapy builds on the inhibitory learning model of exposure therapy, in which a new, safe association actively competes with and suppresses the original conditioned fear response. Walking towards a trauma cue and encountering safety instead of the expected catastrophe creates a profound prediction error, a mismatch between the anticipated, catastrophic, life-threatening event and the actual reality of a safe clinical environment. This destabilises the traumatic memory, allowing successful memory reconsolidation work to occur (Felemban et al., 2026; van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b; Wiederhold & Wiederhold, 2025). === Memory reconsolidation === According to [[w:Memory_consolidation|memory reconsolidation]] theory, traumatic memories retrieved in a safe, highly immersive context can enter a [[w:Lability|labile]] '','' or [[w:Malleability_of_intelligence|malleable]] state of memory, during which introducing safe, supportive contextual information allows the memory to be reconsolidated in a non-threatening form (van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). To prevent the patient from becoming overwhelmed during retrieval, 3MDR uses dual-attention tasks such as tracking an oscillating ball (see example in Figure 1). This dual task intentionally taxes the patient’s limited working memory resources and can help reduce the vividness and emotional intensity of the memory (Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). Emerging linguistic research suggests that this processing is also reflected in the patient’s language. Through [[w:Affect_labeling|affective labelling]] visceral feelings such as GUILT are projected into text, patients display substantive cognitive reorganisation. Across successive 3MDR sessions, objective [[w:Marker_(linguistics)|linguistic markers]] indicated a shift from past-tense trauma narratives to present-tense verb use, all this consistent with a renewed ability to articulate emotional states and integrate traumatic moments into present-moment awareness (Vermetten, Barcaro, et al., 2025a). == What does the research evidence show? == Addressing potential treatment barriers is important for any PTSD population, but in the literature concerning military populations, it appears particularly critical, as they suffer high psychotherapy failure rates. van Gelderen et al. (2018) cite two-thirds of veterans retaining a PTSD diagnosis after standard treatments and face some of the highest clinical dropout rates. Immersive therapies such as the virtual reality ones discussed above can tailor increasingly specific, patient-selected trauma cues to enhance memory accessibility by enabling precise retrieval of traumatic memory networks (Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). === Virtual reality exposure therapy === [[w:Virtual_reality_therapy|VRET]] reconstructs traumatic events within a safe, structured context (Felemban et al., 2026; López-Ojeda & Hurley, 2022). Bypassing imagination challenges such as emotional numbing or amnesia that can prevent a PTSD patient engaging with traditional image exposure therapy (Macey et al., 2026). A meta-analysis of the VRET for PTSD found substantial within-group symptom reductions, averaging a 33.73-point decrease in the 0-80 point [[w:Clinician_Administered_PTSD_Scale|Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale]] (CAPS) and a 20.96-point decrease in the 0-80 point [https://www.ptsd.va.gov/professional/assessment/adult-sr/ptsd-checklist.asp PTSD Checklist PCL-5) scale] (Felemban et al., 2026). Because changes of 10-20 points on these scales are usually considered clinically significant, this could mean the difference between severe functional impairment and mild or subclinical symptoms (Boska et al., 2025; de Haart et al., 2026; Felemban et al., 2026).  Comparative effects against other active PTSD treatments remain modest, but VRET appears to be a more engaging alternative to conventional treatment options (Felemban et al., 2026) === 3MDR === 3MDR takes the same multisensory presence effect used in VRET and adds an activating context. Rather than a sedentary, face-to-face session, the patient and the therapist face the virtual display together, side by side (van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). It follows a three-phase protocol: pre-platform preparation, platform treadmill exposure, and post-platform re-consolidation (Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). In a trial involving treatment-resistant PTSD; 3MDR showed large effect sizes from pre-treatment to six month follow up (''n'' = 134, ''d'' = 1.0) and high acceptability, with dropout rates of 7-20%, substantially lower than the 16-48% typical of standard trauma-focused therapy in military populations (de Haart et al., 2026; Lewis et al., 2020; van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). Improvements are not limited to PTSD symptoms. A trial of 62 adults with severe PTSD, including childhood sexual trauma, found intensive trauma-focused treatment improved emotion-regulation abilities regardless of PTSD outcome, even among patients with severe baseline difficulties (van Toorenburg et al., 2020). Some researchers link this broader improvement to positive psychology [[w:Broaden-and-build|Broaden-and-Build Theory]]. The theory being that as patients regain a sense of safety and control, this may support a positive spiral of emotional flexibility that reinforces the recovery process (Fredrickson, 2001; Niles et al., 2023; Westphal et al., 2017). Table 1 below summarises the main differences and psychological mechanisms discussed above. {{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Quiz}} <quiz display=simple> {Which of the following is an expected outcome of immersive therapy ? |type="()"} - Patients are at risk because of an uncontrolled environment. - The environments represent traditional face-to-face treatments. - Failure and dropout rates are higher than traditional PTSD treatment. + Patients often broaden and build an upward spiral of emotion and optimism. </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} '''Table 1:''' Treatment Effects and Psychological Mechanisms {| class="wikitable" | valign="top" |'''Clinical Dimension''' | valign="top" |'''Traditional Exposure''' | valign="top" |'''Immersive Approach''' | valign="top" |'''Psychological Mechanisms''' |- | valign="top" |'''Therapeutic Context''' | valign="top" |'''''Sedentary'''''. Face-to-face, verbally describes trauma. | valign="top" |'''''Activating.''''' Dynamic, multi-sensory environment. | valign="top" |'''''Fear Antagonistic Action.''''' '''''Approach behaviours.''''' '''''Prediction Errors.''''' |- | valign="top" |'''Trauma cue delivery''' | valign="top" |'''''Imaginary Retrieval''''' Patient capacity | valign="top" |'''''Multisensory Immersion''''' Highly tailored | valign="top" |'''''External Scaffolding.''''' Bypasses internal barriers to activate memory networks. |- | valign="top" |'''Processing''' '''and attention''' | valign="top" |'''''Convergent processing.''''' Repeated narration and fear habituation. | valign="top" |'''''Active Narrative Processing.''''' Interactive, real-time affective labelling and dual attention tasks. | valign="top" |'''''Working Memory.''''' Memory taxation reduces vividness and emotional intensity. |- | valign="top" |'''Engagement''' | valign="top" |'''''Attrition.''''' High dropout rates 16-48%. | valign="top" |'''''Acceptability.''''' Attractive. Dropout rates 7-20%. | valign="top" |'''''Sustained Motivation.''''' Presence and safety in immersive environment. |} === Applied example: 3MDR treatment in Ukraine === {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''Scenario: Ukraine War: an applied 3MDR example''' Andriy* used to be a baker in Kyiv. He is now a volunteer in the Ukrainian Armed Forces struggling with hyper-vigilance, anxiety, and depression (Kukharuk et al., 2025). Traditional ‘talk’ therapy feels impossible; his mind stays in a constant state of combat readiness, even in a quiet room. In the pre-platform phase of 3MDR, Andriy worked with his therapist to identify a ‘hotspot’ memory, represented by a photograph. On the treadmill, harnessed and walking beside his therapist, he faces a panoramic screen as personalised warm-up music plays, selected to keep him in touch with his traumatic memory network (Vermetten et al., 2025b). As his hotspot image fills the screen, his therapist asks three structured questions (Vermetten et al., 2025b): 1. What do you '''SEE''' ? 2. What does it '''TELL''' you? 3. What do you '''FEEL''' in your body NOW? When Andriy identifies a surge of shame, the word '''GUILT''' is displayed as an affective label and a dual-attention task begins. He tracks an oscillating, numbered ball while he stays with the emotion, taxing his working memory and reducing the intensity of the recalled trauma. [[File:Andriy 3MDR enhanced.gif|center|600x600px]] '''Figure 7.''' Andriy, alongside his therapist, moves through his 3MDR treatment, integrating multi-sensory input and motion while harnessed to a treadmill. By the end of the session, Andriy has physically walked towards what he used to avoid, creating a mismatch between his expectation of threat and his current safety, turning a rigid, stuck memory into a manageable narrative *''Andriy is a fictional name given to one of 69 male Ukrainian veterans who participated in a 2023 Randomised Controlled Trial in Kyiv. Many were demobilised after one year because of mental or neurological injuries'' (Kukharuk et al., 2025). {{RoundBoxBottom}} == What are the costs and limitations of immersive therapies? == PTSD carries a substantial economic burden. It was associated with an estimated US$232 billion in excess costs in the United States in 2018 and over $£40 billion, in the United Kingdom, 92.4% of which was indirect rather than direct clinical cost (Davis et al., 2022; Montgomery-Marks et al., 2025). In Australia, the average annual cost of PTSD per military veteran was estimated at $112,172 in 2025 (Magnusson & Dey, 2025). In addition, individual healthcare costs surge by 142% in the year following a PTSD diagnosis, with comorbidities tripling this effect (Bothe et al., 2020). These figures span several countries and years and should be best read as an indication of scale rather than as directly comparable totals. Immersive therapy’s ability to move from small trials into mainstream PTSD treatment remains limited by methodological [[w:Homogeneity_and_heterogeneity|heterogeneity]], small sample sizes, and a lack of long-term data (Felemban et al., 2026). Practical issues such as [[w:Virtual_reality_sickness|cyber sickness]] or motion sickness can also disrupt participation (Kukharuk et al., 2025). Structural barriers include workforce training and equipment costs. Basic VR systems cost an estimated US$3,500 per provider headset annually, and advanced simulation environments can cost up to US$200,000 (Garrett et al., 2018). Despite this, adoption of immersive therapy is scaling. The [[w:United_States_Department_of_Veterans_Affairs|United States Veterans Affairs]] have expanded VR use from five medical centres in 2017 to over 154 centres and 2,300 trained staff, with applications now including over 40 documented clinical interventions such as chronic pain and suicide intervention (Bailey et al., 2024). Market analysts estimate the global PTSD-focused VR therapy market was worth US$1.59 billion in 2025, forecast to reach US$5.94 billion by 2032, driven largely by growing mental health awareness and the absence of standard clinical protocols (Stratistics MRC, 2025). These limitations do not undermine the case for immersive therapy, but they show its evidence base and infrastructure are still maturing. Demonstrating rigorously why these therapies work, rather than assuming their novelty accounts for their effects is essential to avoid misallocating resources to unproven interventions and supports a paradigm shift, from a narrow, disease model towards one that values post-traumatic growth and renewed optimism (Trejo et al., 2015; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b; Wiederhold & Wiederhold, 2025). == Conclusion == PTSD traps people in a self-reinforcing cycle of avoidance that blocks the adaptive processing trauma memories need to resolve (see: ''Understanding PTSD and emotions''). Standard trauma-focused therapies require patients to confront exactly what this cycle causes them to avoid, which contributes to high, non-response and dropout rates (see ''Why treatment can be difficult''). Immersive therapies such as VRET and 3MDR address this by using presence, embodied cognition, prediction error and memory reconsolidation to help patients safely approach trauma cues rather than avoid them (see: ''What does the research evidence show''). The technology itself is only a delivery mechanism, it is the psychological processes that drive change. The evidence to date shows meaningful reductions in PTSD symptoms and comparatively low drop-out rates, alongside broader gains in emotional regulation. However, small samples, methodological variation, and a lack of long-term data mean the evidence base is still developing, and cost and infrastructure barriers remain significant (see ''costs and limitations'').{{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} [[File:Nuvola apps kuser.svg|Nuvola apps kuser|left|20px]] ''' Take-home message:''' Immersive therapies do not heal PTSD trauma through technological novelty or digital feedback. Instead, they create a safe, dynamic space that lets individuals confront trauma and reprocess memories into something they can live with. In doing so, people’s lives may once again shift toward value, optimism, and wellness.{{RoundBoxBottom}} == See also == '''Wikiversity''' * [[Evidence-based assessment/Posttraumatic stress disorder (disorder portfolio)|Evidence-based PTSD assessment]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Textbook/Emotion/Anxiety|Anxiety book chapter]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Phobias|Phobias book chapter]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Sense hacking|Sense hacking book chapter]] '''Wikipedia''' * [[w:Affect_labeling|Affective labelling]] * [[Augmented Reality|Augmented reality]] * [[w:Brain-derived_neurotrophic_factor|Brain-derived neurotrophic factor]] * [[w:Broaden-and-build|Broaden-and-build theory]] * [[w:Clinician_Administered_PTSD_Scale|Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale]] * [[w:Cognitive_processing_therapy|Cognitive processing therapy]] * [[w:Comorbidity|Comorbid]] * [[w:Virtual_reality_sickness|Cyber sickness]] * [[w:DSM-5|DSM-5]] * [[w:Emotional_dysregulation|Emotional dysregulation]] * [[w:Extended_reality|Extended reality]] * [[w:Marker_(linguistics)|Linguistic markers]] * [[w:Malleability_of_intelligence|Malleability of intelligence]] * [[w:Memory_consolidation|Memory reconsolidation]] * [[w:Mixed_reality_game|Mixed reality]] * [[w:Post-traumatic_stress_disorder|Post-traumatic stress disorder]] * [https://www.ptsd.va.gov/professional/assessment/adult-sr/ptsd-checklist.asp PTSD Checklist PCL-5) scale] * [[w:Prolonged_exposure_therapy|Prolonged exposure therapy]] * [[w:Salience_network|Salience]] * [[wikipedia:Transdiagnostic_process|Transdiagnostic]] [[w:Emotional_dysregulation|emotion dysregulation]] * [[w:United_States_Department_of_Veterans_Affairs|United States Department of Veterans Affairs]] * [[University of Canberra]] * [[Virtual reality]] * [[wikipedia:Virtual_reality_therapy|Virtual reality exposure therapy]] == References == {{Hanging indent|Bailey, A. L., Kirsh, S., Rawlins, C., Persky, S., & Clancy, C. (2024). Early scaling of immersive technology within the Veterans Health Administration. NEJM Catalyst Innovations in Care Delivery, 5(4). https://doi.org/10.1056/cat.23.0356 Boska, R. L., Bishop, T. M., Capron, D. W., Paxton Willing, M. M., & Ashrafioun, L. (2025). Difficulties with emotion regulation within PTSD clusters and moral injury subtypes. Military Psychology, 37(2), 159-167. https://doi.org/10.1080/08995605.2024.2322904 de Haart, R., Daniels, J. K., Timmerman, M. E., Cath, D. C., & Lommen, M. J. J. (2026). Augmenting virtual reality exposure for PTSD with physical activity: Study protocol of a randomised controlled trial. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 17(1), 2605803. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008066.2025.2605803 Efremov, A. (2025). Age-specific mental health profiles of combat veterans: Post-traumatic stress disorder and related disorders. Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive-Behavior Therapy, 44(4), 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10942-025-00637-7 Elklit, A., & Dahl, N. H. (2025). Emotion regulation difficulties, aggression, and PTSD symptoms in Danish treatment-seeking veterans. Scandinavian Journal of Military Studies, 8(1), 308-326. https://doi.org/10.31374/sjms.264 Felemban, R. G., Alzahrani, R. R., Alrefaei, N. F., Alharbi, N. M., Alghamdi, A. S., & Alqadi, S. (2026). Efficacy of virtual reality-based exposure therapy for post-traumatic stress disorder in military veterans: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 17, 1857109. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1857109 Fredrickson, B. L. (2001). The role of positive emotions in positive psychology: The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. American Psychologist, 56(3), 218-226. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.56.3.218 Garrett, B., Taverner, T., Gromala, D., Tao, G., Cordingley, E., & Sun, C. (2018). Virtual reality clinical research: Promises and challenges. JMIR Serious Games, 6(4), e10839. https://doi.org/10.2196/10839 Kukharuk, O., Tkalich, K., Kamash, N., & Georgiou, O. (2025). Effectiveness of immersive VR therapy in reducing stress-associated symptoms in Ukraine. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 16(1), 2488097. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008066.2025.2488097 Lewis, C., Roberts, N. P., Andrew, M., Starling, E., & Bisson, J. I. (2020). Psychological therapies for post-traumatic stress disorder in adults: Systematic review and meta-analysis. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 11(1), 1729633. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2020.1729633 Lopes, M. K. S., Perreault, L., de Jesus, B. Jr., Roberge, M. C., & Falk, T. H. (2025). Subjective and objective evaluation of the benefits of multisensory virtual nature immersion for patients with post-traumatic stress disorder. In Proceedings of the 17th International Conference on Quality of Multimedia Experience (QoMEX) (pp.1-5). IEEE. https://doi.org/10.1109/QoMEX65720.2025.11219945 López-Ojeda, W., & Hurley, R. A. (2022). Extended reality technologies: Expanding therapeutic approaches for PTSD. The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 34(1), 1-5. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.neuropsych.21100244 Macey, A.-L., Macey, J., & Hamari, J. (2026). Emotion regulation in immersive virtual reality environments: A scoping review. Interacting with Computers, 29, 1-20. https://doi.org/10.1093/iwc/iwag029 Niles, B., Lang, A., & Olff, M. (2023). Complementary and integrative interventions for PTSD. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 14(2), 2247888. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008066.2023.2247888 Osman, A., Paczynski, M., & Jha, A. P. (2016). Affective expectations influence neural responses to stressful images in soldiers. Military Psychology, 29(1), 41-57. https://doi.org/10.1037/mil0000128 Selvakumaran, R. V. (2025). Developing virtual reality (VR) simulations with embedded user analytics for cognitive rehabilitation in PTSD veterans. In Proceedings of the 27th International Conference on Multimodal Interaction (pp. 740-744). ACM. https://doi.org/10.1145/3716553.3750826 Stratistics MRC. (2025). Virtual reality therapy for PTSD market forecasts to 2032: Global analysis by component (hardware, software and service), therapy type, application, end user and by geography. https://www.strategymrc.com/report/virtual-reality-therapy-for-ptsd-market Trejo, B. C., Richard, E. M., van Driel, M., & McDonald, D. P. (2015). Cross-cultural competence: The role of emotion regulation ability and optimism. Military Psychology, 27(5), 276-286. https://doi.org/10.1037/mil0000081 van Gelderen, M. J., Nijdam, M. J., & Vermetten, E. (2018). An innovative framework for delivering psychotherapy to patients with treatment-resistant posttraumatic stress disorder: Rationale for interactive motion-assisted therapy. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 9, 176. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00176 van Toorenburg, M. M., Sanches, S. A., Linders, B., Rozendaal, L., Voorendonk, E. M., Van Minnen, A., & De Jongh, A. (2020). Do emotion regulation difficulties affect outcome of intensive trauma-focused treatment of patients with severe PTSD? European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 11(1), 1724417. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2020.1724417 Vermetten, E., Barcaro, S., Espejo, E., Bellini, P., Roy, M. J., & Bremault-Phillips, S. (2025a). Linguistic analysis of patients’ labels during 3MDR psychotherapy. Psychiatry and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 35(Suppl. 1), S29. https://doi.org/10.5152/pcp.2025.241024 Vermetten, E., Burback, L., Sevigny, P. R., Nijdam, M. J., Winkler, O., Espejo, E., Sessoms, P., Bright, K., Roy, M. J., & Brémault-Phillips, S. (2025b). Brief manual for multi-modal motion-assisted memory desensitization and reconsolidation therapy for the treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder. Psychiatry and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 35(Suppl. 1), S122. https://doi.org/10.5152/pcp.2025.241028 Westphal, M., Aldao, A., & Jackson, C. (2017). Emotion dysregulation in comorbid posttraumatic stress disorder and substance use disorders: A narrative review. Military Psychology, 29(3), 216-233. https://doi.org/10.1037/mil0000157 Wiederhold, B. K., & Wiederhold, M. D. (2025). Virtual reality therapy combined with physiological monitoring provides effective treatment, with objective metrics, for post-traumatic stress disorder. Expert Review of Medical Devices, 22(2), 117-119. https://doi.org/10.1080/17434440.2025.2454930 }} == External links == * '''Web:''' [https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/post-traumatic-stress-disorder-ptsd Post traumatic stress disorder] (Australian Government) * '''Web:''' [https://www.ptsd.va.gov/index.asp National Center for PTSD information home page] (US Government) * '''Web:''' [https://www.innovation.va.gov/hil/views/immersive/immersive-programs.html US Veterans Affairs Immersive Programs Innov]<nowiki/>[https://www.innovation.va.gov/hil/views/immersive/immersive-programs.html ation] (US Government) * '''Web:''' [https://defenceveteransuicide.royalcommission.gov.au/publications/final-report Australian Royal Commission into Defence and Veteran Suicide - Final Repor]<nowiki/>[https://defenceveteransuicide.royalcommission.gov.au/publications/final-report t] (Australian Government) * '''Podcast:''' [https://shows.acast.com/5c3353e484e2e79370e1d135/5c3353ef84e2e79370e1d13c PTSD Podcast] (Peace of Mind: Mental Health and Psychiatry, ACAST, 43 min) * '''Video:''' [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bD43R_oa6qo 3MDR: Virtual reality treatment for veterans] (National Centre for Mental Health,Youtube, 2:46 min) * '''Video:''' [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jL2bKmniMTc VR exposure for combat PTSD] (PsyTech VR, Youtube, 2:20 min) * '''Final Report:''' [https://www.ncmh.info/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/Cardiff-3MDR-Study-Final-Report-with-cover-21.5.20.pdf 3MDR randomised control trial - Final-Report] (Cardiff University) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Psychotherapy]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Trauma]] 3ojngqgdnt2rq9kb661tgls1pcpj9jh 2832737 2832736 2026-09-10T22:51:35Z StretchBeyond 3105744 /* See also */ alphabetical 2832737 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment:<br>How does it work and what are the effects?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''Scenario: Immersive PTSD therapies''' Andriy, a soldier, harnessed to a treadmill, walks towards a screen displaying an image he spent months avoiding. His therapist beside him. This is multi-modular motion assisted memory desensitisation and reconsolidation (3MDR), one of a new generation of immersive therapies being used to treat post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). [[File:Andriy 3MDR enhanced.gif|center|600x600px]] '''Figure 1.''' Andriy, alongside his therapist, moves through his 3MDR treatment. Learn about more about immersive therapy and Andriy’s* experience in the chapter below (*Andriy is a fictional name used for this scenario). {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[File:Post-traumatic_stress_disorder_world_map_-_DALY_-_WHO2004.svg|alt=|thumb|271x271px|'''Figure 2:''' The 2024 World Health Organisation estimates 3.9% of the world population has had post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) at some stage in their lives.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/post-traumatic-stress-disorder|title=Post-traumatic stress disorder|website=www.who.int|language=en|access-date=2026-08-17}}</ref>]] [[w:Post-traumatic_stress_disorder|Post-traumatic stress disorder]] (PTSD) develops after exposure to severe or life-threatening trauma and carries a substantial personal and societal cost, estimated in the hundreds of billions of dollars annually worldwide (Figure 2), with sub-communities such as military personnel having an increased likelihood of representation (Boska et al., 2025). Further detail in costs and limitations below (Davis et al., 2022; Montgomery-Marks et al., 2025). PTSDs emotional impact is shaped by [[w:Emotional_dysregulation|emotional dysregulation]], in which people struggle to manage intense feelings such as guilt, fear or shame (Westphal et al., 2017).This commonly triggers a cycle of [[Cognitive psychology|cognitive]] and behavioural avoidance that offers short-term relief but prevents traumatic memory from being adaptively processed, leaving the person trapped in a cycle of avoidance and a state of chronic, hyper arousal (Efremov, 2025; de Haart et al., 2026; van Gelderen et al., 2018). Immersive interventions, including [[w:Virtual_reality_therapy|virtual reality exposure therapy]] (VRET) and multi-modular motion assisted memory desensitisation and reconsolidation (3MDR) aim to break this cognitive avoidance cycle by creating controlled environments in which trauma cues can be safely approached rather than avoided (van Gelderen et al., 2018; Wiederhold & Wiederhold, 2025). This chapter explains the psychological theory behind these approaches, reviews the research evidence for their effects and considers current limitations. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''Focus questions'''[[File:Crystal Clear app ktip.svg|left|20px|]] * Why is emotional processing important in PTSD? * How can immersive therapies influence the emotional processes underlying PTSD? * What does the research evidence show? * What are the costs and limitations of immersive therapies? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Why is emotional processing important in PTSD? == PTSD frequently develops after exposure to severe or life-threatening trauma and it is formally diagnosed according to [[w:DSM-5|DSM-5]] criteria. Sufferers experience chronic hyper-vigilance, mental hyper arousal and a disruption to executive and emotional processing systems (Kukharuk et al., 2025; Osman et al., 2016). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}[[Image:Crystal Clear app help index.svg|left|50px]] ;Predict the outcome A soldier with PTSD encounters a trauma-related image and expects: '''TRAUMA CUE → DANGER → DISTRESS → AVOID''' However, during immersive treatment, the expected danger does not occur. What is the most likely consequence?<quiz display=simple> { |type="()"} - Fear increases permanently. - Memory cannot change. + Prediction error creates an opportunity for new learning. - Emotional processing stops.  } </quiz> <div style="text-align:right; color:red; font-weight:bold;"> Click "show" below to understand more⤵ </div> {{Hidden begin|title=Please pause and predict the answer before opening this section}}The correct answer is '''C'''. <div style="text-align:left; color:black; font-weight:regular;"> The mismatch between expected danger and actual safety creates a '''prediction error'''. This may contribute to fear extinction, emotion regulation, and memory reconsolidation.'''Think about it:''' If approaching rather than avoiding trauma can create new learning, what role might emotion regulation, fear extinction, prediction error and memory reconsolidation play? </div>   {{Hidden end}} <div style="text-align:left; color:black; font-weight:regular;">''Keep your thoughts in mind as you read the chapter below and explore the evidence for these mechanisms, and their role in immersive PTSD treatment''. * A fictional name assigned for the learning scenario. </div> {{RoundBoxBottom}} === Understanding PTSD and emotions === PTSD is characterised by difficulty in adaptively processing traumatic events. This disruption produces symptoms such as intrusive memories, flashbacks and nightmares, heightened threat perception, hyper-vigilance and persistent negative emotional states as depicted in Figure 3 (Felemban et al., 2026; López-Ojeda & Hurley, 2022). [[File:PTSD.png|left|thumb|'''Figure 3. PTSD can have a deep and lasting impact on our emotions.''']]Emotional processing theory suggests that recovering from trauma requires the fear structure held in the memory to be activated and updated with corrective information. In PTSD this process is blocked and to manage this intense physiological and emotional stress, many individuals will adopt cognitive and behavioural avoidance as a primary defence mechanism (López-Ojeda & Hurley, 2022). Avoidance offers short-term relief but prevents the traumatic memory from being safely reactivated, so it can update with new, safe information. Trauma reminders such as flashbacks continue to trigger extreme distress and fear (Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). This traps the individual in a maladaptive, self-reinforcing avoidance cycle (Figure 4 below). At a neural level, Wesphal et al. (2017) link this to [[wikipedia:Transdiagnostic_process|transdiagnostic]] [[w:Emotional_dysregulation|emotion dysregulation]], in which the traumatic memory network (TMN) remains isolated from the brain's [[w:Salience_network|salience]] and central executive networks. Effective treatment requires safely reactivating this network so the memory can be integrated rather than avoided (Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b; Westphal et al., 2017). A 2025 study of Danish military veterans (''n''=142) found emotional regulation difficulties explained an additional 28% of the variance in PTSD symptoms, which when combined with [[w:Comorbidity|comorbid]] symptoms, these factors accounted for 52% of the variance in PTSD severity (''F''(13, 92) = 9.58, ''p'' <0.001). Impulse control difficulties (ß = 0.32'', p'' = 0.005) and non-acceptance of emotional responses (ß = 0.20'', p'' = 0.05) were among the strongest predictors (Elklit & Dahl, 2025).[[File:Avoidance and Processing Cycles.png|500x500px|thumb|'''Figure 4'''. Highlights the typical flow of an avoidance cycle and the anticipated positive responses generated via immersive therapies. Based on concepts introduced in journal articles by Lopez-Ojeda et al. (2022), Felemban et al. (2026), and Vermetten et. al. (2025b).|center]] === Why treatment can be difficult === Traditional trauma-focused psychotherapies such as [[w:Prolonged_exposure_therapy|prolonged exposure]] (PE) and [[w:Cognitive_processing_therapy|cognitive processing therapy]] (CPT) work by asking patients to actively engage with distressing memories in to generate fear extinction (van Toorenburg et al., 2020). However, this is precisely what avoidance prevents, with many patients unable to tolerate the emotional exposure and memory activation these therapies require (Lopes et al., 2025; van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). As the individual cannot confront the trauma trigger in a safe environment, the brain cannot experience a prediction error and learn that a threat is no longer present. Consequently, the threat perception and threat response remain persistent within the PTSD patient, perpetuating the PTSD symptoms indefinitely. (de Haart et al., 2026; López-Ojeda & Hurley, 2022). This difficulty is reflected in treatment outcomes where an estimated 39.2% of patients fail to respond to standard trauma-focused therapy, while dropout rates range between 16-48% (de Haart et al., 2026; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). Non-response is not uniform, among military veterans younger patients tend to show heightened symptom severity when the trauma is central to their personal identity, while others turn to poor diet or coping orientated substance abuse to suppress negative emotions, further eroding emotional regulation (Efremov, 2025; Niles et al., 2023). [[w:Emotional_dysregulation|Emotional dysregulation]] was historically viewed as a fixed barrier requiring a lengthy stabilisation phase before treatment could begin (van Toorenburg et al., 2020). More recent evidence however suggests otherwise, as emotional regulation has dynamic capacity and standard trauma-focused treatments can improve emotion regulation as a natural consequence of successful memory processing (van Toorenburg et al., 2020). This reframes the clinical challenge from being fixed barrier, to one of actively helping an individual safely approach and process the traumatic memory. [[File:UC PhD VR study.png|right|thumb|'''Figure 5.''' PhD work by R. Selvakumaran at the University of Canberra explores cultural and linguistic factors using the US ''Bravemind'' system and Australian veterans and first responders.]]Cultural context adds another layer of difficulty. Doctoral research at the the [[University of Canberra]] is examining how immersive therapy protocols developed in the United States such as the US-centric ''Bravemind''<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://medvr.ict.usc.edu/projects/bravemind.html|title=Bravemind {{!}} MedVR|website=medvr.ict.usc.edu|access-date=2026-08-25}}</ref> (Figure 5) need to be culturally adapted for Australian military veterans and first responders, whose operational backgrounds and rules of engagement differ from their US counterparts (Selvakumaran, 2025). This work integrates exposure therapy with gamified, posture-adaptive cognitive rehabilitation to support motor acuity and improved physical and emotional regulation (Selvakumaran, 2025). The PTSD treatment gaps described above carry a substantial economic and personal cost, which is part of the motivation for developing more effective alternatives such as immersive therapies.    == How can immersive therapies influence emotional processes? == Developments in immersive PTSD treatments represent a notable shift from traditional approaches to psychological trauma care. Rather than relying on sedentary, largely passive therapeutic environments, these interventions shift clinical practice toward active, embodied, highly interactive, and engaging contexts (van Gelderen et al., 2018). To understand how these emerging interventions alter emotional responses and behaviours, it is necessary to examine three psychological mechanisms and their interaction: multisensory presence, embodied cognition, and divergent thinking (López-Ojeda & Hurley, 2022; van Gelderen et al., 2018). Immersion therapy goes beyond the simple visual replication of a trauma memory; instead, it begins to capture the participant’s visceral and cognitive focus by limiting distractions and developing a state of physical and mental engagement (Macey et al., 2026). Embodied cognition is the concept of how physical states of the body can directly modify states of the mind (van Gelderen et al., 2018). In active immersive therapies such as 3MDR, physically walking toward a virtual trauma reminder can alter the patient’s appraisal of safety, promoting associative memory access and facilitating open-ended divergent thinking patterns that disrupt previously learned rigid, repetitive trauma loops (van Gelderen et al., 2018). === What is immersive therapy? === [[File:XR and Human Senses.png|right|thumb|'''Figure 6.''' The Extended Reality environment and its interaction with the human brain. Designed to give readers a simple understanding of emerging technologies used in immersive PTSD environments.]]Immersive therapies<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-01|title=Immersion therapy|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Immersion_therapy&oldid=1357152847|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> use [[w:Extended_reality|extended reality]](XR) platforms, encompassing [[virtual reality]] (VR), [[Augmented Reality|augmented reality]] (AR), and [[w:Mixed_reality_game|mixed reality]] (MR), to create customisable, controlled, and standardised therapeutic environments (López-Ojeda & Hurley, 2022; Wiederhold & Wiederhold, 2025). This XR digital ecosystem, as depicted in Figure 6. Two clinical therapy applications are the focus of this chapter: virtual reality exposure therapy (VRET) where therapists reconstruct traumatic scenarios in safe, graded environments; and multi-modal motion assisted memory desensitisation and reconsolidation (3MDR), which extends this by having the patient move on a treadmill towards a panoramic display, side by side with their therapist, rather than a stationary, face to face session (de Haart et al., 2026; Felemban et al., 2026). === Presence and embodied cognition === Immersive therapy’s distinguishing feature is its ability to generate presence, or the psychological illusion of being ‘there’. This illusion is amplified by integrating synchronised audio, visual, olfactory, haptic, and movement stimuli (Lopes et al., 2025; López-Ojeda & Hurley, 2022). The presence effect then increases engagement with the trauma memory and supports emotional processing (van Gelderen et al., 2018). In active therapies such as 3MDR, presence combines with cognition. The working principle is that physical states of the body can directly shape states of the mind (van Gelderen et al., 2018). Physically walking towards a virtual trauma reminder functions as a fear antagonistic action (FAA) and rather than retreating in avoidance, the patient approaches, converting passive helplessness into active, empowered participation (de Haart et al., 2026; van Gelderen et al., 2018). This movement towards the active approach generates immediate neurocognitive stress responses that include bypassing severe avoidance behaviours and boosting divergent thinking approaches, which can disrupt rigid and repetitive trauma narratives (Boska et al., 2025; Osman et al., 2016; van Gelderen et al., 2018). Notably, this benefit does not seem to be driven by exercise physiology which suggests moderate-to-high-intensity physical activity is required to consolidate extinction learning by stimulating [[w:Brain-derived_neurotrophic_factor|brain-derived neurotrophic factor]] (BDNF); however, the walking pace in 3MDR therapy (< 4 km/h) is too low to generate meaningful BDNF secretion. This suggests the mechanisms of benefit is primarily psychological and behavioural. It is the approach action itself and the cognitive restructuring it enables, rather than physiological causes (de Haart et al., 2026). === Prediction error and inhibitory learning === Immersive therapy builds on the inhibitory learning model of exposure therapy, in which a new, safe association actively competes with and suppresses the original conditioned fear response. Walking towards a trauma cue and encountering safety instead of the expected catastrophe creates a profound prediction error, a mismatch between the anticipated, catastrophic, life-threatening event and the actual reality of a safe clinical environment. This destabilises the traumatic memory, allowing successful memory reconsolidation work to occur (Felemban et al., 2026; van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b; Wiederhold & Wiederhold, 2025). === Memory reconsolidation === According to [[w:Memory_consolidation|memory reconsolidation]] theory, traumatic memories retrieved in a safe, highly immersive context can enter a [[w:Lability|labile]] '','' or [[w:Malleability_of_intelligence|malleable]] state of memory, during which introducing safe, supportive contextual information allows the memory to be reconsolidated in a non-threatening form (van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). To prevent the patient from becoming overwhelmed during retrieval, 3MDR uses dual-attention tasks such as tracking an oscillating ball (see example in Figure 1). This dual task intentionally taxes the patient’s limited working memory resources and can help reduce the vividness and emotional intensity of the memory (Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). Emerging linguistic research suggests that this processing is also reflected in the patient’s language. Through [[w:Affect_labeling|affective labelling]] visceral feelings such as GUILT are projected into text, patients display substantive cognitive reorganisation. Across successive 3MDR sessions, objective [[w:Marker_(linguistics)|linguistic markers]] indicated a shift from past-tense trauma narratives to present-tense verb use, all this consistent with a renewed ability to articulate emotional states and integrate traumatic moments into present-moment awareness (Vermetten, Barcaro, et al., 2025a). == What does the research evidence show? == Addressing potential treatment barriers is important for any PTSD population, but in the literature concerning military populations, it appears particularly critical, as they suffer high psychotherapy failure rates. van Gelderen et al. (2018) cite two-thirds of veterans retaining a PTSD diagnosis after standard treatments and face some of the highest clinical dropout rates. Immersive therapies such as the virtual reality ones discussed above can tailor increasingly specific, patient-selected trauma cues to enhance memory accessibility by enabling precise retrieval of traumatic memory networks (Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). === Virtual reality exposure therapy === [[w:Virtual_reality_therapy|VRET]] reconstructs traumatic events within a safe, structured context (Felemban et al., 2026; López-Ojeda & Hurley, 2022). Bypassing imagination challenges such as emotional numbing or amnesia that can prevent a PTSD patient engaging with traditional image exposure therapy (Macey et al., 2026). A meta-analysis of the VRET for PTSD found substantial within-group symptom reductions, averaging a 33.73-point decrease in the 0-80 point [[w:Clinician_Administered_PTSD_Scale|Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale]] (CAPS) and a 20.96-point decrease in the 0-80 point [https://www.ptsd.va.gov/professional/assessment/adult-sr/ptsd-checklist.asp PTSD Checklist PCL-5) scale] (Felemban et al., 2026). Because changes of 10-20 points on these scales are usually considered clinically significant, this could mean the difference between severe functional impairment and mild or subclinical symptoms (Boska et al., 2025; de Haart et al., 2026; Felemban et al., 2026).  Comparative effects against other active PTSD treatments remain modest, but VRET appears to be a more engaging alternative to conventional treatment options (Felemban et al., 2026) === 3MDR === 3MDR takes the same multisensory presence effect used in VRET and adds an activating context. Rather than a sedentary, face-to-face session, the patient and the therapist face the virtual display together, side by side (van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). It follows a three-phase protocol: pre-platform preparation, platform treadmill exposure, and post-platform re-consolidation (Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). In a trial involving treatment-resistant PTSD; 3MDR showed large effect sizes from pre-treatment to six month follow up (''n'' = 134, ''d'' = 1.0) and high acceptability, with dropout rates of 7-20%, substantially lower than the 16-48% typical of standard trauma-focused therapy in military populations (de Haart et al., 2026; Lewis et al., 2020; van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). Improvements are not limited to PTSD symptoms. A trial of 62 adults with severe PTSD, including childhood sexual trauma, found intensive trauma-focused treatment improved emotion-regulation abilities regardless of PTSD outcome, even among patients with severe baseline difficulties (van Toorenburg et al., 2020). Some researchers link this broader improvement to positive psychology [[w:Broaden-and-build|Broaden-and-Build Theory]]. The theory being that as patients regain a sense of safety and control, this may support a positive spiral of emotional flexibility that reinforces the recovery process (Fredrickson, 2001; Niles et al., 2023; Westphal et al., 2017). Table 1 below summarises the main differences and psychological mechanisms discussed above. {{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Quiz}} <quiz display=simple> {Which of the following is an expected outcome of immersive therapy ? |type="()"} - Patients are at risk because of an uncontrolled environment. - The environments represent traditional face-to-face treatments. - Failure and dropout rates are higher than traditional PTSD treatment. + Patients often broaden and build an upward spiral of emotion and optimism. </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} '''Table 1:''' Treatment Effects and Psychological Mechanisms {| class="wikitable" | valign="top" |'''Clinical Dimension''' | valign="top" |'''Traditional Exposure''' | valign="top" |'''Immersive Approach''' | valign="top" |'''Psychological Mechanisms''' |- | valign="top" |'''Therapeutic Context''' | valign="top" |'''''Sedentary'''''. Face-to-face, verbally describes trauma. | valign="top" |'''''Activating.''''' Dynamic, multi-sensory environment. | valign="top" |'''''Fear Antagonistic Action.''''' '''''Approach behaviours.''''' '''''Prediction Errors.''''' |- | valign="top" |'''Trauma cue delivery''' | valign="top" |'''''Imaginary Retrieval''''' Patient capacity | valign="top" |'''''Multisensory Immersion''''' Highly tailored | valign="top" |'''''External Scaffolding.''''' Bypasses internal barriers to activate memory networks. |- | valign="top" |'''Processing''' '''and attention''' | valign="top" |'''''Convergent processing.''''' Repeated narration and fear habituation. | valign="top" |'''''Active Narrative Processing.''''' Interactive, real-time affective labelling and dual attention tasks. | valign="top" |'''''Working Memory.''''' Memory taxation reduces vividness and emotional intensity. |- | valign="top" |'''Engagement''' | valign="top" |'''''Attrition.''''' High dropout rates 16-48%. | valign="top" |'''''Acceptability.''''' Attractive. Dropout rates 7-20%. | valign="top" |'''''Sustained Motivation.''''' Presence and safety in immersive environment. |} === Applied example: 3MDR treatment in Ukraine === {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''Scenario: Ukraine War: an applied 3MDR example''' Andriy* used to be a baker in Kyiv. He is now a volunteer in the Ukrainian Armed Forces struggling with hyper-vigilance, anxiety, and depression (Kukharuk et al., 2025). Traditional ‘talk’ therapy feels impossible; his mind stays in a constant state of combat readiness, even in a quiet room. In the pre-platform phase of 3MDR, Andriy worked with his therapist to identify a ‘hotspot’ memory, represented by a photograph. On the treadmill, harnessed and walking beside his therapist, he faces a panoramic screen as personalised warm-up music plays, selected to keep him in touch with his traumatic memory network (Vermetten et al., 2025b). As his hotspot image fills the screen, his therapist asks three structured questions (Vermetten et al., 2025b): 1. What do you '''SEE''' ? 2. What does it '''TELL''' you? 3. What do you '''FEEL''' in your body NOW? When Andriy identifies a surge of shame, the word '''GUILT''' is displayed as an affective label and a dual-attention task begins. He tracks an oscillating, numbered ball while he stays with the emotion, taxing his working memory and reducing the intensity of the recalled trauma. [[File:Andriy 3MDR enhanced.gif|center|600x600px]] '''Figure 7.''' Andriy, alongside his therapist, moves through his 3MDR treatment, integrating multi-sensory input and motion while harnessed to a treadmill. By the end of the session, Andriy has physically walked towards what he used to avoid, creating a mismatch between his expectation of threat and his current safety, turning a rigid, stuck memory into a manageable narrative *''Andriy is a fictional name given to one of 69 male Ukrainian veterans who participated in a 2023 Randomised Controlled Trial in Kyiv. Many were demobilised after one year because of mental or neurological injuries'' (Kukharuk et al., 2025). {{RoundBoxBottom}} == What are the costs and limitations of immersive therapies? == PTSD carries a substantial economic burden. It was associated with an estimated US$232 billion in excess costs in the United States in 2018 and over $£40 billion, in the United Kingdom, 92.4% of which was indirect rather than direct clinical cost (Davis et al., 2022; Montgomery-Marks et al., 2025). In Australia, the average annual cost of PTSD per military veteran was estimated at $112,172 in 2025 (Magnusson & Dey, 2025). In addition, individual healthcare costs surge by 142% in the year following a PTSD diagnosis, with comorbidities tripling this effect (Bothe et al., 2020). These figures span several countries and years and should be best read as an indication of scale rather than as directly comparable totals. Immersive therapy’s ability to move from small trials into mainstream PTSD treatment remains limited by methodological [[w:Homogeneity_and_heterogeneity|heterogeneity]], small sample sizes, and a lack of long-term data (Felemban et al., 2026). Practical issues such as [[w:Virtual_reality_sickness|cyber sickness]] or motion sickness can also disrupt participation (Kukharuk et al., 2025). Structural barriers include workforce training and equipment costs. Basic VR systems cost an estimated US$3,500 per provider headset annually, and advanced simulation environments can cost up to US$200,000 (Garrett et al., 2018). Despite this, adoption of immersive therapy is scaling. The [[w:United_States_Department_of_Veterans_Affairs|United States Veterans Affairs]] have expanded VR use from five medical centres in 2017 to over 154 centres and 2,300 trained staff, with applications now including over 40 documented clinical interventions such as chronic pain and suicide intervention (Bailey et al., 2024). Market analysts estimate the global PTSD-focused VR therapy market was worth US$1.59 billion in 2025, forecast to reach US$5.94 billion by 2032, driven largely by growing mental health awareness and the absence of standard clinical protocols (Stratistics MRC, 2025). These limitations do not undermine the case for immersive therapy, but they show its evidence base and infrastructure are still maturing. Demonstrating rigorously why these therapies work, rather than assuming their novelty accounts for their effects is essential to avoid misallocating resources to unproven interventions and supports a paradigm shift, from a narrow, disease model towards one that values post-traumatic growth and renewed optimism (Trejo et al., 2015; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b; Wiederhold & Wiederhold, 2025). == Conclusion == PTSD traps people in a self-reinforcing cycle of avoidance that blocks the adaptive processing trauma memories need to resolve (see: ''Understanding PTSD and emotions''). Standard trauma-focused therapies require patients to confront exactly what this cycle causes them to avoid, which contributes to high, non-response and dropout rates (see ''Why treatment can be difficult''). Immersive therapies such as VRET and 3MDR address this by using presence, embodied cognition, prediction error and memory reconsolidation to help patients safely approach trauma cues rather than avoid them (see: ''What does the research evidence show''). The technology itself is only a delivery mechanism, it is the psychological processes that drive change. The evidence to date shows meaningful reductions in PTSD symptoms and comparatively low drop-out rates, alongside broader gains in emotional regulation. However, small samples, methodological variation, and a lack of long-term data mean the evidence base is still developing, and cost and infrastructure barriers remain significant (see ''costs and limitations'').{{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} [[File:Nuvola apps kuser.svg|Nuvola apps kuser|left|20px]] ''' Take-home message:''' Immersive therapies do not heal PTSD trauma through technological novelty or digital feedback. Instead, they create a safe, dynamic space that lets individuals confront trauma and reprocess memories into something they can live with. In doing so, people’s lives may once again shift toward value, optimism, and wellness.{{RoundBoxBottom}} == See also == '''Wikiversity''' * [[Motivation and emotion/Textbook/Emotion/Anxiety|Anxiety book chapter]] * [[Evidence-based assessment/Posttraumatic stress disorder (disorder portfolio)|Evidence-based PTSD assessment]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Phobias|Phobias book chapter]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Sense hacking|Sense hacking book chapter]] '''Wikipedia''' * [[w:Affect_labeling|Affective labelling]] * [[Augmented Reality|Augmented reality]] * [[w:Brain-derived_neurotrophic_factor|Brain-derived neurotrophic factor]] * [[w:Broaden-and-build|Broaden-and-build theory]] * [[w:Clinician_Administered_PTSD_Scale|Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale]] * [[w:Cognitive_processing_therapy|Cognitive processing therapy]] * [[w:Comorbidity|Comorbid]] * [[w:Virtual_reality_sickness|Cyber sickness]] * [[w:DSM-5|DSM-5]] * [[w:Emotional_dysregulation|Emotional dysregulation]] * [[w:Extended_reality|Extended reality]] * [[w:Marker_(linguistics)|Linguistic markers]] * [[w:Malleability_of_intelligence|Malleability of intelligence]] * [[w:Memory_consolidation|Memory reconsolidation]] * [[w:Mixed_reality_game|Mixed reality]] * [[w:Post-traumatic_stress_disorder|Post-traumatic stress disorder]] * [https://www.ptsd.va.gov/professional/assessment/adult-sr/ptsd-checklist.asp PTSD Checklist PCL-5) scale] * [[w:Prolonged_exposure_therapy|Prolonged exposure therapy]] * [[w:Salience_network|Salience]] * [[wikipedia:Transdiagnostic_process|Transdiagnostic]] [[w:Emotional_dysregulation|emotion dysregulation]] * [[w:United_States_Department_of_Veterans_Affairs|United States Department of Veterans Affairs]] * [[University of Canberra]] * [[Virtual reality]] * [[wikipedia:Virtual_reality_therapy|Virtual reality exposure therapy]] == References == {{Hanging indent|Bailey, A. 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Frontiers in Psychiatry, 9, 176. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00176 van Toorenburg, M. M., Sanches, S. A., Linders, B., Rozendaal, L., Voorendonk, E. M., Van Minnen, A., & De Jongh, A. (2020). Do emotion regulation difficulties affect outcome of intensive trauma-focused treatment of patients with severe PTSD? European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 11(1), 1724417. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2020.1724417 Vermetten, E., Barcaro, S., Espejo, E., Bellini, P., Roy, M. J., & Bremault-Phillips, S. (2025a). Linguistic analysis of patients’ labels during 3MDR psychotherapy. Psychiatry and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 35(Suppl. 1), S29. https://doi.org/10.5152/pcp.2025.241024 Vermetten, E., Burback, L., Sevigny, P. R., Nijdam, M. J., Winkler, O., Espejo, E., Sessoms, P., Bright, K., Roy, M. J., & Brémault-Phillips, S. (2025b). Brief manual for multi-modal motion-assisted memory desensitization and reconsolidation therapy for the treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder. Psychiatry and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 35(Suppl. 1), S122. https://doi.org/10.5152/pcp.2025.241028 Westphal, M., Aldao, A., & Jackson, C. (2017). Emotion dysregulation in comorbid posttraumatic stress disorder and substance use disorders: A narrative review. Military Psychology, 29(3), 216-233. https://doi.org/10.1037/mil0000157 Wiederhold, B. K., & Wiederhold, M. D. (2025). Virtual reality therapy combined with physiological monitoring provides effective treatment, with objective metrics, for post-traumatic stress disorder. Expert Review of Medical Devices, 22(2), 117-119. https://doi.org/10.1080/17434440.2025.2454930 }} == External links == * '''Web:''' [https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/post-traumatic-stress-disorder-ptsd Post traumatic stress disorder] (Australian Government) * '''Web:''' [https://www.ptsd.va.gov/index.asp National Center for PTSD information home page] (US Government) * '''Web:''' [https://www.innovation.va.gov/hil/views/immersive/immersive-programs.html US Veterans Affairs Immersive Programs Innov]<nowiki/>[https://www.innovation.va.gov/hil/views/immersive/immersive-programs.html ation] (US Government) * '''Web:''' [https://defenceveteransuicide.royalcommission.gov.au/publications/final-report Australian Royal Commission into Defence and Veteran Suicide - Final Repor]<nowiki/>[https://defenceveteransuicide.royalcommission.gov.au/publications/final-report t] (Australian Government) * '''Podcast:''' [https://shows.acast.com/5c3353e484e2e79370e1d135/5c3353ef84e2e79370e1d13c PTSD Podcast] (Peace of Mind: Mental Health and Psychiatry, ACAST, 43 min) * '''Video:''' [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bD43R_oa6qo 3MDR: Virtual reality treatment for veterans] (National Centre for Mental Health,Youtube, 2:46 min) * '''Video:''' [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jL2bKmniMTc VR exposure for combat PTSD] (PsyTech VR, Youtube, 2:20 min) * '''Final Report:''' [https://www.ncmh.info/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/Cardiff-3MDR-Study-Final-Report-with-cover-21.5.20.pdf 3MDR randomised control trial - Final-Report] (Cardiff University) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Psychotherapy]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Trauma]] sneioyaynnn2nha2ppx3v9s4le5mw76 2832768 2832737 2026-09-11T05:17:18Z StretchBeyond 3105744 Edits throughout the chapter to reduce overall word length 2832768 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment:<br>How does it work and what are the effects?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''Scenario: Immersive PTSD therapies''' Andriy, a soldier, harnessed to a treadmill, walks towards an image he spent months avoiding. His therapist beside him. This is multi-modular motion assisted memory desensitisation and reconsolidation (3MDR), one of a new generation of immersive therapies being used to treat post-traumatic stress disorder. [[File:Andriy 3MDR enhanced.gif|center|600x600px]] '''Figure 1.''' Andriy, alongside moves through his 3MDR treatment. Learn about more about immersive therapy and Andriy’s* experience in the chapter below (*Andriy is a fictional name). {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[File:Post-traumatic_stress_disorder_world_map_-_DALY_-_WHO2004.svg|alt=|thumb|271x271px|'''Figure 2:''' The 2024 World Health Organisation estimates that 3.9% of the world's population has had PTSD at some stage.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/post-traumatic-stress-disorder|title=Post-traumatic stress disorder|website=www.who.int|language=en|access-date=2026-08-17}}</ref>]] [[w:Post-traumatic_stress_disorder|Post-traumatic stress disorder]] (PTSD) develops after severe or life-threatening trauma and carries a substantial personal and societal cost (Figure 2), with military personnel disproportionately represented (Boska et al., 2025). See costs and limitations below (Davis et al., 2022; Montgomery-Marks et al., 2025). PTSD's emotional impact is shaped by [[w:Emotional_dysregulation|emotional dysregulation]] - difficulty managing intense feelings such as guilt, fear or shame (Westphal et al., 2017).This commonly triggers [[Cognitive psychology|cognitive]] and behavioural avoidance that offers short-term relief but prevents traumatic memory from being adaptively processed, trapping an individual in a cycle of avoidance and chronic hyper arousal (Efremov, 2025; de Haart et al., 2026; van Gelderen et al., 2018). Immersive interventions, including [[w:Virtual_reality_therapy|virtual reality exposure therapy]] (VRET) and 3MDR aim to break this avoidance cycle by creating controlled environments in which trauma and cues can be safely approached rather than avoided (van Gelderen et al., 2018; Wiederhold & Wiederhold, 2025). This chapter explains the psychological theory behind these approaches, reviews the research evidence for their effects and considers their limitations. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''Focus questions'''[[File:Crystal Clear app ktip.svg|left|20px|]] * Why is emotional processing important in PTSD? * How can immersive therapies influence the emotional processes underlying PTSD? * What does the research evidence show? * What are the costs and limitations of immersive therapies? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Why is emotional processing important in PTSD? == [[File:PTSD.png|left|thumb|'''Figure 3. PTSD can have a deep and lasting impact on our emotions.''']]PTSD is formally diagnosed according to [[w:DSM-5|DSM-5]] criteria and is characterised by disrupted executive and emotional processing systems, heightened threat perception, hyper-vigilance and persistent negative emotional states as depicted in Figure 3 (Kukharuk et al., 2025; López-Ojeda & Hurley, 2022; Osman et al., 2016). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}[[Image:Crystal Clear app help index.svg|left|50px]] ;Predict the outcome A soldier with PTSD encounters a trauma-related image and expects: '''TRAUMA CUE → DANGER → DISTRESS → AVOID''' However, during immersive treatment, the expected danger does not occur. What is the most likely consequence?<quiz display=simple> { |type="()"} - Fear increases permanently. - Memory cannot change. + Prediction error creates an opportunity for new learning. - Emotional processing stops.  } </quiz> <div style="text-align:right; color:red; font-weight:bold;"> Click "show" below to understand more⤵ </div> {{Hidden begin|title=Please pause and predict the answer before opening this section}}The correct answer is '''C'''. <div style="text-align:left; color:black; font-weight:regular;"> The mismatch between expected danger and actual safety creates a '''prediction error'''. This may contribute to fear extinction, emotion regulation, and memory reconsolidation.'''Think about it:''' If approaching rather than avoiding trauma can create new learning, what role might emotion regulation, fear extinction, prediction error and memory reconsolidation play? </div>   {{Hidden end}} <div style="text-align:left; color:black; font-weight:regular;"> </div>{{RoundBoxBottom}} === Understanding PTSD and emotions === Emotional processing theory suggests that recovery requires the trauma memory to be reactivated and updated with corrective information. In PTSD this process is blocked and to manage this intense distress, many individuals adopt a cognitive and behavioural avoidance defence mechanism (López-Ojeda & Hurley, 2022). Avoidance offers short-term relief, but prevents the traumatic memory from being reactivated, so it cannot be updated. Trauma reminders such as flashbacks continue triggering extreme distress, trapping the individual in a maladaptive, self-reinforcing avoidance cycle (Figure 4) (Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). At a neural level, Westphal et al. (2017) link this to [[wikipedia:Transdiagnostic_process|transdiagnostic]] [[w:Emotional_dysregulation|emotion dysregulation]], in which the traumatic memory network remains isolated from the brain's [[w:Salience_network|salience]] and central executive networks. Effective treatment requires safely reactivating this network so the memory can be integrated (Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b; Westphal et al., 2017). A 2025 study of Danish military veterans (''n''=142) found emotional regulation difficulties explained an additional 28% of the variance in PTSD symptoms; combined with [[w:Comorbidity|comorbid]] symptoms, these factors accounted for 52% of the variance in severity (''F''(13, 92) = 9.58, ''p'' <0.001) (Elklit & Dahl, 2025).[[File:Avoidance and Processing Cycles.png|500x500px|thumb|'''Figure 4'''. Avoidance cycles and the anticipated positive responses generated via immersive therapies. Based on concepts by Lopez-Ojeda et al. (2022), Felemban et al. (2026), and Vermetten et. al. (2025b).|center]] === Why treatment can be difficult === Trauma-focused psychotherapies such as [[w:Prolonged_exposure_therapy|prolonged exposure]] (PE) and [[w:Cognitive_processing_therapy|cognitive processing therapy]] (CPT) ask patients to actively engage with distressing memories to generate fear extinction, precisely what avoidance prevents (van Toorenburg et al., 2020). Many patients cannot tolerate the emotional exposure these therapies require (Lopes et al., 2025; van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). Because the trigger is never safely confronted, the brain cannot experience a prediction error needed to learn the threat has passed, so symptoms persist indefinately. (de Haart et al., 2026; López-Ojeda & Hurley, 2022). This is reflected in outcomes where an estimated 39.2% of patients fail to respond to standard trauma-focused therapy, and dropout rates range from 16-48% (de Haart et al., 2026; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). Among military veterans younger patients show heightened severity when trauma is central to their identity, while others turn to poor diet or substance abuse, further eroding emotional regulation (Efremov, 2025; Niles et al., 2023). [[w:Emotional_dysregulation|Emotional dysregulation]] was historically viewed as a fixed barrier requiring lengthy stabilisation before treatment could begin (van Toorenburg et al., 2020). More recent evidence suggests otherwise, as emotional regulation has dynamic capacity and can improve as a natural consequence of successful memory processing (van Toorenburg et al., 2020). This reframes the clinical challenge as helping an individual safely approach and process the traumatic memory, not correcting a fixed deficit. [[File:UC PhD VR study.png|right|thumb|'''Figure 5.''' PhD work by R. Selvakumaran (University of Canberra) explores cultural factors using the US-''Bravemind'' system.]]Cultural context adds another layer of difficulty. Doctoral research at the the [[University of Canberra]] is examining how protocols such as the US-centric ''Bravemind''<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://medvr.ict.usc.edu/projects/bravemind.html|title=Bravemind {{!}} MedVR|website=medvr.ict.usc.edu|access-date=2026-08-25}}</ref> need cultural adaption for Australian veterans and first responders, whose operational backgrounds differ from their US counterparts (Selvakumaran, 2025). Integrating exposure therapy with gamified, posture-adaptive cognitive rehabilitation to support physical and emotional recovery (Figure 5) (Selvakumaran, 2025). These treatment gaps carry a substantial economic and personal cost, part of the motivation for developing alternatives such as immersive therapies.    == How can immersive therapies influence emotional processes? == Immersive PTSD treatments mark a shift from passive, sedentary therapy, towards active, embodied, highly interactive approaches (van Gelderen et al., 2018). Immersive therapy uses three psychological mechanisms and their interaction: multisensory presence, embodied cognition, and divergent thinking (López-Ojeda & Hurley, 2022; van Gelderen et al., 2018). Embodied cognition is the concept of how physical states of the body can directly modify states of the mind (van Gelderen et al., 2018). Immersion therapy goes beyond the simple visual replication of a trauma memory; instead, capturing the participant’s visceral and cognitive focus by limiting distractions (Macey et al., 2026). === What is immersive therapy? === [[File:XR and Human Senses.png|right|thumb|'''Figure 6.''' The Extended Reality environment and its interaction with the human brain. Designed to give readers a simple understanding of emerging technologies used in immersive PTSD environments.]]Immersive therapies<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-01|title=Immersion therapy|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Immersion_therapy&oldid=1357152847|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> use [[w:Extended_reality|extended reality]](XR) platforms, encompassing [[virtual reality]] (VR), [[Augmented Reality|augmented reality]] (AR), and [[w:Mixed_reality_game|mixed reality]] (MR), to create customisable, controlled, and standardised therapeutic environments (López-Ojeda & Hurley, 2022; Wiederhold & Wiederhold, 2025). This ecosystem is depicted in Figure 6. This chapter focuses on two applications VRET where therapists reconstruct traumatic scenarios in safe, graded environments; and 3MDR, which extends this by having the patient move on a treadmill towards a panoramic display, side-by-side with their therapist, rather than a stationary, face to face session (de Haart et al., 2026; Felemban et al., 2026). === Presence and embodied cognition === Immersive therapy’s distinguishing feature is its ability to generate presence, or the psychological illusion of being ‘''there’''. The illusion amplified by integrating synchronised audio, visual, olfactory, haptic, and movement stimuli (Lopes et al., 2025; López-Ojeda & Hurley, 2022). This increases engagement with the trauma memory and supports emotional processing (van Gelderen et al., 2018). In 3MDR, presence combines with cognition. The working principle is that physical states of the body can directly shape states of the mind (van Gelderen et al., 2018). Walking towards a virtual trauma functions as a fear antagonistic action and rather than retreating in avoidance, the patient approaches, converting passive helplessness into active, empowered participation and disrupting the rigid and repetitive trauma narratives common in PTSD (Boska et al., 2025; de Haart et al., 2026; Osman et al., 2016; van Gelderen et al., 2018). Notably, this benefit does not seem to be driven by exercise physiology which suggests extinction learning normally requires moderate-to-high-intensity activity to stimulate [[w:Brain-derived_neurotrophic_factor|brain-derived neurotrophic factor]] (BDNF); but 3MDR's walking pace (< 4 km/h) is too slow to generate meaningful BDNF secretion. This suggests the mechanism is primarily psychological and behavioural. It is the approach action itself and the cognitive restructuring it enables, rather than physiological (de Haart et al., 2026). === Prediction error and inhibitory learning === Immersive therapy builds on the inhibitory learning model of exposure therapy, in which a new, safe association actively competes with and suppresses the original fear response. Walking towards a trauma cue and encountering safety instead of the expected catastrophe creates a profound prediction error between the anticipated, life-threatening event and the actual reality. This destabilises the traumatic memory, allowing memory reconsolidation (Felemban et al., 2026; van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b; Wiederhold & Wiederhold, 2025). === Memory reconsolidation === According to [[w:Memory_consolidation|memory reconsolidation]] theory, traumatic memories retrieved in a safe, immersive contexts can become [[w:Malleability_of_intelligence|malleable]], allowing new, safe information to reconsolidate the memory in a non-threatening form (van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). To prevent the patient from becoming overwhelmed, 3MDR uses dual-attention tasks such as tracking an oscillating ball (Figure 1), which taxes limited working memory resources and reduces the vividness and emotional intensity of the memory (Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). Emerging linguistic research suggests this processing is reflected in patients' language. Across successive 3MDR sessions, [[w:Affect_labeling|affective labelling]] of feelings such as guiltshifted from past-tense to present-tense narration, consistent with a renewed ability to integrate traumatic memories into present-moment awareness (Vermetten, Barcaro, et al., 2025a). == What does the research evidence show? == Addressing potential barriers is important for any PTSD population, but especially critical for military populations, as they show some of the highest treatment failure and drop out rates. van Gelderen et al. (2018). Immersive therapies can tailor patient-selected trauma cues to improve access to traumatic memory networks (Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). === Virtual reality exposure therapy === [[w:Virtual_reality_therapy|VRET]] reconstructs traumatic events in a structured context (Felemban et al., 2026; López-Ojeda & Hurley, 2022). Bypassing imagination challenges such as emotional numbing or amnesia that can prevent patients engaging with traditional therapy (Macey et al., 2026). A meta-analysis of the VRET for PTSD found substantial symptom reductions, averaging a 33.73-point decrease in the 0-80 point [[w:Clinician_Administered_PTSD_Scale|Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale]] and a 20.96-point decrease in the 0-80 point [https://www.ptsd.va.gov/professional/assessment/adult-sr/ptsd-checklist.asp PTSD Checklist PCL-5) scale] (Felemban et al., 2026). Because changes of 10-20 points on these scales are considered clinically significant, this could mean the difference between severe functional impairment and mild or subclinical symptoms (Boska et al., 2025; de Haart et al., 2026; Felemban et al., 2026).  Comparative effects against other active PTSD treatments remain modest, but VRET appears to be a more engaging alternative to conventional treatment (Felemban et al., 2026) === 3MDR === 3MDR takes the same multisensory effect used in VRET and adds an activating context. Rather than a sedentary, face-to-face session, the patient and the therapist face the virtual display together (van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). It follows a three-phase protocol: pre-platform preparation, platform treadmill exposure, and post-platform re-consolidation (Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). In a trial involving treatment-resistant PTSD; 3MDR showed large effect sizes from pre-treatment to six-months (''n'' = 134, ''d'' = 1.0) and high-acceptability, with 7-20% dropout rates, substantially lower than the 16-48% typical standard trauma-focused therapy in military populations (de Haart et al., 2026; Lewis et al., 2020; van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). Improvements are not limited to PTSD symptoms. A trial of 62 adults with severe PTSD, including childhood sexual trauma, found immersive treatment improved emotion-regulation abilities regardless of PTSD outcome (van Toorenburg et al., 2020). Some researchers link this broader improvement to positive psychology [[w:Broaden-and-build|Broaden-and-Build Theory]]. Theorising that as patients regain a sense of safety and control, this may support a positive spiral of emotional flexibility that reinforces the recovery process (Fredrickson, 2001; Niles et al., 2023; Westphal et al., 2017). '''Table 1:''' Treatment Effects and Psychological Mechanisms {| class="wikitable" | valign="top" |'''Clinical Dimension''' | valign="top" |'''Traditional Exposure''' | valign="top" |'''Immersive Approach''' | valign="top" |'''Psychological Mechanisms''' |- | valign="top" |'''Therapeutic Context''' | valign="top" |'''''Sedentary'''''. Face-to-face, verbally describes trauma. | valign="top" |'''''Activating.''''' Dynamic, multi-sensory environment. | valign="top" |'''''Fear Antagonistic Action.''''' '''''Approach behaviours.''''' '''''Prediction Errors.''''' |- | valign="top" |'''Trauma cue delivery''' | valign="top" |'''''Imaginary Retrieval''''' Patient capacity | valign="top" |'''''Multisensory Immersion''''' Highly tailored | valign="top" |'''''External Scaffolding.''''' Bypasses internal barriers to activate memory networks. |- | valign="top" |'''Processing''' '''and attention''' | valign="top" |'''''Convergent processing.''''' Repeated narration and fear habituation. | valign="top" |'''''Active Narrative Processing.''''' Interactive, real-time affective labelling and dual attention tasks. | valign="top" |'''''Working Memory.''''' Memory taxation reduces vividness and emotional intensity. |- | valign="top" |'''Engagement''' | valign="top" |'''''Attrition.''''' High dropout rates 16-48%. | valign="top" |'''''Acceptability.''''' Attractive. Dropout rates 7-20%. | valign="top" |'''''Sustained Motivation.''''' Presence and safety in immersive environment. |} {{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Quiz}} <quiz display=simple> {Which of the following is an expected outcome of immersive therapy ? |type="()"} - Patients are at risk because of an uncontrolled environment. - The environments represent traditional face-to-face treatments. - Failure and dropout rates are higher than traditional PTSD treatment. + Patients often broaden and build an upward spiral of emotion and optimism. </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} === Applied example: 3MDR treatment in Ukraine === {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''Scenario: Ukraine War: an applied 3MDR example''' Andriy* a volunteer in the Ukrainian Armed Forces is struggling with hyper-vigilance, anxiety, and depression (Kukharuk et al., 2025). Traditional ‘talk’ therapy feels impossible; his mind stays in a constant state of combat readiness, even in a quiet room. In the pre-platform phase of 3MDR, Andriy worked to identify a ‘hotspot’ memory in a photograph. On the treadmill, harnessed and walking beside his therapist, he faces a panoramic screen as personalised warm-up music plays, selected to keep him in touch with his traumatic memory network (Vermetten et al., 2025b). As his hotspot image fills the screen, his therapist asks three questions (Vermetten et al., 2025b): 1. What do you '''SEE''' ? 2. What does it '''TELL''' you? 3. What do you '''FEEL''' in your body NOW? When Andriy identifies a surge of shame, the word '''GUILT''' is displayed as an affective label, and a dual-attention task begins. He tracks an oscillating, numbered ball while he stays with the emotion, taxing his working memory and reducing the intensity of the recalled trauma. [[File:Andriy 3MDR enhanced.gif|center|600x600px]] '''Figure 7.''' Andriy, moves through his 3MDR treatment. By the end of the session, Andriy has walked towards what he used to avoid, creating a mismatch between his expectation of threat and his safety, turning a rigid, stuck memory into a manageable narrative. *''Andriy, a fictional name given to one of 69 Ukrainian veterans who participated in a 2023 randomised controlled trial. Many were demobilised after one year because of mental or neurological injuries'' (Kukharuk et al., 2025). {{RoundBoxBottom}} == What are the costs and limitations of immersive therapies? == PTSD carries a substantial economic burden. An estimated US$232 billion in excess costs in the United States in 2018 and over £40 billion, in the United Kingdom in 2020-21, 92.4% of which was indirect rather than direct clinical cost (Davis et al., 2022; Montgomery-Marks et al., 2025). In Australia, the average annual cost of PTSD per military veteran was estimated at $112,172 in 2025 (Magnusson & Dey, 2025). In addition, individual healthcare costs surge by 142% in the year following a PTSD diagnosis, with comorbidities tripling this effect (Bothe et al., 2020). These figures span several countries and years and should be best read as an indication of scale rather than as directly comparable totals. Immersive therapy’s ability to move from small trials into mainstream PTSD treatment remains limited by methodological [[w:Homogeneity_and_heterogeneity|heterogeneity]], small sample sizes, and a lack of long-term data (Felemban et al., 2026). Practical issues such as [[w:Virtual_reality_sickness|cyber sickness]] or motion sickness can also disrupt participation (Kukharuk et al., 2025). Structural barriers include workforce training and equipment costs. Basic VR systems cost an estimated US$3,500 per provider headset annually, and advanced simulation environments can cost up to US$200,000 (Garrett et al., 2018). Despite this, adoption of immersive therapy is scaling. The [[w:United_States_Department_of_Veterans_Affairs|United States Veterans Affairs]] have expanded VR use from five medical centres in 2017 to over 154 centres and 2,300 staff, with applications now including over 40 documented clinical interventions such as chronic pain and suicide intervention (Bailey et al., 2024). Market analysts estimate the global PTSD-focused VR therapy market was worth US$1.59 billion in 2025, forecast to reach US$5.94 billion by 2032, driven largely by growing mental health awareness and the absence of standard clinical protocols (Stratistics MRC, 2025). These limitations do not undermine the case for immersive therapy, but they show its evidence base and infrastructure are still maturing. Demonstrating rigorously why these therapies work, rather than assuming their novelty accounts for their effects is essential to avoid misallocating resources to unproven interventions and supports a paradigm shift, from a narrow, disease model towards one that values post-traumatic growth and renewed optimism (Trejo et al., 2015; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b; Wiederhold & Wiederhold, 2025). == Conclusion == PTSD traps people in a self-reinforcing cycle of avoidance that blocks the adaptive processing trauma memories need to resolve (see: ''Understanding PTSD and emotions''). Standard trauma-focused therapies require patients to confront exactly what this cycle causes them to avoid, which contributes to high, non-response and dropout rates (see ''Why treatment can be difficult''). Immersive therapies such as VRET and 3MDR address this by using presence, embodied cognition, prediction error and memory reconsolidation to help patients safely approach trauma cues rather than avoid them (see: ''What does the research evidence show''). The technology itself is only a delivery mechanism, it is the psychological processes that drive change. The evidence to date shows meaningful reductions in PTSD symptoms and comparatively low drop-out rates, alongside broader gains in emotional regulation. However, small samples, methodological variation, and a lack of long-term data mean the evidence base is still developing, and cost and infrastructure barriers remain significant (see ''costs and limitations'').{{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} [[File:Nuvola apps kuser.svg|Nuvola apps kuser|left|20px]] ''' Take-home message:''' Immersive therapies do not heal PTSD trauma through technological novelty or digital feedback. Instead, they create a safe, dynamic space that lets individuals confront trauma and reprocess memories into something they can live with. In doing so, people’s lives may once again shift toward value, optimism, and wellness.{{RoundBoxBottom}} == See also == '''Wikiversity''' * [[Motivation and emotion/Textbook/Emotion/Anxiety|Anxiety book chapter]] * [[Evidence-based assessment/Posttraumatic stress disorder (disorder portfolio)|Evidence-based PTSD assessment]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Phobias|Phobias book chapter]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Sense hacking|Sense hacking book chapter]] '''Wikipedia''' * [[w:Affect_labeling|Affective labelling]] * [[Augmented Reality|Augmented reality]] * [[w:Brain-derived_neurotrophic_factor|Brain-derived neurotrophic factor]] * [[w:Broaden-and-build|Broaden-and-build theory]] * [[w:Clinician_Administered_PTSD_Scale|Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale]] * [[w:Cognitive_processing_therapy|Cognitive processing therapy]] * [[w:Virtual_reality_sickness|Cyber sickness]] * [[w:DSM-5|DSM-5]] * [[w:Emotional_dysregulation|Emotional dysregulation]] * [[w:Extended_reality|Extended reality]] * [[w:Malleability_of_intelligence|Malleability of intelligence]] * [[w:Memory_consolidation|Memory reconsolidation]] * [[w:Mixed_reality_game|Mixed reality]] * [[w:Post-traumatic_stress_disorder|Post-traumatic stress disorder]] * [[w:Prolonged_exposure_therapy|Prolonged exposure therapy]] * [[wikipedia:Transdiagnostic_process|Transdiagnostic]] [[w:Emotional_dysregulation|emotion dysregulation]] * [[w:United_States_Department_of_Veterans_Affairs|United States Department of Veterans Affairs]] * [[University of Canberra]] * [[wikipedia:Virtual_reality_therapy|Virtual reality exposure therapy]] == References == {{Hanging indent|Bailey, A. L., Kirsh, S., Rawlins, C., Persky, S., & Clancy, C. (2024). Early scaling of immersive technology within the Veterans Health Administration. NEJM Catalyst Innovations in Care Delivery, 5(4). https://doi.org/10.1056/cat.23.0356 Boska, R. L., Bishop, T. M., Capron, D. W., Paxton Willing, M. M., & Ashrafioun, L. (2025). Difficulties with emotion regulation within PTSD clusters and moral injury subtypes. Military Psychology, 37(2), 159-167. https://doi.org/10.1080/08995605.2024.2322904 de Haart, R., Daniels, J. K., Timmerman, M. E., Cath, D. C., & Lommen, M. J. J. (2026). Augmenting virtual reality exposure for PTSD with physical activity: Study protocol of a randomised controlled trial. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 17(1), 2605803. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008066.2025.2605803 Efremov, A. (2025). Age-specific mental health profiles of combat veterans: Post-traumatic stress disorder and related disorders. Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive-Behavior Therapy, 44(4), 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10942-025-00637-7 Elklit, A., & Dahl, N. H. (2025). Emotion regulation difficulties, aggression, and PTSD symptoms in Danish treatment-seeking veterans. Scandinavian Journal of Military Studies, 8(1), 308-326. https://doi.org/10.31374/sjms.264 Felemban, R. G., Alzahrani, R. R., Alrefaei, N. F., Alharbi, N. M., Alghamdi, A. S., & Alqadi, S. (2026). Efficacy of virtual reality-based exposure therapy for post-traumatic stress disorder in military veterans: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 17, 1857109. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1857109 Fredrickson, B. L. (2001). The role of positive emotions in positive psychology: The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. American Psychologist, 56(3), 218-226. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.56.3.218 Garrett, B., Taverner, T., Gromala, D., Tao, G., Cordingley, E., & Sun, C. (2018). 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Psychiatry and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 35(Suppl. 1), S122. https://doi.org/10.5152/pcp.2025.241028 Westphal, M., Aldao, A., & Jackson, C. (2017). Emotion dysregulation in comorbid posttraumatic stress disorder and substance use disorders: A narrative review. Military Psychology, 29(3), 216-233. https://doi.org/10.1037/mil0000157 Wiederhold, B. K., & Wiederhold, M. D. (2025). Virtual reality therapy combined with physiological monitoring provides effective treatment, with objective metrics, for post-traumatic stress disorder. Expert Review of Medical Devices, 22(2), 117-119. https://doi.org/10.1080/17434440.2025.2454930 }} == External links == * '''Web:''' [https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/post-traumatic-stress-disorder-ptsd Post traumatic stress disorder] (Australian Government) * '''Web:''' [https://www.ptsd.va.gov/index.asp National Center for PTSD information home page] (US Government) * '''Web:''' [https://www.innovation.va.gov/hil/views/immersive/immersive-programs.html US Veterans Affairs Immersive Programs Innov]<nowiki/>[https://www.innovation.va.gov/hil/views/immersive/immersive-programs.html ation] (US Government) * '''Web:''' [https://defenceveteransuicide.royalcommission.gov.au/publications/final-report Australian Royal Commission into Defence and Veteran Suicide - Final Repor]<nowiki/>[https://defenceveteransuicide.royalcommission.gov.au/publications/final-report t] (Australian Government) * '''Podcast:''' [https://shows.acast.com/5c3353e484e2e79370e1d135/5c3353ef84e2e79370e1d13c PTSD Podcast] (Peace of Mind: Mental Health and Psychiatry, ACAST, 43 min) * '''Video:''' [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bD43R_oa6qo 3MDR: Virtual reality treatment for veterans] (National Centre for Mental Health,Youtube, 2:46 min) * '''Video:''' [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jL2bKmniMTc VR exposure for combat PTSD] (PsyTech VR, Youtube, 2:20 min) * '''Final Report:''' [https://www.ncmh.info/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/Cardiff-3MDR-Study-Final-Report-with-cover-21.5.20.pdf 3MDR randomised control trial - Final-Report] (Cardiff University) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Psychotherapy]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Trauma]] gucgv3rstcif4yw8x9hf40jhcsw5jml 2832771 2832768 2026-09-11T05:29:30Z StretchBeyond 3105744 /* References */ Italics applied as per APA7 in reference section 2832771 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment:<br>How does it work and what are the effects?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''Scenario: Immersive PTSD therapies''' Andriy, a soldier, harnessed to a treadmill, walks towards an image he spent months avoiding. His therapist beside him. This is multi-modular motion assisted memory desensitisation and reconsolidation (3MDR), one of a new generation of immersive therapies being used to treat post-traumatic stress disorder. [[File:Andriy 3MDR enhanced.gif|center|600x600px]] '''Figure 1.''' Andriy, alongside moves through his 3MDR treatment. Learn about more about immersive therapy and Andriy’s* experience in the chapter below (*Andriy is a fictional name). {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[File:Post-traumatic_stress_disorder_world_map_-_DALY_-_WHO2004.svg|alt=|thumb|271x271px|'''Figure 2:''' The 2024 World Health Organisation estimates that 3.9% of the world's population has had PTSD at some stage.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/post-traumatic-stress-disorder|title=Post-traumatic stress disorder|website=www.who.int|language=en|access-date=2026-08-17}}</ref>]] [[w:Post-traumatic_stress_disorder|Post-traumatic stress disorder]] (PTSD) develops after severe or life-threatening trauma and carries a substantial personal and societal cost (Figure 2), with military personnel disproportionately represented (Boska et al., 2025). See costs and limitations below (Davis et al., 2022; Montgomery-Marks et al., 2025). PTSD's emotional impact is shaped by [[w:Emotional_dysregulation|emotional dysregulation]] - difficulty managing intense feelings such as guilt, fear or shame (Westphal et al., 2017).This commonly triggers [[Cognitive psychology|cognitive]] and behavioural avoidance that offers short-term relief but prevents traumatic memory from being adaptively processed, trapping an individual in a cycle of avoidance and chronic hyper arousal (Efremov, 2025; de Haart et al., 2026; van Gelderen et al., 2018). Immersive interventions, including [[w:Virtual_reality_therapy|virtual reality exposure therapy]] (VRET) and 3MDR aim to break this avoidance cycle by creating controlled environments in which trauma and cues can be safely approached rather than avoided (van Gelderen et al., 2018; Wiederhold & Wiederhold, 2025). This chapter explains the psychological theory behind these approaches, reviews the research evidence for their effects and considers their limitations. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''Focus questions'''[[File:Crystal Clear app ktip.svg|left|20px|]] * Why is emotional processing important in PTSD? * How can immersive therapies influence the emotional processes underlying PTSD? * What does the research evidence show? * What are the costs and limitations of immersive therapies? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Why is emotional processing important in PTSD? == [[File:PTSD.png|left|thumb|'''Figure 3. PTSD can have a deep and lasting impact on our emotions.''']]PTSD is formally diagnosed according to [[w:DSM-5|DSM-5]] criteria and is characterised by disrupted executive and emotional processing systems, heightened threat perception, hyper-vigilance and persistent negative emotional states as depicted in Figure 3 (Kukharuk et al., 2025; López-Ojeda & Hurley, 2022; Osman et al., 2016). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}[[Image:Crystal Clear app help index.svg|left|50px]] ;Predict the outcome A soldier with PTSD encounters a trauma-related image and expects: '''TRAUMA CUE → DANGER → DISTRESS → AVOID''' However, during immersive treatment, the expected danger does not occur. What is the most likely consequence?<quiz display=simple> { |type="()"} - Fear increases permanently. - Memory cannot change. + Prediction error creates an opportunity for new learning. - Emotional processing stops.  } </quiz> <div style="text-align:right; color:red; font-weight:bold;"> Click "show" below to understand more⤵ </div> {{Hidden begin|title=Please pause and predict the answer before opening this section}}The correct answer is '''C'''. <div style="text-align:left; color:black; font-weight:regular;"> The mismatch between expected danger and actual safety creates a '''prediction error'''. This may contribute to fear extinction, emotion regulation, and memory reconsolidation.'''Think about it:''' If approaching rather than avoiding trauma can create new learning, what role might emotion regulation, fear extinction, prediction error and memory reconsolidation play? </div>   {{Hidden end}} <div style="text-align:left; color:black; font-weight:regular;"> </div>{{RoundBoxBottom}} === Understanding PTSD and emotions === Emotional processing theory suggests that recovery requires the trauma memory to be reactivated and updated with corrective information. In PTSD this process is blocked and to manage this intense distress, many individuals adopt a cognitive and behavioural avoidance defence mechanism (López-Ojeda & Hurley, 2022). Avoidance offers short-term relief, but prevents the traumatic memory from being reactivated, so it cannot be updated. Trauma reminders such as flashbacks continue triggering extreme distress, trapping the individual in a maladaptive, self-reinforcing avoidance cycle (Figure 4) (Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). At a neural level, Westphal et al. (2017) link this to [[wikipedia:Transdiagnostic_process|transdiagnostic]] [[w:Emotional_dysregulation|emotion dysregulation]], in which the traumatic memory network remains isolated from the brain's [[w:Salience_network|salience]] and central executive networks. Effective treatment requires safely reactivating this network so the memory can be integrated (Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b; Westphal et al., 2017). A 2025 study of Danish military veterans (''n''=142) found emotional regulation difficulties explained an additional 28% of the variance in PTSD symptoms; combined with [[w:Comorbidity|comorbid]] symptoms, these factors accounted for 52% of the variance in severity (''F''(13, 92) = 9.58, ''p'' <0.001) (Elklit & Dahl, 2025).[[File:Avoidance and Processing Cycles.png|500x500px|thumb|'''Figure 4'''. Avoidance cycles and the anticipated positive responses generated via immersive therapies. Based on concepts by Lopez-Ojeda et al. (2022), Felemban et al. (2026), and Vermetten et. al. (2025b).|center]] === Why treatment can be difficult === Trauma-focused psychotherapies such as [[w:Prolonged_exposure_therapy|prolonged exposure]] (PE) and [[w:Cognitive_processing_therapy|cognitive processing therapy]] (CPT) ask patients to actively engage with distressing memories to generate fear extinction, precisely what avoidance prevents (van Toorenburg et al., 2020). Many patients cannot tolerate the emotional exposure these therapies require (Lopes et al., 2025; van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). Because the trigger is never safely confronted, the brain cannot experience a prediction error needed to learn the threat has passed, so symptoms persist indefinately. (de Haart et al., 2026; López-Ojeda & Hurley, 2022). This is reflected in outcomes where an estimated 39.2% of patients fail to respond to standard trauma-focused therapy, and dropout rates range from 16-48% (de Haart et al., 2026; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). Among military veterans younger patients show heightened severity when trauma is central to their identity, while others turn to poor diet or substance abuse, further eroding emotional regulation (Efremov, 2025; Niles et al., 2023). [[w:Emotional_dysregulation|Emotional dysregulation]] was historically viewed as a fixed barrier requiring lengthy stabilisation before treatment could begin (van Toorenburg et al., 2020). More recent evidence suggests otherwise, as emotional regulation has dynamic capacity and can improve as a natural consequence of successful memory processing (van Toorenburg et al., 2020). This reframes the clinical challenge as helping an individual safely approach and process the traumatic memory, not correcting a fixed deficit. [[File:UC PhD VR study.png|right|thumb|'''Figure 5.''' PhD work by R. Selvakumaran (University of Canberra) explores cultural factors using the US-''Bravemind'' system.]]Cultural context adds another layer of difficulty. Doctoral research at the the [[University of Canberra]] is examining how protocols such as the US-centric ''Bravemind''<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://medvr.ict.usc.edu/projects/bravemind.html|title=Bravemind {{!}} MedVR|website=medvr.ict.usc.edu|access-date=2026-08-25}}</ref> need cultural adaption for Australian veterans and first responders, whose operational backgrounds differ from their US counterparts (Selvakumaran, 2025). Integrating exposure therapy with gamified, posture-adaptive cognitive rehabilitation to support physical and emotional recovery (Figure 5) (Selvakumaran, 2025). These treatment gaps carry a substantial economic and personal cost, part of the motivation for developing alternatives such as immersive therapies.    == How can immersive therapies influence emotional processes? == Immersive PTSD treatments mark a shift from passive, sedentary therapy, towards active, embodied, highly interactive approaches (van Gelderen et al., 2018). Immersive therapy uses three psychological mechanisms and their interaction: multisensory presence, embodied cognition, and divergent thinking (López-Ojeda & Hurley, 2022; van Gelderen et al., 2018). Embodied cognition is the concept of how physical states of the body can directly modify states of the mind (van Gelderen et al., 2018). Immersion therapy goes beyond the simple visual replication of a trauma memory; instead, capturing the participant’s visceral and cognitive focus by limiting distractions (Macey et al., 2026). === What is immersive therapy? === [[File:XR and Human Senses.png|right|thumb|'''Figure 6.''' The Extended Reality environment and its interaction with the human brain. Designed to give readers a simple understanding of emerging technologies used in immersive PTSD environments.]]Immersive therapies<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-01|title=Immersion therapy|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Immersion_therapy&oldid=1357152847|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> use [[w:Extended_reality|extended reality]](XR) platforms, encompassing [[virtual reality]] (VR), [[Augmented Reality|augmented reality]] (AR), and [[w:Mixed_reality_game|mixed reality]] (MR), to create customisable, controlled, and standardised therapeutic environments (López-Ojeda & Hurley, 2022; Wiederhold & Wiederhold, 2025). This ecosystem is depicted in Figure 6. This chapter focuses on two applications VRET where therapists reconstruct traumatic scenarios in safe, graded environments; and 3MDR, which extends this by having the patient move on a treadmill towards a panoramic display, side-by-side with their therapist, rather than a stationary, face to face session (de Haart et al., 2026; Felemban et al., 2026). === Presence and embodied cognition === Immersive therapy’s distinguishing feature is its ability to generate presence, or the psychological illusion of being ‘''there’''. The illusion amplified by integrating synchronised audio, visual, olfactory, haptic, and movement stimuli (Lopes et al., 2025; López-Ojeda & Hurley, 2022). This increases engagement with the trauma memory and supports emotional processing (van Gelderen et al., 2018). In 3MDR, presence combines with cognition. The working principle is that physical states of the body can directly shape states of the mind (van Gelderen et al., 2018). Walking towards a virtual trauma functions as a fear antagonistic action and rather than retreating in avoidance, the patient approaches, converting passive helplessness into active, empowered participation and disrupting the rigid and repetitive trauma narratives common in PTSD (Boska et al., 2025; de Haart et al., 2026; Osman et al., 2016; van Gelderen et al., 2018). Notably, this benefit does not seem to be driven by exercise physiology which suggests extinction learning normally requires moderate-to-high-intensity activity to stimulate [[w:Brain-derived_neurotrophic_factor|brain-derived neurotrophic factor]] (BDNF); but 3MDR's walking pace (< 4 km/h) is too slow to generate meaningful BDNF secretion. This suggests the mechanism is primarily psychological and behavioural. It is the approach action itself and the cognitive restructuring it enables, rather than physiological (de Haart et al., 2026). === Prediction error and inhibitory learning === Immersive therapy builds on the inhibitory learning model of exposure therapy, in which a new, safe association actively competes with and suppresses the original fear response. Walking towards a trauma cue and encountering safety instead of the expected catastrophe creates a profound prediction error between the anticipated, life-threatening event and the actual reality. This destabilises the traumatic memory, allowing memory reconsolidation (Felemban et al., 2026; van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b; Wiederhold & Wiederhold, 2025). === Memory reconsolidation === According to [[w:Memory_consolidation|memory reconsolidation]] theory, traumatic memories retrieved in a safe, immersive contexts can become [[w:Malleability_of_intelligence|malleable]], allowing new, safe information to reconsolidate the memory in a non-threatening form (van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). To prevent the patient from becoming overwhelmed, 3MDR uses dual-attention tasks such as tracking an oscillating ball (Figure 1), which taxes limited working memory resources and reduces the vividness and emotional intensity of the memory (Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). Emerging linguistic research suggests this processing is reflected in patients' language. Across successive 3MDR sessions, [[w:Affect_labeling|affective labelling]] of feelings such as guiltshifted from past-tense to present-tense narration, consistent with a renewed ability to integrate traumatic memories into present-moment awareness (Vermetten, Barcaro, et al., 2025a). == What does the research evidence show? == Addressing potential barriers is important for any PTSD population, but especially critical for military populations, as they show some of the highest treatment failure and drop out rates. van Gelderen et al. (2018). Immersive therapies can tailor patient-selected trauma cues to improve access to traumatic memory networks (Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). === Virtual reality exposure therapy === [[w:Virtual_reality_therapy|VRET]] reconstructs traumatic events in a structured context (Felemban et al., 2026; López-Ojeda & Hurley, 2022). Bypassing imagination challenges such as emotional numbing or amnesia that can prevent patients engaging with traditional therapy (Macey et al., 2026). A meta-analysis of the VRET for PTSD found substantial symptom reductions, averaging a 33.73-point decrease in the 0-80 point [[w:Clinician_Administered_PTSD_Scale|Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale]] and a 20.96-point decrease in the 0-80 point [https://www.ptsd.va.gov/professional/assessment/adult-sr/ptsd-checklist.asp PTSD Checklist PCL-5) scale] (Felemban et al., 2026). Because changes of 10-20 points on these scales are considered clinically significant, this could mean the difference between severe functional impairment and mild or subclinical symptoms (Boska et al., 2025; de Haart et al., 2026; Felemban et al., 2026).  Comparative effects against other active PTSD treatments remain modest, but VRET appears to be a more engaging alternative to conventional treatment (Felemban et al., 2026) === 3MDR === 3MDR takes the same multisensory effect used in VRET and adds an activating context. Rather than a sedentary, face-to-face session, the patient and the therapist face the virtual display together (van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). It follows a three-phase protocol: pre-platform preparation, platform treadmill exposure, and post-platform re-consolidation (Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). In a trial involving treatment-resistant PTSD; 3MDR showed large effect sizes from pre-treatment to six-months (''n'' = 134, ''d'' = 1.0) and high-acceptability, with 7-20% dropout rates, substantially lower than the 16-48% typical standard trauma-focused therapy in military populations (de Haart et al., 2026; Lewis et al., 2020; van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). Improvements are not limited to PTSD symptoms. A trial of 62 adults with severe PTSD, including childhood sexual trauma, found immersive treatment improved emotion-regulation abilities regardless of PTSD outcome (van Toorenburg et al., 2020). Some researchers link this broader improvement to positive psychology [[w:Broaden-and-build|Broaden-and-Build Theory]]. Theorising that as patients regain a sense of safety and control, this may support a positive spiral of emotional flexibility that reinforces the recovery process (Fredrickson, 2001; Niles et al., 2023; Westphal et al., 2017). '''Table 1:''' Treatment Effects and Psychological Mechanisms {| class="wikitable" | valign="top" |'''Clinical Dimension''' | valign="top" |'''Traditional Exposure''' | valign="top" |'''Immersive Approach''' | valign="top" |'''Psychological Mechanisms''' |- | valign="top" |'''Therapeutic Context''' | valign="top" |'''''Sedentary'''''. Face-to-face, verbally describes trauma. | valign="top" |'''''Activating.''''' Dynamic, multi-sensory environment. | valign="top" |'''''Fear Antagonistic Action.''''' '''''Approach behaviours.''''' '''''Prediction Errors.''''' |- | valign="top" |'''Trauma cue delivery''' | valign="top" |'''''Imaginary Retrieval''''' Patient capacity | valign="top" |'''''Multisensory Immersion''''' Highly tailored | valign="top" |'''''External Scaffolding.''''' Bypasses internal barriers to activate memory networks. |- | valign="top" |'''Processing''' '''and attention''' | valign="top" |'''''Convergent processing.''''' Repeated narration and fear habituation. | valign="top" |'''''Active Narrative Processing.''''' Interactive, real-time affective labelling and dual attention tasks. | valign="top" |'''''Working Memory.''''' Memory taxation reduces vividness and emotional intensity. |- | valign="top" |'''Engagement''' | valign="top" |'''''Attrition.''''' High dropout rates 16-48%. | valign="top" |'''''Acceptability.''''' Attractive. Dropout rates 7-20%. | valign="top" |'''''Sustained Motivation.''''' Presence and safety in immersive environment. |} {{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Quiz}} <quiz display=simple> {Which of the following is an expected outcome of immersive therapy ? |type="()"} - Patients are at risk because of an uncontrolled environment. - The environments represent traditional face-to-face treatments. - Failure and dropout rates are higher than traditional PTSD treatment. + Patients often broaden and build an upward spiral of emotion and optimism. </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} === Applied example: 3MDR treatment in Ukraine === {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''Scenario: Ukraine War: an applied 3MDR example''' Andriy* a volunteer in the Ukrainian Armed Forces is struggling with hyper-vigilance, anxiety, and depression (Kukharuk et al., 2025). Traditional ‘talk’ therapy feels impossible; his mind stays in a constant state of combat readiness, even in a quiet room. In the pre-platform phase of 3MDR, Andriy worked to identify a ‘hotspot’ memory in a photograph. On the treadmill, harnessed and walking beside his therapist, he faces a panoramic screen as personalised warm-up music plays, selected to keep him in touch with his traumatic memory network (Vermetten et al., 2025b). As his hotspot image fills the screen, his therapist asks three questions (Vermetten et al., 2025b): 1. What do you '''SEE''' ? 2. What does it '''TELL''' you? 3. What do you '''FEEL''' in your body NOW? When Andriy identifies a surge of shame, the word '''GUILT''' is displayed as an affective label, and a dual-attention task begins. He tracks an oscillating, numbered ball while he stays with the emotion, taxing his working memory and reducing the intensity of the recalled trauma. [[File:Andriy 3MDR enhanced.gif|center|600x600px]] '''Figure 7.''' Andriy, moves through his 3MDR treatment. By the end of the session, Andriy has walked towards what he used to avoid, creating a mismatch between his expectation of threat and his safety, turning a rigid, stuck memory into a manageable narrative. *''Andriy, a fictional name given to one of 69 Ukrainian veterans who participated in a 2023 randomised controlled trial. Many were demobilised after one year because of mental or neurological injuries'' (Kukharuk et al., 2025). {{RoundBoxBottom}} == What are the costs and limitations of immersive therapies? == PTSD carries a substantial economic burden. An estimated US$232 billion in excess costs in the United States in 2018 and over £40 billion, in the United Kingdom in 2020-21, 92.4% of which was indirect rather than direct clinical cost (Davis et al., 2022; Montgomery-Marks et al., 2025). In Australia, the average annual cost of PTSD per military veteran was estimated at $112,172 in 2025 (Magnusson & Dey, 2025). In addition, individual healthcare costs surge by 142% in the year following a PTSD diagnosis, with comorbidities tripling this effect (Bothe et al., 2020). These figures span several countries and years and should be best read as an indication of scale rather than as directly comparable totals. Immersive therapy’s ability to move from small trials into mainstream PTSD treatment remains limited by methodological [[w:Homogeneity_and_heterogeneity|heterogeneity]], small sample sizes, and a lack of long-term data (Felemban et al., 2026). Practical issues such as [[w:Virtual_reality_sickness|cyber sickness]] or motion sickness can also disrupt participation (Kukharuk et al., 2025). Structural barriers include workforce training and equipment costs. Basic VR systems cost an estimated US$3,500 per provider headset annually, and advanced simulation environments can cost up to US$200,000 (Garrett et al., 2018). Despite this, adoption of immersive therapy is scaling. The [[w:United_States_Department_of_Veterans_Affairs|United States Veterans Affairs]] have expanded VR use from five medical centres in 2017 to over 154 centres and 2,300 staff, with applications now including over 40 documented clinical interventions such as chronic pain and suicide intervention (Bailey et al., 2024). Market analysts estimate the global PTSD-focused VR therapy market was worth US$1.59 billion in 2025, forecast to reach US$5.94 billion by 2032, driven largely by growing mental health awareness and the absence of standard clinical protocols (Stratistics MRC, 2025). These limitations do not undermine the case for immersive therapy, but they show its evidence base and infrastructure are still maturing. Demonstrating rigorously why these therapies work, rather than assuming their novelty accounts for their effects is essential to avoid misallocating resources to unproven interventions and supports a paradigm shift, from a narrow, disease model towards one that values post-traumatic growth and renewed optimism (Trejo et al., 2015; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b; Wiederhold & Wiederhold, 2025). == Conclusion == PTSD traps people in a self-reinforcing cycle of avoidance that blocks the adaptive processing trauma memories need to resolve (see: ''Understanding PTSD and emotions''). Standard trauma-focused therapies require patients to confront exactly what this cycle causes them to avoid, which contributes to high, non-response and dropout rates (see ''Why treatment can be difficult''). Immersive therapies such as VRET and 3MDR address this by using presence, embodied cognition, prediction error and memory reconsolidation to help patients safely approach trauma cues rather than avoid them (see: ''What does the research evidence show''). The technology itself is only a delivery mechanism, it is the psychological processes that drive change. The evidence to date shows meaningful reductions in PTSD symptoms and comparatively low drop-out rates, alongside broader gains in emotional regulation. However, small samples, methodological variation, and a lack of long-term data mean the evidence base is still developing, and cost and infrastructure barriers remain significant (see ''costs and limitations'').{{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} [[File:Nuvola apps kuser.svg|Nuvola apps kuser|left|20px]] ''' Take-home message:''' Immersive therapies do not heal PTSD trauma through technological novelty or digital feedback. Instead, they create a safe, dynamic space that lets individuals confront trauma and reprocess memories into something they can live with. In doing so, people’s lives may once again shift toward value, optimism, and wellness.{{RoundBoxBottom}} == See also == '''Wikiversity''' * [[Motivation and emotion/Textbook/Emotion/Anxiety|Anxiety book chapter]] * [[Evidence-based assessment/Posttraumatic stress disorder (disorder portfolio)|Evidence-based PTSD assessment]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Phobias|Phobias book chapter]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Sense hacking|Sense hacking book chapter]] '''Wikipedia''' * [[w:Affect_labeling|Affective labelling]] * [[Augmented Reality|Augmented reality]] * [[w:Brain-derived_neurotrophic_factor|Brain-derived neurotrophic factor]] * [[w:Broaden-and-build|Broaden-and-build theory]] * [[w:Clinician_Administered_PTSD_Scale|Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale]] * [[w:Cognitive_processing_therapy|Cognitive processing therapy]] * [[w:Virtual_reality_sickness|Cyber sickness]] * [[w:DSM-5|DSM-5]] * [[w:Emotional_dysregulation|Emotional dysregulation]] * [[w:Extended_reality|Extended reality]] * [[w:Malleability_of_intelligence|Malleability of intelligence]] * [[w:Memory_consolidation|Memory reconsolidation]] * [[w:Mixed_reality_game|Mixed reality]] * [[w:Post-traumatic_stress_disorder|Post-traumatic stress disorder]] * [[w:Prolonged_exposure_therapy|Prolonged exposure therapy]] * [[wikipedia:Transdiagnostic_process|Transdiagnostic]] [[w:Emotional_dysregulation|emotion dysregulation]] * [[w:United_States_Department_of_Veterans_Affairs|United States Department of Veterans Affairs]] * [[University of Canberra]] * [[wikipedia:Virtual_reality_therapy|Virtual reality exposure therapy]] == References == {{Hanging indent|Bailey, A. L., Kirsh, S., Rawlins, C., Persky, S., & Clancy, C. (2024). Early scaling of immersive technology within the Veterans Health Administration. ''NEJM Catalyst Innovations in Care Delivery'', 5(4). https://doi.org/10.1056/cat.23.0356 Boska, R. L., Bishop, T. M., Capron, D. W., Paxton Willing, M. M., & Ashrafioun, L. (2025). Difficulties with emotion regulation within PTSD clusters and moral injury subtypes. ''Military Psychology'', 37(2), 159-167. https://doi.org/10.1080/08995605.2024.2322904 de Haart, R., Daniels, J. K., Timmerman, M. E., Cath, D. C., & Lommen, M. J. J. (2026). Augmenting virtual reality exposure for PTSD with physical activity: Study protocol of a randomised controlled trial. ''European'' ''Journal of Psychotraumatology'', 17(1), 2605803. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008066.2025.2605803 Efremov, A. (2025). Age-specific mental health profiles of combat veterans: Post-traumatic stress disorder and related disorders. ''Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive-Behavior Therapy'', 44(4), 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10942-025-00637-7 Elklit, A., & Dahl, N. H. (2025). Emotion regulation difficulties, aggression, and PTSD symptoms in Danish treatment-seeking veterans. ''Scandinavian Journal of Military Studies'', 8(1), 308-326. https://doi.org/10.31374/sjms.264 Felemban, R. G., Alzahrani, R. R., Alrefaei, N. F., Alharbi, N. M., Alghamdi, A. S., & Alqadi, S. (2026). Efficacy of virtual reality-based exposure therapy for post-traumatic stress disorder in military veterans: A systematic review and meta-analysis. ''Frontiers in Psychiatry'', 17, 1857109. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1857109 Fredrickson, B. L. (2001). The role of positive emotions in positive psychology: The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. ''American Psychologist'', 56(3), 218-226. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.56.3.218 Garrett, B., Taverner, T., Gromala, D., Tao, G., Cordingley, E., & Sun, C. (2018). Virtual reality clinical research: Promises and challenges. ''JMIR Serious Games'', 6(4), e10839. https://doi.org/10.2196/10839 Kukharuk, O., Tkalich, K., Kamash, N., & Georgiou, O. (2025). Effectiveness of immersive VR therapy in reducing stress-associated symptoms in Ukraine. ''European Journal of Psychotraumatology'', 16(1), 2488097. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008066.2025.2488097 Lewis, C., Roberts, N. P., Andrew, M., Starling, E., & Bisson, J. I. (2020). Psychological therapies for post-traumatic stress disorder in adults: Systematic review and meta-analysis. ''European Journal of Psychotraumatology'', 11(1), 1729633. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2020.1729633 Lopes, M. K. S., Perreault, L., de Jesus, B. Jr., Roberge, M. C., & Falk, T. H. (2025). Subjective and objective evaluation of the benefits of multisensory virtual nature immersion for patients with post-traumatic stress disorder. In ''Proceedings of the 17th International Conference on Quality of Multimedia Experience'' (QoMEX) (pp.1-5). IEEE. https://doi.org/10.1109/QoMEX65720.2025.11219945 López-Ojeda, W., & Hurley, R. A. (2022). Extended reality technologies: Expanding therapeutic approaches for PTSD. ''The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences'', 34(1), 1-5. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.neuropsych.21100244 Macey, A.-L., Macey, J., & Hamari, J. (2026). Emotion regulation in immersive virtual reality environments: A scoping review. ''Interacting with Computers'', 29, 1-20. https://doi.org/10.1093/iwc/iwag029 Niles, B., Lang, A., & Olff, M. (2023). Complementary and integrative interventions for PTSD. ''European Journal of Psychotraumatology'', 14(2), 2247888. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008066.2023.2247888 Osman, A., Paczynski, M., & Jha, A. P. (2016). Affective expectations influence neural responses to stressful images in soldiers. ''Military Psychology'', 29(1), 41-57. https://doi.org/10.1037/mil0000128 Selvakumaran, R. V. (2025). Developing virtual reality (VR) simulations with embedded user analytics for cognitive rehabilitation in PTSD veterans. In ''Proceedings of the 27th International Conference on Multimodal Interaction'' (pp. 740-744). ACM. https://doi.org/10.1145/3716553.3750826 Stratistics MRC. (2025). ''Virtual reality therapy for PTSD market forecasts to 2032: Global analysis by component (hardware, software and service), therapy type, application, end user and by geography.'' https://www.strategymrc.com/report/virtual-reality-therapy-for-ptsd-market Trejo, B. C., Richard, E. M., van Driel, M., & McDonald, D. P. (2015). Cross-cultural competence: The role of emotion regulation ability and optimism. ''Military Psychology'', 27(5), 276-286. https://doi.org/10.1037/mil0000081 van Gelderen, M. J., Nijdam, M. J., & Vermetten, E. (2018). An innovative framework for delivering psychotherapy to patients with treatment-resistant posttraumatic stress disorder: Rationale for interactive motion-assisted therapy. ''Frontiers in Psychiatry'', 9, 176. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00176 van Toorenburg, M. M., Sanches, S. A., Linders, B., Rozendaal, L., Voorendonk, E. M., Van Minnen, A., & De Jongh, A. (2020). Do emotion regulation difficulties affect outcome of intensive trauma-focused treatment of patients with severe PTSD? ''European Journal of Psychotraumatology'', 11(1), 1724417. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2020.1724417 Vermetten, E., Barcaro, S., Espejo, E., Bellini, P., Roy, M. J., & Bremault-Phillips, S. (2025a). Linguistic analysis of patients’ labels during 3MDR psychotherapy. ''Psychiatry and Clinical Psychopharmacology'', 35(Suppl. 1), S29. https://doi.org/10.5152/pcp.2025.241024 Vermetten, E., Burback, L., Sevigny, P. R., Nijdam, M. J., Winkler, O., Espejo, E., Sessoms, P., Bright, K., Roy, M. J., & Brémault-Phillips, S. (2025b). Brief manual for multi-modal motion-assisted memory desensitization and reconsolidation therapy for the treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder. ''Psychiatry and Clinical Psychopharmacology'', 35(Suppl. 1), S122. https://doi.org/10.5152/pcp.2025.241028 Westphal, M., Aldao, A., & Jackson, C. (2017). Emotion dysregulation in comorbid posttraumatic stress disorder and substance use disorders: A narrative review. ''Military Psychology'', 29(3), 216-233. https://doi.org/10.1037/mil0000157 Wiederhold, B. K., & Wiederhold, M. D. (2025). Virtual reality therapy combined with physiological monitoring provides effective treatment, with objective metrics, for post-traumatic stress disorder. ''Expert Review of Medical Devices'', 22(2), 117-119. https://doi.org/10.1080/17434440.2025.2454930 }} == External links == * '''Web:''' [https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/post-traumatic-stress-disorder-ptsd Post traumatic stress disorder] (Australian Government) * '''Web:''' [https://www.ptsd.va.gov/index.asp National Center for PTSD information home page] (US Government) * '''Web:''' [https://www.innovation.va.gov/hil/views/immersive/immersive-programs.html US Veterans Affairs Immersive Programs Innov]<nowiki/>[https://www.innovation.va.gov/hil/views/immersive/immersive-programs.html ation] (US Government) * '''Web:''' [https://defenceveteransuicide.royalcommission.gov.au/publications/final-report Australian Royal Commission into Defence and Veteran Suicide - Final Repor]<nowiki/>[https://defenceveteransuicide.royalcommission.gov.au/publications/final-report t] (Australian Government) * '''Podcast:''' [https://shows.acast.com/5c3353e484e2e79370e1d135/5c3353ef84e2e79370e1d13c PTSD Podcast] (Peace of Mind: Mental Health and Psychiatry, ACAST, 43 min) * '''Video:''' [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bD43R_oa6qo 3MDR: Virtual reality treatment for veterans] (National Centre for Mental Health,Youtube, 2:46 min) * '''Video:''' [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jL2bKmniMTc VR exposure for combat PTSD] (PsyTech VR, Youtube, 2:20 min) * '''Final Report:''' [https://www.ncmh.info/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/Cardiff-3MDR-Study-Final-Report-with-cover-21.5.20.pdf 3MDR randomised control trial - Final-Report] (Cardiff University) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Psychotherapy]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Trauma]] euknyfyvgk53sl4kowstgspszpbmcm2 0 331099 2832791 2831404 2026-09-11T10:10:07Z Jtneill 10242 Copyediting 2832791 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Emotion dysregulation:<br>What is emotion dysregulation, what are its consequences, and how can it be managed?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} [[File:Burnout At Work - Occupational Burnout.jpg|Burnout_At_Work_-_Occupational_Burnout|150px|right|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' Taylor feels frustrated after the submissions portal froze at a critical moment.]] '''Scenario''' Taylor is trying to upload an assignment for his statistics class last minute but the submissions portal freezes exactly as he presses “submit”. He watches the cursor’s loading icon spin again and again, likely because the portal is overwhelmed by other last minute submissions. Though Taylor still has 15 minutes before the deadline, he finds himself continuing to aggressively spam click the laptop trackpad and becoming consumed by a feeling of frustration. Taylor can feel his heart rate increase, jaw tighten and leg shake beneath the desk. Then the trackpad becomes unresponsive. Taylor shoves his laptop aside and drops his head onto the table, angrily questioning why nothing ever seems to go his way (see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} From moments of [[wikipedia:Happiness|happiness]] and excitement to [[wikipedia:Sadness|sadness]] or irritation, [[w:emotions|emotions]] are an integral aspect of being human, and it is expected that these emotions fluctuate as we navigate the complexity of our everyday lives. Emotions are neither ‘good’ nor ‘bad’, rather emotions have a specific [[wikipedia:Evolution|evolutionary]] purpose that has helped us survive, adapt and interact with others (Šimić et al., 2021). Nonetheless, there are times in which strong and overwhelming emotions can impair our daily functioning. This is called [[wikipedia:Emotional_dysregulation|emotion dysregulation]]. Emotion dysregulation can be simply defined as the difficulty to cope with intense emotions, to the extent that an individual is unable to implement adaptive [[wikipedia:Coping|coping strategies]] (Gross & Thompson, 2007, as cited in Aslan et al., 2024). Consequently, individuals may struggle with abrupt changes in [[wikipedia:Mood_(psychology)|mood]], [[wikipedia:Impulsivity|impulsive behaviour]] and emotional responses out of proportion to the situation (''reference''). Research has indicated that frequent experiences of emotion dysregulation can negatively affect our [[wikipedia:Well-being|well-being]] and may be a risk factor for the development and maintenance of [[w:Mental_health_disorders|mental health disorders]] (Beauchaine & Cicchetti, 2019; Aslan et al., 2024). Taylor’s disproportionate [[wikipedia:Anger|anger]] response, in the scenario above, conveys a moment of emotion dysregulation. His escalating [[wikipedia:Frustration|frustration]] led to impulsive actions that can be considered excessive relative to the situation. This chapter will investigate how psychological science offers [[wikipedia:Empirical_research|empirical frameworks]] to guide our understanding of emotion dysregulation, its consequences and strategies we can use to facilitate [[w:Emotional_self-regulation|emotion regulation]]. Through understanding these concepts, we can be better prepared to identify and respond to emotion dysregulation in adaptive ways. '''(''Author note:'' will reword the last paragraph, and find missing reference in paragraph two).''' {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''Focus questions''' {{ic|Use bullet points as shown in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]}} 1. How can emotion dysregulation be understood? 2. How can psychological models help explain experiences of emotion dysregulation? 3. How does emotion dysregulation impact daily functioning? 4. What is the association between emotion dysregulation and psychological disorders? 5. What approaches can help manage emotion dysregulation? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Understanding emotion dysregulation == * Emotions can be described as complex and dynamic psychological states that integrate subjective experiences, physiological responses and behavioural responses (Hockenbury & Hockenbury, 2007 as cited in D’Agostino et al., 2017). * Emotion regulation is the ability to understand and cope with the onset, intensity and expression of these emotional states (Grecucci et al., 2020). ** Aldao and colleagues (2010) conceptualised emotion regulation as the “processes through which individuals modulate their emotions consciously and subconsciously to respond to environmental demands”. * Individuals usually develop more effective emotion regulation strategies with age (Kaufman et al., 2026). Nonetheless, impairments in emotion regulation are observed at all stages of development (Kaufman et al., 2026). So, what happens when we cannot regulate our emotions? * Despite the term being incorporated into vernacular, there is still much conceptual ambiguity surrounding the definition of emotion dysregulation due to its complexity. D’Agostino and colleagues (2017) identified five overlapping dimensions of emotion dysregulation that appear across research; reduced emotional awareness, decreased emotional reactivity, intense experiences and expression of emotion, emotional rigidity, and impaired cognitive reappraisals. * Comparatively, Beauchaine (2015, p.876) posits that emotion dysregulation constitutes “a pattern of emotional experience and/or expression that interferes with appropriate goal-directed behavior”. * These conceptualisations of emotion dysregulation emphasise deficits in emotion recognition, inability to inhibit impulsive emotional reactions, and the subsequent challenge to respond in ways that support goal attainment.   * Alongside its impact on general well-being, pervasive emotion dysregulation is considered an important factor in the development and maintenance of psychological disorders (Yalvaç & Gaynor, 2021; Beauchaine & Dante Cicchetti, 2019). (''Author note:'' will include another section on outlining the core features/signs of emotion dysregulation. May delve into the different maladaptive strategies characteristic of emotion dysregulation. Then will include a sentence on using psychological frameworks to help our understanding.) === Gross's extended process model (EPM) of emotion regulation === * Gross’s [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Extended process model of emotion regulation|extended process model of emotion regulation]] is grounded in appraisal theory, positing that emotions emerge from the cognitive evaluations individuals make in response to events (Grecucci et al., 2020). This model emphasises a process-orientated framework for emotion [dys]regulation (Gross, 2015). * Gross (2015) defines emotion regulation as “a particular type of interaction between valuation systems”. * Gross (2015) proposes three distinct stages of emotion regulation; identification, selection and implementation. Emotion dysregulation may occur at any of these stages. * Sheppes et al. (2015): ** Identification-stage failures: difficulty reading emotional cues, leading to challenges initiating emotion regulation strategies and/or overidentification of emotions. ** Selection-stage failures: difficulties selecting an appropriate regulation strategy and/or a lack of access to adaptive strategies. ** Implementation-stage failures: impaired ability to carry-out a selected regulation strategy. * Comment on the limitations of this model. ** e.g., focus on emotion regulation rather than emotion dysregulation? === Linehan's biosocial model === * Linehan’s (1993) biosocial model proposes that emotion dysregulation constitutes the dynamic interactions between an individual’s biological emotional vulnerability and an invalidating environment during development. This model was initially developed within the context of [[wikipedia:Borderline_personality_disorder|Borderline Personality Disorder]].[[File:DBT Biosocial model.png|thumb|304x304px|'''Figure 2.''' Linehan's (1993) biosocial model of emotion dysregulation. ]] * Emotional vulnerability refers to the genetic predisposition toward emotional hypersensitivity, hyperreactivity and long-lasting emotional reactions (Bemmouna & Weiner, 2023). The [[wikipedia:Prefrontal_cortex|prefrontal cortex]] and [[wikipedia:Amygdala|amygdala]] are brain regions often implicated in the genetic disruption of emotional processing, contributing to increased emotional vulnerability (Bemmouna & Weiner, 2023). * Invalidating environments are characterised as insufficient environmental responses to a child’s emotional needs, thereby the child does not learn to understand, recognise or appropriately react to emotional responses (Cronwell et al., 2009). * Linehan (1993) argues that an individual is more likely to develop pervasive emotion dysregulation if they have an emotionally sensitive temperament and receive persistent invalidating responses. Individuals may feel compelled to escalate their emotional reactions to communicate their unmet needs (Linehan, 1993). * Linehan (1993) suggests that emotion dysregulation will lead to maladaptive response patterns when individuals are faced with challenging experiences. * Comment on the limitations of this model (e.g., developed based on BPD?) === Gratz and Roemer's multidimensional model of emotion regulation === * Gratz and Roemer’s (2004) multidimensional model of emotion regulation aimed to provide a comprehensive and integrative approach to the conceptualisation and measurement of emotion regulation. * Using on this model, Gratz and Roemer (2004) developed the Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale (DERS) to assess emotion dysregulation. Based on the results, Gratz and Roemer (2004) conceptualised six core dimensions that characterise emotion dysregulation; *# lack of awareness of emotions *# lack of clarity of emotions *# nonacceptance of emotional responses *# inability to access regulation strategies *# difficulties controlling impulsive behaviour when experiencing negative emotions *# inability to engage in goal directed behaviour when experiencing negative emotions * DERS is an empirically validated psychological assessment tool used to assess emotion dysregulation among adolescents and adults (Kaufman et al., 2026). In 2026, Kaufman and colleagues developed a short form version called DERS-SF. {{robelbox|theme=3|title=Let's do a quick knowledge check!|icon=Paomedia small-n-flat light-bulb.svg|iconwidth=68px}}<div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> <quiz display=simple header=none> {Which model links emotion dysregulation to emotional vulnerability and invalidating environments? | type="(+)"} - Gross’s extended process model + Linehan’s biosocial model - Gratz and Roemer’s multidimensional model {Which model defines emotion dysregulation as “a particular type of interaction between valuation systems"? | type="(+)"} - Linehan’s biosocial model - Gratz and Roemer’s multidimensional model + Gross’s extended process model {Which model aimed to develop an approach to conceptualise and measure emotion dysregulation? | type="(+)"} + Gratz and Roemer’s multidimensional model - Gross’s extended process model - Linehan’s biosocial model } </quiz> </div> {{Robelbox/close}} ==Impact of emotion dysregulation on daily functioning== *Describe/argue how emotion dysregulation impacts individuals daily functioning – making sure to define daily functioning and why this could be problematic to overall well-being. **Tani and colleagues (2015) identified that increased levels of emotion dysregulation were associated with lower satisfaction in couples’ relationship quality. **Those that struggle to modulate their emotional responses often experience prolonged and more severe periods of distress (Boemo et al., 2022). **Samea and colleagues (2025) performed a meta-analysis on the relationship between emotion dysregulation and sleep deprivation. *Emphasise that emotion dysregulation negatively impacts multiple domains of daily functioning (decision-making, stress-responses, quality of life, etc.) – therefore addressing the importance of addressing emotion dysregulation. (''Author note:'' should this section be expanded using subheadings? For example, interpersonal conflict, impaired academic/occupational performance, and impact on general health/well-being. Need to make sure enough literature is available with non-clinical populations - or maybe I can include research from clinical populations?) ==Association between psychological disorders and emotion dysregulation== *Alongside its impact on everyday functioning, emotion dysregulation is increasingly recognised as a transdiagnostic factor in the development and maintenance of psychological disorders (Yalvaç & Gaynor, 2021; Beauchaine & Cicchetti, 2019). *Transdiagnostic factors refer to underlying risk, maintenance or protective factors that are implicated across a diverse range psychological disorders, transcending diagnostic categories (Dalgeish et al., 2020). *Beauchaine and Cicchetti (2019) observed that emotion dysregulation has been associated with [[wikipedia:Internalizing_disorder|internalizing disorders]], [[wikipedia:Externalizing_disorder|externalizing disorders]], [[wikipedia:Personality_disorder|personality disorders]] and [[wikipedia:Psychosis|psychotic disorders]]. Further, impairments in top-down processing of emotional reactivity are evident across many psychological disorders (Beauchaine & Cicchetti, 2019). *Emotion dysregulation in children and adolescents may be a predisposing factor to the emergence of psychological disorders in adulthood (Cole et al. 2017). === Emotion dysregulation in borderline personality disorder (BPD) === * Borderline personality disorder (BPD) is a psychological disorder defined by an enduring pattern of emotion dysregulation, impaired interpersonal functioning and an unstable sense of self (Bohus et al., 2021). * Refer back to Linehan’s (1993) biosocial model ---> developed for BPD. ** According to Linehan (1933), emotion dysregulation is a core feature of borderline personality disorder, accounting for most of its symptomology. * Borderline personality disorder is associated with low emotional awareness, persistent [[wikipedia:Negative_affectivity|negative affect]] and the use of ineffective strategies to regulate emotions (Fitzpatrick et al., 2023). * Among those with borderline personality disorder, impulsivity and dysfunctional behaviour is associated with experiences of increased emotional distress (Bohus et al., 2021).   (''Author note:'' will expand upon the role of emotion dysregulation as the driving factor of BPD symptomology (e.g., risk or maintaining factor) and touch on how individuals with BPD use strategies that elicit short-term relief but perpetuate difficulties over time.) === Emotion dysregulation in bipolar disorder (BD) === * [[wikipedia:Bipolar_disorder|Bipolar disorder]] is a psychological disorder associated with extreme changes in mood, energy and activity levels (Singh et al., 2025). Bipolar disorder is defined by recurrent episodes of [[wikipedia:Mania|mania]] or [[wikipedia:Hypomania|hypomania]] and [[wikipedia:Depression_(mood)|depression]] (Singh et al., 2025). * Difficulties in emotion regulation are correlated with depressive and (hypo)manic episodes (Oliva et al., 2023). * Those with bipolar disorder exhibit a reduced capacity to recognise and accept their emotions during both acute (hypo)manic and depressive episodes (Oliva et al., 2023). * M’Bailara and colleagues (2009) found that even during [[wikipedia:Euthymia_(medicine)|euthymia]], participants with bipolar disorder experienced greater emotional reactivity and emotional intensity than control participants. This suggests that emotion dysregulation persists beyond acute symptoms and may account for the increased vulnerability to minor stressful events observed among those with bipolar (M’Bailara et al., 2009). (''Author note:'' will expand upon the role of emotion dysregulation in BD symptomology (e.g., risk or maintaining factor) and touch on how individuals with BD use maladaptive emotion regulation strategies. Additionally, will look for a more recent study on euthymia and emotion dysregulation). === Emotion dysregulation in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) === * [[wikipedia:Attention_deficit_hyperactivity_disorder|Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder]] (ADHD) is [[wikipedia:Neurodevelopmental_disorder|neurodevelopmental disorder]] defined by persistent patterns of inattention, hyperactivity and impulsivity (Bodalski et al., 2019). * Emerging research has indicated that emotion regulation difficulties in ADHD cannot be explained fully by the presence of [[wikipedia:Comorbidity|comorbid]] disorders, rather emotion dysregulation itself may be a distinct feature of ADHD (Bodalski et al., 2019). * In 2014, Bunford and colleagues found that emotion dysregulation predicted social impairments among adolescents with ADHD, particularly emotional excitability, impulsivity and prolonged emotional responses. * Barkley (1997) proposed the executive functioning theory of ADHD, arguing that ADHD can be attributed to impairments in the behavioural inhibition processes that govern self-regulation and goal-directed behaviour. ** Disruptions in emotional inhibition processes are among the executive functions implicated in ADHD, contributing to emotion dysregulation (Mitchell et al., 2012). (''Author note:'' will expand upon the role of emotion dysregulation in ADHD and touch on how individuals with ADHD use maladaptive emotion regulation strategies. Additionally, will give examples on how emotion dysregulation presents in ADHD). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}'''Scenario: Emotional dysregulation in ADHD''' {{em|(Author note: will incorporate a scenario (and figure) to explain the role of emotion dysregulation in ADHD.)}}{{RoundBoxBottom}} == Approaches to managing emotion dysregulation == *Research indicates that emotion regulation is a learned skill that develops with practice over the lifespan (Wright et al., 2025). **[[File:Practicing mindfulness promotes creativity.png|thumb|180x180px|'''Figure 3.''' Emotion regulation skills promote general well-being. ]]Individuals emotion regulation capabilities are shaped through learning processes, including parental modelling and [[wikipedia:Co-regulation|co-regulation]] during childhood (Wright et al., 2025) * [[wikipedia:Psychotherapy|Psychotherapy]] interventions or management strategies that build emotion regulation skills are integral to reducing emotion dysregulation and maladaptive strategies among those with psychological disorders. * Outside of professional support, there are a range of practical everyday strategies that can assist in reducing emotion dysregulation and promoting general well-being (see Figure 3).   === Dialectical behaviour therapy (DBT) approaches to emotion dysregulation === * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Dialectical behaviour therapy and emotion regulation|Dialectical behaviour therapy (DBT)]] emerged as a psychological treatment approach rooted in behaviourism to address self-harm behaviours in borderline personality disorder (Linehan & Wilks, 2015). * DBT focuses on developing practical skills across the four modules of [[wikipedia:Mindfulness|mindfulness]], interpersonal effectiveness, emotional regulation and distress tolerance (Linehan & Wilks, 2015). * Abundant empirical research found that DBT was clinically relevant in reducing emotion dysregulation and maladaptive coping strategies among those with borderline personality disorder (Lenz et al., 2016). ** Emotional regulation is considered a key mechanism of change in DBT outcomes (Lenz et al., 2016). * DBT has broader clinical applications – will incorporate research on DBT’s effectiveness across other psychological disorders in which emotion dysregulation is a key component. * Comment on how DBT relates to/addresses to both Linehan’s biosocial model and Gross’s extended process model. (''Author note'': will further expand upon the emotion dysregulation skills-training involved in DBT and further emphasis will be placed on evidence from literature.) === Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) approaches to emotion dysregulation === * [[File:Beck's CognitiveTriad.png|thumb|279x279px|'''Figure 4.''' Representation of Beck's (1976) cognitive triad. ]][[wikipedia:Cognitive_behavioral_therapy|Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT)]] is grounded on the premise that thoughts, behaviours and emotions are intrinsically intertwined (Preece & Gross, 2026). *Cognitive reappraisal is an important technique used in CBT to regulate emotions (Wang & Yin, 2023). *Preece and Gross (2026) posit that CBT should be understood through the lens of emotion regulation. *Compare/link back to Gross's (2015) extended process model of emotion regulation and reference Beck’s (1976) cognitive triad (see Figure 4). ''(Author note: the cognitive triangle might be more relevant than the cognitive triad here).'' === Physiological approaches to managing emotion dysregulation === * Briefly cover emotion regulation through exercise – include research on how exercise can reduce emotion dysregulation through physiological mechanisms. ** Thayer and Lane (2000) posited the neurovisceral integration model to account for the observed relationship between physiological feedback circuits and affective systems. * Briefly cover [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Guided meditation and emotion regulation|emotion regulation through meditation]]/mindfulness - technique used to elicit the relaxation response which facilitates emotion regulation through physiological mechanisms. ** Benson and colleagues (1974) relaxation response theory. ** Emphasise the accessibility of meditation/mindfulness. ==Conclusion== * Summarise emotion dysregulation, including its core features, conceptualisation as multidimensional construct and how psychological models can guide our understanding (despite diverse approaches/definitions). * Emphasise the influence and impact of emotion dysregulation on our day-to-day lives. Comment on the effect of emotion dysregulation on our well-being. * Restate how increasing evidence highlights emotion dysregulation as a transdiagnostic factor across many psychological disorders, thereby emotion dysregulation has important clinical applications in the treatment of these disorders. * Provide a practical summary of the strategies that can reduce dysregulation. Aim to encourage the reader to try implement these strategies themselves to improve emotion self-regulation skills. ** Comment again on the importance of emotion regulation skills, particularly when confronted with challenging or distressing situations (leads to overall healthier behaviours and well-being). ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/ADHD and emotional regulation|ADHD and emotional regulation]] (Book chapter, 2024) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Cognitive strategies and emotion regulation|Cognitive strategies and emotion regulation]] (Book chapter, 2025) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Dialectical behaviour therapy and emotion regulation|Dialectical behaviour therapy and emotion regulation]] (Book chapter, 2025) * [[w:Emotional_self-regulation|Emotional self-regulation]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Extended process model of emotion regulation|Extended process model of emotion regulation]] (Book chapter, 2026) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Social media and emotional dysregulation|Social media and emotional dysregulation]] (Book chapter, 2025) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Aldao, A., Nolen-Hoeksema, S., & Schweizer, S. (2010). Emotion-regulation strategies across psychopathology: A meta-analytic review. {{em|Clinical psychology review, 30}}(2), 217–237. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2009.11.004 Aslan, I. H., Dorey, L., Grant, J. E., & Chamberlain, S. R. (2024). Emotion regulation across psychiatric disorders. {{em|CNS spectrums, 29}}(3), 215–220. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1092852924000270 Barkley, R. A. (1997). Behavioral inhibition, sustained attention, and executive functions: Constructing a unifying theory of ADHD. {{em|Psychological Bulletin, 121}}(1), 65–94. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.121.1.65 Beauchaine, T. P. (2015). Future directions in emotion dysregulation and youth psychopathology. {{em|Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 44}}(5), 875–896. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2015.1038827 Beauchaine, T. P., & Cicchetti, D. (2019). Emotion dysregulation and emerging psychopathology: A transdiagnostic, transdisciplinary perspective. {{em|Development and Psychopathology, 31}}, 799–804. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579419000671 Beck, A. T. (1976). {{em|Cognitive therapy and the emotional disorders}}. International Universities Press. Bemmouna, D., & Weiner, L. (2023). Linehan's biosocial model applied to emotion dysregulation in autism: A narrative review of the literature and an illustrative case conceptualization. {{em|Frontiers in psychiatry, 14}}, Article 1238116. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1238116 Benson, H., Beary, J. F., & Carol, M. P. (1974). The relaxation response. {{em|Psychiatry, 37}}(1), 37–46. https://doi.org/10.1080/00332747.1974.11023785 Bodalski, E. A., Knouse, L. E., & Kovalev, D. (2019). 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Emotion dysregulation is associated with social impairment among young adolescents with ADHD. {{em|Journal of Attention Disorders, 22}}(1), 66–82. https://doi.org/10.1177/1087054714527793 Cole, P. M., Hall, S. E., & Hajal, N. J. (2017). Emotion dysregulation as a vulnerability to psychopathology. In T. P. Beauchaine and S. P. Hinshaw (Eds), {{em|Child and adolescent psychopathology}}, (3rd ed., 346-386). Wiley & Sons. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781394258932.ch11 D’Agostino, A., Covanti, S., Rossi Monti, M., & Starcevic, V. (2017). Reconsidering emotion dysregulation. {{em|Psychiatric Quarterly, 88}}, 807-825. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11126-017-9499-6 Dalgleish, T., Black, M., Johnston, D., & Bevan, A. (2020). Transdiagnostic approaches to mental health problems: Current status and future directions. {{em|Journal of consulting and clinical psychology, 88}}(3), 179–195. https://doi.org/10.1037/ccp0000482 Fitzpatrick, S., Dixon-Gordon, K.L., Turner, C.J., Chen, S. X., & Chapman, A. (2023). Emotion dysregulation in personality disorders. {{em|Current Psychiatry Reports, 24}}, 223–231. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-023-01418-8 Gratz, K. L., & Roemer, L. (2004). Multidimensional assessment of emotion regulation and dysregulation: Development, factor structure, and initial validation of the difficulties in emotion regulation scale. {{em|Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 26}}, 41–54. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:JOBA.0000007455.08539.94 Grecucci, A., Messina, I., Amodeo, L., Lapomarda, G., Crescentini, C., Dadomo, H., Panzeri, M., Theuninck, A., & Frederickson, J. (2020). A dual route model for regulating emotions: Comparing models, techniques and biological mechanisms. {{em|Frontiers in Psychology, 11}}, Article 930. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00930 Gross, J. J. (2015) The extended process model of emotion regulation: Elaborations, applications, and future directions. {{em|Psychological Inquiry, 26}}(1), 130-137. https://doi.org/10.1080/1047840X.2015.989751 Kaufman, E. A., Xia, M., Fosco, G., Yaptangco, M., Skidmore, C. R., & Crowell, S. E. (2016). The difficulties in emotion regulation scale short form (DERS-SF): Validation and replication in adolescent and adult samples. {{em|Journal of psychopathology and behavioral assessment, 38}}(3), 443–455. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10862-015-9529-3 Lenz, A. S., Del Conte, G., Hollenbaugh, K. M., & Callendar, K. (2016). Emotional regulation and interpersonal effectiveness as mechanisms of change for treatment outcomes within a DBT program for adolescents. {{em|Counseling Outcome Research and Evaluation, 7}}(2), 73–85. https://doi.org/10.1177/2150137816642439 Linehan, M. M. (1993). {{em|Cognitive-behavioral treatment of borderline personality disorder}}. Guilford Press. Linehan, M. M., & Wilks, C. R. (2015). The course and evolution of dialectical behavior therapy. {{em|The American Journal of Psychotherapy, 69}}(2), 97-110. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.psychotherapy.2015.69.2.97 M’Bailara, K., Demotes-Mainard, J., Swendsen, J., Mathieu, F., Leboyer, M., & Henry, C. (2009). Emotional hyper-reactivity in normothymic bipolar patients. {{em|Bipolar Disorders, 11}}(1), 63-69. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1399-5618.2008.00656.x Mitchell, J. T., Robertson, C. D., Anastopolous, A. D., Nelson-Gray, R. O., & Kollins, S. H. (2012). Emotion dysregulation and emotional impulsivity among adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: Results of a preliminary study. {{em|Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 34}}(4), 510–519. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10862-012-9297-2 Oliva, V., De Prisco, M., Fico, G., Possidente, C., Fortea, L., Montejo, L., Anmella, G., Hidalgo-Mazzei, D., Grande, I., Murru, A., Fornaro, M., de Bartolomeis, A., Dodd, A., Fanelli, G., Fabbri, C., Serretti, A., Vieta, E., & Radua, J. (2023). Correlation between emotion dysregulation and mood symptoms of bipolar disorder: A systematic review and meta-analysis. {{em|Acta psychiatrica Scandinavica, 148}}(6), 472–490. https://doi.org/10.1111/acps.1361 Preece, D. A., & Gross, J. J. (2026). Cognitive behavior therapy: An emotion regulation perspective. {{em|Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice}}. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1037/cps0000327 Samea, F., Mortazavi, N., Reimann, G. M., Ebneabbasi, A., Zarei, M., Khazaie, H., Goldstein-Piekarski, A. N., Spiegelhalder, K., Baglioni, C., Sepehry, A. A., & Tahmasian, M. (2025). Insomnia and emotion dysregulation: A meta-analytical perspective integrating regulatory strategies and dispositional difficulties. {{em|Sleep medicine reviews, 82}}, Article 102111. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smrv.2025.102111 Sheppes, G., Suri, G., & Gross, J. J. (2015). Emotion regulation and psychopathology. {{em|Annual review of clinical psychology, 11}}, 379–405. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-032814-112739 Šimić, G., Tkalčić, M., Vukić, V., Mulc, D., Španić, E., Šagud, M., Olucha-Bordonau, F. E., Vukšić, M., & Hof, P. R. (2021). Understanding emotions: Origins and roles of the amygdala. {{em|Biomolecules, 11}}(6), Article 823. https://doi.org/10.3390/biom11060823 Singh, B., Swartz, H. A., Cuellar-Barboza, A. B., Schaffer, A., Kato, T., Dols, A., Sperry, S. H., Vassilev, A. B., Burdick, K. E., & Frye, M. A. (2025). Bipolar disorder. {{em|The Lancet, 406}}(10506), 963–978. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(25)01140-7 Tani, F., Pascuzzi, D., & Raffagnino, R. (2015). Emotion regulation and quality of close relationship: The effects of emotion dysregulation processes on couple intimacy. {{em|Applied Psychology Bulletin, 272}}(63), 3–15. Thayer, J. F., & Lane, R. D. (2000). A model of neurovisceral integration in emotion regulation and dysregulation. {{em|Journal of Affective Disorders, 61}}(3), 201-216. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0165-0327(00)00338-4. Wang, Y. X., & Yin, B. (2023). A new understanding of the cognitive reappraisal technique: an extension based on the schema theory. {{em|Frontiers in behavioral neuroscience, 17}}, Article 1174585. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnbeh.2023.1174585 Wright. R. N., Adock, R. A., & LaBar, K. S. (2025). Learning emotion regulation: An integrative framework. {{em|The Psychological Review, 132}}(1), 172-203. https://doi.org/10.1037/rev0000506 Yalvaç, E. B. K., & Gaynor, K. (2021). Emotional dysregulation in adults: The influence of rumination and negative secondary appraisals of emotion. {{em|Journal of Affective Disorders, 282}}, 656-661. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2020.12.194 }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== * [https://www.healthline.com/health/how-to-control-your-emotions How To Become The Boss of Your Emotions] (Healthline) * [https://www.ted.com/talks/ted_ed_how_to_manage_your_emotions How to manage your emotions] (TED-Ed) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SWvHZkkrAjc How to Master Your Emotions & Never Get Angry or Bothered by Anyone] (The Mel Robbins Podcast) * [https://www.psychologytoday.com/au/blog/click-here-for-happiness/202108/what-is-emotional-dysregulation What Is Emotional Dysregulation?] (Psychology Today) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotional self-regulation]] 9speswxyj1g4lqsw4pt4coxkvxy4q4w 2832798 2832791 2026-09-11T11:14:53Z U3285438 3103750 /* Overview */ increased image size 2832798 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Emotion dysregulation:<br>What is emotion dysregulation, what are its consequences, and how can it be managed?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} [[File:Burnout At Work - Occupational Burnout.jpg|Burnout_At_Work_-_Occupational_Burnout|250px|right|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' Taylor feels frustrated after the submissions portal froze at a critical moment.]] '''Scenario''' Taylor is trying to upload an assignment for his statistics class last minute but the submissions portal freezes exactly as he presses “submit”. He watches the cursor’s loading icon spin again and again, likely because the portal is overwhelmed by other last minute submissions. Though Taylor still has 15 minutes before the deadline, he finds himself continuing to aggressively spam click the laptop trackpad and becoming consumed by a feeling of frustration. Taylor can feel his heart rate increase, jaw tighten and leg shake beneath the desk. Then the trackpad becomes unresponsive. Taylor shoves his laptop aside and drops his head onto the table, angrily questioning why nothing ever seems to go his way (see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} From moments of [[wikipedia:Happiness|happiness]] and excitement to [[wikipedia:Sadness|sadness]] or irritation, [[w:emotions|emotions]] are an integral aspect of being human, and it is expected that these emotions fluctuate as we navigate the complexity of our everyday lives. Emotions are neither ‘good’ nor ‘bad’, rather emotions have a specific [[wikipedia:Evolution|evolutionary]] purpose that has helped us survive, adapt and interact with others (Šimić et al., 2021). Nonetheless, there are times in which strong and overwhelming emotions can impair our daily functioning. This is called [[wikipedia:Emotional_dysregulation|emotion dysregulation]]. Emotion dysregulation can be simply defined as the difficulty to cope with intense emotions, to the extent that an individual is unable to implement adaptive [[wikipedia:Coping|coping strategies]] (Gross & Thompson, 2007, as cited in Aslan et al., 2024). Consequently, individuals may struggle with abrupt changes in [[wikipedia:Mood_(psychology)|mood]], [[wikipedia:Impulsivity|impulsive behaviour]] and emotional responses out of proportion to the situation (''reference''). Research has indicated that frequent experiences of emotion dysregulation can negatively affect our [[wikipedia:Well-being|well-being]] and may be a risk factor for the development and maintenance of [[w:Mental_health_disorders|mental health disorders]] (Beauchaine & Cicchetti, 2019; Aslan et al., 2024). Taylor’s disproportionate [[wikipedia:Anger|anger]] response, in the scenario above, conveys a moment of emotion dysregulation. His escalating [[wikipedia:Frustration|frustration]] led to impulsive actions that can be considered excessive relative to the situation. This chapter will investigate how psychological science offers [[wikipedia:Empirical_research|empirical frameworks]] to guide our understanding of emotion dysregulation, its consequences and strategies we can use to facilitate [[w:Emotional_self-regulation|emotion regulation]]. Through understanding these concepts, we can be better prepared to identify and respond to emotion dysregulation in adaptive ways. '''(''Author note:'' will reword the last paragraph, and find missing reference in paragraph two).''' {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''Focus questions''' {{ic|Use bullet points as shown in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]}} 1. How can emotion dysregulation be understood? 2. How can psychological models help explain experiences of emotion dysregulation? 3. How does emotion dysregulation impact daily functioning? 4. What is the association between emotion dysregulation and psychological disorders? 5. What approaches can help manage emotion dysregulation? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Understanding emotion dysregulation == * Emotions can be described as complex and dynamic psychological states that integrate subjective experiences, physiological responses and behavioural responses (Hockenbury & Hockenbury, 2007 as cited in D’Agostino et al., 2017). * Emotion regulation is the ability to understand and cope with the onset, intensity and expression of these emotional states (Grecucci et al., 2020). ** Aldao and colleagues (2010) conceptualised emotion regulation as the “processes through which individuals modulate their emotions consciously and subconsciously to respond to environmental demands”. * Individuals usually develop more effective emotion regulation strategies with age (Kaufman et al., 2026). Nonetheless, impairments in emotion regulation are observed at all stages of development (Kaufman et al., 2026). So, what happens when we cannot regulate our emotions? * Despite the term being incorporated into vernacular, there is still much conceptual ambiguity surrounding the definition of emotion dysregulation due to its complexity. D’Agostino and colleagues (2017) identified five overlapping dimensions of emotion dysregulation that appear across research; reduced emotional awareness, decreased emotional reactivity, intense experiences and expression of emotion, emotional rigidity, and impaired cognitive reappraisals. * Comparatively, Beauchaine (2015, p.876) posits that emotion dysregulation constitutes “a pattern of emotional experience and/or expression that interferes with appropriate goal-directed behavior”. * These conceptualisations of emotion dysregulation emphasise deficits in emotion recognition, inability to inhibit impulsive emotional reactions, and the subsequent challenge to respond in ways that support goal attainment.   * Alongside its impact on general well-being, pervasive emotion dysregulation is considered an important factor in the development and maintenance of psychological disorders (Yalvaç & Gaynor, 2021; Beauchaine & Dante Cicchetti, 2019). (''Author note:'' will include another section on outlining the core features/signs of emotion dysregulation. May delve into the different maladaptive strategies characteristic of emotion dysregulation. Then will include a sentence on using psychological frameworks to help our understanding.) === Gross's extended process model (EPM) of emotion regulation === * Gross’s [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Extended process model of emotion regulation|extended process model of emotion regulation]] is grounded in appraisal theory, positing that emotions emerge from the cognitive evaluations individuals make in response to events (Grecucci et al., 2020). This model emphasises a process-orientated framework for emotion [dys]regulation (Gross, 2015). * Gross (2015) defines emotion regulation as “a particular type of interaction between valuation systems”. * Gross (2015) proposes three distinct stages of emotion regulation; identification, selection and implementation. Emotion dysregulation may occur at any of these stages. * Sheppes et al. (2015): ** Identification-stage failures: difficulty reading emotional cues, leading to challenges initiating emotion regulation strategies and/or overidentification of emotions. ** Selection-stage failures: difficulties selecting an appropriate regulation strategy and/or a lack of access to adaptive strategies. ** Implementation-stage failures: impaired ability to carry-out a selected regulation strategy. * Comment on the limitations of this model. ** e.g., focus on emotion regulation rather than emotion dysregulation? === Linehan's biosocial model === * Linehan’s (1993) biosocial model proposes that emotion dysregulation constitutes the dynamic interactions between an individual’s biological emotional vulnerability and an invalidating environment during development. This model was initially developed within the context of [[wikipedia:Borderline_personality_disorder|Borderline Personality Disorder]].[[File:DBT Biosocial model.png|thumb|304x304px|'''Figure 2.''' Linehan's (1993) biosocial model of emotion dysregulation. ]] * Emotional vulnerability refers to the genetic predisposition toward emotional hypersensitivity, hyperreactivity and long-lasting emotional reactions (Bemmouna & Weiner, 2023). The [[wikipedia:Prefrontal_cortex|prefrontal cortex]] and [[wikipedia:Amygdala|amygdala]] are brain regions often implicated in the genetic disruption of emotional processing, contributing to increased emotional vulnerability (Bemmouna & Weiner, 2023). * Invalidating environments are characterised as insufficient environmental responses to a child’s emotional needs, thereby the child does not learn to understand, recognise or appropriately react to emotional responses (Cronwell et al., 2009). * Linehan (1993) argues that an individual is more likely to develop pervasive emotion dysregulation if they have an emotionally sensitive temperament and receive persistent invalidating responses. Individuals may feel compelled to escalate their emotional reactions to communicate their unmet needs (Linehan, 1993). * Linehan (1993) suggests that emotion dysregulation will lead to maladaptive response patterns when individuals are faced with challenging experiences. * Comment on the limitations of this model (e.g., developed based on BPD?) === Gratz and Roemer's multidimensional model of emotion regulation === * Gratz and Roemer’s (2004) multidimensional model of emotion regulation aimed to provide a comprehensive and integrative approach to the conceptualisation and measurement of emotion regulation. * Using on this model, Gratz and Roemer (2004) developed the Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale (DERS) to assess emotion dysregulation. Based on the results, Gratz and Roemer (2004) conceptualised six core dimensions that characterise emotion dysregulation; *# lack of awareness of emotions *# lack of clarity of emotions *# nonacceptance of emotional responses *# inability to access regulation strategies *# difficulties controlling impulsive behaviour when experiencing negative emotions *# inability to engage in goal directed behaviour when experiencing negative emotions * DERS is an empirically validated psychological assessment tool used to assess emotion dysregulation among adolescents and adults (Kaufman et al., 2026). In 2026, Kaufman and colleagues developed a short form version called DERS-SF. {{robelbox|theme=3|title=Let's do a quick knowledge check!|icon=Paomedia small-n-flat light-bulb.svg|iconwidth=68px}}<div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> <quiz display=simple header=none> {Which model links emotion dysregulation to emotional vulnerability and invalidating environments? | type="(+)"} - Gross’s extended process model + Linehan’s biosocial model - Gratz and Roemer’s multidimensional model {Which model defines emotion dysregulation as “a particular type of interaction between valuation systems"? | type="(+)"} - Linehan’s biosocial model - Gratz and Roemer’s multidimensional model + Gross’s extended process model {Which model aimed to develop an approach to conceptualise and measure emotion dysregulation? | type="(+)"} + Gratz and Roemer’s multidimensional model - Gross’s extended process model - Linehan’s biosocial model } </quiz> </div> {{Robelbox/close}} ==Impact of emotion dysregulation on daily functioning== *Describe/argue how emotion dysregulation impacts individuals daily functioning – making sure to define daily functioning and why this could be problematic to overall well-being. **Tani and colleagues (2015) identified that increased levels of emotion dysregulation were associated with lower satisfaction in couples’ relationship quality. **Those that struggle to modulate their emotional responses often experience prolonged and more severe periods of distress (Boemo et al., 2022). **Samea and colleagues (2025) performed a meta-analysis on the relationship between emotion dysregulation and sleep deprivation. *Emphasise that emotion dysregulation negatively impacts multiple domains of daily functioning (decision-making, stress-responses, quality of life, etc.) – therefore addressing the importance of addressing emotion dysregulation. (''Author note:'' should this section be expanded using subheadings? For example, interpersonal conflict, impaired academic/occupational performance, and impact on general health/well-being. Need to make sure enough literature is available with non-clinical populations - or maybe I can include research from clinical populations?) ==Association between psychological disorders and emotion dysregulation== *Alongside its impact on everyday functioning, emotion dysregulation is increasingly recognised as a transdiagnostic factor in the development and maintenance of psychological disorders (Yalvaç & Gaynor, 2021; Beauchaine & Cicchetti, 2019). *Transdiagnostic factors refer to underlying risk, maintenance or protective factors that are implicated across a diverse range psychological disorders, transcending diagnostic categories (Dalgeish et al., 2020). *Beauchaine and Cicchetti (2019) observed that emotion dysregulation has been associated with [[wikipedia:Internalizing_disorder|internalizing disorders]], [[wikipedia:Externalizing_disorder|externalizing disorders]], [[wikipedia:Personality_disorder|personality disorders]] and [[wikipedia:Psychosis|psychotic disorders]]. Further, impairments in top-down processing of emotional reactivity are evident across many psychological disorders (Beauchaine & Cicchetti, 2019). *Emotion dysregulation in children and adolescents may be a predisposing factor to the emergence of psychological disorders in adulthood (Cole et al. 2017). === Emotion dysregulation in borderline personality disorder (BPD) === * Borderline personality disorder (BPD) is a psychological disorder defined by an enduring pattern of emotion dysregulation, impaired interpersonal functioning and an unstable sense of self (Bohus et al., 2021). * Refer back to Linehan’s (1993) biosocial model ---> developed for BPD. ** According to Linehan (1933), emotion dysregulation is a core feature of borderline personality disorder, accounting for most of its symptomology. * Borderline personality disorder is associated with low emotional awareness, persistent [[wikipedia:Negative_affectivity|negative affect]] and the use of ineffective strategies to regulate emotions (Fitzpatrick et al., 2023). * Among those with borderline personality disorder, impulsivity and dysfunctional behaviour is associated with experiences of increased emotional distress (Bohus et al., 2021).   (''Author note:'' will expand upon the role of emotion dysregulation as the driving factor of BPD symptomology (e.g., risk or maintaining factor) and touch on how individuals with BPD use strategies that elicit short-term relief but perpetuate difficulties over time.) === Emotion dysregulation in bipolar disorder (BD) === * [[wikipedia:Bipolar_disorder|Bipolar disorder]] is a psychological disorder associated with extreme changes in mood, energy and activity levels (Singh et al., 2025). Bipolar disorder is defined by recurrent episodes of [[wikipedia:Mania|mania]] or [[wikipedia:Hypomania|hypomania]] and [[wikipedia:Depression_(mood)|depression]] (Singh et al., 2025). * Difficulties in emotion regulation are correlated with depressive and (hypo)manic episodes (Oliva et al., 2023). * Those with bipolar disorder exhibit a reduced capacity to recognise and accept their emotions during both acute (hypo)manic and depressive episodes (Oliva et al., 2023). * M’Bailara and colleagues (2009) found that even during [[wikipedia:Euthymia_(medicine)|euthymia]], participants with bipolar disorder experienced greater emotional reactivity and emotional intensity than control participants. This suggests that emotion dysregulation persists beyond acute symptoms and may account for the increased vulnerability to minor stressful events observed among those with bipolar (M’Bailara et al., 2009). (''Author note:'' will expand upon the role of emotion dysregulation in BD symptomology (e.g., risk or maintaining factor) and touch on how individuals with BD use maladaptive emotion regulation strategies. Additionally, will look for a more recent study on euthymia and emotion dysregulation). === Emotion dysregulation in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) === * [[wikipedia:Attention_deficit_hyperactivity_disorder|Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder]] (ADHD) is [[wikipedia:Neurodevelopmental_disorder|neurodevelopmental disorder]] defined by persistent patterns of inattention, hyperactivity and impulsivity (Bodalski et al., 2019). * Emerging research has indicated that emotion regulation difficulties in ADHD cannot be explained fully by the presence of [[wikipedia:Comorbidity|comorbid]] disorders, rather emotion dysregulation itself may be a distinct feature of ADHD (Bodalski et al., 2019). * In 2014, Bunford and colleagues found that emotion dysregulation predicted social impairments among adolescents with ADHD, particularly emotional excitability, impulsivity and prolonged emotional responses. * Barkley (1997) proposed the executive functioning theory of ADHD, arguing that ADHD can be attributed to impairments in the behavioural inhibition processes that govern self-regulation and goal-directed behaviour. ** Disruptions in emotional inhibition processes are among the executive functions implicated in ADHD, contributing to emotion dysregulation (Mitchell et al., 2012). (''Author note:'' will expand upon the role of emotion dysregulation in ADHD and touch on how individuals with ADHD use maladaptive emotion regulation strategies. Additionally, will give examples on how emotion dysregulation presents in ADHD). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}'''Scenario: Emotional dysregulation in ADHD''' {{em|(Author note: will incorporate a scenario (and figure) to explain the role of emotion dysregulation in ADHD.)}}{{RoundBoxBottom}} == Approaches to managing emotion dysregulation == *Research indicates that emotion regulation is a learned skill that develops with practice over the lifespan (Wright et al., 2025). **[[File:Practicing mindfulness promotes creativity.png|thumb|180x180px|'''Figure 3.''' Emotion regulation skills promote general well-being. ]]Individuals emotion regulation capabilities are shaped through learning processes, including parental modelling and [[wikipedia:Co-regulation|co-regulation]] during childhood (Wright et al., 2025) * [[wikipedia:Psychotherapy|Psychotherapy]] interventions or management strategies that build emotion regulation skills are integral to reducing emotion dysregulation and maladaptive strategies among those with psychological disorders. * Outside of professional support, there are a range of practical everyday strategies that can assist in reducing emotion dysregulation and promoting general well-being (see Figure 3).   === Dialectical behaviour therapy (DBT) approaches to emotion dysregulation === * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Dialectical behaviour therapy and emotion regulation|Dialectical behaviour therapy (DBT)]] emerged as a psychological treatment approach rooted in behaviourism to address self-harm behaviours in borderline personality disorder (Linehan & Wilks, 2015). * DBT focuses on developing practical skills across the four modules of [[wikipedia:Mindfulness|mindfulness]], interpersonal effectiveness, emotional regulation and distress tolerance (Linehan & Wilks, 2015). * Abundant empirical research found that DBT was clinically relevant in reducing emotion dysregulation and maladaptive coping strategies among those with borderline personality disorder (Lenz et al., 2016). ** Emotional regulation is considered a key mechanism of change in DBT outcomes (Lenz et al., 2016). * DBT has broader clinical applications – will incorporate research on DBT’s effectiveness across other psychological disorders in which emotion dysregulation is a key component. * Comment on how DBT relates to/addresses to both Linehan’s biosocial model and Gross’s extended process model. (''Author note'': will further expand upon the emotion dysregulation skills-training involved in DBT and further emphasis will be placed on evidence from literature.) === Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) approaches to emotion dysregulation === * [[File:Beck's CognitiveTriad.png|thumb|279x279px|'''Figure 4.''' Representation of Beck's (1976) cognitive triad. ]][[wikipedia:Cognitive_behavioral_therapy|Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT)]] is grounded on the premise that thoughts, behaviours and emotions are intrinsically intertwined (Preece & Gross, 2026). *Cognitive reappraisal is an important technique used in CBT to regulate emotions (Wang & Yin, 2023). *Preece and Gross (2026) posit that CBT should be understood through the lens of emotion regulation. *Compare/link back to Gross's (2015) extended process model of emotion regulation and reference Beck’s (1976) cognitive triad (see Figure 4). ''(Author note: the cognitive triangle might be more relevant than the cognitive triad here).'' === Physiological approaches to managing emotion dysregulation === * Briefly cover emotion regulation through exercise – include research on how exercise can reduce emotion dysregulation through physiological mechanisms. ** Thayer and Lane (2000) posited the neurovisceral integration model to account for the observed relationship between physiological feedback circuits and affective systems. * Briefly cover [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Guided meditation and emotion regulation|emotion regulation through meditation]]/mindfulness - technique used to elicit the relaxation response which facilitates emotion regulation through physiological mechanisms. ** Benson and colleagues (1974) relaxation response theory. ** Emphasise the accessibility of meditation/mindfulness. ==Conclusion== * Summarise emotion dysregulation, including its core features, conceptualisation as multidimensional construct and how psychological models can guide our understanding (despite diverse approaches/definitions). * Emphasise the influence and impact of emotion dysregulation on our day-to-day lives. Comment on the effect of emotion dysregulation on our well-being. * Restate how increasing evidence highlights emotion dysregulation as a transdiagnostic factor across many psychological disorders, thereby emotion dysregulation has important clinical applications in the treatment of these disorders. * Provide a practical summary of the strategies that can reduce dysregulation. Aim to encourage the reader to try implement these strategies themselves to improve emotion self-regulation skills. ** Comment again on the importance of emotion regulation skills, particularly when confronted with challenging or distressing situations (leads to overall healthier behaviours and well-being). ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/ADHD and emotional regulation|ADHD and emotional regulation]] (Book chapter, 2024) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Cognitive strategies and emotion regulation|Cognitive strategies and emotion regulation]] (Book chapter, 2025) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Dialectical behaviour therapy and emotion regulation|Dialectical behaviour therapy and emotion regulation]] (Book chapter, 2025) * [[w:Emotional_self-regulation|Emotional self-regulation]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Extended process model of emotion regulation|Extended process model of emotion regulation]] (Book chapter, 2026) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Social media and emotional dysregulation|Social media and emotional dysregulation]] (Book chapter, 2025) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Aldao, A., Nolen-Hoeksema, S., & Schweizer, S. 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Emotion dysregulation in personality disorders. {{em|Current Psychiatry Reports, 24}}, 223–231. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-023-01418-8 Gratz, K. L., & Roemer, L. (2004). Multidimensional assessment of emotion regulation and dysregulation: Development, factor structure, and initial validation of the difficulties in emotion regulation scale. {{em|Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 26}}, 41–54. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:JOBA.0000007455.08539.94 Grecucci, A., Messina, I., Amodeo, L., Lapomarda, G., Crescentini, C., Dadomo, H., Panzeri, M., Theuninck, A., & Frederickson, J. (2020). A dual route model for regulating emotions: Comparing models, techniques and biological mechanisms. {{em|Frontiers in Psychology, 11}}, Article 930. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00930 Gross, J. J. (2015) The extended process model of emotion regulation: Elaborations, applications, and future directions. {{em|Psychological Inquiry, 26}}(1), 130-137. https://doi.org/10.1080/1047840X.2015.989751 Kaufman, E. A., Xia, M., Fosco, G., Yaptangco, M., Skidmore, C. R., & Crowell, S. E. (2016). The difficulties in emotion regulation scale short form (DERS-SF): Validation and replication in adolescent and adult samples. {{em|Journal of psychopathology and behavioral assessment, 38}}(3), 443–455. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10862-015-9529-3 Lenz, A. S., Del Conte, G., Hollenbaugh, K. M., & Callendar, K. (2016). Emotional regulation and interpersonal effectiveness as mechanisms of change for treatment outcomes within a DBT program for adolescents. {{em|Counseling Outcome Research and Evaluation, 7}}(2), 73–85. https://doi.org/10.1177/2150137816642439 Linehan, M. M. (1993). {{em|Cognitive-behavioral treatment of borderline personality disorder}}. Guilford Press. Linehan, M. M., & Wilks, C. R. (2015). The course and evolution of dialectical behavior therapy. {{em|The American Journal of Psychotherapy, 69}}(2), 97-110. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.psychotherapy.2015.69.2.97 M’Bailara, K., Demotes-Mainard, J., Swendsen, J., Mathieu, F., Leboyer, M., & Henry, C. (2009). Emotional hyper-reactivity in normothymic bipolar patients. {{em|Bipolar Disorders, 11}}(1), 63-69. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1399-5618.2008.00656.x Mitchell, J. T., Robertson, C. D., Anastopolous, A. D., Nelson-Gray, R. O., & Kollins, S. H. (2012). Emotion dysregulation and emotional impulsivity among adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: Results of a preliminary study. {{em|Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 34}}(4), 510–519. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10862-012-9297-2 Oliva, V., De Prisco, M., Fico, G., Possidente, C., Fortea, L., Montejo, L., Anmella, G., Hidalgo-Mazzei, D., Grande, I., Murru, A., Fornaro, M., de Bartolomeis, A., Dodd, A., Fanelli, G., Fabbri, C., Serretti, A., Vieta, E., & Radua, J. (2023). Correlation between emotion dysregulation and mood symptoms of bipolar disorder: A systematic review and meta-analysis. {{em|Acta psychiatrica Scandinavica, 148}}(6), 472–490. https://doi.org/10.1111/acps.1361 Preece, D. A., & Gross, J. J. (2026). Cognitive behavior therapy: An emotion regulation perspective. {{em|Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice}}. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1037/cps0000327 Samea, F., Mortazavi, N., Reimann, G. M., Ebneabbasi, A., Zarei, M., Khazaie, H., Goldstein-Piekarski, A. N., Spiegelhalder, K., Baglioni, C., Sepehry, A. A., & Tahmasian, M. (2025). Insomnia and emotion dysregulation: A meta-analytical perspective integrating regulatory strategies and dispositional difficulties. {{em|Sleep medicine reviews, 82}}, Article 102111. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smrv.2025.102111 Sheppes, G., Suri, G., & Gross, J. J. (2015). Emotion regulation and psychopathology. {{em|Annual review of clinical psychology, 11}}, 379–405. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-032814-112739 Šimić, G., Tkalčić, M., Vukić, V., Mulc, D., Španić, E., Šagud, M., Olucha-Bordonau, F. E., Vukšić, M., & Hof, P. R. (2021). Understanding emotions: Origins and roles of the amygdala. {{em|Biomolecules, 11}}(6), Article 823. https://doi.org/10.3390/biom11060823 Singh, B., Swartz, H. A., Cuellar-Barboza, A. B., Schaffer, A., Kato, T., Dols, A., Sperry, S. H., Vassilev, A. B., Burdick, K. E., & Frye, M. A. (2025). Bipolar disorder. {{em|The Lancet, 406}}(10506), 963–978. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(25)01140-7 Tani, F., Pascuzzi, D., & Raffagnino, R. (2015). Emotion regulation and quality of close relationship: The effects of emotion dysregulation processes on couple intimacy. {{em|Applied Psychology Bulletin, 272}}(63), 3–15. Thayer, J. F., & Lane, R. D. (2000). A model of neurovisceral integration in emotion regulation and dysregulation. {{em|Journal of Affective Disorders, 61}}(3), 201-216. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0165-0327(00)00338-4. Wang, Y. X., & Yin, B. (2023). A new understanding of the cognitive reappraisal technique: an extension based on the schema theory. {{em|Frontiers in behavioral neuroscience, 17}}, Article 1174585. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnbeh.2023.1174585 Wright. R. N., Adock, R. A., & LaBar, K. S. (2025). Learning emotion regulation: An integrative framework. {{em|The Psychological Review, 132}}(1), 172-203. https://doi.org/10.1037/rev0000506 Yalvaç, E. B. K., & Gaynor, K. (2021). Emotional dysregulation in adults: The influence of rumination and negative secondary appraisals of emotion. {{em|Journal of Affective Disorders, 282}}, 656-661. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2020.12.194 }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== * [https://www.healthline.com/health/how-to-control-your-emotions How To Become The Boss of Your Emotions] (Healthline) * [https://www.ted.com/talks/ted_ed_how_to_manage_your_emotions How to manage your emotions] (TED-Ed) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SWvHZkkrAjc How to Master Your Emotions & Never Get Angry or Bothered by Anyone] (The Mel Robbins Podcast) * [https://www.psychologytoday.com/au/blog/click-here-for-happiness/202108/what-is-emotional-dysregulation What Is Emotional Dysregulation?] (Psychology Today) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotional self-regulation]] f6hi6tyr4fkvgkdwl4uluhvl8e6oi2r 2832805 2832798 2026-09-11T11:33:12Z U3285438 3103750 /* Overview */ edited focus questions 2832805 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Emotion dysregulation:<br>What is emotion dysregulation, what are its consequences, and how can it be managed?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} [[File:Burnout At Work - Occupational Burnout.jpg|Burnout_At_Work_-_Occupational_Burnout|250px|right|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' Taylor feels frustrated after the submissions portal froze at a critical moment.]] '''Scenario''' Taylor is trying to upload an assignment for his statistics class last minute but the submissions portal freezes exactly as he presses “submit”. He watches the cursor’s loading icon spin again and again, likely because the portal is overwhelmed by other last minute submissions. Though Taylor still has 15 minutes before the deadline, he finds himself continuing to aggressively spam click the laptop trackpad and becoming consumed by a feeling of frustration. Taylor can feel his heart rate increase, jaw tighten and leg shake beneath the desk. Then the trackpad becomes unresponsive. Taylor shoves his laptop aside and drops his head onto the table, angrily questioning why nothing ever seems to go his way (see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} From moments of [[wikipedia:Happiness|happiness]] and excitement to [[wikipedia:Sadness|sadness]] or irritation, [[w:emotions|emotions]] are an integral aspect of being human, and it is expected that these emotions fluctuate as we navigate the complexity of our everyday lives. Emotions are neither ‘good’ nor ‘bad’, rather emotions have a specific [[wikipedia:Evolution|evolutionary]] purpose that has helped us survive, adapt and interact with others (Šimić et al., 2021). Nonetheless, there are times in which strong and overwhelming emotions can impair our daily functioning. This is called [[wikipedia:Emotional_dysregulation|emotion dysregulation]]. Emotion dysregulation can be simply defined as the difficulty to cope with intense emotions, to the extent that an individual is unable to implement adaptive [[wikipedia:Coping|coping strategies]] (Gross & Thompson, 2007, as cited in Aslan et al., 2024). Consequently, individuals may struggle with abrupt changes in [[wikipedia:Mood_(psychology)|mood]], [[wikipedia:Impulsivity|impulsive behaviour]] and emotional responses out of proportion to the situation (''reference''). Research has indicated that frequent experiences of emotion dysregulation can negatively affect our [[wikipedia:Well-being|well-being]] and may be a risk factor for the development and maintenance of [[w:Mental_health_disorders|mental health disorders]] (Beauchaine & Cicchetti, 2019; Aslan et al., 2024). Taylor’s disproportionate [[wikipedia:Anger|anger]] response, in the scenario above, conveys a moment of emotion dysregulation. His escalating [[wikipedia:Frustration|frustration]] led to impulsive actions that can be considered excessive relative to the situation. This chapter will investigate how psychological science offers [[wikipedia:Empirical_research|empirical frameworks]] to guide our understanding of emotion dysregulation, its consequences and strategies we can use to facilitate [[w:Emotional_self-regulation|emotion regulation]]. Through understanding these concepts, we can be better prepared to identify and respond to emotion dysregulation in adaptive ways. '''(''Author note:'' will reword the last paragraph, and find missing reference in paragraph two).''' {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''Focus questions''' * How can emotion dysregulation be understood? *How does emotion dysregulation impact daily functioning and psychological well-being? *What approaches can help manage emotion dysregulation?{{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Understanding emotion dysregulation == * Emotions can be described as complex and dynamic psychological states that integrate subjective experiences, physiological responses and behavioural responses (Hockenbury & Hockenbury, 2007 as cited in D’Agostino et al., 2017). * Emotion regulation is the ability to understand and cope with the onset, intensity and expression of these emotional states (Grecucci et al., 2020). ** Aldao and colleagues (2010) conceptualised emotion regulation as the “processes through which individuals modulate their emotions consciously and subconsciously to respond to environmental demands”. * Individuals usually develop more effective emotion regulation strategies with age (Kaufman et al., 2026). Nonetheless, impairments in emotion regulation are observed at all stages of development (Kaufman et al., 2026). So, what happens when we cannot regulate our emotions? * Despite the term being incorporated into vernacular, there is still much conceptual ambiguity surrounding the definition of emotion dysregulation due to its complexity. D’Agostino and colleagues (2017) identified five overlapping dimensions of emotion dysregulation that appear across research; reduced emotional awareness, decreased emotional reactivity, intense experiences and expression of emotion, emotional rigidity, and impaired cognitive reappraisals. * Comparatively, Beauchaine (2015, p.876) posits that emotion dysregulation constitutes “a pattern of emotional experience and/or expression that interferes with appropriate goal-directed behavior”. * These conceptualisations of emotion dysregulation emphasise deficits in emotion recognition, inability to inhibit impulsive emotional reactions, and the subsequent challenge to respond in ways that support goal attainment.   * Alongside its impact on general well-being, pervasive emotion dysregulation is considered an important factor in the development and maintenance of psychological disorders (Yalvaç & Gaynor, 2021; Beauchaine & Dante Cicchetti, 2019). (''Author note:'' will include another section on outlining the core features/signs of emotion dysregulation. May delve into the different maladaptive strategies characteristic of emotion dysregulation. Then will include a sentence on using psychological frameworks to help our understanding.) === Gross's extended process model (EPM) of emotion regulation === * Gross’s [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Extended process model of emotion regulation|extended process model of emotion regulation]] is grounded in appraisal theory, positing that emotions emerge from the cognitive evaluations individuals make in response to events (Grecucci et al., 2020). This model emphasises a process-orientated framework for emotion [dys]regulation (Gross, 2015). * Gross (2015) defines emotion regulation as “a particular type of interaction between valuation systems”. * Gross (2015) proposes three distinct stages of emotion regulation; identification, selection and implementation. Emotion dysregulation may occur at any of these stages. * Sheppes et al. (2015): ** Identification-stage failures: difficulty reading emotional cues, leading to challenges initiating emotion regulation strategies and/or overidentification of emotions. ** Selection-stage failures: difficulties selecting an appropriate regulation strategy and/or a lack of access to adaptive strategies. ** Implementation-stage failures: impaired ability to carry-out a selected regulation strategy. * Comment on the limitations of this model. ** e.g., focus on emotion regulation rather than emotion dysregulation? === Linehan's biosocial model === * Linehan’s (1993) biosocial model proposes that emotion dysregulation constitutes the dynamic interactions between an individual’s biological emotional vulnerability and an invalidating environment during development. This model was initially developed within the context of [[wikipedia:Borderline_personality_disorder|Borderline Personality Disorder]].[[File:DBT Biosocial model.png|thumb|304x304px|'''Figure 2.''' Linehan's (1993) biosocial model of emotion dysregulation. ]] * Emotional vulnerability refers to the genetic predisposition toward emotional hypersensitivity, hyperreactivity and long-lasting emotional reactions (Bemmouna & Weiner, 2023). The [[wikipedia:Prefrontal_cortex|prefrontal cortex]] and [[wikipedia:Amygdala|amygdala]] are brain regions often implicated in the genetic disruption of emotional processing, contributing to increased emotional vulnerability (Bemmouna & Weiner, 2023). * Invalidating environments are characterised as insufficient environmental responses to a child’s emotional needs, thereby the child does not learn to understand, recognise or appropriately react to emotional responses (Cronwell et al., 2009). * Linehan (1993) argues that an individual is more likely to develop pervasive emotion dysregulation if they have an emotionally sensitive temperament and receive persistent invalidating responses. Individuals may feel compelled to escalate their emotional reactions to communicate their unmet needs (Linehan, 1993). * Linehan (1993) suggests that emotion dysregulation will lead to maladaptive response patterns when individuals are faced with challenging experiences. * Comment on the limitations of this model (e.g., developed based on BPD?) === Gratz and Roemer's multidimensional model of emotion regulation === * Gratz and Roemer’s (2004) multidimensional model of emotion regulation aimed to provide a comprehensive and integrative approach to the conceptualisation and measurement of emotion regulation. * Using on this model, Gratz and Roemer (2004) developed the Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale (DERS) to assess emotion dysregulation. Based on the results, Gratz and Roemer (2004) conceptualised six core dimensions that characterise emotion dysregulation; *# lack of awareness of emotions *# lack of clarity of emotions *# nonacceptance of emotional responses *# inability to access regulation strategies *# difficulties controlling impulsive behaviour when experiencing negative emotions *# inability to engage in goal directed behaviour when experiencing negative emotions * DERS is an empirically validated psychological assessment tool used to assess emotion dysregulation among adolescents and adults (Kaufman et al., 2026). In 2026, Kaufman and colleagues developed a short form version called DERS-SF. {{robelbox|theme=3|title=Let's do a quick knowledge check!|icon=Paomedia small-n-flat light-bulb.svg|iconwidth=68px}}<div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> <quiz display=simple header=none> {Which model links emotion dysregulation to emotional vulnerability and invalidating environments? | type="(+)"} - Gross’s extended process model + Linehan’s biosocial model - Gratz and Roemer’s multidimensional model {Which model defines emotion dysregulation as “a particular type of interaction between valuation systems"? | type="(+)"} - Linehan’s biosocial model - Gratz and Roemer’s multidimensional model + Gross’s extended process model {Which model aimed to develop an approach to conceptualise and measure emotion dysregulation? | type="(+)"} + Gratz and Roemer’s multidimensional model - Gross’s extended process model - Linehan’s biosocial model } </quiz> </div> {{Robelbox/close}} ==Impact of emotion dysregulation on daily functioning== *Describe/argue how emotion dysregulation impacts individuals daily functioning – making sure to define daily functioning and why this could be problematic to overall well-being. **Tani and colleagues (2015) identified that increased levels of emotion dysregulation were associated with lower satisfaction in couples’ relationship quality. **Those that struggle to modulate their emotional responses often experience prolonged and more severe periods of distress (Boemo et al., 2022). **Samea and colleagues (2025) performed a meta-analysis on the relationship between emotion dysregulation and sleep deprivation. *Emphasise that emotion dysregulation negatively impacts multiple domains of daily functioning (decision-making, stress-responses, quality of life, etc.) – therefore addressing the importance of addressing emotion dysregulation. (''Author note:'' should this section be expanded using subheadings? For example, interpersonal conflict, impaired academic/occupational performance, and impact on general health/well-being. Need to make sure enough literature is available with non-clinical populations - or maybe I can include research from clinical populations?) ==Association between psychological disorders and emotion dysregulation== *Alongside its impact on everyday functioning, emotion dysregulation is increasingly recognised as a transdiagnostic factor in the development and maintenance of psychological disorders (Yalvaç & Gaynor, 2021; Beauchaine & Cicchetti, 2019). *Transdiagnostic factors refer to underlying risk, maintenance or protective factors that are implicated across a diverse range psychological disorders, transcending diagnostic categories (Dalgeish et al., 2020). *Beauchaine and Cicchetti (2019) observed that emotion dysregulation has been associated with [[wikipedia:Internalizing_disorder|internalizing disorders]], [[wikipedia:Externalizing_disorder|externalizing disorders]], [[wikipedia:Personality_disorder|personality disorders]] and [[wikipedia:Psychosis|psychotic disorders]]. Further, impairments in top-down processing of emotional reactivity are evident across many psychological disorders (Beauchaine & Cicchetti, 2019). *Emotion dysregulation in children and adolescents may be a predisposing factor to the emergence of psychological disorders in adulthood (Cole et al. 2017). === Emotion dysregulation in borderline personality disorder (BPD) === * Borderline personality disorder (BPD) is a psychological disorder defined by an enduring pattern of emotion dysregulation, impaired interpersonal functioning and an unstable sense of self (Bohus et al., 2021). * Refer back to Linehan’s (1993) biosocial model ---> developed for BPD. ** According to Linehan (1933), emotion dysregulation is a core feature of borderline personality disorder, accounting for most of its symptomology. * Borderline personality disorder is associated with low emotional awareness, persistent [[wikipedia:Negative_affectivity|negative affect]] and the use of ineffective strategies to regulate emotions (Fitzpatrick et al., 2023). * Among those with borderline personality disorder, impulsivity and dysfunctional behaviour is associated with experiences of increased emotional distress (Bohus et al., 2021).   (''Author note:'' will expand upon the role of emotion dysregulation as the driving factor of BPD symptomology (e.g., risk or maintaining factor) and touch on how individuals with BPD use strategies that elicit short-term relief but perpetuate difficulties over time.) === Emotion dysregulation in bipolar disorder (BD) === * [[wikipedia:Bipolar_disorder|Bipolar disorder]] is a psychological disorder associated with extreme changes in mood, energy and activity levels (Singh et al., 2025). Bipolar disorder is defined by recurrent episodes of [[wikipedia:Mania|mania]] or [[wikipedia:Hypomania|hypomania]] and [[wikipedia:Depression_(mood)|depression]] (Singh et al., 2025). * Difficulties in emotion regulation are correlated with depressive and (hypo)manic episodes (Oliva et al., 2023). * Those with bipolar disorder exhibit a reduced capacity to recognise and accept their emotions during both acute (hypo)manic and depressive episodes (Oliva et al., 2023). * M’Bailara and colleagues (2009) found that even during [[wikipedia:Euthymia_(medicine)|euthymia]], participants with bipolar disorder experienced greater emotional reactivity and emotional intensity than control participants. This suggests that emotion dysregulation persists beyond acute symptoms and may account for the increased vulnerability to minor stressful events observed among those with bipolar (M’Bailara et al., 2009). (''Author note:'' will expand upon the role of emotion dysregulation in BD symptomology (e.g., risk or maintaining factor) and touch on how individuals with BD use maladaptive emotion regulation strategies. Additionally, will look for a more recent study on euthymia and emotion dysregulation). === Emotion dysregulation in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) === * [[wikipedia:Attention_deficit_hyperactivity_disorder|Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder]] (ADHD) is [[wikipedia:Neurodevelopmental_disorder|neurodevelopmental disorder]] defined by persistent patterns of inattention, hyperactivity and impulsivity (Bodalski et al., 2019). * Emerging research has indicated that emotion regulation difficulties in ADHD cannot be explained fully by the presence of [[wikipedia:Comorbidity|comorbid]] disorders, rather emotion dysregulation itself may be a distinct feature of ADHD (Bodalski et al., 2019). * In 2014, Bunford and colleagues found that emotion dysregulation predicted social impairments among adolescents with ADHD, particularly emotional excitability, impulsivity and prolonged emotional responses. * Barkley (1997) proposed the executive functioning theory of ADHD, arguing that ADHD can be attributed to impairments in the behavioural inhibition processes that govern self-regulation and goal-directed behaviour. ** Disruptions in emotional inhibition processes are among the executive functions implicated in ADHD, contributing to emotion dysregulation (Mitchell et al., 2012). (''Author note:'' will expand upon the role of emotion dysregulation in ADHD and touch on how individuals with ADHD use maladaptive emotion regulation strategies. Additionally, will give examples on how emotion dysregulation presents in ADHD). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}'''Scenario: Emotional dysregulation in ADHD''' {{em|(Author note: will incorporate a scenario (and figure) to explain the role of emotion dysregulation in ADHD.)}}{{RoundBoxBottom}} == Approaches to managing emotion dysregulation == *Research indicates that emotion regulation is a learned skill that develops with practice over the lifespan (Wright et al., 2025). **[[File:Practicing mindfulness promotes creativity.png|thumb|180x180px|'''Figure 3.''' Emotion regulation skills promote general well-being. ]]Individuals emotion regulation capabilities are shaped through learning processes, including parental modelling and [[wikipedia:Co-regulation|co-regulation]] during childhood (Wright et al., 2025) * [[wikipedia:Psychotherapy|Psychotherapy]] interventions or management strategies that build emotion regulation skills are integral to reducing emotion dysregulation and maladaptive strategies among those with psychological disorders. * Outside of professional support, there are a range of practical everyday strategies that can assist in reducing emotion dysregulation and promoting general well-being (see Figure 3).   === Dialectical behaviour therapy (DBT) approaches to emotion dysregulation === * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Dialectical behaviour therapy and emotion regulation|Dialectical behaviour therapy (DBT)]] emerged as a psychological treatment approach rooted in behaviourism to address self-harm behaviours in borderline personality disorder (Linehan & Wilks, 2015). * DBT focuses on developing practical skills across the four modules of [[wikipedia:Mindfulness|mindfulness]], interpersonal effectiveness, emotional regulation and distress tolerance (Linehan & Wilks, 2015). * Abundant empirical research found that DBT was clinically relevant in reducing emotion dysregulation and maladaptive coping strategies among those with borderline personality disorder (Lenz et al., 2016). ** Emotional regulation is considered a key mechanism of change in DBT outcomes (Lenz et al., 2016). * DBT has broader clinical applications – will incorporate research on DBT’s effectiveness across other psychological disorders in which emotion dysregulation is a key component. * Comment on how DBT relates to/addresses to both Linehan’s biosocial model and Gross’s extended process model. (''Author note'': will further expand upon the emotion dysregulation skills-training involved in DBT and further emphasis will be placed on evidence from literature.) === Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) approaches to emotion dysregulation === * [[File:Beck's CognitiveTriad.png|thumb|279x279px|'''Figure 4.''' Representation of Beck's (1976) cognitive triad. ]][[wikipedia:Cognitive_behavioral_therapy|Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT)]] is grounded on the premise that thoughts, behaviours and emotions are intrinsically intertwined (Preece & Gross, 2026). *Cognitive reappraisal is an important technique used in CBT to regulate emotions (Wang & Yin, 2023). *Preece and Gross (2026) posit that CBT should be understood through the lens of emotion regulation. *Compare/link back to Gross's (2015) extended process model of emotion regulation and reference Beck’s (1976) cognitive triad (see Figure 4). ''(Author note: the cognitive triangle might be more relevant than the cognitive triad here).'' === Physiological approaches to managing emotion dysregulation === * Briefly cover emotion regulation through exercise – include research on how exercise can reduce emotion dysregulation through physiological mechanisms. ** Thayer and Lane (2000) posited the neurovisceral integration model to account for the observed relationship between physiological feedback circuits and affective systems. * Briefly cover [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Guided meditation and emotion regulation|emotion regulation through meditation]]/mindfulness - technique used to elicit the relaxation response which facilitates emotion regulation through physiological mechanisms. ** Benson and colleagues (1974) relaxation response theory. ** Emphasise the accessibility of meditation/mindfulness. ==Conclusion== * Summarise emotion dysregulation, including its core features, conceptualisation as multidimensional construct and how psychological models can guide our understanding (despite diverse approaches/definitions). * Emphasise the influence and impact of emotion dysregulation on our day-to-day lives. Comment on the effect of emotion dysregulation on our well-being. * Restate how increasing evidence highlights emotion dysregulation as a transdiagnostic factor across many psychological disorders, thereby emotion dysregulation has important clinical applications in the treatment of these disorders. * Provide a practical summary of the strategies that can reduce dysregulation. Aim to encourage the reader to try implement these strategies themselves to improve emotion self-regulation skills. ** Comment again on the importance of emotion regulation skills, particularly when confronted with challenging or distressing situations (leads to overall healthier behaviours and well-being). ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/ADHD and emotional regulation|ADHD and emotional regulation]] (Book chapter, 2024) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Cognitive strategies and emotion regulation|Cognitive strategies and emotion regulation]] (Book chapter, 2025) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Dialectical behaviour therapy and emotion regulation|Dialectical behaviour therapy and emotion regulation]] (Book chapter, 2025) * [[w:Emotional_self-regulation|Emotional self-regulation]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Extended process model of emotion regulation|Extended process model of emotion regulation]] (Book chapter, 2026) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Social media and emotional dysregulation|Social media and emotional dysregulation]] (Book chapter, 2025) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Aldao, A., Nolen-Hoeksema, S., & Schweizer, S. (2010). Emotion-regulation strategies across psychopathology: A meta-analytic review. {{em|Clinical psychology review, 30}}(2), 217–237. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2009.11.004 Aslan, I. H., Dorey, L., Grant, J. E., & Chamberlain, S. R. (2024). Emotion regulation across psychiatric disorders. {{em|CNS spectrums, 29}}(3), 215–220. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1092852924000270 Barkley, R. A. (1997). Behavioral inhibition, sustained attention, and executive functions: Constructing a unifying theory of ADHD. {{em|Psychological Bulletin, 121}}(1), 65–94. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.121.1.65 Beauchaine, T. P. (2015). Future directions in emotion dysregulation and youth psychopathology. {{em|Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 44}}(5), 875–896. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2015.1038827 Beauchaine, T. P., & Cicchetti, D. (2019). Emotion dysregulation and emerging psychopathology: A transdiagnostic, transdisciplinary perspective. {{em|Development and Psychopathology, 31}}, 799–804. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579419000671 Beck, A. T. (1976). {{em|Cognitive therapy and the emotional disorders}}. International Universities Press. Bemmouna, D., & Weiner, L. (2023). Linehan's biosocial model applied to emotion dysregulation in autism: A narrative review of the literature and an illustrative case conceptualization. {{em|Frontiers in psychiatry, 14}}, Article 1238116. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1238116 Benson, H., Beary, J. F., & Carol, M. P. (1974). The relaxation response. {{em|Psychiatry, 37}}(1), 37–46. https://doi.org/10.1080/00332747.1974.11023785 Bodalski, E. A., Knouse, L. E., & Kovalev, D. (2019). 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Emotion dysregulation in personality disorders. {{em|Current Psychiatry Reports, 24}}, 223–231. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-023-01418-8 Gratz, K. L., & Roemer, L. (2004). Multidimensional assessment of emotion regulation and dysregulation: Development, factor structure, and initial validation of the difficulties in emotion regulation scale. {{em|Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 26}}, 41–54. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:JOBA.0000007455.08539.94 Grecucci, A., Messina, I., Amodeo, L., Lapomarda, G., Crescentini, C., Dadomo, H., Panzeri, M., Theuninck, A., & Frederickson, J. (2020). A dual route model for regulating emotions: Comparing models, techniques and biological mechanisms. {{em|Frontiers in Psychology, 11}}, Article 930. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00930 Gross, J. J. (2015) The extended process model of emotion regulation: Elaborations, applications, and future directions. {{em|Psychological Inquiry, 26}}(1), 130-137. https://doi.org/10.1080/1047840X.2015.989751 Kaufman, E. A., Xia, M., Fosco, G., Yaptangco, M., Skidmore, C. R., & Crowell, S. E. (2016). The difficulties in emotion regulation scale short form (DERS-SF): Validation and replication in adolescent and adult samples. {{em|Journal of psychopathology and behavioral assessment, 38}}(3), 443–455. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10862-015-9529-3 Lenz, A. S., Del Conte, G., Hollenbaugh, K. M., & Callendar, K. (2016). Emotional regulation and interpersonal effectiveness as mechanisms of change for treatment outcomes within a DBT program for adolescents. {{em|Counseling Outcome Research and Evaluation, 7}}(2), 73–85. https://doi.org/10.1177/2150137816642439 Linehan, M. M. (1993). {{em|Cognitive-behavioral treatment of borderline personality disorder}}. Guilford Press. Linehan, M. M., & Wilks, C. R. (2015). The course and evolution of dialectical behavior therapy. {{em|The American Journal of Psychotherapy, 69}}(2), 97-110. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.psychotherapy.2015.69.2.97 M’Bailara, K., Demotes-Mainard, J., Swendsen, J., Mathieu, F., Leboyer, M., & Henry, C. (2009). Emotional hyper-reactivity in normothymic bipolar patients. {{em|Bipolar Disorders, 11}}(1), 63-69. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1399-5618.2008.00656.x Mitchell, J. T., Robertson, C. D., Anastopolous, A. D., Nelson-Gray, R. O., & Kollins, S. H. (2012). Emotion dysregulation and emotional impulsivity among adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: Results of a preliminary study. {{em|Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 34}}(4), 510–519. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10862-012-9297-2 Oliva, V., De Prisco, M., Fico, G., Possidente, C., Fortea, L., Montejo, L., Anmella, G., Hidalgo-Mazzei, D., Grande, I., Murru, A., Fornaro, M., de Bartolomeis, A., Dodd, A., Fanelli, G., Fabbri, C., Serretti, A., Vieta, E., & Radua, J. (2023). Correlation between emotion dysregulation and mood symptoms of bipolar disorder: A systematic review and meta-analysis. {{em|Acta psychiatrica Scandinavica, 148}}(6), 472–490. https://doi.org/10.1111/acps.1361 Preece, D. A., & Gross, J. J. (2026). Cognitive behavior therapy: An emotion regulation perspective. {{em|Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice}}. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1037/cps0000327 Samea, F., Mortazavi, N., Reimann, G. M., Ebneabbasi, A., Zarei, M., Khazaie, H., Goldstein-Piekarski, A. N., Spiegelhalder, K., Baglioni, C., Sepehry, A. A., & Tahmasian, M. (2025). Insomnia and emotion dysregulation: A meta-analytical perspective integrating regulatory strategies and dispositional difficulties. {{em|Sleep medicine reviews, 82}}, Article 102111. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smrv.2025.102111 Sheppes, G., Suri, G., & Gross, J. J. (2015). Emotion regulation and psychopathology. {{em|Annual review of clinical psychology, 11}}, 379–405. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-032814-112739 Šimić, G., Tkalčić, M., Vukić, V., Mulc, D., Španić, E., Šagud, M., Olucha-Bordonau, F. E., Vukšić, M., & Hof, P. R. (2021). Understanding emotions: Origins and roles of the amygdala. {{em|Biomolecules, 11}}(6), Article 823. https://doi.org/10.3390/biom11060823 Singh, B., Swartz, H. A., Cuellar-Barboza, A. B., Schaffer, A., Kato, T., Dols, A., Sperry, S. H., Vassilev, A. B., Burdick, K. E., & Frye, M. A. (2025). Bipolar disorder. {{em|The Lancet, 406}}(10506), 963–978. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(25)01140-7 Tani, F., Pascuzzi, D., & Raffagnino, R. (2015). Emotion regulation and quality of close relationship: The effects of emotion dysregulation processes on couple intimacy. {{em|Applied Psychology Bulletin, 272}}(63), 3–15. Thayer, J. F., & Lane, R. D. (2000). A model of neurovisceral integration in emotion regulation and dysregulation. {{em|Journal of Affective Disorders, 61}}(3), 201-216. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0165-0327(00)00338-4. Wang, Y. X., & Yin, B. (2023). A new understanding of the cognitive reappraisal technique: an extension based on the schema theory. {{em|Frontiers in behavioral neuroscience, 17}}, Article 1174585. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnbeh.2023.1174585 Wright. R. N., Adock, R. A., & LaBar, K. S. (2025). Learning emotion regulation: An integrative framework. {{em|The Psychological Review, 132}}(1), 172-203. https://doi.org/10.1037/rev0000506 Yalvaç, E. B. K., & Gaynor, K. (2021). Emotional dysregulation in adults: The influence of rumination and negative secondary appraisals of emotion. {{em|Journal of Affective Disorders, 282}}, 656-661. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2020.12.194 }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== * [https://www.healthline.com/health/how-to-control-your-emotions How To Become The Boss of Your Emotions] (Healthline) * [https://www.ted.com/talks/ted_ed_how_to_manage_your_emotions How to manage your emotions] (TED-Ed) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SWvHZkkrAjc How to Master Your Emotions & Never Get Angry or Bothered by Anyone] (The Mel Robbins Podcast) * [https://www.psychologytoday.com/au/blog/click-here-for-happiness/202108/what-is-emotional-dysregulation What Is Emotional Dysregulation?] (Psychology Today) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotional self-regulation]] p1g1avre63ks01rlstve3ezul9vxijc 2832806 2832805 2026-09-11T11:38:18Z U3285438 3103750 /* Understanding emotion dysregulation */ editing headings 2832806 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Emotion dysregulation:<br>What is emotion dysregulation, what are its consequences, and how can it be managed?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} [[File:Burnout At Work - Occupational Burnout.jpg|Burnout_At_Work_-_Occupational_Burnout|250px|right|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' Taylor feels frustrated after the submissions portal froze at a critical moment.]] '''Scenario''' Taylor is trying to upload an assignment for his statistics class last minute but the submissions portal freezes exactly as he presses “submit”. He watches the cursor’s loading icon spin again and again, likely because the portal is overwhelmed by other last minute submissions. Though Taylor still has 15 minutes before the deadline, he finds himself continuing to aggressively spam click the laptop trackpad and becoming consumed by a feeling of frustration. Taylor can feel his heart rate increase, jaw tighten and leg shake beneath the desk. Then the trackpad becomes unresponsive. Taylor shoves his laptop aside and drops his head onto the table, angrily questioning why nothing ever seems to go his way (see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} From moments of [[wikipedia:Happiness|happiness]] and excitement to [[wikipedia:Sadness|sadness]] or irritation, [[w:emotions|emotions]] are an integral aspect of being human, and it is expected that these emotions fluctuate as we navigate the complexity of our everyday lives. Emotions are neither ‘good’ nor ‘bad’, rather emotions have a specific [[wikipedia:Evolution|evolutionary]] purpose that has helped us survive, adapt and interact with others (Šimić et al., 2021). Nonetheless, there are times in which strong and overwhelming emotions can impair our daily functioning. This is called [[wikipedia:Emotional_dysregulation|emotion dysregulation]]. Emotion dysregulation can be simply defined as the difficulty to cope with intense emotions, to the extent that an individual is unable to implement adaptive [[wikipedia:Coping|coping strategies]] (Gross & Thompson, 2007, as cited in Aslan et al., 2024). Consequently, individuals may struggle with abrupt changes in [[wikipedia:Mood_(psychology)|mood]], [[wikipedia:Impulsivity|impulsive behaviour]] and emotional responses out of proportion to the situation (''reference''). Research has indicated that frequent experiences of emotion dysregulation can negatively affect our [[wikipedia:Well-being|well-being]] and may be a risk factor for the development and maintenance of [[w:Mental_health_disorders|mental health disorders]] (Beauchaine & Cicchetti, 2019; Aslan et al., 2024). Taylor’s disproportionate [[wikipedia:Anger|anger]] response, in the scenario above, conveys a moment of emotion dysregulation. His escalating [[wikipedia:Frustration|frustration]] led to impulsive actions that can be considered excessive relative to the situation. This chapter will investigate how psychological science offers [[wikipedia:Empirical_research|empirical frameworks]] to guide our understanding of emotion dysregulation, its consequences and strategies we can use to facilitate [[w:Emotional_self-regulation|emotion regulation]]. Through understanding these concepts, we can be better prepared to identify and respond to emotion dysregulation in adaptive ways. '''(''Author note:'' will reword the last paragraph, and find missing reference in paragraph two).''' {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''Focus questions''' * How can emotion dysregulation be understood? *How does emotion dysregulation impact daily functioning and psychological well-being? *What approaches can help manage emotion dysregulation?{{RoundBoxBottom}} ==What is emotion dysregulation? == * Emotions can be described as complex and dynamic psychological states that integrate subjective experiences, physiological responses and behavioural responses (Hockenbury & Hockenbury, 2007 as cited in D’Agostino et al., 2017). * Emotion regulation is the ability to understand and cope with the onset, intensity and expression of these emotional states (Grecucci et al., 2020). ** Aldao and colleagues (2010) conceptualised emotion regulation as the “processes through which individuals modulate their emotions consciously and subconsciously to respond to environmental demands”. * Individuals usually develop more effective emotion regulation strategies with age (Kaufman et al., 2026). Nonetheless, impairments in emotion regulation are observed at all stages of development (Kaufman et al., 2026). So, what happens when we cannot regulate our emotions? * Despite the term being incorporated into vernacular, there is still much conceptual ambiguity surrounding the definition of emotion dysregulation due to its complexity. D’Agostino and colleagues (2017) identified five overlapping dimensions of emotion dysregulation that appear across research; reduced emotional awareness, decreased emotional reactivity, intense experiences and expression of emotion, emotional rigidity, and impaired cognitive reappraisals. * Comparatively, Beauchaine (2015, p.876) posits that emotion dysregulation constitutes “a pattern of emotional experience and/or expression that interferes with appropriate goal-directed behavior”. * These conceptualisations of emotion dysregulation emphasise deficits in emotion recognition, inability to inhibit impulsive emotional reactions, and the subsequent challenge to respond in ways that support goal attainment.   * Alongside its impact on general well-being, pervasive emotion dysregulation is considered an important factor in the development and maintenance of psychological disorders (Yalvaç & Gaynor, 2021; Beauchaine & Dante Cicchetti, 2019). (''Author note:'' will include another section on outlining the core features/signs of emotion dysregulation. May delve into the different maladaptive strategies characteristic of emotion dysregulation. Then will include a sentence on using psychological frameworks to help our understanding.) === Gross's extended process model of emotion regulation === * Gross’s [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Extended process model of emotion regulation|extended process model of emotion regulation]] (EMP) is grounded in appraisal theory, positing that emotions emerge from the cognitive evaluations individuals make in response to events (Grecucci et al., 2020). This model emphasises a process-orientated framework for emotion [dys]regulation (Gross, 2015). * Gross (2015) defines emotion regulation as “a particular type of interaction between valuation systems”. * Gross (2015) proposes three distinct stages of emotion regulation; identification, selection and implementation. Emotion dysregulation may occur at any of these stages. * Sheppes et al. (2015): ** Identification-stage failures: difficulty reading emotional cues, leading to challenges initiating emotion regulation strategies and/or overidentification of emotions. ** Selection-stage failures: difficulties selecting an appropriate regulation strategy and/or a lack of access to adaptive strategies. ** Implementation-stage failures: impaired ability to carry-out a selected regulation strategy. * Comment on the limitations of this model. ** e.g., focus on emotion regulation rather than emotion dysregulation? === Linehan's biosocial model === * Linehan’s (1993) biosocial model proposes that emotion dysregulation constitutes the dynamic interactions between an individual’s biological emotional vulnerability and an invalidating environment during development. This model was initially developed within the context of [[wikipedia:Borderline_personality_disorder|Borderline Personality Disorder]].[[File:DBT Biosocial model.png|thumb|304x304px|'''Figure 2.''' Linehan's (1993) biosocial model of emotion dysregulation. ]] * Emotional vulnerability refers to the genetic predisposition toward emotional hypersensitivity, hyperreactivity and long-lasting emotional reactions (Bemmouna & Weiner, 2023). The [[wikipedia:Prefrontal_cortex|prefrontal cortex]] and [[wikipedia:Amygdala|amygdala]] are brain regions often implicated in the genetic disruption of emotional processing, contributing to increased emotional vulnerability (Bemmouna & Weiner, 2023). * Invalidating environments are characterised as insufficient environmental responses to a child’s emotional needs, thereby the child does not learn to understand, recognise or appropriately react to emotional responses (Cronwell et al., 2009). * Linehan (1993) argues that an individual is more likely to develop pervasive emotion dysregulation if they have an emotionally sensitive temperament and receive persistent invalidating responses. Individuals may feel compelled to escalate their emotional reactions to communicate their unmet needs (Linehan, 1993). * Linehan (1993) suggests that emotion dysregulation will lead to maladaptive response patterns when individuals are faced with challenging experiences. * Comment on the limitations of this model (e.g., developed based on BPD?) === Gratz and Roemer's multidimensional model of emotion regulation === * Gratz and Roemer’s (2004) multidimensional model of emotion regulation aimed to provide a comprehensive and integrative approach to the conceptualisation and measurement of emotion regulation. * Using on this model, Gratz and Roemer (2004) developed the Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale (DERS) to assess emotion dysregulation. Based on the results, Gratz and Roemer (2004) conceptualised six core dimensions that characterise emotion dysregulation; *# lack of awareness of emotions *# lack of clarity of emotions *# nonacceptance of emotional responses *# inability to access regulation strategies *# difficulties controlling impulsive behaviour when experiencing negative emotions *# inability to engage in goal directed behaviour when experiencing negative emotions * DERS is an empirically validated psychological assessment tool used to assess emotion dysregulation among adolescents and adults (Kaufman et al., 2026). In 2026, Kaufman and colleagues developed a short form version called DERS-SF. {{robelbox|theme=3|title=Let's do a quick knowledge check!|icon=Paomedia small-n-flat light-bulb.svg|iconwidth=68px}}<div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> <quiz display=simple header=none> {Which model links emotion dysregulation to emotional vulnerability and invalidating environments? | type="(+)"} - Gross’s extended process model + Linehan’s biosocial model - Gratz and Roemer’s multidimensional model {Which model defines emotion dysregulation as “a particular type of interaction between valuation systems"? | type="(+)"} - Linehan’s biosocial model - Gratz and Roemer’s multidimensional model + Gross’s extended process model {Which model aimed to develop an approach to conceptualise and measure emotion dysregulation? | type="(+)"} + Gratz and Roemer’s multidimensional model - Gross’s extended process model - Linehan’s biosocial model } </quiz> </div> {{Robelbox/close}} ==Impact of emotion dysregulation on daily functioning and psychological well-being== *Describe/argue how emotion dysregulation impacts individuals daily functioning – making sure to define daily functioning and why this could be problematic to overall well-being. **Tani and colleagues (2015) identified that increased levels of emotion dysregulation were associated with lower satisfaction in couples’ relationship quality. **Those that struggle to modulate their emotional responses often experience prolonged and more severe periods of distress (Boemo et al., 2022). **Samea and colleagues (2025) performed a meta-analysis on the relationship between emotion dysregulation and sleep deprivation. *Emphasise that emotion dysregulation negatively impacts multiple domains of daily functioning (decision-making, stress-responses, quality of life, etc.) – therefore addressing the importance of addressing emotion dysregulation. (''Author note:'' should this section be expanded using subheadings? For example, interpersonal conflict, impaired academic/occupational performance, and impact on general health/well-being. Need to make sure enough literature is available with non-clinical populations - or maybe I can include research from clinical populations?) '''(SECTION ON PSYCHOLOGICAL WELL-BEING)''' *Alongside its impact on everyday functioning, emotion dysregulation is increasingly recognised as a transdiagnostic factor in the development and maintenance of psychological disorders (Yalvaç & Gaynor, 2021; Beauchaine & Cicchetti, 2019). *Transdiagnostic factors refer to underlying risk, maintenance or protective factors that are implicated across a diverse range psychological disorders, transcending diagnostic categories (Dalgeish et al., 2020). *Beauchaine and Cicchetti (2019) observed that emotion dysregulation has been associated with [[wikipedia:Internalizing_disorder|internalizing disorders]], [[wikipedia:Externalizing_disorder|externalizing disorders]], [[wikipedia:Personality_disorder|personality disorders]] and [[wikipedia:Psychosis|psychotic disorders]]. Further, impairments in top-down processing of emotional reactivity are evident across many psychological disorders (Beauchaine & Cicchetti, 2019). *Emotion dysregulation in children and adolescents may be a predisposing factor to the emergence of psychological disorders in adulthood (Cole et al. 2017). === Emotion dysregulation in borderline personality disorder (BPD) === * Borderline personality disorder (BPD) is a psychological disorder defined by an enduring pattern of emotion dysregulation, impaired interpersonal functioning and an unstable sense of self (Bohus et al., 2021). * Refer back to Linehan’s (1993) biosocial model ---> developed for BPD. ** According to Linehan (1933), emotion dysregulation is a core feature of borderline personality disorder, accounting for most of its symptomology. * Borderline personality disorder is associated with low emotional awareness, persistent [[wikipedia:Negative_affectivity|negative affect]] and the use of ineffective strategies to regulate emotions (Fitzpatrick et al., 2023). * Among those with borderline personality disorder, impulsivity and dysfunctional behaviour is associated with experiences of increased emotional distress (Bohus et al., 2021).   (''Author note:'' will expand upon the role of emotion dysregulation as the driving factor of BPD symptomology (e.g., risk or maintaining factor) and touch on how individuals with BPD use strategies that elicit short-term relief but perpetuate difficulties over time.) === Emotion dysregulation in bipolar disorder (BD) === * [[wikipedia:Bipolar_disorder|Bipolar disorder]] is a psychological disorder associated with extreme changes in mood, energy and activity levels (Singh et al., 2025). Bipolar disorder is defined by recurrent episodes of [[wikipedia:Mania|mania]] or [[wikipedia:Hypomania|hypomania]] and [[wikipedia:Depression_(mood)|depression]] (Singh et al., 2025). * Difficulties in emotion regulation are correlated with depressive and (hypo)manic episodes (Oliva et al., 2023). * Those with bipolar disorder exhibit a reduced capacity to recognise and accept their emotions during both acute (hypo)manic and depressive episodes (Oliva et al., 2023). * M’Bailara and colleagues (2009) found that even during [[wikipedia:Euthymia_(medicine)|euthymia]], participants with bipolar disorder experienced greater emotional reactivity and emotional intensity than control participants. This suggests that emotion dysregulation persists beyond acute symptoms and may account for the increased vulnerability to minor stressful events observed among those with bipolar (M’Bailara et al., 2009). (''Author note:'' will expand upon the role of emotion dysregulation in BD symptomology (e.g., risk or maintaining factor) and touch on how individuals with BD use maladaptive emotion regulation strategies. Additionally, will look for a more recent study on euthymia and emotion dysregulation). === Emotion dysregulation in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) === * [[wikipedia:Attention_deficit_hyperactivity_disorder|Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder]] (ADHD) is [[wikipedia:Neurodevelopmental_disorder|neurodevelopmental disorder]] defined by persistent patterns of inattention, hyperactivity and impulsivity (Bodalski et al., 2019). * Emerging research has indicated that emotion regulation difficulties in ADHD cannot be explained fully by the presence of [[wikipedia:Comorbidity|comorbid]] disorders, rather emotion dysregulation itself may be a distinct feature of ADHD (Bodalski et al., 2019). * In 2014, Bunford and colleagues found that emotion dysregulation predicted social impairments among adolescents with ADHD, particularly emotional excitability, impulsivity and prolonged emotional responses. * Barkley (1997) proposed the executive functioning theory of ADHD, arguing that ADHD can be attributed to impairments in the behavioural inhibition processes that govern self-regulation and goal-directed behaviour. ** Disruptions in emotional inhibition processes are among the executive functions implicated in ADHD, contributing to emotion dysregulation (Mitchell et al., 2012). (''Author note:'' will expand upon the role of emotion dysregulation in ADHD and touch on how individuals with ADHD use maladaptive emotion regulation strategies. Additionally, will give examples on how emotion dysregulation presents in ADHD). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}'''Scenario: Emotional dysregulation in ADHD''' {{em|(Author note: will incorporate a scenario (and figure) to explain the role of emotion dysregulation in ADHD.)}}{{RoundBoxBottom}} == How can emotion dysregulation be managed? == *Research indicates that emotion regulation is a learned skill that develops with practice over the lifespan (Wright et al., 2025). **[[File:Practicing mindfulness promotes creativity.png|thumb|180x180px|'''Figure 3.''' Emotion regulation skills promote general well-being. ]]Individuals emotion regulation capabilities are shaped through learning processes, including parental modelling and [[wikipedia:Co-regulation|co-regulation]] during childhood (Wright et al., 2025) * [[wikipedia:Psychotherapy|Psychotherapy]] interventions or management strategies that build emotion regulation skills are integral to reducing emotion dysregulation and maladaptive strategies among those with psychological disorders. * Outside of professional support, there are a range of practical everyday strategies that can assist in reducing emotion dysregulation and promoting general well-being (see Figure 3).   === Dialectical behaviour therapy (DBT) approaches to emotion dysregulation === * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Dialectical behaviour therapy and emotion regulation|Dialectical behaviour therapy (DBT)]] emerged as a psychological treatment approach rooted in behaviourism to address self-harm behaviours in borderline personality disorder (Linehan & Wilks, 2015). * DBT focuses on developing practical skills across the four modules of [[wikipedia:Mindfulness|mindfulness]], interpersonal effectiveness, emotional regulation and distress tolerance (Linehan & Wilks, 2015). * Abundant empirical research found that DBT was clinically relevant in reducing emotion dysregulation and maladaptive coping strategies among those with borderline personality disorder (Lenz et al., 2016). ** Emotional regulation is considered a key mechanism of change in DBT outcomes (Lenz et al., 2016). * DBT has broader clinical applications – will incorporate research on DBT’s effectiveness across other psychological disorders in which emotion dysregulation is a key component. * Comment on how DBT relates to/addresses to both Linehan’s biosocial model and Gross’s extended process model. (''Author note'': will further expand upon the emotion dysregulation skills-training involved in DBT and further emphasis will be placed on evidence from literature.) === Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) approaches to emotion dysregulation === * [[File:Beck's CognitiveTriad.png|thumb|279x279px|'''Figure 4.''' Representation of Beck's (1976) cognitive triad. ]][[wikipedia:Cognitive_behavioral_therapy|Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT)]] is grounded on the premise that thoughts, behaviours and emotions are intrinsically intertwined (Preece & Gross, 2026). *Cognitive reappraisal is an important technique used in CBT to regulate emotions (Wang & Yin, 2023). *Preece and Gross (2026) posit that CBT should be understood through the lens of emotion regulation. *Compare/link back to Gross's (2015) extended process model of emotion regulation and reference Beck’s (1976) cognitive triad (see Figure 4). ''(Author note: the cognitive triangle might be more relevant than the cognitive triad here).'' === Physiological approaches to managing emotion dysregulation === * Briefly cover emotion regulation through exercise – include research on how exercise can reduce emotion dysregulation through physiological mechanisms. ** Thayer and Lane (2000) posited the neurovisceral integration model to account for the observed relationship between physiological feedback circuits and affective systems. * Briefly cover [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Guided meditation and emotion regulation|emotion regulation through meditation]]/mindfulness - technique used to elicit the relaxation response which facilitates emotion regulation through physiological mechanisms. ** Benson and colleagues (1974) relaxation response theory. ** Emphasise the accessibility of meditation/mindfulness. ==Conclusion== * Summarise emotion dysregulation, including its core features, conceptualisation as multidimensional construct and how psychological models can guide our understanding (despite diverse approaches/definitions). * Emphasise the influence and impact of emotion dysregulation on our day-to-day lives. Comment on the effect of emotion dysregulation on our well-being. * Restate how increasing evidence highlights emotion dysregulation as a transdiagnostic factor across many psychological disorders, thereby emotion dysregulation has important clinical applications in the treatment of these disorders. * Provide a practical summary of the strategies that can reduce dysregulation. Aim to encourage the reader to try implement these strategies themselves to improve emotion self-regulation skills. ** Comment again on the importance of emotion regulation skills, particularly when confronted with challenging or distressing situations (leads to overall healthier behaviours and well-being). ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/ADHD and emotional regulation|ADHD and emotional regulation]] (Book chapter, 2024) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Cognitive strategies and emotion regulation|Cognitive strategies and emotion regulation]] (Book chapter, 2025) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Dialectical behaviour therapy and emotion regulation|Dialectical behaviour therapy and emotion regulation]] (Book chapter, 2025) * [[w:Emotional_self-regulation|Emotional self-regulation]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Extended process model of emotion regulation|Extended process model of emotion regulation]] (Book chapter, 2026) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Social media and emotional dysregulation|Social media and emotional dysregulation]] (Book chapter, 2025) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Aldao, A., Nolen-Hoeksema, S., & Schweizer, S. (2010). Emotion-regulation strategies across psychopathology: A meta-analytic review. {{em|Clinical psychology review, 30}}(2), 217–237. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2009.11.004 Aslan, I. H., Dorey, L., Grant, J. E., & Chamberlain, S. R. (2024). Emotion regulation across psychiatric disorders. {{em|CNS spectrums, 29}}(3), 215–220. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1092852924000270 Barkley, R. A. (1997). Behavioral inhibition, sustained attention, and executive functions: Constructing a unifying theory of ADHD. {{em|Psychological Bulletin, 121}}(1), 65–94. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.121.1.65 Beauchaine, T. P. (2015). Future directions in emotion dysregulation and youth psychopathology. {{em|Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 44}}(5), 875–896. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2015.1038827 Beauchaine, T. P., & Cicchetti, D. (2019). Emotion dysregulation and emerging psychopathology: A transdiagnostic, transdisciplinary perspective. {{em|Development and Psychopathology, 31}}, 799–804. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579419000671 Beck, A. T. (1976). {{em|Cognitive therapy and the emotional disorders}}. International Universities Press. Bemmouna, D., & Weiner, L. (2023). Linehan's biosocial model applied to emotion dysregulation in autism: A narrative review of the literature and an illustrative case conceptualization. {{em|Frontiers in psychiatry, 14}}, Article 1238116. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1238116 Benson, H., Beary, J. F., & Carol, M. P. (1974). The relaxation response. {{em|Psychiatry, 37}}(1), 37–46. https://doi.org/10.1080/00332747.1974.11023785 Bodalski, E. A., Knouse, L. E., & Kovalev, D. (2019). 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Emotion dysregulation in personality disorders. {{em|Current Psychiatry Reports, 24}}, 223–231. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-023-01418-8 Gratz, K. L., & Roemer, L. (2004). Multidimensional assessment of emotion regulation and dysregulation: Development, factor structure, and initial validation of the difficulties in emotion regulation scale. {{em|Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 26}}, 41–54. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:JOBA.0000007455.08539.94 Grecucci, A., Messina, I., Amodeo, L., Lapomarda, G., Crescentini, C., Dadomo, H., Panzeri, M., Theuninck, A., & Frederickson, J. (2020). A dual route model for regulating emotions: Comparing models, techniques and biological mechanisms. {{em|Frontiers in Psychology, 11}}, Article 930. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00930 Gross, J. J. (2015) The extended process model of emotion regulation: Elaborations, applications, and future directions. {{em|Psychological Inquiry, 26}}(1), 130-137. https://doi.org/10.1080/1047840X.2015.989751 Kaufman, E. A., Xia, M., Fosco, G., Yaptangco, M., Skidmore, C. R., & Crowell, S. E. (2016). The difficulties in emotion regulation scale short form (DERS-SF): Validation and replication in adolescent and adult samples. {{em|Journal of psychopathology and behavioral assessment, 38}}(3), 443–455. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10862-015-9529-3 Lenz, A. S., Del Conte, G., Hollenbaugh, K. M., & Callendar, K. (2016). Emotional regulation and interpersonal effectiveness as mechanisms of change for treatment outcomes within a DBT program for adolescents. {{em|Counseling Outcome Research and Evaluation, 7}}(2), 73–85. https://doi.org/10.1177/2150137816642439 Linehan, M. M. (1993). {{em|Cognitive-behavioral treatment of borderline personality disorder}}. Guilford Press. Linehan, M. M., & Wilks, C. R. (2015). The course and evolution of dialectical behavior therapy. {{em|The American Journal of Psychotherapy, 69}}(2), 97-110. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.psychotherapy.2015.69.2.97 M’Bailara, K., Demotes-Mainard, J., Swendsen, J., Mathieu, F., Leboyer, M., & Henry, C. (2009). Emotional hyper-reactivity in normothymic bipolar patients. {{em|Bipolar Disorders, 11}}(1), 63-69. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1399-5618.2008.00656.x Mitchell, J. T., Robertson, C. D., Anastopolous, A. D., Nelson-Gray, R. O., & Kollins, S. H. (2012). Emotion dysregulation and emotional impulsivity among adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: Results of a preliminary study. {{em|Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 34}}(4), 510–519. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10862-012-9297-2 Oliva, V., De Prisco, M., Fico, G., Possidente, C., Fortea, L., Montejo, L., Anmella, G., Hidalgo-Mazzei, D., Grande, I., Murru, A., Fornaro, M., de Bartolomeis, A., Dodd, A., Fanelli, G., Fabbri, C., Serretti, A., Vieta, E., & Radua, J. (2023). Correlation between emotion dysregulation and mood symptoms of bipolar disorder: A systematic review and meta-analysis. {{em|Acta psychiatrica Scandinavica, 148}}(6), 472–490. https://doi.org/10.1111/acps.1361 Preece, D. A., & Gross, J. J. (2026). Cognitive behavior therapy: An emotion regulation perspective. {{em|Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice}}. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1037/cps0000327 Samea, F., Mortazavi, N., Reimann, G. M., Ebneabbasi, A., Zarei, M., Khazaie, H., Goldstein-Piekarski, A. N., Spiegelhalder, K., Baglioni, C., Sepehry, A. A., & Tahmasian, M. (2025). Insomnia and emotion dysregulation: A meta-analytical perspective integrating regulatory strategies and dispositional difficulties. {{em|Sleep medicine reviews, 82}}, Article 102111. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smrv.2025.102111 Sheppes, G., Suri, G., & Gross, J. J. (2015). Emotion regulation and psychopathology. {{em|Annual review of clinical psychology, 11}}, 379–405. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-032814-112739 Šimić, G., Tkalčić, M., Vukić, V., Mulc, D., Španić, E., Šagud, M., Olucha-Bordonau, F. E., Vukšić, M., & Hof, P. R. (2021). Understanding emotions: Origins and roles of the amygdala. {{em|Biomolecules, 11}}(6), Article 823. https://doi.org/10.3390/biom11060823 Singh, B., Swartz, H. A., Cuellar-Barboza, A. B., Schaffer, A., Kato, T., Dols, A., Sperry, S. H., Vassilev, A. B., Burdick, K. E., & Frye, M. A. (2025). Bipolar disorder. {{em|The Lancet, 406}}(10506), 963–978. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(25)01140-7 Tani, F., Pascuzzi, D., & Raffagnino, R. (2015). Emotion regulation and quality of close relationship: The effects of emotion dysregulation processes on couple intimacy. {{em|Applied Psychology Bulletin, 272}}(63), 3–15. Thayer, J. F., & Lane, R. D. (2000). A model of neurovisceral integration in emotion regulation and dysregulation. {{em|Journal of Affective Disorders, 61}}(3), 201-216. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0165-0327(00)00338-4. Wang, Y. X., & Yin, B. (2023). A new understanding of the cognitive reappraisal technique: an extension based on the schema theory. {{em|Frontiers in behavioral neuroscience, 17}}, Article 1174585. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnbeh.2023.1174585 Wright. R. N., Adock, R. A., & LaBar, K. S. (2025). Learning emotion regulation: An integrative framework. {{em|The Psychological Review, 132}}(1), 172-203. https://doi.org/10.1037/rev0000506 Yalvaç, E. B. K., & Gaynor, K. (2021). Emotional dysregulation in adults: The influence of rumination and negative secondary appraisals of emotion. {{em|Journal of Affective Disorders, 282}}, 656-661. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2020.12.194 }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== * [https://www.healthline.com/health/how-to-control-your-emotions How To Become The Boss of Your Emotions] (Healthline) * [https://www.ted.com/talks/ted_ed_how_to_manage_your_emotions How to manage your emotions] (TED-Ed) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SWvHZkkrAjc How to Master Your Emotions & Never Get Angry or Bothered by Anyone] (The Mel Robbins Podcast) * [https://www.psychologytoday.com/au/blog/click-here-for-happiness/202108/what-is-emotional-dysregulation What Is Emotional Dysregulation?] (Psychology Today) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotional self-regulation]] qimaa26rjpw2rhu0uoqcaqk2w1blqt6 2832807 2832806 2026-09-11T11:41:19Z U3285438 3103750 /* What is emotion dysregulation? */ edited headings 2832807 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Emotion dysregulation:<br>What is emotion dysregulation, what are its consequences, and how can it be managed?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} [[File:Burnout At Work - Occupational Burnout.jpg|Burnout_At_Work_-_Occupational_Burnout|250px|right|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' Taylor feels frustrated after the submissions portal froze at a critical moment.]] '''Scenario''' Taylor is trying to upload an assignment for his statistics class last minute but the submissions portal freezes exactly as he presses “submit”. He watches the cursor’s loading icon spin again and again, likely because the portal is overwhelmed by other last minute submissions. Though Taylor still has 15 minutes before the deadline, he finds himself continuing to aggressively spam click the laptop trackpad and becoming consumed by a feeling of frustration. Taylor can feel his heart rate increase, jaw tighten and leg shake beneath the desk. Then the trackpad becomes unresponsive. Taylor shoves his laptop aside and drops his head onto the table, angrily questioning why nothing ever seems to go his way (see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} From moments of [[wikipedia:Happiness|happiness]] and excitement to [[wikipedia:Sadness|sadness]] or irritation, [[w:emotions|emotions]] are an integral aspect of being human, and it is expected that these emotions fluctuate as we navigate the complexity of our everyday lives. Emotions are neither ‘good’ nor ‘bad’, rather emotions have a specific [[wikipedia:Evolution|evolutionary]] purpose that has helped us survive, adapt and interact with others (Šimić et al., 2021). Nonetheless, there are times in which strong and overwhelming emotions can impair our daily functioning. This is called [[wikipedia:Emotional_dysregulation|emotion dysregulation]]. Emotion dysregulation can be simply defined as the difficulty to cope with intense emotions, to the extent that an individual is unable to implement adaptive [[wikipedia:Coping|coping strategies]] (Gross & Thompson, 2007, as cited in Aslan et al., 2024). Consequently, individuals may struggle with abrupt changes in [[wikipedia:Mood_(psychology)|mood]], [[wikipedia:Impulsivity|impulsive behaviour]] and emotional responses out of proportion to the situation (''reference''). Research has indicated that frequent experiences of emotion dysregulation can negatively affect our [[wikipedia:Well-being|well-being]] and may be a risk factor for the development and maintenance of [[w:Mental_health_disorders|mental health disorders]] (Beauchaine & Cicchetti, 2019; Aslan et al., 2024). Taylor’s disproportionate [[wikipedia:Anger|anger]] response, in the scenario above, conveys a moment of emotion dysregulation. His escalating [[wikipedia:Frustration|frustration]] led to impulsive actions that can be considered excessive relative to the situation. This chapter will investigate how psychological science offers [[wikipedia:Empirical_research|empirical frameworks]] to guide our understanding of emotion dysregulation, its consequences and strategies we can use to facilitate [[w:Emotional_self-regulation|emotion regulation]]. Through understanding these concepts, we can be better prepared to identify and respond to emotion dysregulation in adaptive ways. '''(''Author note:'' will reword the last paragraph, and find missing reference in paragraph two).''' {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''Focus questions''' * How can emotion dysregulation be understood? *How does emotion dysregulation impact daily functioning and psychological well-being? *What approaches can help manage emotion dysregulation?{{RoundBoxBottom}} ==What is emotion dysregulation? == * Emotions can be described as complex and dynamic psychological states that integrate subjective experiences, physiological responses and behavioural responses (Hockenbury & Hockenbury, 2007 as cited in D’Agostino et al., 2017). * Emotion regulation is the ability to understand and cope with the onset, intensity and expression of these emotional states (Grecucci et al., 2020). ** Aldao and colleagues (2010) conceptualised emotion regulation as the “processes through which individuals modulate their emotions consciously and subconsciously to respond to environmental demands”. * Individuals usually develop more effective emotion regulation strategies with age (Kaufman et al., 2026). Nonetheless, impairments in emotion regulation are observed at all stages of development (Kaufman et al., 2026). So, what happens when we cannot regulate our emotions? * Despite the term being incorporated into vernacular, there is still much conceptual ambiguity surrounding the definition of emotion dysregulation due to its complexity. D’Agostino and colleagues (2017) identified five overlapping dimensions of emotion dysregulation that appear across research; reduced emotional awareness, decreased emotional reactivity, intense experiences and expression of emotion, emotional rigidity, and impaired cognitive reappraisals. * Comparatively, Beauchaine (2015, p.876) posits that emotion dysregulation constitutes “a pattern of emotional experience and/or expression that interferes with appropriate goal-directed behavior”. * These conceptualisations of emotion dysregulation emphasise deficits in emotion recognition, inability to inhibit impulsive emotional reactions, and the subsequent challenge to respond in ways that support goal attainment.   * Alongside its impact on general well-being, pervasive emotion dysregulation is considered an important factor in the development and maintenance of psychological disorders (Yalvaç & Gaynor, 2021; Beauchaine & Dante Cicchetti, 2019). (''Author note:'' will include another section on outlining the core features/signs of emotion dysregulation. May delve into the different maladaptive strategies characteristic of emotion dysregulation. Then will include a sentence on using psychological frameworks to help our understanding.) === Extended process model of emotion regulation === * Gross’s [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Extended process model of emotion regulation|extended process model of emotion regulation]] (EMP) is grounded in appraisal theory, positing that emotions emerge from the cognitive evaluations individuals make in response to events (Grecucci et al., 2020). This model emphasises a process-orientated framework for emotion [dys]regulation (Gross, 2015). * Gross (2015) defines emotion regulation as “a particular type of interaction between valuation systems”. * Gross (2015) proposes three distinct stages of emotion regulation; identification, selection and implementation. Emotion dysregulation may occur at any of these stages. * Sheppes et al. (2015): ** Identification-stage failures: difficulty reading emotional cues, leading to challenges initiating emotion regulation strategies and/or overidentification of emotions. ** Selection-stage failures: difficulties selecting an appropriate regulation strategy and/or a lack of access to adaptive strategies. ** Implementation-stage failures: impaired ability to carry-out a selected regulation strategy. * Comment on the limitations of this model. ** e.g., focus on emotion regulation rather than emotion dysregulation? === Biosocial model === * Linehan’s (1993) biosocial model proposes that emotion dysregulation constitutes the dynamic interactions between an individual’s biological emotional vulnerability and an invalidating environment during development. This model was initially developed within the context of [[wikipedia:Borderline_personality_disorder|Borderline Personality Disorder]].[[File:DBT Biosocial model.png|thumb|304x304px|'''Figure 2.''' Linehan's (1993) biosocial model of emotion dysregulation. ]] * Emotional vulnerability refers to the genetic predisposition toward emotional hypersensitivity, hyperreactivity and long-lasting emotional reactions (Bemmouna & Weiner, 2023). The [[wikipedia:Prefrontal_cortex|prefrontal cortex]] and [[wikipedia:Amygdala|amygdala]] are brain regions often implicated in the genetic disruption of emotional processing, contributing to increased emotional vulnerability (Bemmouna & Weiner, 2023). * Invalidating environments are characterised as insufficient environmental responses to a child’s emotional needs, thereby the child does not learn to understand, recognise or appropriately react to emotional responses (Cronwell et al., 2009). * Linehan (1993) argues that an individual is more likely to develop pervasive emotion dysregulation if they have an emotionally sensitive temperament and receive persistent invalidating responses. Individuals may feel compelled to escalate their emotional reactions to communicate their unmet needs (Linehan, 1993). * Linehan (1993) suggests that emotion dysregulation will lead to maladaptive response patterns when individuals are faced with challenging experiences. * Comment on the limitations of this model (e.g., developed based on BPD?) === Multidimensional model of emotion regulation === * Gratz and Roemer’s (2004) multidimensional model of emotion regulation aimed to provide a comprehensive and integrative approach to the conceptualisation and measurement of emotion regulation. * Using on this model, Gratz and Roemer (2004) developed the Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale (DERS) to assess emotion dysregulation. Based on the results, Gratz and Roemer (2004) conceptualised six core dimensions that characterise emotion dysregulation; *# lack of awareness of emotions *# lack of clarity of emotions *# nonacceptance of emotional responses *# inability to access regulation strategies *# difficulties controlling impulsive behaviour when experiencing negative emotions *# inability to engage in goal directed behaviour when experiencing negative emotions * DERS is an empirically validated psychological assessment tool used to assess emotion dysregulation among adolescents and adults (Kaufman et al., 2026). In 2026, Kaufman and colleagues developed a short form version called DERS-SF. {{robelbox|theme=3|title=Let's do a quick knowledge check!|icon=Paomedia small-n-flat light-bulb.svg|iconwidth=68px}}<div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> <quiz display=simple header=none> {Which model links emotion dysregulation to emotional vulnerability and invalidating environments? | type="(+)"} - Gross’s extended process model + Linehan’s biosocial model - Gratz and Roemer’s multidimensional model {Which model defines emotion dysregulation as “a particular type of interaction between valuation systems"? | type="(+)"} - Linehan’s biosocial model - Gratz and Roemer’s multidimensional model + Gross’s extended process model {Which model aimed to develop an approach to conceptualise and measure emotion dysregulation? | type="(+)"} + Gratz and Roemer’s multidimensional model - Gross’s extended process model - Linehan’s biosocial model } </quiz> </div> {{Robelbox/close}} ==Impact of emotion dysregulation on daily functioning and psychological well-being== *Describe/argue how emotion dysregulation impacts individuals daily functioning – making sure to define daily functioning and why this could be problematic to overall well-being. **Tani and colleagues (2015) identified that increased levels of emotion dysregulation were associated with lower satisfaction in couples’ relationship quality. **Those that struggle to modulate their emotional responses often experience prolonged and more severe periods of distress (Boemo et al., 2022). **Samea and colleagues (2025) performed a meta-analysis on the relationship between emotion dysregulation and sleep deprivation. *Emphasise that emotion dysregulation negatively impacts multiple domains of daily functioning (decision-making, stress-responses, quality of life, etc.) – therefore addressing the importance of addressing emotion dysregulation. (''Author note:'' should this section be expanded using subheadings? For example, interpersonal conflict, impaired academic/occupational performance, and impact on general health/well-being. Need to make sure enough literature is available with non-clinical populations - or maybe I can include research from clinical populations?) '''(SECTION ON PSYCHOLOGICAL WELL-BEING)''' *Alongside its impact on everyday functioning, emotion dysregulation is increasingly recognised as a transdiagnostic factor in the development and maintenance of psychological disorders (Yalvaç & Gaynor, 2021; Beauchaine & Cicchetti, 2019). *Transdiagnostic factors refer to underlying risk, maintenance or protective factors that are implicated across a diverse range psychological disorders, transcending diagnostic categories (Dalgeish et al., 2020). *Beauchaine and Cicchetti (2019) observed that emotion dysregulation has been associated with [[wikipedia:Internalizing_disorder|internalizing disorders]], [[wikipedia:Externalizing_disorder|externalizing disorders]], [[wikipedia:Personality_disorder|personality disorders]] and [[wikipedia:Psychosis|psychotic disorders]]. Further, impairments in top-down processing of emotional reactivity are evident across many psychological disorders (Beauchaine & Cicchetti, 2019). *Emotion dysregulation in children and adolescents may be a predisposing factor to the emergence of psychological disorders in adulthood (Cole et al. 2017). === Emotion dysregulation in borderline personality disorder === * Borderline personality disorder (BPD) is a psychological disorder defined by an enduring pattern of emotion dysregulation, impaired interpersonal functioning and an unstable sense of self (Bohus et al., 2021). * Refer back to Linehan’s (1993) biosocial model ---> developed for BPD. ** According to Linehan (1933), emotion dysregulation is a core feature of borderline personality disorder, accounting for most of its symptomology. * Borderline personality disorder is associated with low emotional awareness, persistent [[wikipedia:Negative_affectivity|negative affect]] and the use of ineffective strategies to regulate emotions (Fitzpatrick et al., 2023). * Among those with borderline personality disorder, impulsivity and dysfunctional behaviour is associated with experiences of increased emotional distress (Bohus et al., 2021).   (''Author note:'' will expand upon the role of emotion dysregulation as the driving factor of BPD symptomology (e.g., risk or maintaining factor) and touch on how individuals with BPD use strategies that elicit short-term relief but perpetuate difficulties over time.) === Emotion dysregulation in bipolar disorder === * [[wikipedia:Bipolar_disorder|Bipolar disorder]] is a psychological disorder associated with extreme changes in mood, energy and activity levels (Singh et al., 2025). Bipolar disorder is defined by recurrent episodes of [[wikipedia:Mania|mania]] or [[wikipedia:Hypomania|hypomania]] and [[wikipedia:Depression_(mood)|depression]] (Singh et al., 2025). * Difficulties in emotion regulation are correlated with depressive and (hypo)manic episodes (Oliva et al., 2023). * Those with bipolar disorder exhibit a reduced capacity to recognise and accept their emotions during both acute (hypo)manic and depressive episodes (Oliva et al., 2023). * M’Bailara and colleagues (2009) found that even during [[wikipedia:Euthymia_(medicine)|euthymia]], participants with bipolar disorder experienced greater emotional reactivity and emotional intensity than control participants. This suggests that emotion dysregulation persists beyond acute symptoms and may account for the increased vulnerability to minor stressful events observed among those with bipolar (M’Bailara et al., 2009). (''Author note:'' will expand upon the role of emotion dysregulation in BD symptomology (e.g., risk or maintaining factor) and touch on how individuals with BD use maladaptive emotion regulation strategies. Additionally, will look for a more recent study on euthymia and emotion dysregulation). === Emotion dysregulation in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder === * [[wikipedia:Attention_deficit_hyperactivity_disorder|Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder]] (ADHD) is [[wikipedia:Neurodevelopmental_disorder|neurodevelopmental disorder]] defined by persistent patterns of inattention, hyperactivity and impulsivity (Bodalski et al., 2019). * Emerging research has indicated that emotion regulation difficulties in ADHD cannot be explained fully by the presence of [[wikipedia:Comorbidity|comorbid]] disorders, rather emotion dysregulation itself may be a distinct feature of ADHD (Bodalski et al., 2019). * In 2014, Bunford and colleagues found that emotion dysregulation predicted social impairments among adolescents with ADHD, particularly emotional excitability, impulsivity and prolonged emotional responses. * Barkley (1997) proposed the executive functioning theory of ADHD, arguing that ADHD can be attributed to impairments in the behavioural inhibition processes that govern self-regulation and goal-directed behaviour. ** Disruptions in emotional inhibition processes are among the executive functions implicated in ADHD, contributing to emotion dysregulation (Mitchell et al., 2012). (''Author note:'' will expand upon the role of emotion dysregulation in ADHD and touch on how individuals with ADHD use maladaptive emotion regulation strategies. Additionally, will give examples on how emotion dysregulation presents in ADHD). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}'''Scenario: Emotional dysregulation in ADHD''' {{em|(Author note: will incorporate a scenario (and figure) to explain the role of emotion dysregulation in ADHD.)}}{{RoundBoxBottom}} == How can emotion dysregulation be managed? == *Research indicates that emotion regulation is a learned skill that develops with practice over the lifespan (Wright et al., 2025). **[[File:Practicing mindfulness promotes creativity.png|thumb|180x180px|'''Figure 3.''' Emotion regulation skills promote general well-being. ]]Individuals emotion regulation capabilities are shaped through learning processes, including parental modelling and [[wikipedia:Co-regulation|co-regulation]] during childhood (Wright et al., 2025) * [[wikipedia:Psychotherapy|Psychotherapy]] interventions or management strategies that build emotion regulation skills are integral to reducing emotion dysregulation and maladaptive strategies among those with psychological disorders. * Outside of professional support, there are a range of practical everyday strategies that can assist in reducing emotion dysregulation and promoting general well-being (see Figure 3).   === Dialectical behaviour therapy approaches to emotion dysregulation === * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Dialectical behaviour therapy and emotion regulation|Dialectical behaviour therapy (DBT)]] emerged as a psychological treatment approach rooted in behaviourism to address self-harm behaviours in borderline personality disorder (Linehan & Wilks, 2015). * DBT focuses on developing practical skills across the four modules of [[wikipedia:Mindfulness|mindfulness]], interpersonal effectiveness, emotional regulation and distress tolerance (Linehan & Wilks, 2015). * Abundant empirical research found that DBT was clinically relevant in reducing emotion dysregulation and maladaptive coping strategies among those with borderline personality disorder (Lenz et al., 2016). ** Emotional regulation is considered a key mechanism of change in DBT outcomes (Lenz et al., 2016). * DBT has broader clinical applications – will incorporate research on DBT’s effectiveness across other psychological disorders in which emotion dysregulation is a key component. * Comment on how DBT relates to/addresses to both Linehan’s biosocial model and Gross’s extended process model. (''Author note'': will further expand upon the emotion dysregulation skills-training involved in DBT and further emphasis will be placed on evidence from literature.) === Cognitive behavioural therapy approaches to emotion dysregulation === * [[File:Beck's CognitiveTriad.png|thumb|279x279px|'''Figure 4.''' Representation of Beck's (1976) cognitive triad. ]][[wikipedia:Cognitive_behavioral_therapy|Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT)]] is grounded on the premise that thoughts, behaviours and emotions are intrinsically intertwined (Preece & Gross, 2026). *Cognitive reappraisal is an important technique used in CBT to regulate emotions (Wang & Yin, 2023). *Preece and Gross (2026) posit that CBT should be understood through the lens of emotion regulation. *Compare/link back to Gross's (2015) extended process model of emotion regulation and reference Beck’s (1976) cognitive triad (see Figure 4). ''(Author note: the cognitive triangle might be more relevant than the cognitive triad here).'' === Physiological approaches to managing emotion dysregulation === * Briefly cover emotion regulation through exercise – include research on how exercise can reduce emotion dysregulation through physiological mechanisms. ** Thayer and Lane (2000) posited the neurovisceral integration model to account for the observed relationship between physiological feedback circuits and affective systems. * Briefly cover [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Guided meditation and emotion regulation|emotion regulation through meditation]]/mindfulness - technique used to elicit the relaxation response which facilitates emotion regulation through physiological mechanisms. ** Benson and colleagues (1974) relaxation response theory. ** Emphasise the accessibility of meditation/mindfulness. ==Conclusion== * Summarise emotion dysregulation, including its core features, conceptualisation as multidimensional construct and how psychological models can guide our understanding (despite diverse approaches/definitions). * Emphasise the influence and impact of emotion dysregulation on our day-to-day lives. Comment on the effect of emotion dysregulation on our well-being. * Restate how increasing evidence highlights emotion dysregulation as a transdiagnostic factor across many psychological disorders, thereby emotion dysregulation has important clinical applications in the treatment of these disorders. * Provide a practical summary of the strategies that can reduce dysregulation. Aim to encourage the reader to try implement these strategies themselves to improve emotion self-regulation skills. ** Comment again on the importance of emotion regulation skills, particularly when confronted with challenging or distressing situations (leads to overall healthier behaviours and well-being). ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/ADHD and emotional regulation|ADHD and emotional regulation]] (Book chapter, 2024) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Cognitive strategies and emotion regulation|Cognitive strategies and emotion regulation]] (Book chapter, 2025) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Dialectical behaviour therapy and emotion regulation|Dialectical behaviour therapy and emotion regulation]] (Book chapter, 2025) * [[w:Emotional_self-regulation|Emotional self-regulation]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Extended process model of emotion regulation|Extended process model of emotion regulation]] (Book chapter, 2026) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Social media and emotional dysregulation|Social media and emotional dysregulation]] (Book chapter, 2025) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Aldao, A., Nolen-Hoeksema, S., & Schweizer, S. 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Emotion dysregulation in personality disorders. {{em|Current Psychiatry Reports, 24}}, 223–231. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-023-01418-8 Gratz, K. L., & Roemer, L. (2004). Multidimensional assessment of emotion regulation and dysregulation: Development, factor structure, and initial validation of the difficulties in emotion regulation scale. {{em|Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 26}}, 41–54. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:JOBA.0000007455.08539.94 Grecucci, A., Messina, I., Amodeo, L., Lapomarda, G., Crescentini, C., Dadomo, H., Panzeri, M., Theuninck, A., & Frederickson, J. (2020). A dual route model for regulating emotions: Comparing models, techniques and biological mechanisms. {{em|Frontiers in Psychology, 11}}, Article 930. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00930 Gross, J. J. (2015) The extended process model of emotion regulation: Elaborations, applications, and future directions. {{em|Psychological Inquiry, 26}}(1), 130-137. https://doi.org/10.1080/1047840X.2015.989751 Kaufman, E. A., Xia, M., Fosco, G., Yaptangco, M., Skidmore, C. R., & Crowell, S. E. (2016). The difficulties in emotion regulation scale short form (DERS-SF): Validation and replication in adolescent and adult samples. {{em|Journal of psychopathology and behavioral assessment, 38}}(3), 443–455. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10862-015-9529-3 Lenz, A. S., Del Conte, G., Hollenbaugh, K. M., & Callendar, K. (2016). Emotional regulation and interpersonal effectiveness as mechanisms of change for treatment outcomes within a DBT program for adolescents. {{em|Counseling Outcome Research and Evaluation, 7}}(2), 73–85. https://doi.org/10.1177/2150137816642439 Linehan, M. M. (1993). {{em|Cognitive-behavioral treatment of borderline personality disorder}}. Guilford Press. Linehan, M. M., & Wilks, C. R. (2015). The course and evolution of dialectical behavior therapy. {{em|The American Journal of Psychotherapy, 69}}(2), 97-110. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.psychotherapy.2015.69.2.97 M’Bailara, K., Demotes-Mainard, J., Swendsen, J., Mathieu, F., Leboyer, M., & Henry, C. (2009). Emotional hyper-reactivity in normothymic bipolar patients. {{em|Bipolar Disorders, 11}}(1), 63-69. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1399-5618.2008.00656.x Mitchell, J. T., Robertson, C. D., Anastopolous, A. D., Nelson-Gray, R. O., & Kollins, S. H. (2012). Emotion dysregulation and emotional impulsivity among adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: Results of a preliminary study. {{em|Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 34}}(4), 510–519. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10862-012-9297-2 Oliva, V., De Prisco, M., Fico, G., Possidente, C., Fortea, L., Montejo, L., Anmella, G., Hidalgo-Mazzei, D., Grande, I., Murru, A., Fornaro, M., de Bartolomeis, A., Dodd, A., Fanelli, G., Fabbri, C., Serretti, A., Vieta, E., & Radua, J. (2023). Correlation between emotion dysregulation and mood symptoms of bipolar disorder: A systematic review and meta-analysis. {{em|Acta psychiatrica Scandinavica, 148}}(6), 472–490. https://doi.org/10.1111/acps.1361 Preece, D. A., & Gross, J. J. (2026). Cognitive behavior therapy: An emotion regulation perspective. {{em|Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice}}. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1037/cps0000327 Samea, F., Mortazavi, N., Reimann, G. M., Ebneabbasi, A., Zarei, M., Khazaie, H., Goldstein-Piekarski, A. N., Spiegelhalder, K., Baglioni, C., Sepehry, A. A., & Tahmasian, M. (2025). Insomnia and emotion dysregulation: A meta-analytical perspective integrating regulatory strategies and dispositional difficulties. {{em|Sleep medicine reviews, 82}}, Article 102111. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smrv.2025.102111 Sheppes, G., Suri, G., & Gross, J. J. (2015). Emotion regulation and psychopathology. {{em|Annual review of clinical psychology, 11}}, 379–405. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-032814-112739 Šimić, G., Tkalčić, M., Vukić, V., Mulc, D., Španić, E., Šagud, M., Olucha-Bordonau, F. E., Vukšić, M., & Hof, P. R. (2021). Understanding emotions: Origins and roles of the amygdala. {{em|Biomolecules, 11}}(6), Article 823. https://doi.org/10.3390/biom11060823 Singh, B., Swartz, H. A., Cuellar-Barboza, A. B., Schaffer, A., Kato, T., Dols, A., Sperry, S. H., Vassilev, A. B., Burdick, K. E., & Frye, M. A. (2025). Bipolar disorder. {{em|The Lancet, 406}}(10506), 963–978. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(25)01140-7 Tani, F., Pascuzzi, D., & Raffagnino, R. (2015). Emotion regulation and quality of close relationship: The effects of emotion dysregulation processes on couple intimacy. {{em|Applied Psychology Bulletin, 272}}(63), 3–15. Thayer, J. F., & Lane, R. D. (2000). A model of neurovisceral integration in emotion regulation and dysregulation. {{em|Journal of Affective Disorders, 61}}(3), 201-216. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0165-0327(00)00338-4. Wang, Y. X., & Yin, B. (2023). A new understanding of the cognitive reappraisal technique: an extension based on the schema theory. {{em|Frontiers in behavioral neuroscience, 17}}, Article 1174585. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnbeh.2023.1174585 Wright. R. N., Adock, R. A., & LaBar, K. S. (2025). Learning emotion regulation: An integrative framework. {{em|The Psychological Review, 132}}(1), 172-203. https://doi.org/10.1037/rev0000506 Yalvaç, E. B. K., & Gaynor, K. (2021). Emotional dysregulation in adults: The influence of rumination and negative secondary appraisals of emotion. {{em|Journal of Affective Disorders, 282}}, 656-661. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2020.12.194 }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== * [https://www.healthline.com/health/how-to-control-your-emotions How To Become The Boss of Your Emotions] (Healthline) * [https://www.ted.com/talks/ted_ed_how_to_manage_your_emotions How to manage your emotions] (TED-Ed) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SWvHZkkrAjc How to Master Your Emotions & Never Get Angry or Bothered by Anyone] (The Mel Robbins Podcast) * [https://www.psychologytoday.com/au/blog/click-here-for-happiness/202108/what-is-emotional-dysregulation What Is Emotional Dysregulation?] (Psychology Today) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotional self-regulation]] qn5oapn5eveq2vrp01cie7w5bsq8lfl 0 331102 2832763 2831424 2026-09-11T03:47:11Z Jtneill 10242 Copyediting 2832763 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Motivations for using sex work services:<br>What motivates use of sex work services?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} [[File:Woman using an iPhone.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. Women{{g}} looking for sex work services ]] ;Case study Amelia (36 years) It was something I had always thought about. I wanted to be in control and have the power to get what I desired and wanted. Paying for sex allowed me to do that, I felt empowered. (Kingston, Hammond & Redman, 2021 {{ic|Use APA style for citations with 3 or more authors}}) Jeremy (56 years) I felt as if I was being rejected. My wife was not interested in having sex with me and I was sexually disappointed in my marriage. It is because of this I feel justified in my decision to seek out paid sex. (Hammond & van Hooff, 2019) Lisa (45 years) I'm a mum, I am on my own, I'm a busy person. Sometimes I just want easy unattached sex. Plus I'm not interested in a relationship... looking for sex services (see Figure 1) seemed like the simplest option. (Kingston, Hammond & Redman, 2021) Previous literature has found there to be multiple motivations for the reasons individuals use sex work services. The above case studies are a few examples of the motivations research has highlighted. {{RoundBoxBottom}} * Sex work services have been deeply embedded in society and have been for centuries. Due to the somewhat taboo nature of the industry, it has been increasingly politicised and subject to debate. * Much research and literature surrounding sex work services investigates those providing the services and less so on the clients of those providers. These clients have been prone to scrutiny and typically viewed as males wanting to use and extort female sex workers. * There are many motivations for engaging in sex work services. *Literature surrounding women's uses of sex work services is sparse with much of the research surrounding mens{{g}} motivations and uses of the services. *Through the use of psychological science and theories, studies have been conducted into understanding the different motivations for individuals engagement in sex work services. *Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=6}} '''Focus questions:''' * What are the motivations for sexual relations? * What are sex work services? * Who is using sex work services? * What are the motivations for using sex work services? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Sexual motivation == Motivation can be understood as a particular interest in a distinct goal in which one's behaviour is directed towards (Hill & Preston, 1996). Furthermore, the psychological concept of sexual motivation investigates the reasons and driving forces of engaging in sexual activity (Zheng & Armstrong, 2023). Across the human species, the process and concept of mating is a universal (Buss & Schmitt, 1993). When initially thinking of a mating relationship, one may think of the most common mating relationship which consists of a formal marriage union (Buss & Schmitt, 1993). This union is where formal reproductive alliances are formed between a husband and wife (Buss & Schmitt, 1993). However, mating relationships consist of more than just the typical long-term relationships, short-term mating relations are also distinctly prominent (Buss & Schmitt, 1993). Short-term mating relationships can last for on a scales from months, days, hours, down to even minutes (Buss & Schmitt, 1993). These mating relationships are more well known, for example, as affairs or one-night stands (Buss & Schmitt, 1993). Therefore, Buss and Schmitt (1993) presents a spectrum of mating relationships which range from short-term to long-term relationships, with intermediate durations of mating, such as dating or brief marriages, residing between these two end points. Here it is illustrated that mating is an essential part of life for the majority of humans, whether these are short or long term interactions, both males and females demonstrate a motivation to engage in sexual relations (Buss & Schmitt, 1993). The underlying drives for [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Sexual motivation|sexual motivation]] (Book chapter, 2011) can be initially presented as self-explanatory, for example to relieve tension, experience pleasure, and reproduce (Meston & Buss, 2007). However, literature has indicated this phenomenon to be more complex than initially understood, as a study conducted by Meston and Buss (2007) identified 237 differing motivations humans have for engaging in sexual activity. === Theory of sexual motivation === Self-determination theory (SDT) determines that individual's motivation is due to one's need for an adequate sense of self through the maintenance of psychological needs (Wood et al, 2018). These needs are presented as competence, referring to an individual's efficacy and confidence, autonomy, meaning one's agency and authenticity and finally relatedness, which understands the need for connectedness and relation with others (Wood et al, 2018). SDT distinguishes between differing forms of motivation, specifically intrinsic and extrinsic motivations (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Intrinsic motivation relates to engaging in a behaviour because of one's innate interest or the enjoyment gained (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Therefore individuals may partake in sexual activity due to intrinsic motivators, such as the pleasurable and intimate nature of the activity that results in enjoyment (Wood et al, 2018). Extrinsic motivations rather, refers to one being motivated due to a distinguishable outcome that is attainable (Ryan & Deci, 2000). As such sexual motivations can also be endorsed extrinsically, for example sexual activity in order to please a partner (Wood et al, 2018). Alternatively, sexual strategies theory takes an evolutionary perspective on human mating and sexual relations (Buss & Schmitt, 1993). Buss and Schmitt (1993) found theories of sexual activity to exclusively investigate sex within long-term relations or marriages, fundamentally ignoring short-term mating. Therefore, the theory of sexual strategies was proposed to * Self-determination theory: sexual motivation is driven by intrinsic, engagement in pleasing sexual activity is motivated by the self and extrinsic factors, sexual motivation that is driven by external factors (Zheng & Armstrong, 2023). Self-determination theory may be a too simplistic way of understanding sexual motivation (Zheng & Armstrong, 2023). * Sexual strategies theory: human mating is of complex nature and inherently strategic. Strategies refers to goal-directed and problem solving behaviours that are not consciously planned or explicitly expressed (Buss & Schmitt, 1993) * talk about ow several theoriectical perspectives assume the context of ongoing romantic relationships or loneg-term mateship (2007) === Motivation by gender === * Men are seen as being more sexually motivated by physical dimensions, for example the attractiveness of a potential sexual partners physical appearance (Meston & Buss, 2007). Where men are seen to be more sexually motivated by visual cues, women indicate a more emotion motivation towards sexual activity (Meston & Buss, 2007). == Sex work services == * Introduce sex work services and the stigma and stereotypes surrounding the industry. * Recently clients of sex work services have also been stigmatised (Hammond, 2015). === What are sex work services? === * The [[w:Sex_industry|sex industry]] (Wikipedia) consists of a spectrum of services in which sexual activity is accessed. Much literature and research into sex work services specifically discusses sex work as a transactional act, in which someone is paying for the service (Kingston, Hammond & Redman, 2021). Most commonly, literature discusses specifically individuals paying for sex. === Who uses sex work services? === * Both men and women alike employ the use of sex work services. There is a large stigma surrounding the use of sex work services{{fact}}. That being that it is predominantly men seeking to use sex work services and women in turn being the providers of it, however sex work clients are increasingly women (Kingston, Hammond & Redman, 2021) === What motivates the use of sex work services? === * The motivations for using sex work services are more than just sexual physical contact. * Introduce the "push" and "pull" factors of sex services. Push factors: areas of life that is lacking therefore it is treated with sex work services, pull factors: allurement factors such as adverts, pictures, stereotypes that are pulling individuals towards these services (Kingston, Hammond & Redman, 2021). <quiz display="simple"> {Both men and women use sex work services: |type="()"} + True - False {There have been over 200 identified motivations for sexual relations: |type="()"} + True - False </quiz> == Physical motivation == There are many reasons why humans are motivated to engage in sexual relations. While it is not the only reason, physical sexual encounters are a strong motivator for the using of sex work services. [[File:Crew 2016-01-10 (Unsplash xCmvrpzctaQ).jpg|thumb|Figure 2. Physical contact between two people]] === Physical contact === * Clients of sex services have expressed wanting physical contact and no more (see figure 2). Clients pay for these encounters to have no emotional attachment (Kingston, Hammond & Redman, 2021). * Unsatisfactory sexual relations within current committed relationship, for example marriage (Hammond & van Hooff, 2019). === Experimentation === * A key reason why both men and women engage in sexual services is to experiment and have new experiences (Kingston, Hammond & Redman, 2021). * Purchasing sex was more convenient that asking or persuading a partner to engage in a specific act (Pitts et al, 2004). === Physical attraction === * Research has found that both men and women are prone to employing the use of sex work services due to the desire to be with someone who looks a certain way and has physical features that are attracted to (Kingston, Hammond & Redman, 2021). == Emotional motivation == As individuals we crave connection and companionship. Research supports that many seek sex services to provide for them the emotional connection they are lacking in the current stage of life (Hammond & van Hoff, 2019). For example, men have reported being unsuccessful in engaging a romantic partner and therefore have turned to paying for sexual relations to achieve a level of emotional intimacy (Hammond & van Hooff, 2019). === Intimacy and companionship === * Supporting men to experience emotional intimacy that they may be unable to express in other setting or situations as their masculinity may be called into question (Birch, Baldry & Hartley, 2017). * Women alike seek sex services to fill the lacking intimacy in their lives (Kingston, Hammond & Redman, 2021). === Power and control === * Women have reported seeking sex services due to the amount of power and control they can employ over the sexual encounter. Suggesting that in conventional relations, women have less or equal power status than compared to men (Kingston, Hammond & Redman, 2021). === Stress and trauma === * == Conclusion == * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words * The motivations for using sex work services are complex and and unique to the individuals themselves. While the physical desire for sexual relations is a core motivation for some, research studies have allowed for investigation into the broader motives individuals have to use sex work services. * While the stereotype of sex work clients are men of women providers, research has found to disprove this stereotype as women too engage in sex work services. Majority of women expressing the some of the same motivations as men * Discuss how theories relate to the differing motivations to use sex work services == See also == * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Gender differences in sexual motivation|Gender differences in sexual motivation]] (Book chapter, 2024) * [[w:Self-determination_theory|Self-determination theory]] (Wikipedia) * [[w:Sex_work|Sex work]] (Wikipedia) == References == {{Hanging indent|1= Birch, P., Baldry, E., & Hartley, V. H. (2017). Procuring sexual services: Evidencing masculinity diversity and difference through sex work research. Sexuality & Culture, 21(4), 1106-1119. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12119-017-9439-5 Buss, D. M., & Schmitt, D. P (1993). Sexual strategies theory: An evolutionary perspective on human mating. Psychological Review, 100(2), 204-232. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.100.2.204 Hammond, N. (2015). Men who pay for sex and the sex work movement? Client responses to stigma and increased regulation of commercial sex policy. Social Policy and Society: A Journal of the Social Policy Association, 14(1), 93-102. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1474746414000360 Hammond, N., & van Hooff, J. (2020). “This is me, this is what I am, I am a man”: The Masculinities of men who pay for sex with women. The Journal of Sex Research, 57(5), 650-663. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2019.1644485 Kingston, S., Hammond, N., & Redman, S. (2021). Transformational sexualities: Motivations of women who pay for sexual services. Sexualities, 24(4), 527-548. https://doi.org/10.1177/1363460720904646 Meston, C. M., & Buss, D. M. (2007). Why humans have sex. Archives of Sexual Behaviour, 36(4), 477-507. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-007-9175-2 Pitts, M. K., Smith, A. M. A, Grierson, J., O’Brien, M., & Misson, S. (2004). Who pays for sex and why? An analysis of social and motivational factors associated with male clients of sex workers. Archives of Sexual Behaviour, 33(4), 353-358. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:ASEB.0000028888.48796.4f Zheng, S., & Armstrong. H. L. (2023). Exploring the association between sexual motivation and quality of life in China and the United Kingdom. PloS One, 18(12), e0293566 https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0293566 }} == External links == * [https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-10-09/sex-industry-increase-in-australian-women-who-buy-sex/11578722 Sex work clients are increasingly women - and they are seeking more than pleasure] (ABC News, 2019) * [https://theconversation.com/stigma-and-stereotypes-about-sex-work-hinder-regulatory-reform-79655 Stigma and stereotypes about sex work hinder regulatory reform] (The Conversation, 2017) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Sexual motivation]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Wprk]] 84asmesgtx3niq7ujqvmx86sabemo22 0 331104 2832754 2828745 2026-09-11T01:26:47Z Jtneill 10242 Copyediting 2832754 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Excitement as an emotion:<br>What is the emotion of excitement and how does it influence behaviour and well-being?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:2022-07-03 Basketball, Männer, European Qualifiers, Deutschland - Polen 1DX 1386 by Stepro.jpg|right|thumb|200px|'''Figure 1'''. Steve is ready and excited to play basketball.]] ; Consider this scenario It's 11:30 p.m. the night before Steve's championship basketball game for the state title. As the undefeated team's captain and leading scorer, he has been preparing his whole life for this moment, and tomorrow, he will get to showcase his skills towards a lifelong dream in front of teammates, coaches, fans, family, and professional basketball team recruiters. Instead of feeling nervous, he is suddenly excited. His heart beats faster. He feels energetic, alert, and unusually motivated. He starts to imagine himself having a great game. He practises his shooting form in the mirror one more time, sends basketball highlights and tape to his teammates for review and feedback, and even begins planning what he'll do and say if his team wins the game. The next morning, he wakes up before his alarm. Steve is still buzzing with anticipation. As he walks onto the court, his attention narrows onto the basket. He feels ready to act (see Figure 1). But there is a problem. Steve's excitement becomes so intense that he starts rushing his teams plays too quickly. He manoeuvres through bodies, overlooks an open shot, and finds himself making decisions and passes without thinking them through. So, was his excitement helpful or harmful? And why can it motivate us to pursue opportunities while also influencing how we think, behave, and experience well-being? {{RoundBoxBottom}} In Steve's case, excitement primes his body and propels him to prepare for his big game but this also comes with some unanticipated consequences as he begins to rush and miss information. The following chapter explores excitement as an emotion and how it can influence our behaviours and wellbeing. By examining how and why we get excited, and its physiological and psychological affects, we can better understand how we perceive and respond to it. This understanding may consciously allows us to reframe and engage with excitement as an active tool to shape our behaviours, experiences, and well-being. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * What is excitement as an emotion, and how does it differ from other emotions? * What are the physiological and psychological processes that underpin excitement? * How does excitement influence motivation, cognition, and behaviour? * How does excitement contribute to, or undermine, psychological well-being? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Understanding excitement as an emotion== Excitement is more than the feeling of happiness, it's generally understood to be a positive, high-arousal emotional state that prepares an individual to engage with something anticipated or desired and is linked to things like interest, motivation and even risk-taking. It is simultaneously unique from other emotions as it often involves relatively high levels of physiological and psychological activation, but similar, as many of its behaviours, internal feelings and physiological affects can be attributed to other emotional states such as anxiety, or even anger. Excitement is also affected by both the subjective experiences of the emotion and the physiological processes that accompany it as experienced by the individual. === Early views on excitement === Early works by Stratton (1928) identified excitement as a distinct state and a unique emotion characterised by the the intense impulse to be directed towards a specific goal. Stratton noticed that excited individuals often were more organised for a specific task at hand and had greater motor movement and specifically targeted behaviour, proposing that excitement was a purposeful psychophysical state that dictates cognitive and motor responses. === Circumplex model of affect === One framework to further understand excitement is Russell's (1980) circumplex model of affect, which places excitement on a set of dimensions, most notably, [[w:Valence_(psychology)|valence]], the appraisal of a situatuion or stimulus as either pleasant or unpleasant. Seen as high valence or low valence; and arousal, the state by which a stimulus places the bodys nervous system in a state of physical and mental readiness. [[File:Valence-Arousal Circumplex.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' The circumplex model of affect (Russell, 1980). ]] Of these dimensions, excitement is seen to be high on arousal and valence also seen as pleasure or displeasure (see Figure 2.). Across Russell's experiment in investigate emotions, he had participants interact with 28 tasks relating to the categorisation of emotions and their word meanings. Of these, excitement consistently placed in the area of high arousal and high pleasure. Russell's model helped propose the idea that emotion could act as affective states that are systematically interrelated, and not individual. {{anchor|Excitement and other emotions}} ;Excitement and other emotions Through the circumplex model of affect, excitement is best able to be understood and characterised compared to other emotions (Table 1). ;Table 1 Comparison of selected emotions according to valence and arousal. {| class="wikitable" |+ !Emotion !Valence !Arousal |- |Excitement |Positive |High |- |Happiness |Positve |Variable |- |Contentment |Positive |Low |- |Anxiety |Negative |High |- |Sadness |Negative |Low |} * ==What happens when we become excited?== {{anchor|Physiological responses}} ;Physiological responses * Research suggests that excitement involves increased physiological arousal, this can include increased heart rate, alertness and energy (Ketonen et al., 2022). *These responses can prepare the body for action. * Physiological arousal isn't inherently positive or negative; its interpretation depends partly on context which may also alter if the individual is perceiving the physiiological and psychological changes as excitement or something else. {{anchor|Psychological processes}} ;Psychological processes *Excitement changes how individuals subjectively experience an upcoming event (Brooks, 2014). * Anticipation can increase attention toward rewarding or desirable outcomes. * Excitement can increase perceived readiness to act and even invidual's momentary thought actions encouraging problem-solving, and exploration (Fredrickson, 2001). * Expectation about future rewards can contribute to feelings of excitement. {{anchor|Anticipatory emotion}} ;Anticipatory emotion ? ==The influence of excitement on motivation, cognition, and behaviour== Excitement can influence behaviour by increasing approach motivation and preparing indivudals to engage with anticipated goals, rewards and opportunities. {{anchor|Approach motivation}} ;Approach motivation * Excitement is strongly associated with approach-oriented behaviour. * Research suggests that it can increase willingness to pursue desirable goals (Gable & Dreisbach, 2021). Excitement can be a catalyst for approach motivations further reinforcing behavioural activation towards long term goals. * Excitement may increase behavioural activation and persistence. * Anticipating a positive outcome can motivate action before the reward is actually obtained. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} Steve's excitement leads him to practice and refine his basketball moves and watch tape before the agme. An active approach to the challenge rather than avoiding it. {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{anchor|Cognitive and behavioural effects}} ;Cognitive and behavioural effects While excitement can increase motivation and engagement, heightened arousal may also influence judgement and behavioural control. Consequently, excitement may encourage productive action in some situations while contributing to impulsive or risky decisions in others. * (Self-note:Look into more below) affective arousal has been shown to affect judgement, learning and memory (Storbeck & Clore, 2008). * Attention * Decision-making * Positive arousal increases people's risk-taking (GAlentino, Bonini, & Savadori, 2017) * Creativity * Performance * Exploration {{anchor|Does excitement help or hinder behaviour?}} ;Does excitement help or hinder behaviour? With helpful excitement, an individual might move towards a goal by preparing, practiising, engaging and performing with said goal. However, with unhelpful excitement a person may become excessively excited about an invested reward, this focus and fixation may lead them to underestimate risks and form and impulsive decision. (Find proper citation for this. Add possible learning task here?) ==Excitement and its influence on well-being== *Excitement is a positive emotional experience. *Experiencing positive emotions can contribute to subjective well-being. * Excitement can make activities feel more engaging and rewarding. * Anticipating positive experiences can contribute to motvaiton and enjoyment. * research shows the re-appraisal for anxiety inducing tasks as exciting can lead to greater overall positive experience and performance increase in performance activities (Brooks, 2014). {{anchor|Excitement, goals and engagement}} ;Excitement goals and engagement * Excitement can encourage individuals to pursue personally meaningful goals. * Goal pursuit can contribute to competence, engagement and satisfaction. * Excitement may help people initiate activities they might otherwise avoid. * Excitement can therefore indirectly contribute to well-being through behaviour. * Positive affect has been shown to increase life satisfaction and relationships over time (Liu, 2026). Case study check: Excitement doesn't necessarily improve well-being simply because they "feel good", Rather, the emotion may encourage preparation, engagement and goal pursuit, which can subsequently cotnribute to a sense of accomplishment {{anchor|When excitement becomes unhelpful}} ;When excitement becomes unhelpful * Extremely high emotional arousal may become overwhelming. * Excitement may sometimes contribute to impulsive decisions or risk-taking. * The consequences of excitement depend on the context and the individual's ability to regulate their behaviour. * Therefore, excitement should not necessarily be conceptualised as beneficial simply because it is a positive emotion. Excitement can support well-being when it facilitates meaningful engagement, motivation and goal pursuit, but its effects depend on intensity, context and behavioural regulation. ==Conclusion== Excitement is a positive, high-arousal emotional state characterised by anticipation and readiness for action. It can influence behaviour through increased approach motivation, attention and goal-directed action. Excitement can support well-being by promoting engagement and pursuit of rewarding experiences, although excessive arousal or poorly regulated excitement may produce less beneficial outcomes alternatively, the reappraisal of similar physiological emotions into excitement, can allow for greater outcomes in life as well as performance of specific tasks. Understanding excitement therefore requires recognising it not simply as a pleasurable feeling, but as an emotion that prepares people to act and can shape how they think, behave and experience their well-being. So, do what excites! ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure; this can be the figure in the scenario * For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] which hosts free-to-use media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, and audio * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options: {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s) {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== * [[w:Affect_(psychology)|Affect (psychology)]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Circumplex model of affect|Circumplex model of affect]] (Book chapter, 2019) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Motivational dimensional model of affect|Motivational dimensional model of affect]] (Book chapter, 2025) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Brooks, A. W. (2014). Get Excited: Reappraising Pre-Performance Anxiety as Excitement. Journal of Experimental Psychology. General, 143(3), 1144–1158. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0035325 Fredrickson, B. L. (2001). The Role of Positive Emotions in Positive Psychology: The Broaden-and-Build Theory of Positive Emotions. The American Psychologist, 56(3), 218–226. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.56.3.218 Gable, P. A., & Dreisbach, G. (2021). Approach motivation and positive affect. Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences, 39, 203–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cobeha.2021.03.030 Galentino, A., Bonini, N., & Savadori, L. (2017). Positive Arousal Increases Individuals’ Preferences for Risk. Frontiers in Psychology, 8, Article 2142. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02142 Ketonen, E. E., Salonen, V., Lonka, K., & Salmela‐Aro, K. (2023). Can you feel the excitement? Physiological correlates of students’ self‐reported emotions. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 93(S1), Article 12534. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjep.12534 Liu, J., Vittersø, J., Teulings, I. J. E., Nes, R. B., Mayerhofer, L., & Røysamb, E. (2026). Jingle all the way? Pleasant and energized positive affect show differential longitudinal relationships with life satisfaction and personality. The Journal of Positive Psychology, (Latest Articles), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2026.2701098 Russell, J. A. (1980). A circumplex model of affect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 39(6), 1161–1178. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0077714 Storbeck, J., & Clore, G. L. (2008). Affective Arousal as Information: How Affective Arousal Influences Judgments, Learning, and Memory. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 2(5), 1824–1843. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-9004.2008.00138.x Stratton, G. M. (1928). The function of emotion as shown particularly in excitement. Psychological Review, 35(5), 351–366. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0071406 }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) ** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: *** Use "Edit source" *** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=S9tBnXz2B1Q How to Turn Anxiety Into Excitement] (SciShow Psych) * [https://fi.edu/en/blog/science-emotions-excitement?ct=1787858646114 Science of Emotions: Excitement] (The Franklin Institue) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] 53bvo27tx8szxa1if7oieymxeajagjw 0 331110 2832724 2832163 2026-09-10T21:35:06Z Jtneill 10242 Copyediting 2832724 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Moral disgust and jury decision-making: How does moral disgust impact jurors' judgements of guilt, blame, and punishment?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Trial by Jury - Chaos in the Courtroom.png | thumb | right | 250px |'''Figure 1'''. A jury is a group of sworn individuals who determine a defendant's guilt. ]] Consider sitting on a jury. The defendant appears composed, well-dressed, and speaks clearly. Someone like this couldn't have done anything bad — that's your instinct. Then you hear the charge: embezzlement. Over three years, they quietly transferred company funds to a personal account. Thousands of dollars were spent, and real people were harmed. You are angry. It's wrong. However, it does not make you feel sick. Consider the same composed defendant in the same courtroom, but this time the charge is posing as a charity volunteer to gain the trust of dying hospice patients before stealing the donations intended for their care. The financial loss is the same as the embezzlement case. Same amount, same number of victims. But something else arises in you. Not just anger, but more of a revulsion, as if something was contaminated. This doesn't simply feel like a crime. It has an unclean feeling to it. The same defendant. Same harm. So, why does one case make you feel cold and angry, while the other makes your skin crawl? And, aside from the actual harm done, could that visceral reaction be influencing how harshly you believe they should be punished? {{RoundBoxBottom}} It is the law that [https://www.monash.edu/law/news-and-events/news/2020/juries-why-do-we-actually-need-them-and-can-they-get-it-wrong jurors] {{ic|The law varies by jurisdiction; write for an international audience; Australians represent ~.3% of the world human population}} {{ic|Move external links to the External links section}} must base their verdicts on the facts of a case. But moral disgust, an emotional gut reaction, seems to influence how jurors assess guilt, blame and punishment, regardless of the strength of the evidence presented. A disgusted juror might unconsciously become more certain of guilt, assign more blame and suggest harsher punishment, regardless of what the facts actually establish. If disgust always biases judgements and sentences in one direction or the other, no matter how strong a case is, the implications are profound: wrongful convictions, disproportionate sentencing, and differences in the punishment of similar crimes depending on how “disgusting” the evidence seems, rather than the true seriousness of the crime. It also raises questions for current legal practices: courts commonly admit gruesome evidence under the assumption that its evidentiary value outweighs its emotional impact, an assumption this body of research directly undermines. Psychological science provides the legal system with something it cannot produce itself: controlled empirical evidence about the nature and causes of this bias. It shows not only that jurors appear to be affected by emotion but also the processes (appraisal patterns, purity vs. harm, violations, and individual differences such as private body consciousness) that determine when and for whom the effect is strongest. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' *If disgust can make moral judgements more severe, even when it’s incidental to the act being judged, what does that say about the reliability of human moral reasoning? *Can moral disgust be used by the legal system? {{ic|Use open-ended questions}} *How might a juror's own sensitivity to physiological sensations of disgust impact how vulnerable they are to disgust-driven bias? *How can psychological theories be used to mitigate risks of bias in the legal system? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == What is Moral Disgust? == {{ic|Include at least an introductory paragraph before branching into sub-headings}} === Disgust === [[w:Disgust|Disgust]] is one of the six universal emotions that humans experience and can be visually recognised on a person's face. The emotion of disgust is theorised to have originated from a biological protective mechanism to protect an organism from harm that may be brought on by food or poison. Disgust has evolved to become an emotion/behaviour directed at anything that may potentially cause harm or disease. For example, * body products * animals * hygiene * body violations, death or disease Paul Ekman proposed six basic emotions in his literature based on the theories that these emotions, across research all over the world, concluded in agreement on six emotions: happiness, surprise, fear, anger, sadness and disgust. Therefore, he proposed that the universality of these findings and the facial expression alone could conclude that there are 6 basic emotions (Ekman, 1992). === Moral Disgust === Moral disgust refers to the emotional response a person feels when their social or cultural norms are transgressed, therefore resulting in a reaction. Moral disgust is complex, and there is varying evidence for and against its genuine purpose as an emotion. Researchers argue that moral disgust is a metaphorical extension of physical disgust; shared facial expression, language, etc. Other researchers argue that it's functionally unique to traditional, physical disgust. It does not reliably trigger the same physiological processes: facial muscle activation, nausea, etc. (Chapman et al., 2012). Moral disgust is triggered by acts that are supposedly a violation of an individual's perceived purity or dignity. For example, betraying someone's trust (cheating on a partner) or exploiting a vulnerable person (as mentioned in the scenario at the start). Rozin et al. (1999) proposed a theory that moral disgust specifically clusters around violations of a person's divinity or purity. This is different from anger, which generally clusters around autonomy violations, also opposed to contempt, which clusters around community violations. This distinction is vital when discussing emotion for jurors. If moral disgust behaves differently from physical disgust, it may influence judgement in the courtroom through a different pathway than a simple reaction to physically disgusting evidence. Russell & {{ic|Use APA style for citations}} Giner-Sorolla (2013) discuss four competing arguments of disgust's role in moral condemnation. Firstly, the most flexible view of moral disgust that can be applied widely for many crimes is the general morality position. It claims that disgust is an all-purpose emotion which is seen through different kinds of moral disapproval, not just a narrow category. Secondly, disgust as a violation of bodily and spiritual purity is more specific. As mentioned prior, this claim is supported by Rozin's CAD (contempt, anger, disgust) triad. The third argument proposes that moral disgust is only a metaphor. The true emotion being experienced is anger, and individuals just use language as a metaphor (e.g., "that's disgusting") for how condemning they feel. Finally, Russell & Ginger-Sorolla's own claim for moral disgust is a middle ground for all the arguments in their research. Regardless of whether harm or justice is involved, they contend that disgust specifically tracks violations pertaining to the body and its products. Anger tends to co-occur with violations that are specifically related to justice, harm, or rights. This disgust behaves more like anger wearing the vocabulary of disgust than it does like bodily moral disgust. <quiz display="simple"> {Moral disgust and physical disgust are the same emotion: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> == Psychological Science in the Legal System == * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Criminal record stigma and emotion#Relevant theories|What psychological theories are present in the legal system]] {{expand}} === Social Identity Theory === Classic social identity theory posits that groups and whole organisations that possess the same cultural and social norms will have perceive themselves as sharing something in common. This adds to their own personal self-concept as an individual and as a member of a society/societies. Bronewasser & Bober (1987) argue that this theory describes a class or collective of people (people who may share traits but have no real interdependence) but not a genuine societal group. Groups depend on structure; roles, positions and relationships that require dependence from people. Through this theory, a jury is considered to be a genuine structured group. There are roles, a task and an interdependence through deliberation. This theory may offer a further point on why moral disgust may bias jurors. Moral disgust can function as a social categorisation cue, marking defendants as the out-group rather than in the jury's moral in-group. Bronewasser & Bober claim that even arbitary group labels are enough to produce an in-group favouritism and out-group favouritism. If a defendants act triggers moral disgust, this may mark them as being in the moral "outgroup" in a jurors mind. Independent of the actual evidence being presented, this compounds moral disgust biases. *social identity theory **a theory that posits that whole organisations and groups that possess the same cultural and social norms will all have similar self-concepts (Bornewasser & Bober, 1987). **The theory predicts that behaviours from this group will often be similar due to their similar self-concept. *[[w:Appraisal_theory|appraisal theory of emotion]] **appraisal theory of emotion is theory that specific emotions are extracted from evaluations of events which in turn impact a reaction which may differ depending on certain people. *evolutionary theory of emotion **this theory describes our emotions and reactions being biological reactions to stimuli. ***for example, disgust has come from protecting oneself from poisons. == Disgust as a Legally Relevant Emotion == * Disgust should not be seen as legally relevant, as that would be a personal bias. * How can you create a courtroom that is free from bias if you do not take into account the impact of disgust? * Maybe disgust shouldn't be seen as an impacting emotion but rather a factor that needs to be considered when a jury is shown pictures, footage, and witness statements in court. === Arguments For === * Patrick Devlin's belief that we should allow some degree of the shared morality view of society through emotions ** Within society, when crimes are viewed as "disgusting" or cause widespread intolerance, there is an importance to the intervention of the legal system (Lacey, 2023). * Informing the "Reasonable Person" Standard ** This is a theory that jurors will judge acts (particularly those involving negligence or abuse) based on what they believe they would have done in that situation. Or more accurately to the theory, what would a reasonably prudent person (RPP) have done (Alicke & Weigel, 2021)? === Arguments Against === * [[wikipedia:Harm_principle|harm principle limitation]] ** Developed by John Stuart Mills, the harm principle limitation states the following: ** "The only purpose for which power can be rightfully exercised over any member of a civilised community, against his will, is to prevent harm to others." [[wikisource:On_Liberty/Chapter_1|(Mill, 1869).]] ** This principle bars people within the legal system from criminalising an action because it makes most people feel moral disgust. * a tool for discrimination ** Historically, moral disgust has been a tool against those being charged with crimes of homosexuality and interracial marriages. == Moral Disgust and Juror Judgements == A jury is a group of 12 individuals that are carefully chosen to determine the guilt of an offender{{fact}} {{ic|Don't juries vary in size, depending on the juridstiction?}}. They are picked to be impartial, unbiased opinions that can aid in the determining of a person's guilt. Jurors are asked to make judgements based on the evidence presented to them in court. However, emotions play a large, unsuspecting role in determining the guilt of a person. Such is the reason why, in high-stakes cases, jurors are not allowed contact with the outside world or media during trials. Moral disgust in particular seems to have a large impact on the way that jurors perceive and shape jurors' judgements. Different emotions elicit different reactions based on the emotion and a person's appraisal patterns.{{fact}} === Emotional Response Patterns === Fishbein & Ajzen's (1975) expectancy-value model states that a person's given attitude towards an object is a direct function of the value that a person attaches to that object's attributes or outcomes (Desteno et al., 2004). Emotional appraisal patterns are the specific mental evaluations that an individual's brain makes about an event to determine how they feel about a situation. Older research has treated negative emotions as one category. But it is more complicated than that. Not all emotions push judgement in the same direction, which creates moral disgust and other emotions in their own category. INSERT TABLE HERE W/ EVIDENCE == Moderating Factors == * private body consciousness ** people who are more prone to experience their private bodily sensations show stronger disgust-driven bias *** An experiment conducted by Schnall et al. (2008) revealed that people who were more aware of their Private Body Consciousness (PBC) were more prone to feelings of disgust and expressing these feelings outwards to the situation at hand. * type of violation ** purity vs harm == Practical Implications == * evidentiary admissibility ** courts allow for the admission of gruesome photographic evidence but findings suggest this may be wrong *** research shows that people view crimes harsher if exposed to gruesome photos *** Additionally, Bright & Goodman-Delahunty's (2006) research discusses a person's use of their inner emotional states as a way to reason with information they are being given. *** In their affective influences model, affect is a judgement-simplifying heuristic device. People generally consult their affective state, meaning they consult their inner emotion to infer a judgement before looking at the facts. * jury selection * how evidence is presented ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": ==Conclusion== * What does this mean going further {{vague}} * What would future research benefit from in this specific section? *Moral disgust does not come with jurors' judgements, but rather it can measurably shift guilt, certainty, blame attribution and punishment severity. *This may be stronger for certain people; it cannot just be a blanket claim for all jurors. *The idea that jurors decide on the basis of facts alone is not psychologically sustainable. The practice of law {{ic|The practice of law goes beyond the target topic}} needs to consider this, rather than seeing emotions as a bias. * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Alicke, M. D., & Weigel, S. H. (2021). The reasonable person standard: Psychological and legal perspectives. Annual Review of Law and Social Science, 17(1), 123–138. Bornewasser, M., & Bober, J. (1987). Individual, social group and intergroup behaviour. Some conceptual remarks on the social identity theory. European Journal of Social Psychology, 17(3), 267–276. https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1002/ejsp.2420170303 Bright, D. A., & Goodman-Delahunty, J. (2006). Gruesome evidence and emotion: Anger, blame, and jury decision-making. Law and Human Behavior, 30(2), 183–202. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10979-006-9027-y Chapman, H. A., & Anderson, A. K. (2012). Understanding disgust. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1251(1), 62–76. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-6632.2011.06369.x  DeSteno, D., Petty, R. E., Rucker, D. D., Wegener, D. T., & Braverman, J. (2004). Discrete emotions and persuasion: The role of emotion-induced expectancies. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 86(1), 43–56. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.86.1.43 Ekman, P. (1992). Are there basic emotions? Psychological Review, 99(3), 550–553. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.99.3.550 Fishbein, M., & Ajzen, I. (1975). Belief, attitude, intention, and behavior: an introduction to theory and research. Addison-Wesley Pub. Co. Lacey, N. (2023). Patrick Devlin, The enforcement of morals (1965). In [Book title] (1st ed.). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003193982-5 Russell, P. S., & Giner-Sorolla, R. (2013). Bodily moral disgust: What it is, how it is different from anger, and why it is an unreasoned emotion. Psychological Bulletin, 139(2), 328–351. https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1037/a0029319 Schnall, S., Haidt, J., Clore, G. L., & Jordan, A. H. (2008). Disgust as embodied moral judgment. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 34(8), 1096–1109. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167208317771 {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u-TmKo75gJI How Disgust Shapes our Thoughts on Moral Wrong & the Political Right] (David Pizzaro) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Disgust]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Morality]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Legal]] i9lqonjl8cp3rb2e4kno8vvtq0b5z9b 2832755 2832724 2026-09-11T02:26:18Z Yellowvines 3106353 /* Emotional Response Patterns */ 2832755 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Moral disgust and jury decision-making: How does moral disgust impact jurors' judgements of guilt, blame, and punishment?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Trial by Jury - Chaos in the Courtroom.png | thumb | right | 250px |'''Figure 1'''. A jury is a group of sworn individuals who determine a defendant's guilt. ]] Consider sitting on a jury. The defendant appears composed, well-dressed, and speaks clearly. Someone like this couldn't have done anything bad — that's your instinct. Then you hear the charge: embezzlement. Over three years, they quietly transferred company funds to a personal account. Thousands of dollars were spent, and real people were harmed. You are angry. It's wrong. However, it does not make you feel sick. Consider the same composed defendant in the same courtroom, but this time the charge is posing as a charity volunteer to gain the trust of dying hospice patients before stealing the donations intended for their care. The financial loss is the same as the embezzlement case. Same amount, same number of victims. But something else arises in you. Not just anger, but more of a revulsion, as if something was contaminated. This doesn't simply feel like a crime. It has an unclean feeling to it. The same defendant. Same harm. So, why does one case make you feel cold and angry, while the other makes your skin crawl? And, aside from the actual harm done, could that visceral reaction be influencing how harshly you believe they should be punished? {{RoundBoxBottom}} It is the law that [https://www.monash.edu/law/news-and-events/news/2020/juries-why-do-we-actually-need-them-and-can-they-get-it-wrong jurors] {{ic|The law varies by jurisdiction; write for an international audience; Australians represent ~.3% of the world human population}} {{ic|Move external links to the External links section}} must base their verdicts on the facts of a case. But moral disgust, an emotional gut reaction, seems to influence how jurors assess guilt, blame and punishment, regardless of the strength of the evidence presented. A disgusted juror might unconsciously become more certain of guilt, assign more blame and suggest harsher punishment, regardless of what the facts actually establish. If disgust always biases judgements and sentences in one direction or the other, no matter how strong a case is, the implications are profound: wrongful convictions, disproportionate sentencing, and differences in the punishment of similar crimes depending on how “disgusting” the evidence seems, rather than the true seriousness of the crime. It also raises questions for current legal practices: courts commonly admit gruesome evidence under the assumption that its evidentiary value outweighs its emotional impact, an assumption this body of research directly undermines. Psychological science provides the legal system with something it cannot produce itself: controlled empirical evidence about the nature and causes of this bias. It shows not only that jurors appear to be affected by emotion but also the processes (appraisal patterns, purity vs. harm, violations, and individual differences such as private body consciousness) that determine when and for whom the effect is strongest. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' *If disgust can make moral judgements more severe, even when it’s incidental to the act being judged, what does that say about the reliability of human moral reasoning? *Can moral disgust be used by the legal system? {{ic|Use open-ended questions}} *How might a juror's own sensitivity to physiological sensations of disgust impact how vulnerable they are to disgust-driven bias? *How can psychological theories be used to mitigate risks of bias in the legal system? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == What is Moral Disgust? == {{ic|Include at least an introductory paragraph before branching into sub-headings}} === Disgust === [[w:Disgust|Disgust]] is one of the six universal emotions that humans experience and can be visually recognised on a person's face. The emotion of disgust is theorised to have originated from a biological protective mechanism to protect an organism from harm that may be brought on by food or poison. Disgust has evolved to become an emotion/behaviour directed at anything that may potentially cause harm or disease. For example, * body products * animals * hygiene * body violations, death or disease Paul Ekman proposed six basic emotions in his literature based on the theories that these emotions, across research all over the world, concluded in agreement on six emotions: happiness, surprise, fear, anger, sadness and disgust. Therefore, he proposed that the universality of these findings and the facial expression alone could conclude that there are 6 basic emotions (Ekman, 1992). === Moral Disgust === Moral disgust refers to the emotional response a person feels when their social or cultural norms are transgressed, therefore resulting in a reaction. Moral disgust is complex, and there is varying evidence for and against its genuine purpose as an emotion. Researchers argue that moral disgust is a metaphorical extension of physical disgust; shared facial expression, language, etc. Other researchers argue that it's functionally unique to traditional, physical disgust. It does not reliably trigger the same physiological processes: facial muscle activation, nausea, etc. (Chapman et al., 2012). Moral disgust is triggered by acts that are supposedly a violation of an individual's perceived purity or dignity. For example, betraying someone's trust (cheating on a partner) or exploiting a vulnerable person (as mentioned in the scenario at the start). Rozin et al. (1999) proposed a theory that moral disgust specifically clusters around violations of a person's divinity or purity. This is different from anger, which generally clusters around autonomy violations, also opposed to contempt, which clusters around community violations. This distinction is vital when discussing emotion for jurors. If moral disgust behaves differently from physical disgust, it may influence judgement in the courtroom through a different pathway than a simple reaction to physically disgusting evidence. Russell & {{ic|Use APA style for citations}} Giner-Sorolla (2013) discuss four competing arguments of disgust's role in moral condemnation. Firstly, the most flexible view of moral disgust that can be applied widely for many crimes is the general morality position. It claims that disgust is an all-purpose emotion which is seen through different kinds of moral disapproval, not just a narrow category. Secondly, disgust as a violation of bodily and spiritual purity is more specific. As mentioned prior, this claim is supported by Rozin's CAD (contempt, anger, disgust) triad. The third argument proposes that moral disgust is only a metaphor. The true emotion being experienced is anger, and individuals just use language as a metaphor (e.g., "that's disgusting") for how condemning they feel. Finally, Russell & Ginger-Sorolla's own claim for moral disgust is a middle ground for all the arguments in their research. Regardless of whether harm or justice is involved, they contend that disgust specifically tracks violations pertaining to the body and its products. Anger tends to co-occur with violations that are specifically related to justice, harm, or rights. This disgust behaves more like anger wearing the vocabulary of disgust than it does like bodily moral disgust. <quiz display="simple"> {Moral disgust and physical disgust are the same emotion: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> == Psychological Science in the Legal System == * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Criminal record stigma and emotion#Relevant theories|What psychological theories are present in the legal system]] {{expand}} === Social Identity Theory === Classic social identity theory posits that groups and whole organisations that possess the same cultural and social norms will have perceive themselves as sharing something in common. This adds to their own personal self-concept as an individual and as a member of a society/societies. Bronewasser & Bober (1987) argue that this theory describes a class or collective of people (people who may share traits but have no real interdependence) but not a genuine societal group. Groups depend on structure; roles, positions and relationships that require dependence from people. Through this theory, a jury is considered to be a genuine structured group. There are roles, a task and an interdependence through deliberation. This theory may offer a further point on why moral disgust may bias jurors. Moral disgust can function as a social categorisation cue, marking defendants as the out-group rather than in the jury's moral in-group. Bronewasser & Bober claim that even arbitary group labels are enough to produce an in-group favouritism and out-group favouritism. If a defendants act triggers moral disgust, this may mark them as being in the moral "outgroup" in a jurors mind. Independent of the actual evidence being presented, this compounds moral disgust biases. *social identity theory **a theory that posits that whole organisations and groups that possess the same cultural and social norms will all have similar self-concepts (Bornewasser & Bober, 1987). **The theory predicts that behaviours from this group will often be similar due to their similar self-concept. *[[w:Appraisal_theory|appraisal theory of emotion]] **appraisal theory of emotion is theory that specific emotions are extracted from evaluations of events which in turn impact a reaction which may differ depending on certain people. *evolutionary theory of emotion **this theory describes our emotions and reactions being biological reactions to stimuli. ***for example, disgust has come from protecting oneself from poisons. == Disgust as a Legally Relevant Emotion == * Disgust should not be seen as legally relevant, as that would be a personal bias. * How can you create a courtroom that is free from bias if you do not take into account the impact of disgust? * Maybe disgust shouldn't be seen as an impacting emotion but rather a factor that needs to be considered when a jury is shown pictures, footage, and witness statements in court. === Arguments For === * Patrick Devlin's belief that we should allow some degree of the shared morality view of society through emotions ** Within society, when crimes are viewed as "disgusting" or cause widespread intolerance, there is an importance to the intervention of the legal system (Lacey, 2023). * Informing the "Reasonable Person" Standard ** This is a theory that jurors will judge acts (particularly those involving negligence or abuse) based on what they believe they would have done in that situation. Or more accurately to the theory, what would a reasonably prudent person (RPP) have done (Alicke & Weigel, 2021)? === Arguments Against === * [[wikipedia:Harm_principle|harm principle limitation]] ** Developed by John Stuart Mills, the harm principle limitation states the following: ** "The only purpose for which power can be rightfully exercised over any member of a civilised community, against his will, is to prevent harm to others." [[wikisource:On_Liberty/Chapter_1|(Mill, 1869).]] ** This principle bars people within the legal system from criminalising an action because it makes most people feel moral disgust. * a tool for discrimination ** Historically, moral disgust has been a tool against those being charged with crimes of homosexuality and interracial marriages. == Moral Disgust and Juror Judgements == A jury is a group of 12 individuals that are carefully chosen to determine the guilt of an offender{{fact}} {{ic|Don't juries vary in size, depending on the juridstiction?}}. They are picked to be impartial, unbiased opinions that can aid in the determining of a person's guilt. Jurors are asked to make judgements based on the evidence presented to them in court. However, emotions play a large, unsuspecting role in determining the guilt of a person. Such is the reason why, in high-stakes cases, jurors are not allowed contact with the outside world or media during trials. Moral disgust in particular seems to have a large impact on the way that jurors perceive and shape jurors' judgements. Different emotions elicit different reactions based on the emotion and a person's appraisal patterns.{{fact}} === Emotional Response Patterns === Fishbein & Ajzen's (1975) expectancy-value model states that a person's given attitude towards an object is a direct function of the value that a person attaches to that object's attributes or outcomes. In explicit terms, a person's value on an object will be a direct function of the value that they place on said item and the positive or negative emotions they associate with it. Furthermore, the positive or negative characteristics that they associate with the object will be a weighted decision on the direct outcome that may occur due to the object. In a review of the role of emotion-induced expectancies, Desteno et al. (2004) argue that positive and negative emotions have been grouped together and oversimplified, which makes distinguishing them difficult. Older research has treated negative emotions as one category. But it is more complicated than that. Not all emotions push judgement in the same direction, which creates moral disgust and other emotions in their own category. Emotional appraisal patterns are the specific mental evaluations that an individual's brain makes about an event to determine how they feel about a situation. INSERT TABLE HERE W/ EVIDENCE == Moderating Factors == * private body consciousness ** people who are more prone to experience their private bodily sensations show stronger disgust-driven bias *** An experiment conducted by Schnall et al. (2008) revealed that people who were more aware of their Private Body Consciousness (PBC) were more prone to feelings of disgust and expressing these feelings outwards to the situation at hand. * type of violation ** purity vs harm == Practical Implications == * evidentiary admissibility ** courts allow for the admission of gruesome photographic evidence but findings suggest this may be wrong *** research shows that people view crimes harsher if exposed to gruesome photos *** Additionally, Bright & Goodman-Delahunty's (2006) research discusses a person's use of their inner emotional states as a way to reason with information they are being given. *** In their affective influences model, affect is a judgement-simplifying heuristic device. People generally consult their affective state, meaning they consult their inner emotion to infer a judgement before looking at the facts. * jury selection * how evidence is presented ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": ==Conclusion== * What does this mean going further {{vague}} * What would future research benefit from in this specific section? *Moral disgust does not come with jurors' judgements, but rather it can measurably shift guilt, certainty, blame attribution and punishment severity. *This may be stronger for certain people; it cannot just be a blanket claim for all jurors. *The idea that jurors decide on the basis of facts alone is not psychologically sustainable. The practice of law {{ic|The practice of law goes beyond the target topic}} needs to consider this, rather than seeing emotions as a bias. * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Alicke, M. D., & Weigel, S. H. (2021). The reasonable person standard: Psychological and legal perspectives. Annual Review of Law and Social Science, 17(1), 123–138. Bornewasser, M., & Bober, J. (1987). Individual, social group and intergroup behaviour. Some conceptual remarks on the social identity theory. European Journal of Social Psychology, 17(3), 267–276. https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1002/ejsp.2420170303 Bright, D. A., & Goodman-Delahunty, J. (2006). Gruesome evidence and emotion: Anger, blame, and jury decision-making. Law and Human Behavior, 30(2), 183–202. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10979-006-9027-y Chapman, H. A., & Anderson, A. K. (2012). Understanding disgust. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1251(1), 62–76. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-6632.2011.06369.x  DeSteno, D., Petty, R. E., Rucker, D. D., Wegener, D. T., & Braverman, J. (2004). Discrete emotions and persuasion: The role of emotion-induced expectancies. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 86(1), 43–56. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.86.1.43 Ekman, P. (1992). Are there basic emotions? Psychological Review, 99(3), 550–553. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.99.3.550 Fishbein, M., & Ajzen, I. (1975). Belief, attitude, intention, and behavior: an introduction to theory and research. Addison-Wesley Pub. Co. Lacey, N. (2023). Patrick Devlin, The enforcement of morals (1965). In [Book title] (1st ed.). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003193982-5 Russell, P. S., & Giner-Sorolla, R. (2013). Bodily moral disgust: What it is, how it is different from anger, and why it is an unreasoned emotion. Psychological Bulletin, 139(2), 328–351. https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1037/a0029319 Schnall, S., Haidt, J., Clore, G. L., & Jordan, A. H. (2008). Disgust as embodied moral judgment. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 34(8), 1096–1109. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167208317771 {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u-TmKo75gJI How Disgust Shapes our Thoughts on Moral Wrong & the Political Right] (David Pizzaro) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Disgust]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Morality]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Legal]] 7o5vlc7axknakp3dhmzh3zcj6xreu2b 2832757 2832755 2026-09-11T02:45:56Z Yellowvines 3106353 /* Emotional Response Patterns */ 2832757 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Moral disgust and jury decision-making: How does moral disgust impact jurors' judgements of guilt, blame, and punishment?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Trial by Jury - Chaos in the Courtroom.png | thumb | right | 250px |'''Figure 1'''. A jury is a group of sworn individuals who determine a defendant's guilt. ]] Consider sitting on a jury. The defendant appears composed, well-dressed, and speaks clearly. Someone like this couldn't have done anything bad — that's your instinct. Then you hear the charge: embezzlement. Over three years, they quietly transferred company funds to a personal account. Thousands of dollars were spent, and real people were harmed. You are angry. It's wrong. However, it does not make you feel sick. Consider the same composed defendant in the same courtroom, but this time the charge is posing as a charity volunteer to gain the trust of dying hospice patients before stealing the donations intended for their care. The financial loss is the same as the embezzlement case. Same amount, same number of victims. But something else arises in you. Not just anger, but more of a revulsion, as if something was contaminated. This doesn't simply feel like a crime. It has an unclean feeling to it. The same defendant. Same harm. So, why does one case make you feel cold and angry, while the other makes your skin crawl? And, aside from the actual harm done, could that visceral reaction be influencing how harshly you believe they should be punished? {{RoundBoxBottom}} It is the law that [https://www.monash.edu/law/news-and-events/news/2020/juries-why-do-we-actually-need-them-and-can-they-get-it-wrong jurors] {{ic|The law varies by jurisdiction; write for an international audience; Australians represent ~.3% of the world human population}} {{ic|Move external links to the External links section}} must base their verdicts on the facts of a case. But moral disgust, an emotional gut reaction, seems to influence how jurors assess guilt, blame and punishment, regardless of the strength of the evidence presented. A disgusted juror might unconsciously become more certain of guilt, assign more blame and suggest harsher punishment, regardless of what the facts actually establish. If disgust always biases judgements and sentences in one direction or the other, no matter how strong a case is, the implications are profound: wrongful convictions, disproportionate sentencing, and differences in the punishment of similar crimes depending on how “disgusting” the evidence seems, rather than the true seriousness of the crime. It also raises questions for current legal practices: courts commonly admit gruesome evidence under the assumption that its evidentiary value outweighs its emotional impact, an assumption this body of research directly undermines. Psychological science provides the legal system with something it cannot produce itself: controlled empirical evidence about the nature and causes of this bias. It shows not only that jurors appear to be affected by emotion but also the processes (appraisal patterns, purity vs. harm, violations, and individual differences such as private body consciousness) that determine when and for whom the effect is strongest. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' *If disgust can make moral judgements more severe, even when it’s incidental to the act being judged, what does that say about the reliability of human moral reasoning? *Can moral disgust be used by the legal system? {{ic|Use open-ended questions}} *How might a juror's own sensitivity to physiological sensations of disgust impact how vulnerable they are to disgust-driven bias? *How can psychological theories be used to mitigate risks of bias in the legal system? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == What is Moral Disgust? == {{ic|Include at least an introductory paragraph before branching into sub-headings}} === Disgust === [[w:Disgust|Disgust]] is one of the six universal emotions that humans experience and can be visually recognised on a person's face. The emotion of disgust is theorised to have originated from a biological protective mechanism to protect an organism from harm that may be brought on by food or poison. Disgust has evolved to become an emotion/behaviour directed at anything that may potentially cause harm or disease. For example, * body products * animals * hygiene * body violations, death or disease Paul Ekman proposed six basic emotions in his literature based on the theories that these emotions, across research all over the world, concluded in agreement on six emotions: happiness, surprise, fear, anger, sadness and disgust. Therefore, he proposed that the universality of these findings and the facial expression alone could conclude that there are 6 basic emotions (Ekman, 1992). === Moral Disgust === Moral disgust refers to the emotional response a person feels when their social or cultural norms are transgressed, therefore resulting in a reaction. Moral disgust is complex, and there is varying evidence for and against its genuine purpose as an emotion. Researchers argue that moral disgust is a metaphorical extension of physical disgust; shared facial expression, language, etc. Other researchers argue that it's functionally unique to traditional, physical disgust. It does not reliably trigger the same physiological processes: facial muscle activation, nausea, etc. (Chapman et al., 2012). Moral disgust is triggered by acts that are supposedly a violation of an individual's perceived purity or dignity. For example, betraying someone's trust (cheating on a partner) or exploiting a vulnerable person (as mentioned in the scenario at the start). Rozin et al. (1999) proposed a theory that moral disgust specifically clusters around violations of a person's divinity or purity. This is different from anger, which generally clusters around autonomy violations, also opposed to contempt, which clusters around community violations. This distinction is vital when discussing emotion for jurors. If moral disgust behaves differently from physical disgust, it may influence judgement in the courtroom through a different pathway than a simple reaction to physically disgusting evidence. Russell & {{ic|Use APA style for citations}} Giner-Sorolla (2013) discuss four competing arguments of disgust's role in moral condemnation. Firstly, the most flexible view of moral disgust that can be applied widely for many crimes is the general morality position. It claims that disgust is an all-purpose emotion which is seen through different kinds of moral disapproval, not just a narrow category. Secondly, disgust as a violation of bodily and spiritual purity is more specific. As mentioned prior, this claim is supported by Rozin's CAD (contempt, anger, disgust) triad. The third argument proposes that moral disgust is only a metaphor. The true emotion being experienced is anger, and individuals just use language as a metaphor (e.g., "that's disgusting") for how condemning they feel. Finally, Russell & Ginger-Sorolla's own claim for moral disgust is a middle ground for all the arguments in their research. Regardless of whether harm or justice is involved, they contend that disgust specifically tracks violations pertaining to the body and its products. Anger tends to co-occur with violations that are specifically related to justice, harm, or rights. This disgust behaves more like anger wearing the vocabulary of disgust than it does like bodily moral disgust. <quiz display="simple"> {Moral disgust and physical disgust are the same emotion: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> == Psychological Science in the Legal System == * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Criminal record stigma and emotion#Relevant theories|What psychological theories are present in the legal system]] {{expand}} === Social Identity Theory === Classic social identity theory posits that groups and whole organisations that possess the same cultural and social norms will have perceive themselves as sharing something in common. This adds to their own personal self-concept as an individual and as a member of a society/societies. Bronewasser & Bober (1987) argue that this theory describes a class or collective of people (people who may share traits but have no real interdependence) but not a genuine societal group. Groups depend on structure; roles, positions and relationships that require dependence from people. Through this theory, a jury is considered to be a genuine structured group. There are roles, a task and an interdependence through deliberation. This theory may offer a further point on why moral disgust may bias jurors. Moral disgust can function as a social categorisation cue, marking defendants as the out-group rather than in the jury's moral in-group. Bronewasser & Bober claim that even arbitary group labels are enough to produce an in-group favouritism and out-group favouritism. If a defendants act triggers moral disgust, this may mark them as being in the moral "outgroup" in a jurors mind. Independent of the actual evidence being presented, this compounds moral disgust biases. *social identity theory **a theory that posits that whole organisations and groups that possess the same cultural and social norms will all have similar self-concepts (Bornewasser & Bober, 1987). **The theory predicts that behaviours from this group will often be similar due to their similar self-concept. *[[w:Appraisal_theory|appraisal theory of emotion]] **appraisal theory of emotion is theory that specific emotions are extracted from evaluations of events which in turn impact a reaction which may differ depending on certain people. *evolutionary theory of emotion **this theory describes our emotions and reactions being biological reactions to stimuli. ***for example, disgust has come from protecting oneself from poisons. == Disgust as a Legally Relevant Emotion == * Disgust should not be seen as legally relevant, as that would be a personal bias. * How can you create a courtroom that is free from bias if you do not take into account the impact of disgust? * Maybe disgust shouldn't be seen as an impacting emotion but rather a factor that needs to be considered when a jury is shown pictures, footage, and witness statements in court. === Arguments For === * Patrick Devlin's belief that we should allow some degree of the shared morality view of society through emotions ** Within society, when crimes are viewed as "disgusting" or cause widespread intolerance, there is an importance to the intervention of the legal system (Lacey, 2023). * Informing the "Reasonable Person" Standard ** This is a theory that jurors will judge acts (particularly those involving negligence or abuse) based on what they believe they would have done in that situation. Or more accurately to the theory, what would a reasonably prudent person (RPP) have done (Alicke & Weigel, 2021)? === Arguments Against === * [[wikipedia:Harm_principle|harm principle limitation]] ** Developed by John Stuart Mills, the harm principle limitation states the following: ** "The only purpose for which power can be rightfully exercised over any member of a civilised community, against his will, is to prevent harm to others." [[wikisource:On_Liberty/Chapter_1|(Mill, 1869).]] ** This principle bars people within the legal system from criminalising an action because it makes most people feel moral disgust. * a tool for discrimination ** Historically, moral disgust has been a tool against those being charged with crimes of homosexuality and interracial marriages. == Moral Disgust and Juror Judgements == A jury is a group of 12 individuals that are carefully chosen to determine the guilt of an offender{{fact}} {{ic|Don't juries vary in size, depending on the juridstiction?}}. They are picked to be impartial, unbiased opinions that can aid in the determining of a person's guilt. Jurors are asked to make judgements based on the evidence presented to them in court. However, emotions play a large, unsuspecting role in determining the guilt of a person. Such is the reason why, in high-stakes cases, jurors are not allowed contact with the outside world or media during trials. Moral disgust in particular seems to have a large impact on the way that jurors perceive and shape jurors' judgements. Different emotions elicit different reactions based on the emotion and a person's appraisal patterns.{{fact}} === Emotional Response Patterns === Fishbein & Ajzen's (1975) expectancy-value model states that a person's given attitude towards an object is a direct function of the value that a person attaches to that object's attributes or outcomes. In explicit terms, a person's value on an object will be a direct function of the value that they place on said item and the positive or negative emotions they associate with it. Furthermore, the positive or negative characteristics that they associate with the object will be a weighted decision on the direct outcome that may occur due to the object. In a review of the role of emotion-induced expectancies, Desteno et al. (2004) argue that positive and negative emotions have been grouped together and oversimplified, which makes distinguishing them difficult. The studies found that specificity operates through an emotion-matching process. Whilst the study did not touch on disgust specifically, it found that persuasion about a situation increased when a person's current emotional state matched the emotional framing of a message. The broader emotion-specificity principle suggests a comparable mechanism that may apply to disgust. Older discourse has allowed for all emotions to be pushed into one category, but not all emotions push judgement in the same direction. Emotional appraisal patterns are the specific mental evaluations that an individual's brain makes about an event to determine how they feel about a situation. INSERT TABLE HERE W/ EVIDENCE == Moderating Factors == * private body consciousness ** people who are more prone to experience their private bodily sensations show stronger disgust-driven bias *** An experiment conducted by Schnall et al. (2008) revealed that people who were more aware of their Private Body Consciousness (PBC) were more prone to feelings of disgust and expressing these feelings outwards to the situation at hand. * type of violation ** purity vs harm == Practical Implications == * evidentiary admissibility ** courts allow for the admission of gruesome photographic evidence but findings suggest this may be wrong *** research shows that people view crimes harsher if exposed to gruesome photos *** Additionally, Bright & Goodman-Delahunty's (2006) research discusses a person's use of their inner emotional states as a way to reason with information they are being given. *** In their affective influences model, affect is a judgement-simplifying heuristic device. People generally consult their affective state, meaning they consult their inner emotion to infer a judgement before looking at the facts. * jury selection * how evidence is presented ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": ==Conclusion== * What does this mean going further {{vague}} * What would future research benefit from in this specific section? *Moral disgust does not come with jurors' judgements, but rather it can measurably shift guilt, certainty, blame attribution and punishment severity. *This may be stronger for certain people; it cannot just be a blanket claim for all jurors. *The idea that jurors decide on the basis of facts alone is not psychologically sustainable. The practice of law {{ic|The practice of law goes beyond the target topic}} needs to consider this, rather than seeing emotions as a bias. * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Alicke, M. D., & Weigel, S. H. (2021). The reasonable person standard: Psychological and legal perspectives. Annual Review of Law and Social Science, 17(1), 123–138. Bornewasser, M., & Bober, J. (1987). Individual, social group and intergroup behaviour. Some conceptual remarks on the social identity theory. European Journal of Social Psychology, 17(3), 267–276. https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1002/ejsp.2420170303 Bright, D. A., & Goodman-Delahunty, J. (2006). Gruesome evidence and emotion: Anger, blame, and jury decision-making. Law and Human Behavior, 30(2), 183–202. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10979-006-9027-y Chapman, H. A., & Anderson, A. K. (2012). Understanding disgust. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1251(1), 62–76. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-6632.2011.06369.x  DeSteno, D., Petty, R. E., Rucker, D. D., Wegener, D. T., & Braverman, J. (2004). Discrete emotions and persuasion: The role of emotion-induced expectancies. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 86(1), 43–56. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.86.1.43 Ekman, P. (1992). Are there basic emotions? Psychological Review, 99(3), 550–553. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.99.3.550 Fishbein, M., & Ajzen, I. (1975). Belief, attitude, intention, and behavior: an introduction to theory and research. Addison-Wesley Pub. Co. Lacey, N. (2023). Patrick Devlin, The enforcement of morals (1965). In [Book title] (1st ed.). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003193982-5 Russell, P. S., & Giner-Sorolla, R. (2013). Bodily moral disgust: What it is, how it is different from anger, and why it is an unreasoned emotion. Psychological Bulletin, 139(2), 328–351. https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1037/a0029319 Schnall, S., Haidt, J., Clore, G. L., & Jordan, A. H. (2008). Disgust as embodied moral judgment. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 34(8), 1096–1109. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167208317771 {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u-TmKo75gJI How Disgust Shapes our Thoughts on Moral Wrong & the Political Right] (David Pizzaro) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Disgust]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Morality]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Legal]] j8y36vdjq7ngqsvmwog7mn4mv5we1xb 0 331254 2832612 2830852 2026-09-10T16:42:53Z Unitfreak 695864 2832612 wikitext text/x-wiki The term "naked-eye stars" refers to any celestial object that can be seen in the night sky using only human vision, completely unaided by binoculars or telescopes. However, what qualifies as a naked-eye star is highly subjective, depending heavily on environmental light pollution and a person's biological visual acuity. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of naked-eye stars binned according to brightness and distance from the Sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the Sun than 10¹⁰ light-seconds, which is the distance the Sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of naked-eye stars are within this travel distance of the Sun, 100 parsecs or 10¹⁰ light-seconds.]] In remote regions like deserts or high mountains where the sky is dark, a person may see between 2,500 and 3,500 stars at any given time. Under these pristine conditions, the Milky Way can actually cast distinct shadows on the ground. Conversely, in major metropolitan areas like New York or Tokyo, extreme light pollution blanks out the sky, leaving only the Moon, planets, and perhaps a few dozen of the absolute brightest stars visible. To see faint stars, human eyes must adapt to the dark by widening the pupils to draw in light. A young person's pupil may expand to 7 mm, whereas an older adult's pupil might only expand to 5 mm, naturally making faint stars invisible to the older observer. Furthermore, minor uncorrected astigmatisms, nearsightedness, or mild cataracts smudge pinpoint starlight, causing faint stars to blend directly into the background glow of the night sky. ==== The Hipparchus Magnitude System ==== In 129 B.C., the ancient Greek astronomer Hipparchus created the world's first stellar catalog. He ranked the stars purely by how they appeared to his naked eye. In 1856, astronomer Norman Pogson formalized this ancient system mathematically. He discovered that the human eye perceives brightness logarithmically, and that Hipparchus’s 1st-magnitude stars were exactly 100 times brighter than his 6th-magnitude stars. *'''1st Magnitude:''' The very brightest, "first-rate" stars to light up at twilight. *'''2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th Magnitude:''' Progressively dimmer stars. *'''6th Magnitude:''' The absolute faintest, "sixth-rate" stars Hipparchus could barely see under pristine, ancient night skies. The stars in '''Figure 3a''' are ranked using the modern version of Hipparchus's magnitude system. A total of 9,427 stars are included in the stacked histogram, but more than two-thirds of these are 6th-magnitude stars that are only visible in ideal circumstances. It is notable that stars of first through third magnitude tend to be nearer than 100 parsecs, whereas stars of fifth and sixth magnitude tend to be beyond the 100 parsecs mark. Over a time duration of 16⁸ Bully timestamps, the Sun will travel a distance that is beyond the majority of the brightest stars, but not as far as the dimmest naked-eye stars. ==== The Pleiades Star Cluster ==== '''Figure 3c''' provides an SVG illustration of magnitude as used in astronomy. The Pleiades Star Cluster is a good example to illustrate star magnitude. The cluster lies at an average distance of about 136.2 parsecs (approximately 444 light-years) from Earth, with the entire physical cluster spanning only about 4 to 5 parsecs in depth and width. There are over 1,000 stars in the cluster, but shared gravity keeps them traveling through space together as a single family. Because the total internal gravity is relatively weak, it takes millions of years for a star to complete an orbital loop around the cluster's center, and the stars will eventually drift apart. The Pleiades system, shown in '''Figure 3d''', has a combined apparent magnitude of 1.6. The nine brightest stars shown in '''Figure 3e''' have representatives ranging from third-magnitude stars to sixth-magnitude stars. A star map of the system from the Hubble Space Telescope is shown in '''Figure 3f'''. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; border: none; background: transparent;color:inherit;" |- | colspan = 2; style="border: none; padding: 10px;" | [[File:Magnitude_illustration.svg|thumb|right|340px|alt=TBD.|'''Figure 3c:''' An SVG illustration of magnitude in astronomy.]] |- | style="border: none; padding: 10px;" | {{CSS image crop |Image = Pleiades_over_Arizona.jpg |bSize = 200 |cWidth = 120 |cHeight = 120 |oTop = 12 |oLeft = 40 |Location = left |Description = '''Figure 3d:''' The combined apparent magnitude of the Pleiades star cluster (Messier 45) is approximately 1.6 when viewed together as a group. }} | style="border: none; padding: 10px;" | {{CSS image crop |Image = Pleiades_over_Arizona.jpg |bSize = 1700 |cWidth = 180 |cHeight = 180 |oTop = 500 |oLeft = 750 |Location = center |Description = '''Figure 3e:''' The nine brightest stars in the cluster includes 1 third-magnitude star, 5 fourth-magnitude stars, 2 fifth-magnitude stars, and 1 sixth magnitude star. }} |- | colspan = 2; style="border: none; padding: 10px;" | [[File:M45map.jpg|thumb|right|340px|alt=A deep space photograph of bright stars with overlaid text labels naming individual stars and some distances.|'''Figure 3f:''' A star map of the Pleiades star cluster from the Hubble Space Telescope.]] |} r3rltx4ctw0i8qj68643eic8ul1ixk4 2 331325 2832759 2828755 2026-09-11T03:30:53Z Jtneill 10242 /* Social Contributions */ {{ic|Use a numbered list as shown in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]}} 2832759 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == [[File:University of Canberra.jpg|thumb|One of the entrances to the University of Canberra]] Hello! My name is James and I am a student at the [[wikipedia:University_of_Canberra|University of Canberra]]. I am currently in my third and final year of my psychology degree, where I major in counselling studies. I enjoy finding out more about the human brain, particularly in the role I can play in helping people suffering with different challenges in their lives, helping them to solve what they need to be able to live better and more fulfiling lives. I'm hoping to be able do school counselling with high school students. My future career aspirations centre around becoming a school counsellor, most especially at the high school level. As part of my studies, I am currently writing a [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Volunteer counsellor motivation|chapter]] in a [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026|book]] about [[motivation and emotion]] at the University of Canberra. == Book chapter I'm working on == I am currently writing a book chapter for one of my units about motivation and emotion. It is entitled [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Volunteer counsellor motivation|"Volunteer counsellor motivation: What motivates people to become and remain volunteer counsellors"]]. As the title suggests, it is about how people choose to help others in the counselling profession on a volunteer basis, and why they are motivated to do this important work. I am a big advocate for mental health and I feel strongly about helping people both get into the field as professionals and volunteers and how they can then help. I am also a strong supporter of people seeking mental health help, no matter how big or small the issue, from a little day-to-day annoyance right up to major mental health disorders. == Social Contributions == {{ic|Use a numbered list as shown in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]}} [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FAthletic_identity_loss_and_returning_to_sport_after_injury&diff=2828704&oldid=2828681 Fixed a spelling error] [[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Self-disclosure and emotional intimacy#c-J.M.A Watson-20260827215400-Resource|Made a suggestion about a resource to use]] [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/457904?entry_id=810340 Made a suggestion in a UCLearn discussion forum] e255qdqbxhcegy81xqg0u0iexybv51n 0 331335 2832761 2828701 2026-09-11T03:31:30Z Jtneill 10242 Copyediting 2832761 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Volunteer counsellor motivation:<br>What motivates people to become and remain volunteer counsellors?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:The Habit Loop Model.png|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' Habits can last for a long or a short time]] '''Do you remember''' a time when you felt really motivated to something? Maybe you wanted to start a new hobby, change a habit, read that book you had been meaning to, or maybe even to make a major life plan. Whatever the case, there was something that pushed you to it, maybe an inspiring message or song, a sudden realisation or an epiphany. Everyday, there are different forces that drive us to different activities, and our motivation levels change just as quickly. There are habits you may have once been motivated to keep to, and some that have fallen away in your life (see Figure 1). Each of us have qualities and experience different emotions that cause us to act in certain ways. This is also the case with volunteer counselling, where people take time out of their lives to help others through their problems without the usual incentive of income at the end of it. {{RoundBoxBottom}} In this chapter we will be discussing and asking questions about what causes people to begin volunteer counselling and why they continue on after the initial phase of motivation may have passed. We will look at what type of people will do this work, and how each of us can implement these qualities into our own lives for the benefit of ourselves and others. Key concepts/importance of the topic * One key concept is better understanding why people choose to volunteer to be counsellors. What qualities or emotions are most important when choosing to do so and remain so? * This topic also helps us understand how best to to keep motivation continuing on, how it can last long enough to undertake this type of work over a prolonged period of time rather than just one or two instances. * This topic is important as it may lend insight into how these qualities and emotions can be cultivated, how they can best be used, and the benefits that those who choose to undertake volunteer counselling can expect to experience. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * Why motivates volunteering? * Why motivates volunteer counselling? * What sustains volunteer counselling? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Why are people motivated to volunteer? == * This section will discuss why peope volunteer, as in why are there those who will volunteer at all? ** Macro-societal qualities and norms can influence whether a person will volunteer or not (Sundram et al., 2018) ** Emotions, particularly empathy are important in getting people to volunteer (Doidge & Sandri, 2018) ** By understanding the reasons people volunteer in the first place, we can then see who is best suited to be a volunteer counsellor and who by extension will remain so == Why do people start volunteer counselling? == * There are a variety of motivators that help people get into volunteer counselling ** Many people point to altrustic factors as being a key reason why they begin (Cassidy et al., 2019) ** Research suggests that having compassion for others is a trait that is common among those who volunteer as counsellors (Mitchell et al., 2026) ** The qualities people possess are a potential predictor as to who will volunteer and then excel as volunteers == Why are people motivated to continue being volunteer counsellors? == * There are a few theories based on research about why people remain as volunteer counsellors ** Some people view at as a calling, and those who do are more likely to remain as volunteer counsellors (Faletehan et al., 2020) ** People often stay because it gives them a sense of purpose and self-fulfillment (Smith et al., 2018) ** Most theories centre around the qualities people possess ;Quizzes ;One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end <quiz display="simple"> {The qualities that a person has can help determine their desire to remain volunteer counsellors: |type="()"} + True - False {All people are suited to becoming volunteer counsellors: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * There are certain qualities and emotions that are important in becoming and remaining a volunteer counsellor, empathy being one of the most important * Altruism gives us a good insight into the minds of those who undertake to be volunteer counsellors * Purpose and self-fulfillment help people to endure the hardship of being a volunteer counsellor, so helping people find their purpose will help them understand what they can bring to the table in volunteer counselling ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Altruism and empathy|Altruism and empathy]] (Book chapter, 2014) * [[wikipedia:Volunteering|Volunteering]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Cassidy, M., Thompson, R., El-Nagib, R., Hickling, L. M., & Priebe, S. (2019). Motivations and experiences of volunteers and patients in mental health befriending: A thematic analysis. ''BMC Psychiatry'', ''19''(1). <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-019-2102-y</nowiki> Doidge, M., & Sandri, E. (2018). ‘Friends that last a lifetime’: The importance of emotions amongst volunteers working with refugees in Calais. ''The British Journal of Sociology'', ''70''(2), 463–480. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-4446.12484</nowiki> Faletehan, A. F., van Burg, E., Thompson, N. A., & Wempe, J. (2020). Called to volunteer and stay longer: The significance of work calling for volunteering motivation and retention. ''Voluntary Sector Review'', ''12''(2). <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1332/204080520x15929332587023</nowiki> Mitchell, K. E., Kirkman, A., & Taylor, E. C. (2026). Factors shaping compassion and self-compassion in UK Volunteer Mental Health Workers: A thematic analysis. ''British Journal of Guidance &Amp; Counselling'', 1–21. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1080/03069885.2026.2663162</nowiki> Smith, L., Callaghan, J. E. M., & Fellin, L. C. (2018). A qualitative study exploring the experience and motivations of UK samaritan volunteers: “Why do we do it?”. ''British Journal of Guidance & Counselling'', ''48''(6), 1–11. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1080/03069885.2018.1546378</nowiki>}} ==External links== * [https://www.lifelinecanberra.org.au/volunteer/ Volunteer] (Lifeline Canberra) * [https://www.volunteeringaustralia.org/policy/volunteering-and-wellbeing/ Volunteering and wellbeing] (Volunteering Australia) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Helping]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Volunteering]] 5juom1hd2ue3f07em5dvmpep9puliky 0 331379 2832727 2832195 2026-09-10T22:01:31Z Jtneill 10242 Copyediting 2832727 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Athletic identity loss and returning to sport after injury:<br>How does injury related disruption to athletic identity affect motivation to return to sport?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Bianca Chatfield 2008c.jpg|thumb|200px|'''Figure 1'''. International netball players playing at a tournament. ]] Maggie had always considered herself an athlete. Netball training shaped her days, her confidence, and her identity. But one bad landing changed everything. The injury benched her for months, and without competition or routine, she felt her sense of self slipping. As rehab dragged on, motivation became unpredictable. Some days she was desperate to return but other days she wondered if she still belonged in the sport at all. Fear of reinjury, pressure to perform, and the loss of her athletic identity made the path back feel uncertain. Her body was healing but her identity wasn’t. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Injury can destabilise an athlete’s core sense of self. When sport is central to [[wikipedia:Identity_(social_science)|identity]], losing the ability to participate can trigger grief, uncertainty, and reduced confidence. This identity disruption directly affects motivation to return, often creating a tension between wanting to restore the self and fearing further injury. Understanding this relationship is crucial for coaches, clinicians and athletes navigating return to sport decisions. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Focus questions * How can identity shapes{{g}} motivation? * How does injury can weaken or strengthen the desire to return? * How do factors like self determination, social support, and emotional regulation influence recovery? * What interventions can rebuild identity and motivation? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Athletic identity== Identity sits at the centre of human experience. It is shaped by what we do, how we see ourselves, and how we believe others see us. [[wikipedia:Athletic_identity|Athletic identity]] is whereby an individual considers themselves an athlete. '''How does sport shape our identity?''' *Identity formation is a key developmental task in adolescence that can become especially significant when young athletes experience a sport injury (Brewer and Chatterton 2024). A disruption such as an injury can directly shape how they see themselves and their future in sport. '''Team v individual sport''' * Can being part of a team verse playing an individual sport shape the way we form our athletic identity? '''Participation v elite sport''' * Does the level of competition shape the way identity is formed and the emphasis placed on this component of identity. * Do elite athletes form a stronger connection with athletic identity (see Figure 1) {{ic|Cite this figure in the Overview}}. '''Sporting community''' * Being apart of something bigger thank ourselves can be a drawing force to participation in sport. * The role of teammates and coaches can be crucial to developing our own identity. == Motivation to return to sport post injury == * A study by Brewer et all (2003) found in a study from athletes who were recovering from ACL injury and had a stronger athletic identity were more likely to commit to their rehabilitation. * Intrinsic and extrinsic motivators. * Community contributions.<br /> == Key theories == Psychological theories such as [[wikipedia:Self-determination_theory|self determination theory]] can support the return to sport following an injury and assist with rebuilding of athletic identity. * Self determination theory was created by psychologists Edward Deci and Richard Ryan in the 1900's and formalised in their book in 1985. * They considered motivation to be largely intrinsic with three basis needs of autonomy, competence and relatedness. * Consideration to intrinsic value extrinsic motivation in sport. ;Quiz Test your knowledge! <quiz display="simple"> {Psychologists Edward Deci and Richard Ryan created self determination theory and formalised the theory in 1985? |type="()"} + True - False {The three basic needs outlined in self determination theory are autonomy, competence and relatedness? |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== Athletic injury does more than interrupt training it disrupts identity, confidence, and the psychological foundations of motivation. When athletes experience a break in their athletic identity, their drive to return becomes shaped not only by physical readiness but by how they reconstruct their sense of self during recovery. Psychological science offers clear insights into how identity, motivation, and emotional regulation interact in this process. == See also == * [[wikipedia:Athletic_identity|Athletic identity]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Identity|Identity]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Sports_injury|Sports injury]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Team_sport|Team sport]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Brewer, B. W., & Chatterton, H. A. (2024). Athletic identity and sport injury processes and outcomes in young athletes: A supplemental narrative review. Journal of Functional Morphology and Kinesiology, 9(4), 191. https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk9040191 Brewer BW, Cornelius AE, Van Raalte JL, Petitpas AJ, Sklar JH, Pohlman MH, et al. Age-related differences in predictors of adherence to rehabilitation after anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction. J Athl Train. 2003;38(2):158–62. McGinley, J., Stapleton, E., Worrall, H., Ellis, H. B., Wilson, P. L., & Ulman, S. (2021). Sport participation and psychosocial factors which influence athletic identity in youth athletes with anterior cruciate ligament injury. Frontiers in Sports and Active Living, 3, 660836. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.906300 Lu, F. J. H., Lee, W. P., Chang, Y. K., Chou, C. C., Hsu, Y. W., Lin, J. H., & Gill, D. L. (2016). Mental toughness, social support, and athletic identity: Moderators of the life stress–injury relationship in collegiate football players. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 24, 92–100. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2016.01.009 Ohji, S., Aizawa, J., Hirohata, K. et al. Athletic identity and sport commitment in athletes after anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction who have returned to sports at their pre-injury level of competition. BMC Sports Sci Med Rehabil 13, 37 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13102-021-00264-6 Weber Rawlins, M. L., Beasley, L. E., & Kontos, A. P. (2023). The influence of athletic identity, passion, and perceptions of concussion severity on athletes’ willingness to report concussion symptoms. Journal of Sport Rehabilitation, 32(7), 767–775. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsr.2022-0313 Webster, K. E., Clement, D., & Ardern, C. L. (2021). Differences in athletic identity, sport participation, and psychosocial factors following anterior cruciate ligament rehabilitation in youth athletes. Frontiers in Sports and Active Living, 3, 660835. https://doi.org/10.3389/fspor.2021.660835 }} ==External links== * [https://www.ausport.gov.au Australian Sports Commission] (<nowiki>https://www.ausport.gov.au/</nowiki>) * [https://www.beyondblue.org.au Beyond Blue] (<nowiki>https://www.beyondblue.org.au/</nowiki>) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Health]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Sport]] dh24ahhtsie08n8k30rj4crqmtbuddz 0 331386 2832740 2829581 2026-09-10T23:23:41Z Ella Kay244 3107007 2832740 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Self-determination theory and dementia care:<br>How can autonomy, competence, and relatedness be supported in people living with dementia?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Wolf Creek NFH nursing home fishing event October 2024.png|thumb|'''Figure 1:''' Residence of an aged care home enjoying an outside activity ]] ;Imagine this ... Imagine you are an elderly resident with dementia living in a psychogeriatric ward in the beautiful countryside of the Netherlands. On your walk from your bedroom to the communal dining room, you pass many people; staff, other residents and resident’s family members but you do not know any of them. You take your breakfast to a table that looks out over the garden. As you eat your breakfast you imagine yourself walking around the gardens, taking in the sun and smelling the flowers. Despite your longing to do just that, you know that it is not up to you if you get to enjoy the gardens today. You have been told it is unsafe and you must wait to see if one of those staff members you walked past this morning will have the time to take you outside. {{RoundBoxBottom}} How would this scenario make you feel? Trapped? Unsafe? This scenario was taken from experiences shared by residents of a [[wikipedia:Geriatric_psychiatry|psychogeriatric]] ward in the Netherlands. These experiences were shared with researchers to help them understand what made residents feel a sense of freedom and safety. They identified that time in nature, knowing the staff and spending time with others all contributed to sense of freedom and safety (Van Andel & Holkenborg, 2024). Scenarios like this are common within aged care homes for residents living with [[dementia]]. A review of 1158 articles published between 2000 and 2018 found that residents felt a lack of freedom, belonging and connection with some residents even describing their living situation as 'living in a prison camp'. Many residents describe their well-being as low with reports of poor self-esteem, connection, value and independence (Shiells et al., 2020). [[Self-determination theory]] uses three elements to explain motivation and wellbeing. These elements can help us understand the experiences of people living with dementia and how to improve their well-being and the well-being of carers too. Self-determination theory (SDT) highlights 3 core psychological needs that impact well-being, autonomy, competence, and relatedness (Dombestein et al., 2020). * Autonomy is the need to feel ownership and agency over your own actions. * Competence is the need to be able to feel confident in performing tasks * Relatedness is the need to feel a sense of belonging. The feeling that you are supported by others and that you intern support them This book chapter addresses the quetions{{sp}}, how can self-determination theory help us understand and support the psychological needs of autonomy, competence, and relatedness in people living with dementia, and those who care for them? {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * What is dementia, and what care options exsist to support people living with it? * What does self-determination theory propose about human motivation and well-being, and why is it a useful framework for understanding dementia care? * How does informal caregiving affect the psychological needs of autonomy, competence and relatedness, for both the caregiver and the person with dementia? * What factors help or hinder autonomy, competence and relatedness for people with dementia living in aged care settings? * What steps can caregivers take to better support anutonomy, competence and relatedness in dementia care? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Understanding dementia and modles{{sp}} of care == * Dementia is a neurodegenerative disease that progresses over time. As the disease progresses patients need more support with [https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/aging-neuroscience/articles/10.3389/fnagi.2023.1161736/full daily functioning]. Care or support for dementia can look different for each patient and is often impacted by religious and family beliefs, socioeconomic status, location and relationship status ** What is dementia - How does it impact daily functioning? *** Dementia is characterised by a decline in cognition. With this decline comes a loss of functional status which is the ability to do everyday tasks *** Functional decline (decline in performing tasks) is oftern seen as more distressing for families than cognitive decline *** Support is oftern{{sp}} needed for complex daily activities like shoppping and organising transportation first with the gradual need overtime for help with basic daily activities like going to the bathroom and getting dressed (Cipriani et al., 2020). ** The rising golbal prevalence of dementia *** Dementia is the 7th leading cause of death and a major cuase of disability for older people worldwide *** 57 million people were living with dementia in 2021 *** Women are more likely to get dementia *** Women are accountable for 70% of care delivered to people with dementia (World Health Organisation, 2026). ** Informal care - what is it, and why do people choose this over other forms? ** Formal care - what is it, and why do people choose it? == Self-determination theory as a framework == * overview ** What is self-determination theory? *** A theory of human motivation ** The three psychological needs: autonomy, competence and relatedness *** Autonomy is the need to feel ownership and agency over your own actions *** Competence is the need to be able to feel confident in performing tasks *** Relatedness is the need to feel a sense of belonging. The feeling that you are supported by others and that you intern support them ** The motivation continuum - from controlled to autonomous motivation *** SDT is not characterised by the frequency or amount of motivation, but exists on a continuum from amotivation, through controlled motivation, to high-quality motivation. Distinguished by autonomously regulated behaviour. *** High-quality (autonomous) motivation predicts beneficial health outcomes like well-being, thriving, and psychological growth. *** (Dombestein et al., 2020) *** [[File:Firefly Gemini Flash Can you please make me an illustration of 4 different monsters make them different sh 294329.png|400x400px]] == Supporting psychological needs in informal care settings == * overview: People are intrinsically and extrinsically motivated to provide informal care to loved for a range of reasons. In Europe 80% of carers are unpaid. Informal caring responsibilities therefore impact a significant amount of the population and thus are important to consider. ** Motivations of informal caregivers through an SDT lens *** feeling forced into a caring role from social, family or internal pressures. This led to poorer outcomes and led to diminished well-being, tension in the carer patient relationship and a loss of control *** intrinsic motivation, caers who feel like they have made the choice to be in a caring role to fulfil their own needs have better well-being ** Autonomous vs controlled motivation and caregiver well-being *** Autonomous helping motivation was positively associated with basic psychological needs being met *** Autonomously motivated caregivers experienced less stress and exhaustion, fewer depressive symptoms, greater spirituality and better mental health, greater personal growth, and saw more benefits in caregiving. It also led to increased happiness, positive affect and well-being, greater life satisfaction, better personal functioning, and less exhaustion as a result of helping someone with a long-term illness ** SDT-based interventions for caregivers *** SDT-based interventions focusing on the patient-carer relationship, self-care, stress and coping, symptom management, communication skills, problem-solving, and weekly caregiver telephone counselling sessions these interventions improved depression and anxiety, decreased sense of burden among caregivers, and increased autonomous motivation. *** Intrinsic motivation for helping created benefits for the helper through greater need satisfaction. ** SDT helps to explain why some people thrive in a caring role and why other struggle. Understanding the principles of SDT can help health professionals to assist informal carers by recognising their strengths and resources and treating them as partners in their loved ones health journey. This can help caregiver feel more autonomous and ultimately lead to a better outcome for everyone. ** (Dombestein et al., 2020) == Supporting psychological needs in formal care settings == * overview ** Supporting preferance and choice in nursing homes *** Understanding cultural background and life hisorty of residents can help stuff to collaborate and support residents in making their own chocies. *** advanced care planning when done frequently helped residents feel automous ** The role of staff competence and relationships *** stuff did not have enough time to develop relashionships with recidents *** strong trusting relationships with family and nursing staff help residents achieve feelings of autonomy *** stuff can over fewer choices to help residents make decisions. However this is complex as it can lead to staff subconsciously making decisions for residents. ** Knowing the resident - personal characteristics and history ** Barriers to supporting autonomy in formal care *** staffing shortages *** (Van der Weide et al., 2023) == Implications for practice == * overview ** Quality of life and cognitive decline are not associated. ** Decision making involvement was positively associated with quality of life and all 3 psychological needs ** Decision-making does not directly contribute to quality of life ** Decision-making helps with self-determination ** (Colclough et al., 2026) * Tools like talking matts can help people with dementia to communicate to improve decision making ** Recommendations for informal caregivers *** focus on self-care, stress and coping strategies *** Helth professionals recognise informal caregivers strengths and view as partners in the patient's health journey ** Recommendations for formal care staff and services *** Understand own biases *** Give fewer options *** Understand patients cultural background *** Get to know the patients ** Gaps in current research ==Conclusion== * People with dementia progressively need more support with daily functioning as their condition progresses * Increased support from others can lead to greater feelings of being out of control of one’s own life * When people with dementia are restricted from doing basic daily tasks like preparing their own food, showering or going for a walk they can feel a lack of autonomy, competence and relatedness. * A lack of autonomy, competence and relatedness negatively impacts well-being * To improve the wellbeing of people with dementia, carers should make an effort to get to know their patients and provide choice were possible ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Basic psychological need theory|Basic psychological need theory]] (Book chapter, 2020) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Dementia care motivation|Dementia care motivation]] (Book chapter, 2014) * [[Dementia]] (Wikiversity) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) * [[Neurodegenerative disease]] (Wikiversity) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Cipriani, G., Danti, S., Picchi, L., Nuti, A., & Fiorino, M. D. (2020). Daily functioning and dementia. ''Dementia & Neuropsychologia, 14''(2), 93–102. https://doi.org/10.1590/1980-57642020dn14-020001 Colclough, C., Perach, R., Harris, P., Rusted, J., Banerjee, S., & Miles, E. (2026). Decision-making involvement and quality of life in people with dementia: the mediating role of psychological needs. ''Aging & Mental Health, 30''(2), 267–276. https://doi.org/10.1080/13607863.2025.2541188 Dombestein, H., Norheim, A., & Lunde Husebø, A. M. (2020). Understanding informal caregivers’ motivation from the perspective of self‐determination theory: an integrative review. ''Scandinavian Journal of Caring Sciences, 34''(2), 267–279. https://doi.org/10.1111/scs.12735 Shiells, K., Pivodic, L., Holmerová, I., & Van den Block, L. (2020). Self-reported needs and experiences of people with dementia living in nursing homes: a scoping review. ''Aging & Mental Health, 24''(10), 1553–1568. https://doi.org/10.1080/13607863.2019.1625303 van Andel, S., & Holkenborg, A. (2024). From the Perspective of People with Dementia: Using Creative Qualitative Measures to Assess the Values and Opinions on Freedom and Safety among People Living with Dementia. ''Healthcare (Basel), 12''(14), 1412. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare12141412 van der Weide, H., Lovink, M. H., Luijkx, K. G., & Gerritsen, D. L. (2023). Supporting autonomy for people with dementia living in nursing homes: A rapid realist review. ''International Journal of Nursing Studies'', 137, Article 104382. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2022.104382 World health organisation. (2026). Dementia https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/dementia }} ==External links== * [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK551552/ Behavioural and psychological symptoms in dementia] (National library of medicine) * [https://newsroom.ucla.edu/releases/dementia-care-study-highlights-importance-of-caregiver-self-efficacy Dementia care study highlights importance of caregiver self-efficacy] (UCLA newsroom) * [https://findanexpert.unimelb.edu.au/scholarlywork/1753807-older-adults-using-technology-for-meaningful-activities-during-covid-19--an-analysis-through-the-lens-of-self-determination-theory Older] [https://findanexpert.unimelb.edu.au/scholarlywork/1753807-older-adults-using-technology-for-meaningful-activities-during-covid-19--an-analysis-through-the-lens-of-self-determination-theory adults using technology for meaningful activities during COVID-19: an analysis through the lens of self-determination theory] (University of Melbourne) {{ic|There are two links provided here - combine into a single link}} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self-determination theory]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Dementia]] 5gaw9ftje13hpm2aevq4t6v3mfzmnxf 2832743 2832740 2026-09-10T23:45:28Z Ella Kay244 3107007 /* Self-determination theory as a framework */ 2832743 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Self-determination theory and dementia care:<br>How can autonomy, competence, and relatedness be supported in people living with dementia?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Wolf Creek NFH nursing home fishing event October 2024.png|thumb|'''Figure 1:''' Residence of an aged care home enjoying an outside activity ]] ;Imagine this ... Imagine you are an elderly resident with dementia living in a psychogeriatric ward in the beautiful countryside of the Netherlands. On your walk from your bedroom to the communal dining room, you pass many people; staff, other residents and resident’s family members but you do not know any of them. You take your breakfast to a table that looks out over the garden. As you eat your breakfast you imagine yourself walking around the gardens, taking in the sun and smelling the flowers. Despite your longing to do just that, you know that it is not up to you if you get to enjoy the gardens today. You have been told it is unsafe and you must wait to see if one of those staff members you walked past this morning will have the time to take you outside. {{RoundBoxBottom}} How would this scenario make you feel? Trapped? Unsafe? This scenario was taken from experiences shared by residents of a [[wikipedia:Geriatric_psychiatry|psychogeriatric]] ward in the Netherlands. These experiences were shared with researchers to help them understand what made residents feel a sense of freedom and safety. They identified that time in nature, knowing the staff and spending time with others all contributed to sense of freedom and safety (Van Andel & Holkenborg, 2024). Scenarios like this are common within aged care homes for residents living with [[dementia]]. A review of 1158 articles published between 2000 and 2018 found that residents felt a lack of freedom, belonging and connection with some residents even describing their living situation as 'living in a prison camp'. Many residents describe their well-being as low with reports of poor self-esteem, connection, value and independence (Shiells et al., 2020). [[Self-determination theory]] uses three elements to explain motivation and wellbeing. These elements can help us understand the experiences of people living with dementia and how to improve their well-being and the well-being of carers too. Self-determination theory (SDT) highlights 3 core psychological needs that impact well-being, autonomy, competence, and relatedness (Dombestein et al., 2020). * Autonomy is the need to feel ownership and agency over your own actions. * Competence is the need to be able to feel confident in performing tasks * Relatedness is the need to feel a sense of belonging. The feeling that you are supported by others and that you intern support them This book chapter addresses the quetions{{sp}}, how can self-determination theory help us understand and support the psychological needs of autonomy, competence, and relatedness in people living with dementia, and those who care for them? {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * What is dementia, and what care options exsist to support people living with it? * What does self-determination theory propose about human motivation and well-being, and why is it a useful framework for understanding dementia care? * How does informal caregiving affect the psychological needs of autonomy, competence and relatedness, for both the caregiver and the person with dementia? * What factors help or hinder autonomy, competence and relatedness for people with dementia living in aged care settings? * What steps can caregivers take to better support anutonomy, competence and relatedness in dementia care? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Understanding dementia and modles{{sp}} of care == * Dementia is a neurodegenerative disease that progresses over time. As the disease progresses patients need more support with [https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/aging-neuroscience/articles/10.3389/fnagi.2023.1161736/full daily functioning]. Care or support for dementia can look different for each patient and is often impacted by religious and family beliefs, socioeconomic status, location and relationship status ** What is dementia - How does it impact daily functioning? *** Dementia is characterised by a decline in cognition. With this decline comes a loss of functional status which is the ability to do everyday tasks *** Functional decline (decline in performing tasks) is oftern seen as more distressing for families than cognitive decline *** Support is oftern{{sp}} needed for complex daily activities like shoppping and organising transportation first with the gradual need overtime for help with basic daily activities like going to the bathroom and getting dressed (Cipriani et al., 2020). ** The rising golbal prevalence of dementia *** Dementia is the 7th leading cause of death and a major cuase of disability for older people worldwide *** 57 million people were living with dementia in 2021 *** Women are more likely to get dementia *** Women are accountable for 70% of care delivered to people with dementia (World Health Organisation, 2026). ** Informal care - what is it, and why do people choose this over other forms? ** Formal care - what is it, and why do people choose it? == Self-determination theory as a framework == * overview ** What is self-determination theory? *** A theory of human motivation ** The three psychological needs: autonomy, competence and relatedness *** Autonomy is the need to feel ownership and agency over your own actions *** Competence is the need to be able to feel confident in performing tasks *** Relatedness is the need to feel a sense of belonging. The feeling that you are supported by others and that you intern support them ** The motivation continuum - from controlled to autonomous motivation *** SDT is not characterised by the frequency or amount of motivation, but exists on a continuum from amotivation, through controlled motivation, to high-quality motivation. Distinguished by autonomously regulated behaviour. *** High-quality (autonomous) motivation predicts beneficial health outcomes like well-being, thriving, and psychological growth. *** (Dombestein et al., 2020) *** [[File:Firefly Gemini Flash Can you please make me an illustration of 4 different monsters make them different sh 294329.png|400x400px]][[File:Firefly Gemini Flash Pleas change the monster that is on the path of external regulation to be blue and l 698449.png|400x400px]] == Supporting psychological needs in informal care settings == * overview: People are intrinsically and extrinsically motivated to provide informal care to loved for a range of reasons. In Europe 80% of carers are unpaid. Informal caring responsibilities therefore impact a significant amount of the population and thus are important to consider. ** Motivations of informal caregivers through an SDT lens *** feeling forced into a caring role from social, family or internal pressures. This led to poorer outcomes and led to diminished well-being, tension in the carer patient relationship and a loss of control *** intrinsic motivation, caers who feel like they have made the choice to be in a caring role to fulfil their own needs have better well-being ** Autonomous vs controlled motivation and caregiver well-being *** Autonomous helping motivation was positively associated with basic psychological needs being met *** Autonomously motivated caregivers experienced less stress and exhaustion, fewer depressive symptoms, greater spirituality and better mental health, greater personal growth, and saw more benefits in caregiving. It also led to increased happiness, positive affect and well-being, greater life satisfaction, better personal functioning, and less exhaustion as a result of helping someone with a long-term illness ** SDT-based interventions for caregivers *** SDT-based interventions focusing on the patient-carer relationship, self-care, stress and coping, symptom management, communication skills, problem-solving, and weekly caregiver telephone counselling sessions these interventions improved depression and anxiety, decreased sense of burden among caregivers, and increased autonomous motivation. *** Intrinsic motivation for helping created benefits for the helper through greater need satisfaction. ** SDT helps to explain why some people thrive in a caring role and why other struggle. Understanding the principles of SDT can help health professionals to assist informal carers by recognising their strengths and resources and treating them as partners in their loved ones health journey. This can help caregiver feel more autonomous and ultimately lead to a better outcome for everyone. ** (Dombestein et al., 2020) == Supporting psychological needs in formal care settings == * overview ** Supporting preferance and choice in nursing homes *** Understanding cultural background and life hisorty of residents can help stuff to collaborate and support residents in making their own chocies. *** advanced care planning when done frequently helped residents feel automous ** The role of staff competence and relationships *** stuff did not have enough time to develop relashionships with recidents *** strong trusting relationships with family and nursing staff help residents achieve feelings of autonomy *** stuff can over fewer choices to help residents make decisions. However this is complex as it can lead to staff subconsciously making decisions for residents. ** Knowing the resident - personal characteristics and history ** Barriers to supporting autonomy in formal care *** staffing shortages *** (Van der Weide et al., 2023) == Implications for practice == * overview ** Quality of life and cognitive decline are not associated. ** Decision making involvement was positively associated with quality of life and all 3 psychological needs ** Decision-making does not directly contribute to quality of life ** Decision-making helps with self-determination ** (Colclough et al., 2026) * Tools like talking matts can help people with dementia to communicate to improve decision making ** Recommendations for informal caregivers *** focus on self-care, stress and coping strategies *** Helth professionals recognise informal caregivers strengths and view as partners in the patient's health journey ** Recommendations for formal care staff and services *** Understand own biases *** Give fewer options *** Understand patients cultural background *** Get to know the patients ** Gaps in current research ==Conclusion== * People with dementia progressively need more support with daily functioning as their condition progresses * Increased support from others can lead to greater feelings of being out of control of one’s own life * When people with dementia are restricted from doing basic daily tasks like preparing their own food, showering or going for a walk they can feel a lack of autonomy, competence and relatedness. * A lack of autonomy, competence and relatedness negatively impacts well-being * To improve the wellbeing of people with dementia, carers should make an effort to get to know their patients and provide choice were possible ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Basic psychological need theory|Basic psychological need theory]] (Book chapter, 2020) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Dementia care motivation|Dementia care motivation]] (Book chapter, 2014) * [[Dementia]] (Wikiversity) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) * [[Neurodegenerative disease]] (Wikiversity) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Cipriani, G., Danti, S., Picchi, L., Nuti, A., & Fiorino, M. D. (2020). Daily functioning and dementia. ''Dementia & Neuropsychologia, 14''(2), 93–102. https://doi.org/10.1590/1980-57642020dn14-020001 Colclough, C., Perach, R., Harris, P., Rusted, J., Banerjee, S., & Miles, E. (2026). Decision-making involvement and quality of life in people with dementia: the mediating role of psychological needs. ''Aging & Mental Health, 30''(2), 267–276. https://doi.org/10.1080/13607863.2025.2541188 Dombestein, H., Norheim, A., & Lunde Husebø, A. M. (2020). Understanding informal caregivers’ motivation from the perspective of self‐determination theory: an integrative review. ''Scandinavian Journal of Caring Sciences, 34''(2), 267–279. https://doi.org/10.1111/scs.12735 Shiells, K., Pivodic, L., Holmerová, I., & Van den Block, L. (2020). Self-reported needs and experiences of people with dementia living in nursing homes: a scoping review. ''Aging & Mental Health, 24''(10), 1553–1568. https://doi.org/10.1080/13607863.2019.1625303 van Andel, S., & Holkenborg, A. (2024). From the Perspective of People with Dementia: Using Creative Qualitative Measures to Assess the Values and Opinions on Freedom and Safety among People Living with Dementia. ''Healthcare (Basel), 12''(14), 1412. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare12141412 van der Weide, H., Lovink, M. H., Luijkx, K. G., & Gerritsen, D. L. (2023). Supporting autonomy for people with dementia living in nursing homes: A rapid realist review. ''International Journal of Nursing Studies'', 137, Article 104382. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2022.104382 World health organisation. (2026). Dementia https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/dementia }} ==External links== * [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK551552/ Behavioural and psychological symptoms in dementia] (National library of medicine) * [https://newsroom.ucla.edu/releases/dementia-care-study-highlights-importance-of-caregiver-self-efficacy Dementia care study highlights importance of caregiver self-efficacy] (UCLA newsroom) * [https://findanexpert.unimelb.edu.au/scholarlywork/1753807-older-adults-using-technology-for-meaningful-activities-during-covid-19--an-analysis-through-the-lens-of-self-determination-theory Older] [https://findanexpert.unimelb.edu.au/scholarlywork/1753807-older-adults-using-technology-for-meaningful-activities-during-covid-19--an-analysis-through-the-lens-of-self-determination-theory adults using technology for meaningful activities during COVID-19: an analysis through the lens of self-determination theory] (University of Melbourne) {{ic|There are two links provided here - combine into a single link}} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self-determination theory]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Dementia]] mibbjgjgttgnf63g0h934w6o4wfsz98 2 331388 2832744 2832420 2026-09-11T00:06:26Z P U3270518 3106535 social contribution 2832744 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == Hello Everyone, I am currently a 3rd year psychology student at [https://www.google.com/search?client=safari&rls=en&q=University+of+canberra&ie=UTF-8&oe=UTF-8 University of Canberra] This semester I am studying [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]] unit. My Linkedln profile: https://www.linkedin.com/in/palak-kathiriya-6b7048289/ == Hobbies == * Dancing * Hiking * Travelling to different countries * Painting * Cycling * Nature exploration ** Birdwatching ** Gardening == Book Chapter I'm working on == I am working on a really interesting topic for my book chapter. My chapter title is: Positive emotion dysregulation: What is positive emotion dysregulation and how does it affect psychological functioning? Link for my book chapter: [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Positive emotion dysregulation|Positive emotion dysregulation]] == Social contributions == All times are in Canberra local time (AEST/AEDT) # 12:58 pm, 26 August 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FWarm-glow_giving&diff=2826658&oldid=2826657 Added the template and the title for this page - Title: Warm-glow giving - Why does giving feel good and how does this influence prosocial behaviour? '''('''Book Chapter, 2026)] # 11:59 am, 26 August 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FPerfectionism_and_procrastination&diff=2826589&oldid=2826579 Fixed spelling error in one of the focus question - Title: Perfectionism and procrastination - What is the role of perfectionism in procrastination and what can be done about it? (Book Chapter, 2026)] # 12:28 pm, 26 August 2026: [[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Motivations for using sex work services#Heading casing|Made a suggestion about overview section - Title: Motivations for using sex work services: What motivates use of sex work services? (Book Chapter, 2026)]] # 2:03 pm, 26 August 2026: [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/456558 Provided a couple of sources for the development of breathing exercises and relaxation book chapter (Book Chapter, 2026) (UC Learn)] #8:10 am, 2 September 2026: [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/458145 Commented on discussion forum about how to use GenAI in the unit and what are the expectations if we use GenAI (UC Learn)] # 10:14 am , 2 September 2026:[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FSelf-control_and_ego_depletion_recovery&diff=2830323&oldid=2761410 Fixed spelling error in book chapter - Title: Self-control and ego depletion recovery: How do people restore self-control resources after depletion and what factors influence recovery? (Book Chapter, 2025)] # 10:22 am, 2 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2025/Grit_and_academic_achievement&diff=prev&oldid=2830325 Changed few sentences to make it grammatically better - Title: Grit and academic achievement What role does grit play in academic achievement and can it be fostered in future students? (Book Chapter, 2025)] # 10:48 am, 2 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FCancer_screening_and_emotion&diff=2830328&oldid=2823381 Rewrote one paragraph in overview section to make it easier to understand - Title: Cancer screening and emotion: How do emotions such as fear, anxiety, and relief influence cancer screening uptake?(Book Chapter, 2025)] # 10:54 am, 2 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FCancer_screening_and_emotion&diff=2830330&oldid=2830328 Added reference to support one claim in overview section - Title: Cancer screening and emotion:How do emotions such as fear, anxiety, and relief influence cancer screening uptake? (Book Chapter, 2025)] #12:56 pm, 2 September 2026: [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/455261 Commented on discussion forum about what interests me more in motivation and emotion unit and what I would like to learn (UC Learn)] #9:17 pm, 3 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FGrit_and_academic_achievement&diff=2830732&oldid=2830326 Corrected grammar and sentence structure, fixed spelling, removed repetition, and improved wording for clarity and flow - Title: Grit and academic achievement - What role does grit play in academic achievement and can it be fostered in future students? - (Book Chapter, 2025)] #9:27 pm, 3 September 2026: [[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being|Provided suggestion for wikiversity book chapter page and clarified that the user page should be separate than the book chapter - Title: Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being - How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being? Overview - (Book Chapter, 2025)]] #8:28 am, 4 September 2026: [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/456345 Commented on discussion forum about what motivates me and what helps me to keep going if I am not feeling motivated (UC Learn)] #8:30 am, 7 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FGrit_and_academic_achievement&diff=2831894&oldid=2830732 Changed few spelling errors, fixed sentence structure and punctuation, shortened some repetitive wording while keeping original ideas - Title- Grit and academic achievement - What role does grit play in academic achievement and can it be fostered in future students? - (Book Chapter, 2025)] #8:50 am, 7 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FCancer_screening_and_emotion&diff=2831919&oldid=2830330 Changed few sentences to make it grammatically correct and to maintain sentence flow - Title -Cancer screening and emotion: How do emotions such as fear, anxiety, and relief influence cancer screening uptake? - (Book chapter, 2025)] #8:34 pm, 8 September 2026:[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FBoredom_and_substance_use&diff=2832227&oldid=2804069 Changed few sentences to make it grammatically correct and added citations to support few claims - Title- Boredom and substance use: What role does boredom play in motivating substance use?- (Book chapter, 2025)] #8:43 pm, 8 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FBoredom_and_substance_use&diff=2832228&oldid=2832227 Added citations to support claims in overview section - Title - Boredom and substance use: What role does boredom play in motivating substance use ? (Book chapter, 2025)] #8:59 pm, 8 September 2026: [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/455064 Commented on UC Learn discussion forum to connect with peers and also shared my Linkedln profile] #9:19 pm, 8 September 2026: [[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Warm-glow giving|Provided suggestion about overview section on talk page - Title - Warm-glow giving - Why does giving feel good and how does this influence prosocial behaviour?- (Book chapter, 2026)]] #9:43 pm, 8 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Talk%3AMotivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FSubcortical_structures_and_motivational_drive#See_also_and_external_links_section Commented on talk page to improve see also, external links, and conclusion section - Title - Subcortical structures and motivational drive: How do subcortical brain regions generate basic motivational impulses and energy?- (Book chapter, 2026)] #3:07 pm , 9 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2022%2FEnvironmental_volunteering_motivation&diff=2832334&oldid=2814930 Corrected few grammatical errors, added citation to few important claims, provided an introductory paragraph in environmental volunteering section, explained few points in detail, added volume number in one of the references - Title - Environmental volunteering motivation: What motivates environmental volunteering (Book chapter, 2022)] #3:19 pm, 9 September 2026: [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/457190 Commented on UC Learn about a book chapter question related to value congruence and motivation] #9:35 pm, 9 September 2026: [[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Alcohol use for emotion regulation|Provided suggestion about book chapter that chapter should include both positive and negative dysregulation - Title - Alcohol use for emotion regulation : why and how people use alcohol to regulate their emotions? - (Book chapter, 2026)]] #9:45 pm, 9 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FAlcohol_use_for_emotion_regulation&diff=2832417&oldid=2830147 Fixed title for this chapter - Title - Alcohol use for emotion regulation: why and how people use alcohol to regulate their emotions? - (Book chapter, 2026)] #10:00 am, 11 September 2026: [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/461216 Contributed in discussion forum and answered question about word count (UC Learn)] r9rno8zusqy914m96y8qp75kd9dxxq8 2832748 2832744 2026-09-11T00:48:21Z P U3270518 3106535 /* Social contributions */ 2832748 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == Hello Everyone, I am currently a 3rd year psychology student at [https://www.google.com/search?client=safari&rls=en&q=University+of+canberra&ie=UTF-8&oe=UTF-8 University of Canberra] This semester I am studying [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]] unit. My Linkedln profile: https://www.linkedin.com/in/palak-kathiriya-6b7048289/ == Hobbies == * Dancing * Hiking * Travelling to different countries * Painting * Cycling * Nature exploration ** Birdwatching ** Gardening == Book Chapter I'm working on == I am working on a really interesting topic for my book chapter. My chapter title is: Positive emotion dysregulation: What is positive emotion dysregulation and how does it affect psychological functioning? Link for my book chapter: [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Positive emotion dysregulation|Positive emotion dysregulation]] == Social contributions == All times are in Canberra local time (AEST/AEDT) # 12:58 pm, 26 August 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FWarm-glow_giving&diff=2826658&oldid=2826657 Added the template and the title for this page - Title: Warm-glow giving - Why does giving feel good and how does this influence prosocial behaviour? '''('''Book Chapter, 2026)] # 11:59 am, 26 August 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FPerfectionism_and_procrastination&diff=2826589&oldid=2826579 Fixed spelling error in one of the focus question - Title: Perfectionism and procrastination - What is the role of perfectionism in procrastination and what can be done about it? (Book Chapter, 2026)] # 12:28 pm, 26 August 2026: [[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Motivations for using sex work services#Heading casing|Made a suggestion about overview section - Title: Motivations for using sex work services: What motivates use of sex work services? (Book Chapter, 2026)]] # 2:03 pm, 26 August 2026: [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/456558 Provided a couple of sources for the development of breathing exercises and relaxation book chapter (Book Chapter, 2026) (UC Learn)] #8:10 am, 2 September 2026: [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/458145 Commented on discussion forum about how to use GenAI in the unit and what are the expectations if we use GenAI (UC Learn)] # 10:14 am , 2 September 2026:[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FSelf-control_and_ego_depletion_recovery&diff=2830323&oldid=2761410 Fixed spelling error in book chapter - Title: Self-control and ego depletion recovery: How do people restore self-control resources after depletion and what factors influence recovery? (Book Chapter, 2025)] # 10:22 am, 2 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2025/Grit_and_academic_achievement&diff=prev&oldid=2830325 Changed few sentences to make it grammatically better - Title: Grit and academic achievement What role does grit play in academic achievement and can it be fostered in future students? (Book Chapter, 2025)] # 10:48 am, 2 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FCancer_screening_and_emotion&diff=2830328&oldid=2823381 Rewrote one paragraph in overview section to make it easier to understand - Title: Cancer screening and emotion: How do emotions such as fear, anxiety, and relief influence cancer screening uptake?(Book Chapter, 2025)] # 10:54 am, 2 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FCancer_screening_and_emotion&diff=2830330&oldid=2830328 Added reference to support one claim in overview section - Title: Cancer screening and emotion:How do emotions such as fear, anxiety, and relief influence cancer screening uptake? (Book Chapter, 2025)] #12:56 pm, 2 September 2026: [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/455261 Commented on discussion forum about what interests me more in motivation and emotion unit and what I would like to learn (UC Learn)] #9:17 pm, 3 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FGrit_and_academic_achievement&diff=2830732&oldid=2830326 Corrected grammar and sentence structure, fixed spelling, removed repetition, and improved wording for clarity and flow - Title: Grit and academic achievement - What role does grit play in academic achievement and can it be fostered in future students? - (Book Chapter, 2025)] #9:27 pm, 3 September 2026: [[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being|Provided suggestion for wikiversity book chapter page and clarified that the user page should be separate than the book chapter - Title: Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being - How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being? Overview - (Book Chapter, 2025)]] #8:28 am, 4 September 2026: [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/456345 Commented on discussion forum about what motivates me and what helps me to keep going if I am not feeling motivated (UC Learn)] #8:30 am, 7 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FGrit_and_academic_achievement&diff=2831894&oldid=2830732 Changed few spelling errors, fixed sentence structure and punctuation, shortened some repetitive wording while keeping original ideas - Title- Grit and academic achievement - What role does grit play in academic achievement and can it be fostered in future students? - (Book Chapter, 2025)] #8:50 am, 7 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FCancer_screening_and_emotion&diff=2831919&oldid=2830330 Changed few sentences to make it grammatically correct and to maintain sentence flow - Title -Cancer screening and emotion: How do emotions such as fear, anxiety, and relief influence cancer screening uptake? - (Book chapter, 2025)] #8:34 pm, 8 September 2026:[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FBoredom_and_substance_use&diff=2832227&oldid=2804069 Changed few sentences to make it grammatically correct and added citations to support few claims - Title- Boredom and substance use: What role does boredom play in motivating substance use?- (Book chapter, 2025)] #8:43 pm, 8 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FBoredom_and_substance_use&diff=2832228&oldid=2832227 Added citations to support claims in overview section - Title - Boredom and substance use: What role does boredom play in motivating substance use ? (Book chapter, 2025)] #8:59 pm, 8 September 2026: [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/455064 Commented on UC Learn discussion forum to connect with peers and also shared my Linkedln profile] #9:19 pm, 8 September 2026: [[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Warm-glow giving|Provided suggestion about overview section on talk page - Title - Warm-glow giving - Why does giving feel good and how does this influence prosocial behaviour?- (Book chapter, 2026)]] #9:43 pm, 8 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Talk%3AMotivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FSubcortical_structures_and_motivational_drive#See_also_and_external_links_section Commented on talk page to improve see also, external links, and conclusion section - Title - Subcortical structures and motivational drive: How do subcortical brain regions generate basic motivational impulses and energy?- (Book chapter, 2026)] #3:07 pm , 9 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2022%2FEnvironmental_volunteering_motivation&diff=2832334&oldid=2814930 Corrected few grammatical errors, added citation to few important claims, provided an introductory paragraph in environmental volunteering section, explained few points in detail, added volume number in one of the references - Title - Environmental volunteering motivation: What motivates environmental volunteering (Book chapter, 2022)] #3:19 pm, 9 September 2026: [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/457190 Commented on UC Learn about a book chapter question related to value congruence and motivation] #9:35 pm, 9 September 2026: [[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Alcohol use for emotion regulation|Provided suggestion about book chapter that chapter should include both positive and negative dysregulation - Title - Alcohol use for emotion regulation : why and how people use alcohol to regulate their emotions? - (Book chapter, 2026)]] #9:45 pm, 9 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FAlcohol_use_for_emotion_regulation&diff=2832417&oldid=2830147 Fixed title for this chapter - Title - Alcohol use for emotion regulation: why and how people use alcohol to regulate their emotions? - (Book chapter, 2026)] #10:00 am, 11 September 2026: [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/461216 Contributed in discussion forum and answered question about word count (UC Learn)] #10:40 am, 11 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2024%2FE-cigarette_use_motivation&diff=2832747&oldid=2754142 Used bullet points to organise see also and external link section and included source in parentheses - Title - E-cigarettes use motivation: What motivates starting and continuing vaping of nicotine e-cigarettes? - (Book chapter, 2024)] 83cgzhjdfxeel319a9p5a4j2wy3bs4x 2832751 2832748 2026-09-11T01:04:05Z P U3270518 3106535 /* Social contributions */ 2832751 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == Hello Everyone, I am currently a 3rd year psychology student at [https://www.google.com/search?client=safari&rls=en&q=University+of+canberra&ie=UTF-8&oe=UTF-8 University of Canberra] This semester I am studying [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]] unit. My Linkedln profile: https://www.linkedin.com/in/palak-kathiriya-6b7048289/ == Hobbies == * Dancing * Hiking * Travelling to different countries * Painting * Cycling * Nature exploration ** Birdwatching ** Gardening == Book Chapter I'm working on == I am working on a really interesting topic for my book chapter. My chapter title is: Positive emotion dysregulation: What is positive emotion dysregulation and how does it affect psychological functioning? Link for my book chapter: [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Positive emotion dysregulation|Positive emotion dysregulation]] == Social contributions == All times are in Canberra local time (AEST/AEDT) # 12:58 pm, 26 August 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FWarm-glow_giving&diff=2826658&oldid=2826657 Added the template and the title for this page - Title: Warm-glow giving - Why does giving feel good and how does this influence prosocial behaviour? '''('''Book Chapter, 2026)] # 11:59 am, 26 August 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FPerfectionism_and_procrastination&diff=2826589&oldid=2826579 Fixed spelling error in one of the focus question - Title: Perfectionism and procrastination - What is the role of perfectionism in procrastination and what can be done about it? (Book Chapter, 2026)] # 12:28 pm, 26 August 2026: [[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Motivations for using sex work services#Heading casing|Made a suggestion about overview section - Title: Motivations for using sex work services: What motivates use of sex work services? (Book Chapter, 2026)]] # 2:03 pm, 26 August 2026: [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/456558 Provided a couple of sources for the development of breathing exercises and relaxation book chapter (Book Chapter, 2026) (UC Learn)] #8:10 am, 2 September 2026: [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/458145 Commented on discussion forum about how to use GenAI in the unit and what are the expectations if we use GenAI (UC Learn)] # 10:14 am , 2 September 2026:[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FSelf-control_and_ego_depletion_recovery&diff=2830323&oldid=2761410 Fixed spelling error in book chapter - Title: Self-control and ego depletion recovery: How do people restore self-control resources after depletion and what factors influence recovery? (Book Chapter, 2025)] # 10:22 am, 2 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2025/Grit_and_academic_achievement&diff=prev&oldid=2830325 Changed few sentences to make it grammatically better - Title: Grit and academic achievement What role does grit play in academic achievement and can it be fostered in future students? (Book Chapter, 2025)] # 10:48 am, 2 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FCancer_screening_and_emotion&diff=2830328&oldid=2823381 Rewrote one paragraph in overview section to make it easier to understand - Title: Cancer screening and emotion: How do emotions such as fear, anxiety, and relief influence cancer screening uptake?(Book Chapter, 2025)] # 10:54 am, 2 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FCancer_screening_and_emotion&diff=2830330&oldid=2830328 Added reference to support one claim in overview section - Title: Cancer screening and emotion:How do emotions such as fear, anxiety, and relief influence cancer screening uptake? (Book Chapter, 2025)] #12:56 pm, 2 September 2026: [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/455261 Commented on discussion forum about what interests me more in motivation and emotion unit and what I would like to learn (UC Learn)] #9:17 pm, 3 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FGrit_and_academic_achievement&diff=2830732&oldid=2830326 Corrected grammar and sentence structure, fixed spelling, removed repetition, and improved wording for clarity and flow - Title: Grit and academic achievement - What role does grit play in academic achievement and can it be fostered in future students? - (Book Chapter, 2025)] #9:27 pm, 3 September 2026: [[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being|Provided suggestion for wikiversity book chapter page and clarified that the user page should be separate than the book chapter - Title: Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being - How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being? Overview - (Book Chapter, 2025)]] #8:28 am, 4 September 2026: [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/456345 Commented on discussion forum about what motivates me and what helps me to keep going if I am not feeling motivated (UC Learn)] #8:30 am, 7 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FGrit_and_academic_achievement&diff=2831894&oldid=2830732 Changed few spelling errors, fixed sentence structure and punctuation, shortened some repetitive wording while keeping original ideas - Title- Grit and academic achievement - What role does grit play in academic achievement and can it be fostered in future students? - (Book Chapter, 2025)] #8:50 am, 7 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FCancer_screening_and_emotion&diff=2831919&oldid=2830330 Changed few sentences to make it grammatically correct and to maintain sentence flow - Title -Cancer screening and emotion: How do emotions such as fear, anxiety, and relief influence cancer screening uptake? - (Book chapter, 2025)] #8:34 pm, 8 September 2026:[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FBoredom_and_substance_use&diff=2832227&oldid=2804069 Changed few sentences to make it grammatically correct and added citations to support few claims - Title- Boredom and substance use: What role does boredom play in motivating substance use?- (Book chapter, 2025)] #8:43 pm, 8 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FBoredom_and_substance_use&diff=2832228&oldid=2832227 Added citations to support claims in overview section - Title - Boredom and substance use: What role does boredom play in motivating substance use ? (Book chapter, 2025)] #8:59 pm, 8 September 2026: [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/455064 Commented on UC Learn discussion forum to connect with peers and also shared my Linkedln profile] #9:19 pm, 8 September 2026: [[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Warm-glow giving|Provided suggestion about overview section on talk page - Title - Warm-glow giving - Why does giving feel good and how does this influence prosocial behaviour?- (Book chapter, 2026)]] #9:43 pm, 8 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Talk%3AMotivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FSubcortical_structures_and_motivational_drive#See_also_and_external_links_section Commented on talk page to improve see also, external links, and conclusion section - Title - Subcortical structures and motivational drive: How do subcortical brain regions generate basic motivational impulses and energy?- (Book chapter, 2026)] #3:07 pm , 9 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2022%2FEnvironmental_volunteering_motivation&diff=2832334&oldid=2814930 Corrected few grammatical errors, added citation to few important claims, provided an introductory paragraph in environmental volunteering section, explained few points in detail, added volume number in one of the references - Title - Environmental volunteering motivation: What motivates environmental volunteering (Book chapter, 2022)] #3:19 pm, 9 September 2026: [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/457190 Commented on UC Learn about a book chapter question related to value congruence and motivation] #9:35 pm, 9 September 2026: [[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Alcohol use for emotion regulation|Provided suggestion about book chapter that chapter should include both positive and negative dysregulation - Title - Alcohol use for emotion regulation : why and how people use alcohol to regulate their emotions? - (Book chapter, 2026)]] #9:45 pm, 9 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FAlcohol_use_for_emotion_regulation&diff=2832417&oldid=2830147 Fixed title for this chapter - Title - Alcohol use for emotion regulation: why and how people use alcohol to regulate their emotions? - (Book chapter, 2026)] #10:00 am, 11 September 2026: [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/461216 Contributed in discussion forum and answered question about word count (UC Learn)] #10:40 am, 11 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2024%2FE-cigarette_use_motivation&diff=2832747&oldid=2754142 Used bullet points to organise see also and external link section and included source in parentheses - Title - E-cigarettes use motivation: What motivates starting and continuing vaping of nicotine e-cigarettes? - (Book chapter, 2024)] #11:01 am, 11 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2024%2FSleep_and_ego_depletion&diff=2832750&oldid=2741278 Corrected grammer and spelling errors - Title - Sleep and ego depletion: How does sleep affect the capacity for self-control and willpower? - (Book chapter, 2024)] 36zh8erd47ikqinv9fz8d3i5nk0mwok 1 331408 2832762 2827190 2026-09-11T03:47:04Z Jtneill 10242 Topic development feedback 2832762 wikitext text/x-wiki == Heading casing == {| style="float: center; background:transparent;color:inherit;" |- | [[File:Crystal Clear app ktip.svg|48px|left]] | {{#if:U3261236|Hi [[User:U3261236|U3261236]].|}} FYI, the recommended [[Wikiversity]] heading style uses [[w:Letter case#Sentence_case|sentence casing]]. For example:<br> <big><big>Self-determination theory</big></big> rather than <big><big>Self-Determination Theory</big></big> Here's an example chapter with correct heading casing: [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Growth mindset development|Growth mindset development]] -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 02:39, 23 August 2026 (UTC) |} ==Overview== Hi, Really interesting topic and you have made a great progress. Three case study in the overview provide useful examples of different motivation for using sex work services. However, the section could be strengthened by adding brief analysis explaining what these cases collectively demonstrate. Additionally, it is useful to acknowledge that these individual experiences should not be generalised to represent all people who seek paid sexual services. All the best.--[[User:P U3270518|P U3270518]] ([[User talk:P U3270518|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/P U3270518|contribs]]) 12:28, 26 August 2026 (UTC) == Stress and Trauma Recommendation == Hi, I found your chapter really interesting, particularly how you've separated physical and emotional motivations and considered the experiences of both men and women. I noticed that you have included a "Stress and trauma" subsection under emotional motivation but it doesn't have any key points yet. I think this could be an interesting area to develop further by looking at whether stress, previous experiences or coping motivations contribute to the use of sex work services. It would also help strengthen your emotional motivation section and provide another perspective beyond intimacy and power/control. Looking forward to seeing how your chapter develops! Best of luck with it all! [[User:U3260591|U3260591]] ([[User talk:U3260591|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3260591|contribs]]) 03:40, 27 August 2026 (UTC) <!-- Official topic development feedback --> {{METF/2026 |1= <!-- Title --> # Title and subtitle are correctly worded and use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] |2= <!-- Heading structure --> <!-- 2-level --> # Excellent – Well developed [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project/Structure|2-level heading structure]]. Meaningful headings clearly relate directly to the core topic. <!-- Alignment with focus questions --> # Good alignment between sub-title, focus questions, and heading structure, but there is room for improvement |3= <!-- Overview--> # Excellent – Scenario, image, evocative description of the problem/topic, and focus questions <!-- Scenario --> # A scenario or case study is presented in a feature box with an image at the start of this section <!-- Description --> # A promising description of the problem/topic is planned or presented <!-- Focus questions --> # Reasonably good alignment between focus questions and heading structure, but consider closer alignment # Note that only FQ4 directly addresses the topic |4= <!-- Key points--> <!-- Overall --> # Promising development <!-- Scope --> # It may be that all planned aspects cannot be reasonably covered within the book chapter word count, so be selective and concentrate on key aspects that address the question in the sub-title. There may be too much background material planned. Abbreviate the general sexual motivations and description of sex work services to concentrate on theory and research about the motivations of SWS clients. <!-- Conclusion --> # Conclusion hasn't been developed # What are the practical, take-home messages? (address the focus questions) |5= <!-- Figure --> # Excellent - Relevant figure(s) presented, captioned, and cited <!-- Caption --> # Figure caption(s) grammatical error <!-- Cite --> # Figure(s) are cited at least once in the main text |6= <!-- Learning feature --> <!-- Interwiki links ---> # Two in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] for first mention of key terms to [[w:|Wikipedia]]. Also embed links to [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. <!-- Scenarios/examples/case studies --> # Consider incorporating additional scenarios, examples, or case studies to illustrate key concepts. These could build on the Overview scenario or introduce new real-world situations in the main body of the chapter to demonstrate how the concepts apply in practice. <!-- Quiz --> # Promising use of quiz question(s) # Place each quiz question in the most relevant section # Focus the quiz question(s) on the take-home messages <!-- Tables --> # Also consider using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|table(s)]] to summarise key information |7= <!-- References --> <!-- Overall --> # Very good <!-- Systematic reviews --> # What are the most relevant systematic reviews/meta-analyses about this topic? <!-- APA style --> # Check and correct [https://apastyle.apa.org/instructional-aids/reference-guide.pdf APA referencing style]: ## [[Help:Wikitext quick reference|italicisation]] |8= <!-- Resources --> <!-- See also --> # See also ## Excellent # External links ## Excellent <!-- User page --> # Excellent <!-- Description about self --> # Excellent description about self provided <!-- Links to profile(s) --> # Consider linking to your [https://portfolio.canberra.edu.au/ eportfolio] page and/or any other professional online profile or resume such as [https://www.linkedin.com/ LinkedIn]. This is not required, but it can be useful to interlink your professional networks. <!-- Link to book chapter --> # A link to the book chapter is provided |10= <!-- Social contribution --> # Excellent – at least three different types of contributions with direct link(s) to evidence }} mnuc5hpmvx5b207ycl7mljbpm8h8jr1 1 331467 2832769 2825353 2026-09-11T05:23:18Z Jtneill 10242 Topic development feedback 2832769 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Comment== Hi! I've put the formula to get the template for the book chapter below when you're ready to start work on it. If you delete the '&' signs in the formula and paste it into the resource section it should work for you. {&{subst:ME/BCS}&} --[[User:U3275992|U3275992]] ([[User talk:U3275992|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3275992|contribs]]) 23:34, 24 August 2026 (UTC) <!-- Official topic development feedback --> {{METF/2026 |1= <!-- Title --> # Title and/or subtitle not correctly worded and/or didn't use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] (fixed) |2= <!-- Heading structure --> <!-- 2-level --> # A promising [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project/Structure|2-level heading structure]] is planned but not implemented as wiki-style headings as shown in Tutorial 2 # Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] # A separate heading about research isn't necessary; instead integrate use of research in other sections # Develop closer alignment between focus questions and top-level headings |3= <!-- Overview--> # Good <!-- Scenario --> # A scenario or case study is presented in a feature box at the start of this section # I moved an image into the feature box to help attract reader interest # Choose an image that illustrates the scenario. Move theoretical diagrams into a subsequent section. # The scenario could be improved by presenting it is 3rd person rather than 2nd person perspective <!-- Description --> # A basic description of the problem/topic is planned or presented <!-- Focus questions --> # Develop closer alignment between the sub-title, focus questions, and top-level headings |4= <!-- Key points--> <!-- Overall --> # Basic development # The key points are poorly presented; see Tutorial 2 for basic wiki editing skills <!-- Scope --> # The scope is excellent (i.e., not too little/narrow or too big/broad) # Strive for an integrated balance of the best psychological theory and research about this topic, with practical examples. <!-- Conclusion --> # Conclusion hasn't been developed # What are the practical, take-home messages? (address the focus questions) |5= <!-- Figure --> # Relevant figure(s) are presented and captioned <!-- Caption --> # Figure caption(s) should include '''Figure X'''. [bold] ... (fixed) <!-- Cite --> # Cite each figure at least once in the main text using APA style (e.g., see Figure 1) |6= <!-- Learning feature --> <!-- Interwiki links ---> # There is a rudimentary questionanaire but it lacks sufficient engagement/interactivity # Add in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] for first mention of key terms to [[w:|Wikipedia]] and/or [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]] (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) <!-- Scenarios/examples/case studies --> # Consider incorporating additional scenarios, examples, or case studies to illustrate key concepts. These could build on the Overview scenario or introduce new real-world situations in the main body of the chapter to demonstrate how the concepts apply in practice. <!-- Quiz --> # Consider including quiz question(s) about the take-home messages <!-- Tables --> # Also consider using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|table(s)]] to summarise key information |7= <!-- References --> <!-- Overall --> # Basic # Move non-academic / non-peer reviewed sources to the "External links" section # Remove reference for image <!-- Systematic reviews --> # What are the most relevant systematic reviews/meta-analyses about this topic? <!-- APA style --> # Check and correct [https://apastyle.apa.org/instructional-aids/reference-guide.pdf APA referencing style]: ## [[Help:Wikitext quick reference|italicisation]] # A more thorough literature search is recommended. The goal is to identify and use the best academic theory and research about this topic. See Tutorial 5 (Google Scholar). |8= <!-- Resources --> <!-- See also --> # See also ## To be developed (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) <!-- External links --> # External links ## To be developed (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) ## Link to the most relevant external resources about this topic |9= <!-- User page --> # Basic <!-- Description about self --> # Description about self provided <!-- Links to profile(s) --> # Consider linking to your [https://portfolio.canberra.edu.au/ eportfolio] page and/or any other professional online profile or resume such as [https://www.linkedin.com/ LinkedIn]. This is not required, but it can be useful to interlink your professional networks. <!-- Link to book chapter --> # Add link to book chapter |10= <!-- Social contribution --> # None summarised on user page with direct link(s) to evidence (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing#Social contributions|Tutorial 2]]). Looking ahead to the book chapter, see [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Socialcontribution|social contributions]]. }} -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 05:23, 11 September 2026 (UTC) 1bhqhg1b4604oh92vjba1lg11uschd6 0 331473 2832631 2830573 2026-09-10T18:13:42Z Mikael Häggström 12130 /* Main tasks */ setting up 2832631 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>{{WikiJ top menu}} __NOTOC__ '''Administrative officer''' supports the day-to-day organizational and administrative work of WikiJournal, including financial administration, contractor coordination, grant reporting, and other operational tasks. The role is intended to provide continuity for work that can otherwise be difficult to sustain through volunteer effort alone. The administrative officer primarily reports to and takes direction from the [[WikiJournal User Group/Administrative board|Administrative Board]], but may also carry out administrative tasks requested by the editorial boards of individual WikiJournals when those tasks are within the scope of the journal and within established WikiJournal policies and budget. {{wjh_h2|Administrative officer}} </noinclude> *Current administrative officer to be listed here when appointed. <noinclude> {{wjs_h2|Role details}} ===Main tasks=== The tasks of the administrative officer are primarily organizational, financial, personnel-related and operational. This allows editorial board members and other contributors, who are largely unpaid volunteers, to focus on editorial decisions, peer review, strategy and scholarly contributions. Such tasks may include: *'''Administrative coordination''' **Setting up and maintaining an overview of open administrative tasks, deadlines and recurring obligations. **Following up on action items from Administrative Board meetings and helping ensure that agreed actions are completed. **Preparing or organizing administrative documents, records, templates and routine correspondence. **Helping maintain up-to-date administrative information on WikiJournal wiki pages and shared documentation. *'''Financial administration and grant support''' **Assisting with grant applications, grant administration, budget tracking and required grant reporting. **Helping prepare annual and other periodic financial or activity reports for review and approval by the appropriate board members. **Organizing documentation for expenses, reimbursements, contractor payments, tax filings and other financial records. **Alerting the Administrative Board to anticipated budget overruns, unspent funds or administrative expenses requiring decisions. *'''Personnel and contractor administration''' **Coordinating contracting, onboarding and offboarding of paid contractors, including [[WikiJournal User Group/Technical editors|technical editors]]. **Maintaining contractor documentation and records of agreed roles, rates, work limits and reporting requirements. **Coordinating routine payment documentation and helping resolve administrative issues affecting contractors. **Supporting recruitment logistics, including posting openings, organizing applications, scheduling interviews and maintaining records of selection decisions. *'''Communications and organizational support''' **Assisting with routine communications involving WikiJournal participants, contractors, partner organizations and funders when delegated. **Supporting preparation of meeting agendas, administrative updates and follow-up communications. **Helping maintain institutional continuity by documenting recurring processes and updating administrative instructions. ===Relationship to editorial work=== The administrative officer does not replace the editorial boards, editors-in-chief, handling editors, peer-review coordinators or technical editors. Publication decisions and other editorial judgments remain with the relevant editorial bodies. The administrative officer may support these processes administratively, for example through tracking, reminders, documentation or coordination, but should not independently make editorial decisions unless separately serving in an authorized editorial role. ===Relationship to technical editors=== The administrative officer may coordinate the contracting, onboarding, documentation and payment administration of [[WikiJournal User Group/Technical editors|technical editors]]. Technical editors continue to perform technical and article-processing work under their own role description. Where useful, existing technical-editor documentation, onboarding materials, contractor templates, task logs and reimbursement procedures may be adapted for use by the administrative officer. ===Recordkeeping and reporting=== The administrative officer should keep a record of paid work performed and how much time was used for each task. A brief report should normally be presented about monthly to the Administrative Board. This may include: *Hours worked and major tasks completed. *Open or delayed tasks requiring board attention. *Contractor or personnel matters requiring decisions. *Budget or reimbursement items requiring review. *Upcoming reporting, filing, renewal or grant deadlines. *Work performed directly for individual WikiJournal editorial boards. ===Additional tasks=== Depending on the experience of the person selected and the needs of WikiJournal, the administrative officer may also assist with: *Drafting or updating standard operating procedures and onboarding checklists. *Maintaining organizational calendars and recurring-deadline lists. *Supporting grant metrics and impact reporting. *Coordinating with bookkeeping, tax, banking, insurance, payment or contracting services. *Helping evaluate lower-cost administrative or contractor-management tools. *Supporting external communications, partnerships, conference administration or similar organizational projects when assigned. The ''administrative officer'' should act in accordance with the policies of WikiJournal, including the [[WikiJournal User Group/Bylaws|Bylaws]] and [[WikiJournal User Group/Ethics statement|Ethics statement]], as well as applicable grant and contractual requirements. Potential conflicts of interest, suspected misconduct, legal concerns or matters outside the officer's authority should be referred to the appropriate board rather than decided independently. {{wjs_h2|Admin details}} ===Schedule=== The position is intended as a part-time and flexibly scheduled role rather than a fixed daily shift. The expected workload is approximately '''6 hours per week on average''', although workload may vary depending on grant deadlines, reporting periods, contracting, onboarding and other time-sensitive needs. *Most work may be performed asynchronously and remotely. *The administrative officer should normally review WikiJournal administrative communications regularly during the work week. *Attendance at monthly general WikiJournal meetings should be expected when reasonably possible and counted as paid working time. *Meetings with the Administrative Board, individual editorial boards, contractors or other WikiJournal participants may also be counted as paid working time when related to the role. *The Administrative Board may authorize additional or redistributed hours for defined projects, provided funding remains available within the approved budget. ===Budget and reimbursement=== Approximately '''US$8,000''' is allocated to the administrative officer role for the year, while retaining additional grant funding for [[WikiJournal User Group/Technical editors|technical editor]] work and other WikiJournal activities. The proposed rate is '''US$25 per hour''', with payment based on actual documented hours worked. An annual allocation of US$8,000 provides for up to approximately '''320 hours per year''', corresponding to an average of approximately '''6 hours per week'''. The Administrative Board may adjust the distribution of hours during the year according to workload and available funding. Reasonable out-of-pocket expenses incurred specifically for WikiJournal work may be reimbursed when approved in advance by an authorized Administrative Board member or under a standing Board-approved policy. Such expenses should be documented with receipts or equivalent records. Examples may include: *Required software or service fees. *Postage or administrative filing costs. *Approved travel or other project-specific expenses. Personal equipment and ordinary home internet or workspace expenses would not normally be reimbursed unless specifically authorized. ===Location and international contracting=== The administrative officer position may be open to applicants internationally, provided that WikiJournal is able to establish a practical and legally appropriate method for contracting and paying the selected applicant in their country of residence. WikiJournal should confirm the available payment method and any required contractor or tax documentation before paid work begins. Applicants should therefore not necessarily be excluded solely because they reside outside the United States, but appointment may depend on WikiJournal being able to make payments reliably and at reasonable administrative cost. Where possible, the same hourly rate should apply irrespective of the contractor's country of residence. ===Hiring process=== If or when the WikiJournal User Group has an open administrative officer position, the hiring process may consist of: *First contacting current or previous [[WikiJournal User Group/Technical editors|technical editors]] and other experienced WikiJournal participants who may already be familiar with WikiJournal workflows and documentation. *Opening the position to suitable applicants internationally where practical payment and contracting arrangements are available. *If this does not identify a suitable candidate, advertising the position more broadly within Wikimedia, open-access, academic-publishing and nonprofit communities. *Requesting a concise application describing relevant administrative, nonprofit, financial, human-resources, contractor-management, Wikimedia or scholarly-publishing experience. *Confirming that WikiJournal can establish an appropriate contracting and payment arrangement in the shortlisted applicant's country before appointment. *Verifying the identity of shortlisted applicants before contracting. *Preferably having approximately 2–3 WikiJournal participants review or interview shortlisted applicants. *Providing a summary of shortlisted candidates to the Administrative Board. *Selecting the contractor by consensus of the Administrative Board. ===Desirable experience=== Useful qualifications may include: *Reliable administrative organization and follow-through. *Experience with contractor administration, human resources, bookkeeping, grants, nonprofits or project administration. *Clear written communication and comfort working asynchronously with an international volunteer community. *Fluency in written and spoken English sufficient for professional communication, meetings, administrative documentation and correspondence. *Ability to maintain accurate records and appropriately handle confidential administrative information. *Familiarity with Wikimedia projects, WikiJournal, academic publishing or open-access communities. *Previous WikiJournal technical-editor or other WikiJournal experience, particularly because existing documentation and workflows may be adapted for this role. </noinclude> [[Category:WikiJournal User Group]] ar1xepx06xb3no0vj43duzl0pesh4fd 2832653 2832631 2026-09-10T18:48:55Z Mikael Häggström 12130 Payroll 2832653 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>{{WikiJ top menu}} __NOTOC__ '''Administrative officer''' supports the day-to-day organizational and administrative work of WikiJournal, including financial administration, contractor coordination, grant reporting, and other operational tasks. The role is intended to provide continuity for work that can otherwise be difficult to sustain through volunteer effort alone. The administrative officer primarily reports to and takes direction from the [[WikiJournal User Group/Administrative board|Administrative Board]], but may also carry out administrative tasks requested by the editorial boards of individual WikiJournals when those tasks are within the scope of the journal and within established WikiJournal policies and budget. {{wjh_h2|Administrative officer}} </noinclude> *Current administrative officer to be listed here when appointed. <noinclude> {{wjs_h2|Role details}} ===Main tasks=== The tasks of the administrative officer are primarily organizational, financial, personnel-related and operational. This allows editorial board members and other contributors, who are largely unpaid volunteers, to focus on editorial decisions, peer review, strategy and scholarly contributions. Such tasks may include: ;Financial administration, payroll and grant support *Assisting with grant applications, grant administration, budget tracking and required grant reporting. *Helping prepare annual and other periodic financial or activity reports for review and approval by the appropriate board members. *Setting up and administering a payroll or contractor-payment system for WikiJournal. *Using the system to collect and track contractor hours, agreed rates, work limits, approvals and payments. *Reviewing submitted contractor hours for completeness and consistency with agreed roles and authorized work limits. *Processing payments to contractors based on approved hours and rates, and helping resolve delayed, failed or incorrect payments. *Maintaining payment records and collecting required contractor, banking and tax documentation. *Organizing documentation for expenses, reimbursements, contractor payments, tax filings and other financial records. *Alerting the Administrative Board to anticipated budget overruns, unspent funds, or administrative expenses requiring decisions. ;Personnel and contractor administration *Coordinating contracting, onboarding and offboarding of paid contractors, including [[WikiJournal User Group/Technical editors|technical editors]]. *Setting up contractors in the approved payroll or contractor-payment system and deactivating their access when their work ends. *Maintaining contractor documentation and records of agreed roles, rates, work limits, payment schedules, approval arrangements and reporting requirements. *Providing contractors with instructions for recording and submitting their hours. *Reviewing submitted time records and following up on missing or inconsistent entries. *Using approved time records and agreed rates to prepare and issue contractor payments. *Reconciling payment records with approved hours, agreed rates and available budgets. *Helping resolve administrative issues affecting contractors, including problems with contracts, documentation, timekeeping or payments. *Supporting recruitment logistics, including posting openings, organizing applications, scheduling interviews and maintaining records of selection decisions. ;Administrative coordination *Setting up and maintaining an overview of open administrative tasks, deadlines and recurring obligations. *Following up on action items from Administrative Board meetings and helping ensure that agreed actions are completed. ===Relationship to editorial work=== The administrative officer does not replace the editorial boards, editors-in-chief, handling editors, peer-review coordinators or technical editors. Publication decisions and other editorial judgments remain with the relevant editorial bodies. The administrative officer may support these processes administratively, for example through tracking, reminders, documentation or coordination, but should not independently make editorial decisions unless separately serving in an authorized editorial role. ===Relationship to technical editors=== The administrative officer may coordinate the contracting, onboarding, documentation, timekeeping and payment of [[WikiJournal User Group/Technical editors|technical editors]]. This may include setting technical editors up in the approved payroll or contractor-payment system, monitoring reported hours against agreed limits, and issuing payments based on approved hours and rates. Technical editors continue to perform technical and article-processing work under their own role description. Where useful, existing technical-editor documentation, onboarding materials, contractor templates, task logs and reimbursement procedures may be adapted for use by the administrative officer. ===Recordkeeping and reporting=== The administrative officer should keep a record of paid work performed and how much time was used for each task. The administrative officer should also maintain appropriate records of contractor hours, approvals, rates, payments and remaining authorized work limits. A brief report should normally be presented about monthly to the Administrative Board. This may include: *Hours worked and major tasks completed. *Contractor hours submitted, approved and paid during the reporting period. *Contractor hours or expenditures approaching authorized limits. *Outstanding, delayed, failed or disputed contractor payments. *Open or delayed tasks requiring board attention. *Contractor or personnel matters requiring decisions. *Budget or reimbursement items requiring review. *Upcoming reporting, filing, renewal or grant deadlines. *Work performed directly for individual WikiJournal editorial boards. ===Additional tasks=== Depending on the experience of the person selected and the needs of WikiJournal, the administrative officer may also assist with: *Drafting or updating standard operating procedures and onboarding checklists. *Maintaining organizational calendars and recurring-deadline lists. *Supporting grant metrics and impact reporting. *Coordinating with bookkeeping, tax, banking, insurance, payment or contracting services. *Helping evaluate lower-cost administrative or contractor-management tools. *Supporting external communications, partnerships, conference administration or similar organizational projects when assigned. The ''administrative officer'' should act in accordance with the policies of WikiJournal, including the [[WikiJournal User Group/Bylaws|Bylaws]] and [[WikiJournal User Group/Ethics statement|Ethics statement]], as well as applicable grant and contractual requirements. Potential conflicts of interest, suspected misconduct, legal concerns or matters outside the officer's authority should be referred to the appropriate board rather than decided independently. {{wjs_h2|Admin details}} ===Schedule=== The position is intended as a part-time and flexibly scheduled role rather than a fixed daily shift. The expected workload is approximately '''6 hours per week on average''', although workload may vary depending on grant deadlines, reporting periods, contracting, onboarding and other time-sensitive needs. *Most work may be performed asynchronously and remotely. *The administrative officer should normally review WikiJournal administrative communications regularly during the work week. *Attendance at monthly general WikiJournal meetings should be expected when reasonably possible and counted as paid working time. *Meetings with the Administrative Board, individual editorial boards, contractors or other WikiJournal participants may also be counted as paid working time when related to the role. *The Administrative Board may authorize additional or redistributed hours for defined projects, provided funding remains available within the approved budget. ===Budget and reimbursement=== Approximately '''US$8,000''' is allocated to the administrative officer role for the year, while retaining additional grant funding for [[WikiJournal User Group/Technical editors|technical editor]] work and other WikiJournal activities. The proposed rate is '''US$25 per hour''', with payment based on actual documented hours worked. An annual allocation of US$8,000 provides for up to approximately '''320 hours per year''', corresponding to an average of approximately '''6 hours per week'''. The Administrative Board may adjust the distribution of hours during the year according to workload and available funding. Reasonable out-of-pocket expenses incurred specifically for WikiJournal work may be reimbursed when approved in advance by an authorized Administrative Board member or under a standing Board-approved policy. Such expenses should be documented with receipts or equivalent records. Examples may include: *Required software or service fees. *Postage or administrative filing costs. *Approved travel or other project-specific expenses. Personal equipment and ordinary home internet or workspace expenses would not normally be reimbursed unless specifically authorized. ===Location and international contracting=== The administrative officer position may be open to applicants internationally, provided that WikiJournal is able to establish a practical and legally appropriate method for contracting and paying the selected applicant in their country of residence. WikiJournal should confirm the available payment method and any required contractor or tax documentation before paid work begins. Applicants should therefore not necessarily be excluded solely because they reside outside the United States, but appointment may depend on WikiJournal being able to make payments reliably and at reasonable administrative cost. Where possible, the same hourly rate should apply irrespective of the contractor's country of residence. ===Hiring process=== If or when the WikiJournal User Group has an open administrative officer position, the hiring process may consist of: *First contacting current or previous [[WikiJournal User Group/Technical editors|technical editors]] and other experienced WikiJournal participants who may already be familiar with WikiJournal workflows and documentation. *Opening the position to suitable applicants internationally where practical payment and contracting arrangements are available. *If this does not identify a suitable candidate, advertising the position more broadly within Wikimedia, open-access, academic-publishing and nonprofit communities. *Requesting a concise application describing relevant administrative, nonprofit, financial, human-resources, contractor-management, Wikimedia or scholarly-publishing experience. *Confirming that WikiJournal can establish an appropriate contracting and payment arrangement in the shortlisted applicant's country before appointment. *Verifying the identity of shortlisted applicants before contracting. *Preferably having approximately 2–3 WikiJournal participants review or interview shortlisted applicants. *Providing a summary of shortlisted candidates to the Administrative Board. *Selecting the contractor by consensus of the Administrative Board. ===Desirable experience=== Useful qualifications may include: *Reliable administrative organization and follow-through. *Experience with contractor administration, human resources, bookkeeping, grants, nonprofits or project administration. *Clear written communication and comfort working asynchronously with an international volunteer community. *Fluency in written and spoken English sufficient for professional communication, meetings, administrative documentation and correspondence. *Ability to maintain accurate records and appropriately handle confidential administrative information. *Familiarity with Wikimedia projects, WikiJournal, academic publishing or open-access communities. *Previous WikiJournal technical-editor or other WikiJournal experience, particularly because existing documentation and workflows may be adapted for this role. </noinclude> [[Category:WikiJournal User Group]] nxn5oxjv9ez2nu6vnsswece0jbvx3ta 0 331492 2832770 2828783 2026-09-11T05:23:44Z Jtneill 10242 Copyediting 2832770 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Growth mindset:<br>How does a growth mindset influence psychological wellbeing?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Fixed versus growth mindset.png|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. Two faces staring at each other. Left with a lock and right was a plant growing.]] Life rarely goes as planned. You have been struggling at the gym for a while now and you’ve finally decided you want to work out become stronger. One day, you struggle to lift your goal weight, looking around you, you find others lifting heavier with ease. Suddenly a normal gym session turned into a comparison “I can’t do this. I am not good at this.” You leave the gym feeling deflated and decide you are simply not strong enough for the gym. Alternatively, you might see others lifting heavier and you become inspired, thinking, “if I keep training and stay discipline, I will become stronger.” You are still disappointed you could not get your goal weight but it only fuels you for the next time, understanding it’s a reflection of your ability not your potential. The situation is the same, however the reaction is different. Why can the same challenge have one person feeling defeated and the other feeling motivated? Why do some people see failure as evidence, while others see it as an opportunity to learn? {{RoundBoxBottom}} This concept is what psychologist see as a difference in mindset. The term ‘growth mindset’ {{ic|APA style uses double quotation marks}} was created by Carol Dweck{{fact}}, she described it as the ability the reframe your thinking to perceive failures and opportunities to learn and grow. A growth mindset seeing abilities as changing with room to grow, through learning, experience and trying. These beliefs are how people interpret challenges, roadblocks and their own performance. Understanding mindset is important because how we see challenge effects how we respond to it. It effects emotions, both positive and negative and can influence our psychological well-being. Psychological study and science can help investigate the relationship mindset has with motivation, emotion and mindset and help us determine a adaptive way of thinking. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ; Focus questions {{ic|Use bullet points as shown in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]}} 1. How does a growth mindset shape the way people respond to challenges and failure? 2. To what extent one can a growth mindset, contribute to motivation and psychological well-being? 3. What does psychological level research reveal and future and what are the benefits and limitations. {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== * [[#Overview|Overview]] * Understanding a Growth Mindset ** Fixed and Growth Mindset ** Growth Mindset Response to Challenge *Growth Mindset and Motivation **Effort, Persistent and Goal Pursuit **Achievement and Performance *Growth Mindset and Emotional Response **Failure and Emotional Response **Coping and Resilience *Growth Mindset and Psychological Well-being *How Does the Research Help Us? * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * [[#See also|See also]] * [[#References|References]] * [[#External links|External links]] ==Key points== * Understanding a growth mindset -         Fixed vs. growth mindset: a fixed mindset is believing that intelligence and abilities cannot change much, while a growth mindset is believing they can improve with learning and effort (Dwreck & Leggett, 2025) -         Growth mindset changes how people see challenges: people with a growth mindset are more likely to see difficult tasks as opportunities to learn rather than sighs they are not capable -         Growth mindset changes how people respond to set backs: instead of seeing failure as proof they cannot succeed, people with a growth mindset may see it as something they can learn from and improve upon * Growth mindset and motivation -         Effort, persistence and goal pursuit o  Growth mindset can increase willingness to put in effort: people are more likely to see effort as useful because it can help them improve o  Growth mindset can encourage persistence: when people believe they can improve, they may be more likely to keep trying when something becomes difficult o  Growth mindset can encourage learning goals: people may focus more on improving their skills and learning rather than simply trying to prove they are good at something -         Achievement and performance o  Growth mindset is linked to academic achievement: research has found a relationship between growth mindset and academic performance although the effects are generally small (Sisk et al., 2018) * Growth mindset and emotional response -         Failure and emotional response o  People with different mindsets may react different to failure: a fixed mindset can make failure feel like proof while a growth mindset can make failure feel more like opportuning o  Growth mindset does not mean avoiding negative emotions: people with a growth mindset can still feel negative emotions however their response to it is different o  How people interpret failure can effect their response: seeing failure as temporary and a place to grow is a sign of a growth mindset -         Coping and resilience o  A growth mindset can help people cope with setbacks: believing abilities can change and grow may encourage people to continue working towards something even through harder times o  Growth mindset-resileince: people who believe they can develop may be better able to adapt when face with challenges o  Support is important: a growth mindset is fully achieved when you have people to get support and feedback from (Dwreck & Leggett, 2025) * Growth mindset and psychological wellbeing -         Growth mindset may support sense of hope: believing that change is possible may help people continue to push forward -         Growth mindset may support resilience: being able to view bad times and set back and temporary can help people respond more positively to situations -         Growth mindset does not automatically improve wellbeing: research suggest that the relationship between a growth mindset and wellbeing has a lot of other factors which are needed to improve mental health. ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|188x188px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * [[File:Fixed_versus_growth_mindset.png|alt=Fixed_versus_growth_mindset|center|329x329px|Figure 2. Visual comparison of how a growth mindset is compared to fixed mindset]] ==Learning features== Carol Dweck when creating the concept of a growth mindset included set of 3 questions of which you answer on a 1 (strong agree) to 6 (strong disagree) to get you thinking which was your brain works. See the following:<blockquote>'''''1. You have a certain amount of intelligence, and you can't really do much to change it''''' '''''2. Your intelligence is something about you that can't change very much''''' '''''3. You can learn new things, but you can't really change your basic intelligence'''''</blockquote>''<small>1.0-3.0 - fixed mindset</small>'' ''<small>3.1-3.9 - average</small>'' ''<small>4.0-6.0 - growth mindset</small>'' ''<small>How did you do?</small>'' ==Conclusion== * Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== Provide the references for all citations in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. Alternatively, you can use wiki style (as used on Wikipedia), as long as the information is complete and the formatting is consistent. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= References Dweck, C. S., & Yeager, D. S. (2019). Mindsets: A view from two eras. Perspectives on Psychological Science : A Journal of the Association for Psychological Science, 14(3), 481–496. PubMed Central. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691618804166 Dybendal, B. H., Stokke, S. S., Haugan, J. A., Moen, F., & Stenseng, F. (2026). Development and validation of the mindset in fitness scale (MiFS): A domain-specific measure of implicit beliefs in physical activity engagement. Current Psychology, 45(7). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-026-09286-0 enter for Teaching and Learning, Stanford University. (2025). Growth mindset. Stanford University. Center for Teaching and Learning. https://ctl.stanford.edu/students/growth-mindset Orvidas, K., Burnette, J. L., & Russell, V. M. (2018). Mindsets applied to fitness: Growth beliefs predict exercise efficacy, value and frequency. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 36(36), 156–161. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2018.02.006 Sik, K., Cummins, J., & Job, V. (2024). An implicit measure of growth mindset uniquely predicts post-failure learning behavior. Scientific Reports, 14(1), 3761. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-52916-5 University, S., Stanford, & California 94305. (n.d.). Growth mindset scale {{!}} SPARQtools. Sparqtools.Org. Retrieved 28 August 2026, from https://sparqtools.org/mobility-measure/growth-mindset-scale/#all-survey-questions (2026). Istockphoto.Com. https://media.istockphoto.com/id/2163114235/vector/growth-mindset-vs-fixed-mindset-vector-for-slide-presentation-or-web-banner-infographic-of.jpg?s=612x612&w=0&k=20&c=O7uMSHSfE7qoSfDGG_agGEhx-KjkXspgX5KbnUXrfiA= }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) ** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: *** Use "Edit source" *** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * Developing a Growth Mindset by Carol Dweck - YouTube Video Stanford Alumni * [https://www.growthmindsetpodcast.com/ Growth Mindset Psychology] (Growth Mindset Podcast by Sam Webster Harris) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Mindset/Growth]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Well-being]] om2bq6lf4qxkdy8mzysook796g5q1ku 3 331523 2832720 2826109 2026-09-10T21:09:47Z Jtneill 10242 2832720 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Welcome== {{Robelbox|theme=9|title='''[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Welcome]] to [[Wikiversity:What is Wikiversity|Wikiversity]], Karabi Tasneem!'''|width=100%}} <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> You can [[Wikiversity:Contact|contact us]] with [[Wikiversity:Questions|questions]] at the [[Wikiversity:Colloquium|colloquium]] or get in touch with [[User talk:Jtneill|me personally]] if you would like some [[Help:Contents|help]]. Remember to [[Wikiversity:Signature#How to add your signature|sign]] your comments when [[Wikiversity:Who are Wikiversity participants?|participating]] in [[Wikiversity:Talk page|discussions]]. Using the signature icon [[File:OOjs UI icon signature-ltr.svg]] makes it simple. We invite you to [[Wikiversity:Be bold|be bold]] and [[Wikiversity|assume good faith]]. Please abide by our [[Wikiversity:Civility|civility]], [[Wikiversity:Privacy policy|privacy]], and [[Foundation:Terms of Use|terms of use]] policies. To find your way around, check out: <!-- The Left column --> <div style="width:50.0%; float:left"> * [[Wikiversity:Introduction|Introduction to Wikiversity]] * [[Help:Guides|Take a guided tour]] and learn [[Help:Editing|how to edit]] * [[Wikiversity:Browse|Browse]] or visit an educational level portal:<br>[[Portal:Pre-school Education|pre-school]] | [[Portal:Primary Education|primary]] | [[Portal:Secondary Education|secondary]] | [[Portal:Tertiary Education|tertiary]] | [[Portal:Non-formal Education|non-formal]] * [[Wikiversity:Introduction explore|Explore]] links in left-hand navigation menu </div> <!-- The Right column --> <div style="width:50.0%; float:left"> * Read an [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity teachers|introduction for teachers]] * Learn [[Help:How to write an educational resource|how to write an educational resource]] * Find out about [[Wikiversity:Research|research]] activities * Give [[Wikiversity:Feedback|feedback]] about your observations * Discuss issues or ask questions at the [[Wikiversity:Colloquium|colloquium]] </div> <br clear="both"/> To get started, experiment in the [[wikiversity:sandbox|sandbox]] or on [[special:mypage|your userpage]]. See you around Wikiversity! ---- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 02:52, 26 August 2026 (UTC)</div> <!-- Template:Welcome --> {{Robelbox/close}} ==General comments - Were they AI-generated?== I am checking whether [[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Moral disgust and jury decision-making|these general comments]] were AI-generated? If so, this should be clearly communicated, as per the unit's [[Motivation and emotion/Using generative AI|using genAI guidelines]]. Sincerely, James -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 21:09, 10 September 2026 (UTC) nkutglxfhtd8wx2sce4ei4kpei2ad11 2832721 2832720 2026-09-10T21:10:11Z Jtneill 10242 /* General comments - Were they AI-generated? */ 2832721 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Welcome== {{Robelbox|theme=9|title='''[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Welcome]] to [[Wikiversity:What is Wikiversity|Wikiversity]], Karabi Tasneem!'''|width=100%}} <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> You can [[Wikiversity:Contact|contact us]] with [[Wikiversity:Questions|questions]] at the [[Wikiversity:Colloquium|colloquium]] or get in touch with [[User talk:Jtneill|me personally]] if you would like some [[Help:Contents|help]]. Remember to [[Wikiversity:Signature#How to add your signature|sign]] your comments when [[Wikiversity:Who are Wikiversity participants?|participating]] in [[Wikiversity:Talk page|discussions]]. Using the signature icon [[File:OOjs UI icon signature-ltr.svg]] makes it simple. We invite you to [[Wikiversity:Be bold|be bold]] and [[Wikiversity|assume good faith]]. Please abide by our [[Wikiversity:Civility|civility]], [[Wikiversity:Privacy policy|privacy]], and [[Foundation:Terms of Use|terms of use]] policies. To find your way around, check out: <!-- The Left column --> <div style="width:50.0%; float:left"> * [[Wikiversity:Introduction|Introduction to Wikiversity]] * [[Help:Guides|Take a guided tour]] and learn [[Help:Editing|how to edit]] * [[Wikiversity:Browse|Browse]] or visit an educational level portal:<br>[[Portal:Pre-school Education|pre-school]] | [[Portal:Primary Education|primary]] | [[Portal:Secondary Education|secondary]] | [[Portal:Tertiary Education|tertiary]] | [[Portal:Non-formal Education|non-formal]] * [[Wikiversity:Introduction explore|Explore]] links in left-hand navigation menu </div> <!-- The Right column --> <div style="width:50.0%; float:left"> * Read an [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity teachers|introduction for teachers]] * Learn [[Help:How to write an educational resource|how to write an educational resource]] * Find out about [[Wikiversity:Research|research]] activities * Give [[Wikiversity:Feedback|feedback]] about your observations * Discuss issues or ask questions at the [[Wikiversity:Colloquium|colloquium]] </div> <br clear="both"/> To get started, experiment in the [[wikiversity:sandbox|sandbox]] or on [[special:mypage|your userpage]]. See you around Wikiversity! ---- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 02:52, 26 August 2026 (UTC)</div> <!-- Template:Welcome --> {{Robelbox/close}} ==General comments - Were they AI-generated?== I am checking whether [[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Moral disgust and jury decision-making|these general comments]] were AI-generated? If so, this should be clearly communicated, as per the unit's [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|using genAI guidelines]]. Sincerely, James -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 21:09, 10 September 2026 (UTC) i8nzy3pdtchyhnqmw1n79d2l7e13299 1 331582 2832753 2827660 2026-09-11T01:26:03Z Jtneill 10242 Topic development feedback 2832753 wikitext text/x-wiki == Initial suggestions looking at excitment as an emotion == Hi @[[User:U3292769|U3292769]], Great topic! Understanding excitment as an emotion could be supported by a range of theories and models. It may be worthwhile considering the physiological aspects that support perception of excitment. Here's a link to a webpage on the [https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/body/limbic-system Limbic System] by Cleveland Clinic. I'd also recommend looking at other related book chapters. Here's a few I've found: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2017/Emotion perception|Emotion perception: What is emotion perception and how can it be improved?]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Motivational dimensional model of affect|Motivational dimensional model of affect: What is the motivational dimensional model of affect and what are its implications?]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2023/Core emotions|Core emotions: What are the core emotions and what is their function?]] [[Special:Contributions/GraceInMind|GraceInMind]] ([[User talk:GraceInMind|talk]]) 08:16, 27 August 2026 (UTC) <!-- Official topic development feedback --> {{METF/2026 |1= <!-- Title --> # Title and/or subtitle not correctly worded and/or didn't use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] (fixed) # The sub-title wording had an original error (not your error) which I've fixed |2= <!-- 2-level --> # Basic [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project/Structure|2-level heading structure]] – could benefit from further development (expand) # It looks like some more sub-headings are planned, but haven't been implemented as wiki headings <!-- Alignment with focus questions --> # Excellent alignment between sub-title, focus questions, and heading structure <!-- GenAI ---> # Are the headings based on [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI content]]? If so, this needs to be acknowledged in the edit summaries, otherwise it violates academic integrity. |3= <!-- Overview--> # Excellent – Scenario, image, evocative description of the problem/topic, and focus questions <!-- Scenario --> # A scenario or case study is presented in a feature box with an image at the start of this section <!-- Description --> # A clear description of the problem/topic is planned or presented <!-- Focus questions --> # Focus questions are aligned with sub-title and top-level headings |4= <!-- Key points--> <!-- Overall --> # Solid development # Provide more detailed edit summaries <!-- Scope --> # The scope is excellent (i.e., not too little/narrow or too big/broad) <!-- Theory and research --> # Strive for an integrated balance of the best psychological theory and research about this topic, with practical examples. <!-- Conclusion --> # Conclusion hasn't been developed # What are the practical, take-home messages? (address the focus questions) |5= <!-- Figure --> # Excellent - Relevant figure(s) presented, captioned, and cited <!-- Caption --> # Figure caption(s) provide(s) a clear, appropriately detailed description that is meaningfully connected with the main text <!-- Cite --> # Figure(s) are cited at least once in the main text <!-- Size --> # Consider increasing Figure 1 image size(s) (fixed); Figure 2 could also be increased to make the text easier to read |6= <!-- Learning feature --> <!-- Interwiki links ---> # One in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki link]] for first mention of key term to [[w:|Wikipedia]]. Also embed links to [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. <!-- Scenarios/examples/case studies --> # Promising use of scenarios/examples/case studies <!-- Quiz --> # Consider including quiz question(s) about the take-home messages <!-- Tables --> # Promising use of [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|table(s)]] # Include acknowledgement (e.g., citation(s)) for sources of information presented in the table |7= <!-- References --> <!-- Overall --> # Very good <!-- Systematic reviews --> # What are the most relevant systematic reviews/meta-analyses about this topic? <!-- APA style --> # Check and correct [https://apastyle.apa.org/instructional-aids/reference-guide.pdf APA referencing style]: ## capitalisation ## [[Help:Wikitext quick reference|italicisation]] |8= <!-- Resources --> <!-- See also --> # See also ## Excellent <!-- External links --> # External links ## Very good ## Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] |9= <!-- User page --> # Used effectively <!-- Description about self --> # Description about self provided <!-- Links to profile(s) --> # Consider linking to your [https://portfolio.canberra.edu.au/ eportfolio] page and/or any other professional online profile or resume such as [https://www.linkedin.com/ LinkedIn]. This is not required, but it can be useful to interlink your professional networks. <!-- Link to book chapter --> # A link to the book chapter is provided |10= <!-- Social contribution --> # Excellent – at least three different types of contributions with direct link(s) to evidence }} jqh4vgn48fc2s3my9uv51t8muldgjm3 1 331627 2832723 2828734 2026-09-10T21:34:54Z Jtneill 10242 Topic development feedback 2832723 wikitext text/x-wiki == General comments == * The opening scenario is engaging and provides a clear introduction to how moral disgust may influence juror decision-making. * The chapter has a logical structure and the headings cover important areas such as moral disgust, juror judgements, moderating factors, and practical implications. * Some sections would benefit from further development and stronger integration of psychological theory and empirical research. * There are still some unfinished areas and placeholders, such as the proposed evidence table, which should be completed before the final submission. * The conclusion should clearly answer the chapter question and summarise the main take-home messages from the research. * Overall, the chapter has a strong foundation and an interesting topic, but further evidence, citations, and refinement would strengthen the final version. [[User:Karabi Tasneem|Karabi Tasneem]] ([[User talk:Karabi Tasneem|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Karabi Tasneem|contribs]]) 21:48, 27 August 2026 (UTC)--[[User:Karabi Tasneem|Karabi Tasneem]] ([[User talk:Karabi Tasneem|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Karabi Tasneem|contribs]]) 21:50, 27 August 2026 (UTC) == Heading casing == {| style="float: center; background:transparent;color:inherit;" |- | [[File:Crystal Clear app ktip.svg|48px|left]] | {{#if:Yellowvines|Hi [[User:Yellowvines|Yellowvines]].|}} FYI, the recommended [[Wikiversity]] heading style uses [[w:Letter case#Sentence_case|sentence casing]]. For example:<br> <big><big>Self-determination theory</big></big> rather than <big><big>Self-Determination Theory</big></big> Here's an example chapter with correct heading casing: [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Growth mindset development|Growth mindset development]] -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 21:34, 10 September 2026 (UTC) |} <!-- Official topic development feedback --> {{METF/2026 |1= <!-- Title --> # Title and/or subtitle not correctly worded, used incorrect grammar, and/or didn't use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] (fixed) |2= <!-- Headings --> # See earlier comment about [[#heading casing|heading casing]] <!-- Heading structure --> <!-- 2-level --> # Basic [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project/Structure|2-level heading structure]] – would benefit from further development and/or refinement <!-- Other ---> # The Overview and Conclusion should not use sub-headings (fixed) # Avoid having sections with only 1 sub-heading – use 0 or 2+ sub-headings <!-- Alignment with focus questions --> # Insufficient alignment between sub-title, focus questions, and top-level headings |3= <!-- Overview--> # Scenario, image, evocative description of the problem/topic, and focus questions <!-- Scenario --> # A scenario or case study is presented in a feature box with an image at the start of this section # I shifted the image to the right and made it smaller to improve the layout <!-- Description --> # A promising description of the problem/topic is planned or presented <!-- Focus questions --> # Develop closer alignment between the sub-title, focus questions, and top-level headings # The first focus question is overly complicated; keep it simple # Use open- rather then close-ended focus questions |4= <!-- Key points--> <!-- Overall --> # Partially promising, partially problematic development # The planned focus could be more disciplined in its focus on psychological rather legal issues. For example, it isn't necessary to discuss whether disgust is legally relevant (this is a side-quest) because that is a legal rather than psychological question; the focus of this chapter should simply be on the role that disgust does or doesn't play in juror decision-making # Focus on providing an integrative review of the most relevant psychological theories and research on the topic <!-- Citation style --> # Use [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/citations/basic-principles APA style 7th edition for citations] <!-- Other --> # For sections with sub-sections, provide key points for an overview paragraph prior to branching into the sub-headings # ''Avoid providing too much background information''. Aim to briefly summarise general concepts and provide internal links to relevant book chapters and/or Wikipedia pages for further information. Focus most of the chapter on ''directly answering the core question(s)'' posed by the chapter sub-title. <!-- Conclusion --> # Conclusion is underway # What are the practical, take-home messages? (address the focus questions) |5= <!-- Figure --> # Relevant figure(s) are presented and captioned <!-- Cite --> # Cite each figure at least once in the main text using APA style (e.g., see Figure 1) |6= <!-- Learning feature --> <!-- Interwiki links ---> # Promising in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] for first mention of key terms to [[w:|Wikipedia]]. Also embed links to [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. <!-- Scenarios/examples/case studies --> # Consider incorporating additional scenarios, examples, or case studies to illustrate key concepts. These could build on the Overview scenario or introduce new real-world situations in the main body of the chapter to demonstrate how the concepts apply in practice. <!-- Quiz --> # Consider including quiz question(s) about the take-home messages <!-- Tables --> # Also consider using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|table(s)]] to summarise key information |7= <!-- References --> <!-- Overall --> # Very good <!-- Systematic reviews --> # What are the most relevant systematic reviews/meta-analyses about this topic? <!-- APA style --> # Check and correct [https://apastyle.apa.org/instructional-aids/reference-guide.pdf APA referencing style]: ## [[Help:Wikitext quick reference|italicisation]] ## provide direct doi links (not via canberra.edu.au) |8= <!-- Resources --> <!-- See also --> # See also ## To be developed (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) <!-- External links --> # External links ## One of two required external links provided ## Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] ## Include source in brackets after link |9= <!-- User page --> # Basic but effective <!-- Description about self --> # Brief description about self – consider expanding <!-- Links to profile(s) --> # Consider linking to your [https://portfolio.canberra.edu.au/ eportfolio] page and/or any other professional online profile or resume such as [https://www.linkedin.com/ LinkedIn]. This is not required, but it can be useful to interlink your professional networks. <!-- Link to book chapter --> # A link to the book chapter is provided |10= <!-- Social contribution --> # Good – two out of three types of contributions made with direct link(s) to evidence. The other type of contribution is making: #* posts about the unit or project on the {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} discussion forum }} 0dobbj8hiu7x4oux6mlhdt5lo5w3qhv 1 331633 2832726 2828821 2026-09-10T22:00:57Z Jtneill 10242 Topic development feedback 2832726 wikitext text/x-wiki == Feedback == Hi there! I really like your overview scenario as it felt easy to follow, and I felt engaged with your book chapter after reading it. I also liked how you linked it back to implications in the field of sport for different professionals. [[User:Leilab23|U3220827]] ([[User talk:Leilab23|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Leilab23|contribs]]) 22:41, 27 August 2026 (UTC) <!-- Official topic development feedback --> {{METF/2026 |1= <!-- Title --> # Title and subtitle are correctly worded and use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] |2= <!-- Headings --> # See earlier comment about [[#heading casing|heading casing]] <!-- Heading structure --> <!-- 1-level --> # Under-developed, [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project/Structure|1-level heading structure]] – develop further, perhaps using a 2-level structure for larger section(s) (i.e., including subheadings) <!-- Other ---> # Aim for 3 to 6 top-level headings between the Overview and Conclusion, with 3 to 5 sub-headings for large sections <!-- Alignment with focus questions --> # Insufficient alignment between sub-title, focus questions, and top-level headings |3= <!-- Overview--> # Very good <!-- Scenario --> # A scenario or case study is presented in a feature box at the start of this section # I moved an image into the feature box to help attract reader interest <!-- Description --> # A promising description of the problem/topic is planned or presented <!-- Focus questions --> # Develop closer alignment between the sub-title, focus questions, and top-level headings # Present focus questions in a feature box at the end of this section (fixed) |4= <!-- Key points--> <!-- Overall --> # Basic development <!-- Theory and research --> # Balance theoretical content with critical synthesis of relevant research <!-- GenAI ---> # Addition of [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI content]] needs to be acknowledged in the edit summaries with a link to the conversations, otherwise it violates academic integrity. <!-- Conclusion --> # Conclusion is underway # What are the practical, take-home messages? (address the focus questions) |5= <!-- Figure --> # Relevant figure(s) are presented and captioned <!-- Caption --> # Figure caption(s) should include '''Figure X'''. [bold] ... (fixed) <!-- Cite --> # Cite each figure at least once in the main text using APA style (e.g., see Figure 1), near where the Figure is presented |6= <!-- Learning feature --> <!-- Interwiki links ---> # Two in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] for first mention of key terms to [[w:|Wikipedia]]. Also embed links to [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. <!-- Scenarios/examples/case studies --> # Consider incorporating additional scenarios, examples, or case studies to illustrate key concepts. These could build on the Overview scenario or introduce new real-world situations in the main body of the chapter to demonstrate how the concepts apply in practice. <!-- Quiz --> # Promising use of quiz question(s) # Place each quiz question in the most relevant section # Focus the quiz question(s) on the take-home messages <!-- Tables --> # Also consider using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|table(s)]] to summarise key information |7= <!-- References --> <!-- Overall --> # Excellent # Very good # Good # Basic # Insufficient # To be developed <!-- Systematic reviews --> # What are the most relevant systematic reviews/meta-analyses about this topic? <!-- APA style --> # Check and correct [https://apastyle.apa.org/instructional-aids/reference-guide.pdf APA referencing style]: ## [[Help:Wikitext quick reference|italicisation]] ## check and correct formatting of author initials ## only cite sources you have consulted |8= <!-- Resources --> <!-- See also --> # See also ## One of two link types provided ### Also link to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]] <!-- External links --> # External links ## Insufficient; too general ## Target an international audience; Australians only represent 0.33% of the world population ## Link to the most relevant external resources about this topic |9= <!-- User page --> # Used effectively <!-- Description about self --> # Description about self provided <!-- Links to profile(s) --> # Consider linking to your [https://portfolio.canberra.edu.au/ eportfolio] page and/or any other professional online profile or resume such as [https://www.linkedin.com/ LinkedIn]. This is not required, but it can be useful to interlink your professional networks. <!-- Link to book chapter --> # A link to the book chapter is provided |10= <!-- Social contribution --> # One out of three types of contributions made with direct link(s) to evidence. The other types of contribution are making: #* direct improvements to other [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters (past or current)]] #* posts about the unit or project on the {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} discussion forum }} 1957aogqwztxj254yosp0nu9oouc482 2 331894 2832739 2832077 2026-09-10T23:23:06Z The Citer 3110681 2832739 wikitext text/x-wiki Hi. I'm the "saddest" citer in MediaWiki. ==Origin== Apparently, a mysterious editor was "Citing" articles but without tracing the source/"cite". But even then, I was dubbed '''''The Citer''''' and I created an account to make an article about Microkingdoms. I was almost banned from editing articles, so I made a promise that I would only create articles. It turns out, this is actually edited? Yes, I added a link in Oophaga sylvatica, which is considered editing, but even that made complaints about '''''The Citer'''''. ===Criticism=== Ever since I wanted to make an article about microkingdoms, people kept complaining about me. In fact, I was added to the [[Wikipedia:Administrators' noticeboard/Incidents]], which goes to show your reputation can get ruined if you want the wrong thing. And, you know what happened: I got blocked. ==Migration to [https://species.wikimedia.org/wiki/Main_Page Wikispecies]== After being blocked on Wikipedia, I moved to wikispecies, where I survived much longer. I had a good time up until I made The Other Citer, which marked my downfall. ===Post-Other Citer Blockage=== After my "back-up" account was blocked, I hit a new low: I created Orthokaryote, and when I collabrated with myself, you guessed it: /*"we"*/ got BLOCKED. ==Post second blockage== After all that, it makes sense of why I'm here. But if you block me, then I will have to move yet again. ==Why don't I just try to request being unblocked?== You see, it's just easier to move than to waste hours trying to be unblocked. =Social Circle= ==Friends== [There is no text right here] ==Enemies== [There is no text right here] ==Frenemies== [There is no text right here] 9765x73axy5ahovbn6njqz6easwmcse 0 331914 2832745 2832074 2026-09-11T00:26:13Z The Citer 3110681 2832745 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Image:Tionesta-ac-moss2.jpg|thumb|300px|right|This is a [[Plant Divisions (Phyla)/Bryophyta|Bryophyte]].]] Mosses are small, non-vascular seedless plants in the taxonomic division Bryophyta (/braɪˈɒfətə/, /ˌbraɪ.əˈfaɪtə/) sensu stricto. Bryophyta sensu lato may also refer to the parent group, bryophytes, which comprises liverworts, mosses, and hornworts. [[Image:Mose09.jpg|thumb|300px|right|This is a [[Plant Divisions (Phyla)/Bryophyta|Bryophyte]].]] ==Information== Name Meaning: Bryum-like plant, moss plant English Common Name: Moss Major distinguishing characteristics: Persistent branched sporophytes, no vascular system Approximate number of species described: 12,000 ===Other Facts=== ====DNA Repair==== The moss ''Physcomitrium patens'' has been used as a demonstrative organism to study how plants repair damage to their DNA, especially the repair mechanism known as homologous recombination. ==Classes== *Andreaeobryopsida *Andreaeopsida *Bryopsida *Oedipodiopsida *Sphagnopsida *Takakiopsida *Tetraphidopsida [[Image:RedMoss.jpg|thumb|300px|right]] ==Evolutionary History== The fossil record of moss is sparse, due to their soft-walled and fragile nature. However, unambiguous moss fossils have been recovered from as early as the Permian of Antarctica and Russia, and a case has been made for Carboniferous mosses. It has further been claimed that tube-like fossils from the Silurian are the macerated remains of moss operculum. Mosses also seem to evolve 2–3 times slower than ferns, gymnosperms and angiosperms. ==References== [[Wikipedia:Moss]] mtvofbbyo0k62q3f3al9e6953xtdoqs 0 331954 2832600 2832511 2026-09-10T13:02:06Z MathXplore 2888076 Added {{[[Template:BookCat|BookCat]]}} using [[User:1234qwer1234qwer4/BookCat.js|BookCat.js]] 2832600 wikitext text/x-wiki Images, which use the tag <code><img></code>, are very simple to understand, and they are a vital piece of web design. This article will go over the basics of image linking, and the basics of what you can do with an image. === Linking to an image === There are several ways to link to an image. For example, you can simply link to an image that exists as a file on your computer, or you can link to a file on the internet. Linking a file on the internet, though extremely easy, means that its path can also be deleted or changed. It can also be restricted under copyright laws. Keep this in mind while building your websites, because you may lose an important part of your website. You can use all file types when coding HTML. Depending on the file you're using, it may not load on certain web browsers. Files that can be universally loaded on all browsers include: ''.PNG'', ''.GIF'', ''.JPEG'', ''.APNG'', ''.SVG''. Linking to a file works like this: <img src="book.png"> The source, or <code><src></code>, links to the pathway connected to the file and inserts it into your web page. To link to an existing file inside of a folder, include the '''folder name''' in the <code><src></code> attribute, like this: <img src="'''/folder/'''book.png"> Here is an example of linking to a file on the internet: <img src="linkexample"> You can do this by copying the image address of an image. If you are unaware of how to do this, either right-click on an image and scroll down to 'Copy image address,' or use two fingers on your mouse pad and click the option. === Editing the attributes of an image === These are the basics of sizing and adding other characteristics to an image. More advanced levels of editing (such as image borders, filters, etc.) can be achieved by applying CSS to your HTML code. ===== The size of an image ===== The tags <code><width></code> and <code><height></code>, along with their specified sizes, can change the size of your image. <img src="book.png" width="200px" height="700px"> or <img src="book.png" width="200%" height="700%"> ====== Other attributes ====== There are several other characteristics that you can change when linking an image. The <code><alt></code> tag is used to make '''alternate text'''. It can be used to make your site accessible for those who cannot see the image, and it can be read by screen readers. It also appears when the image cannot properly load. Testing if alternate text works can be achieved by purposefully misspelling the name of your file. <img src="book.png" alt="Picture of a red book."> '''Links''' can also be applied to your images, using the <code><a></code> tag. Make sure that your image is inside of the tag, or else it will not work: <a href="linkexample"> <img src="book.png"> </a> A useful tool to organize your website is the <code><align></code> tag, which can move your image around the text: <img src="book.png" style="align:right;"> An image can be moved freely around a page when using the <code><position></code> tag === Images as backgrounds === If you want a fancy background for your website, it is very simple to understand. Using the <code><style></code> tag, which functions as CSS code, you can edit the backgrounds of paragraphs, headers, dividers, and other parts of your website. Editing the background of your '''entire website''' (aka the <code><body></code> of your website): <body style="background-image: url('bg.png');"> </body> or (this format may look a bit odd, since it's horizontal) <style> body { background-image: url('bg.png'); } </style> Your background may repeat if it is small enough to do so. To prevent this, either use a bigger image (recommended: 1920px x 1080px), or use this: <body style="background-image: url('bg.png'); background-repeat: no-repeat;"> </body> Editing the background of '''other elements''', like a paragraph or divider, follows the same formatting like this: <nowiki><p style="background-image: url('picture.jpg');">This is a paragraph element.</p></nowiki> === Try it yourself! === Using the basic pieces of code you learned above, try it out with your own images and links. Learning the basics about images can easily help you learn other aspects about HTML and CSS coding. There are tons of other attributes to mess with when it comes to image editing, and you can advance fast if you test out your code. {{BookCat}} sw7l09xwxn7govpmin85ujv6zvv714s 1 331959 2832781 2832512 2026-09-11T07:44:21Z Jtneill 10242 Topic development feedback 2832781 wikitext text/x-wiki == Heading casing == {| style="float: center; background:transparent;color:inherit;" |- | [[File:Crystal Clear app ktip.svg|48px|left]] | {{#if:E3297976|Hi [[User:E3297976|E3297976]].|}} FYI, the recommended [[Wikiversity]] heading style uses [[w:Letter case#Sentence_case|sentence casing]]. For example:<br> <big><big>Self-determination theory</big></big> rather than <big><big>Self-Determination Theory</big></big> Here's an example chapter with correct heading casing: [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Growth mindset development|Growth mindset development]] -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 01:24, 10 September 2026 (UTC) |} <!-- Official topic development feedback --> {{METF/2026 |1= <!-- Title --> # Title and/or subtitle not correctly worded and/or didn't use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] (fixed) |2= <!-- Headings --> # See earlier comment about [[#heading casing|heading casing]] <!-- Heading structure --> <!-- 2-level --> <!-- 3-level --> # Overly complicated[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project/Structure|3-level heading structure]] – consider simplifying to a 2-level structure <!-- Other ---> # The Overview and Conclusion should not use sub-headings # Avoid having sections with only 1 sub-heading – use 0 or 2+ sub-headings # Remove research heading; instead, integrate research synthesis throughout <!-- Alignment with focus questions --> # Insufficient alignment between sub-title, focus questions, and top-level headings |3= <!-- Overview--> # Insufficient <!-- Scenario --> # Consider using a 3rd person rather than 2nd person scenario because it could be more viscerally compelling # I moved an image into the feature box to help attract reader interest <!-- Description --> # Add a brief, evocative description of the problem/topic <!-- Focus questions --> # Present focus questions in a feature box at the end of this section |4= <!-- Key points--> <!-- Overall --> # Basic development <!-- Scope --> # All planned aspects cannot reasonably be covered within the book chapter word count, so be selective and concentrate on the most important aspects which address the question in the sub-title. For example, keep background definitional material to a minimum and avoid side-quests such as history; concentrate on synthesising the best psychological theory and research about the effects of breathing exercise on relaxation. <!-- Theory and research --> # Strive for an integrated balance of the best psychological theory and research about this topic, with practical examples. <!-- Conclusion --> # Conclusion is underdeveloped # What are the practical, take-home messages? (address the focus questions) |5= <!-- Figure --> # Relevant figure(s) are presented and captioned <!-- Caption --> # Figure caption(s) provide(s) a clear, appropriately detailed description that is meaningfully connected with the main text <!-- Cite --> # Cite each figure at least once in the main text using APA style (e.g., see Figure 1) <!-- Size --> # Consider decreasing image size(s) to make them less dominant |6= <!-- Learning feature --> <!-- Interwiki links ---> # Two in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] for first mention of key terms to [[w:|Wikipedia]]. Also embed links to [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. <!-- Scenarios/examples/case studies --> # Consider incorporating additional scenarios, examples, or case studies to illustrate key concepts. These could build on the Overview scenario or introduce new real-world situations in the main body of the chapter to demonstrate how the concepts apply in practice. <!-- Quiz --> # Consider including quiz question(s) about the take-home messages <!-- Tables --> # Also consider using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|table(s)]] to summarise key information |7= <!-- References --> <!-- Overall --> # Good <!-- Systematic reviews --> # What are the most relevant systematic reviews/meta-analyses about this topic? <!-- APA style --> # Check and correct [https://apastyle.apa.org/instructional-aids/reference-guide.pdf APA referencing style]: ## capitalisation ## provide the full journal titles ## page numbers should be separated by an en-dash (–) rather than a hyphen (-) |8= <!-- Resources --> <!-- See also --> # See also ## One of two link types provided ### Also link to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]] ## Move academic, peer-reviewed sources to References and cite ## Use bullet-points (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) <!-- External links --> # External links ## One of two required external links provided ## Use bullet-points (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) ## Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] |9= <!-- User page --> # Basic but effective <!-- Description about self --> # Very brief description about self – consider expanding <!-- Links to profile(s) --> # Consider linking to your [https://portfolio.canberra.edu.au/ eportfolio] page and/or any other professional online profile or resume such as [https://www.linkedin.com/ LinkedIn]. This is not required, but it can be useful to interlink your professional networks. <!-- Link to book chapter --> # A link to the book chapter is provided |10= <!-- Social contribution --> # Good – two out of three types of contributions made with direct link(s) to evidence. The other type of contribution is making: #* direct improvements to other [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters (past or current)]] # To add direct links to evidence of Wikiversity edits or comments: view the page history, select the version of the page before and after your contributions, click "compare selected revisions", and paste the comparison URL on your user page. For more info, see [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Making and summarising social contributions|Making and summarising social contributions]]. This was demonstrated in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing#Social contributions|Tutorial 2]]. }} 5ca2dwwriey4tyodplavmiw1x1rs5m1 2832783 2832781 2026-09-11T07:45:26Z Jtneill 10242 2832783 wikitext text/x-wiki == Heading casing == {| style="float: center; background:transparent;color:inherit;" |- | [[File:Crystal Clear app ktip.svg|48px|left]] | {{#if:E3297976|Hi [[User:E3297976|E3297976]].|}} FYI, the recommended [[Wikiversity]] heading style uses [[w:Letter case#Sentence_case|sentence casing]]. For example:<br> <big><big>Self-determination theory</big></big> rather than <big><big>Self-Determination Theory</big></big> Here's an example chapter with correct heading casing: [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Growth mindset development|Growth mindset development]] -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 01:24, 10 September 2026 (UTC) |} <!-- Official topic development feedback --> {{METF/2026 |1= <!-- Title --> # Title and/or subtitle not correctly worded and/or didn't use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] (fixed) |2= <!-- Headings --> # See earlier comment about [[#heading casing|heading casing]] <!-- Heading structure --> <!-- 2-level --> <!-- 3-level --> # Overly complicated[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project/Structure|3-level heading structure]] – consider simplifying to a 2-level structure <!-- Other ---> # The Overview and Conclusion should not use sub-headings # Avoid having sections with only 1 sub-heading – use 0 or 2+ sub-headings # Remove research heading; instead, integrate research synthesis throughout <!-- Alignment with focus questions --> # Insufficient alignment between sub-title, focus questions, and top-level headings |3= <!-- Overview--> # Insufficient <!-- Scenario --> # Consider using a 3rd person rather than 2nd person scenario because it could be more viscerally compelling # I moved an image into the feature box to help attract reader interest <!-- Description --> # Add a brief, evocative description of the problem/topic <!-- Focus questions --> # Present focus questions in a feature box at the end of this section |4= <!-- Key points--> <!-- Overall --> # Basic development <!-- Scope --> # All planned aspects cannot reasonably be covered within the book chapter word count, so be selective and concentrate on the most important aspects which address the question in the sub-title. For example, keep background definitional material to a minimum and avoid side-quests such as history; concentrate on synthesising the best psychological theory and research about the effects of breathing exercise on relaxation. <!-- Theory and research --> # Strive for an integrated balance of the best psychological theory and research about this topic, with practical examples. <!-- Conclusion --> # Conclusion is underdeveloped # What are the practical, take-home messages? (address the focus questions) |5= <!-- Figure --> # Relevant figure(s) are presented and captioned <!-- Caption --> # Figure caption(s) provide(s) a clear, appropriately detailed description that is meaningfully connected with the main text <!-- Cite --> # Cite each figure at least once in the main text using APA style (e.g., see Figure 1) <!-- Size --> # Consider decreasing image size(s) to make them less dominant |6= <!-- Learning feature --> <!-- Interwiki links ---> # Two in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] for first mention of key terms to [[w:|Wikipedia]]. Also embed links to [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. <!-- Scenarios/examples/case studies --> # Consider incorporating additional scenarios, examples, or case studies to illustrate key concepts. These could build on the Overview scenario or introduce new real-world situations in the main body of the chapter to demonstrate how the concepts apply in practice. <!-- Quiz --> # Consider including quiz question(s) about the take-home messages <!-- Tables --> # Also consider using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|table(s)]] to summarise key information |7= <!-- References --> <!-- Overall --> # Good <!-- Systematic reviews --> # What are the most relevant systematic reviews/meta-analyses about this topic? <!-- APA style --> # Check and correct [https://apastyle.apa.org/instructional-aids/reference-guide.pdf APA referencing style]: ## capitalisation ## provide the full journal titles ## page numbers should be separated by an en-dash (–) rather than a hyphen (-) |8= <!-- Resources --> <!-- See also --> # See also ## One of two link types provided ### Also link to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]] ## Move academic, peer-reviewed sources to References and cite ## Use bullet-points (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) <!-- External links --> # External links ## Use alphabetical order ## Use bullet-points (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) ## Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] |9= <!-- User page --> # Basic but effective <!-- Description about self --> # Very brief description about self – consider expanding <!-- Links to profile(s) --> # Consider linking to your [https://portfolio.canberra.edu.au/ eportfolio] page and/or any other professional online profile or resume such as [https://www.linkedin.com/ LinkedIn]. This is not required, but it can be useful to interlink your professional networks. <!-- Link to book chapter --> # A link to the book chapter is provided |10= <!-- Social contribution --> # Good – two out of three types of contributions made with direct link(s) to evidence. The other type of contribution is making: #* direct improvements to other [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters (past or current)]] # To add direct links to evidence of Wikiversity edits or comments: view the page history, select the version of the page before and after your contributions, click "compare selected revisions", and paste the comparison URL on your user page. For more info, see [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Making and summarising social contributions|Making and summarising social contributions]]. This was demonstrated in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing#Social contributions|Tutorial 2]]. }} ghyddty9vs0sf57qw49j9iy6vxao98o 2 331964 2832595 2026-09-10T11:59:19Z Hurgeon 3110852 /* */ 2832595 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Userpage}} <div style="width:100%; box-sizing:border-box; background:#008000; border:1px solid #006400; border-radius:12px; padding:24px 14px; text-align:center; color:white; margin-bottom:18px;"> [[File:Wikiversity-logo.svg|100px|center]] <span style="font-size:190%;">'''User:Hurgeon'''</span><br> <span style="font-size:115%;">'''Wikiversitan · Learner · Contributor · Collaborator'''</span><br> <small>Learning • Research • Educational Resources • Wikimedia Collaboration</small> </div> == 👋 About me == Hello! I am '''Hurgeon''', a Wikimedia contributor interested in learning, research, educational resources, collaborative knowledge, and helping other contributors participate constructively in Wikiversity. My Wikiversity interests include: * 📚 Learning and educational resources * 🔬 Research and research-oriented projects * 🧠 Sharing useful knowledge and learning materials * ✍️ Improving educational content * 🧩 Organising and developing learning resources * 🤝 Helping new contributors understand Wikimedia projects * 🌐 Connecting Wikiversity work with the wider Wikimedia movement I aim to contribute constructively, communicate clearly, and help develop useful resources that other learners and contributors can benefit from. == 🎓 My Wikiversity focus == {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%;" ! Area !! My interest |- | 📖 '''Learning''' || Developing and improving useful learning resources |- | 🔬 '''Research''' || Exploring research-oriented and knowledge-based projects |- | 🧑‍🏫 '''Education''' || Supporting educational material and collaborative learning |- | ✍️ '''Editing''' || Improving clarity, structure, references, and presentation |- | 🤝 '''Collaboration''' || Working constructively with other Wikiversitans |- | 🌱 '''New contributors''' || Helping contributors learn Wikimedia practices |} == 🧭 Wikiversity navigation == {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%;" ! Explore ! Link |- | 🏛️ '''Wikiversity''' || [[Main Page]] |- | 📚 '''Learning resources''' || [[Wikiversity:Browse]] |- | 🧑‍🤝‍🧑 '''Community''' || [[Wikiversity:Community Portal]] |- | 🆕 '''Help''' || [[Help:Contents]] |- | 📜 '''Policies''' || [[Wikiversity:Policies]] |- | 🧪 '''Sandbox''' || [[Wikiversity:Sandbox]] |- | 🔎 '''Recent changes''' || [[Special:RecentChanges]] |- | 📝 '''My contributions''' || [[Special:Contributions/{{BASEPAGENAME}}]] |- | 👤 '''My user talk''' || [[User talk:{{BASEPAGENAME}}]] |- | 📂 '''My subpages''' || [[Special:PrefixIndex/User:{{BASEPAGENAME}}/]] |} {{Clear}} == 🔬 Learning & research projects == I am interested in developing and participating in Wikiversity projects that encourage: * open learning; * collaborative research; * educational experimentation; * structured study materials; * research documentation; * practical learning activities; * knowledge-sharing between contributors; and * connections between learners, educators, researchers, and Wikimedia contributors. '''My project workspace:''' * [[User:{{BASEPAGENAME}}/Projects|My projects]] * [[User:{{BASEPAGENAME}}/Research|Research workspace]] * [[User:{{BASEPAGENAME}}/Learning|Learning workspace]] * [[User:{{BASEPAGENAME}}/Drafts|Drafts]] * [[User:{{BASEPAGENAME}}/Notes|Notes]] These are intended as personal working areas and can be developed gradually as my Wikiversity participation grows. == 🛠️ What I can contribute == {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%;" ! Contribution ! Examples |- | '''Content development''' || Creating and improving educational resources |- | '''Research organisation''' || Structuring notes, references, research ideas and project material |- | '''Editing''' || Copyediting, formatting, organisation and clarity improvements |- | '''Navigation''' || Creating useful links between related learning resources |- | '''Community help''' || Guiding new contributors and explaining basic Wikimedia practices |- | '''Project development''' || Helping turn ideas into structured learning projects |} {{Clear}} == 🌐 My Wikimedia presence == I participate in the wider Wikimedia ecosystem and use different Wikimedia projects for different purposes. {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%;" ! Project ! My connection |- | [[Wikipedia:Main Page|Wikipedia]] || Encyclopedia editing and knowledge development |- | [[Wikimedia Commons|Commons]] || Freely licensed media |- | [[Wikidata:Main Page|Wikidata]] || Structured knowledge |- | [[Wikiquote:Main Page|Wikiquote]] || Quotations and attributed knowledge |- | [[Wikiversity:Main Page|Wikiversity]] || Learning, education and research |- | [[meta:Main Page|Meta-Wiki]] || Wikimedia-wide collaboration |} {{Clear}} == 📚 Userboxes == {{Userboxtop | align = right | backgroundcolor = #F8F9FA | bordercolor = #008000 | textcolor = #202122 | toptext = '''Hurgeon's Wikiversity userboxes''' }} {{User Meta-Wiki}} {{User Wiktionary}} {{Userbox | border-c = #008000 | id-c = #008000 | info-c = #F8F9FA | id-fc = white | info-fc = #202122 | id-s = 14 | info-s = 9 | id = 📚 | info = This user is interested in '''learning and educational resources'''. }} {{Userbox | border-c = #008000 | id-c = #008000 | info-c = #F8F9FA | id-fc = white | info-fc = #202122 | id-s = 14 | info-s = 9 | id = 🔬 | info = This user is interested in '''research and knowledge development'''. }} {{Userbox | border-c = #008000 | id-c = #008000 | info-c = #F8F9FA | id-fc = white | info-fc = #202122 | id-s = 14 | info-s = 9 | id = 🤝 | info = This user supports '''collaborative learning'''. }} {{Userbox | border-c = #008000 | id-c = #008000 | info-c = #F8F9FA | id-fc = white | info-fc = #202122 | id-s = 14 | info-s = 9 | id = ✍️ | info = This user enjoys '''improving Wikimedia content'''. }} {{Userboxbottom}} {{Clear}} == 🗣️ Languages == {{User language|en|4}} == 💬 Communication == If you would like to contact me, please use my talk page: '''[[User talk:{{BASEPAGENAME}}|💬 Leave me a message]]''' When starting a discussion, please provide enough context for me to understand what you are referring to. For general Wikiversity questions, contributors can also consult [[Help:Contents]] and the relevant community or policy pages. == 🧑‍🎓 For new Wikiversitans == Welcome to Wikiversity! If you are new here: Start with [[Main Page|Wikiversity's main page]]. Explore existing learning resources. Read [[Help:Contents]]. Learn about [[Wikiversity:Policies|Wikiversity policies]]. Experiment safely in the [[Wikiversity:Sandbox]]. Use your user subpages for developing larger drafts. Ask questions when something is unclear. Be constructive and assume good faith. Wikiversity specifically supports persistent drafts and experimentation through user subpages, making them useful for developing resources before moving them into the appropriate project space. == 🧰 My useful links == * [[Special:MyPage|My user page]] * [[Special:MyTalk|My talk page]] * [[Special:Contributions/{{BASEPAGENAME}}|My contributions]] * [[Special:PrefixIndex/User:{{BASEPAGENAME}}/|My user subpages]] * [[Special:Watchlist|My watchlist]] * [[Special:RecentChanges|Recent changes]] * [[Wikiversity:Community Portal|Community Portal]] * [[Help:Contents|Help]] * [[Wikiversity:Policies|Policies]] * [[Wikiversity:Sandbox|Sandbox]] == 📝 Editing philosophy == I value: * accuracy; * clarity; * useful structure; * constructive collaboration; * respectful discussion; * open educational resources; * transparent sourcing; * continuous improvement; and * helping other contributors learn. I welcome constructive suggestions that improve this page or my participation in Wikiversity. == 🌱 Current goals == {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%;" ! Goal !! Status |- | Explore Wikiversity || '''In progress''' |- | Develop learning resources || '''In progress''' |- | Participate in educational projects || '''In progress''' |- | Improve research-oriented content || '''In progress''' |- | Help new contributors || '''In progress''' |- | Build useful Wikiversity subpages || '''Planned / developing''' |} == 🔗 Wikimedia quick links == '''Wikiversity:''' [[Main Page]] · [[Wikiversity:Community Portal]] · [[Help:Contents]] · [[Wikiversity:Policies]] · [[Special:RecentChanges]] '''My account:''' [[Special:MyPage|User page]] · [[Special:MyTalk|Talk]] · [[Special:Contributions/{{BASEPAGENAME}}|Contributions]] · [[Special:PrefixIndex/User:{{BASEPAGENAME}}/|Subpages]] '''Other Wikimedia projects:''' [[Wikipedia:Main Page|Wikipedia]] · [[Wikimedia Commons]] · [[Wikidata:Main Page|Wikidata]] · [[Wikiquote:Main Page|Wikiquote]] · [[meta:Main Page|Meta-Wiki]] [[Category:Wikiversitans]] [[Category:Wikiversity user pages]] ouxusntwr1asxziitt8qjcx7tui6bje 3 331965 2832597 2026-09-10T12:00:17Z Hurgeon 3110852 /* */ 2832597 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Talk header|search=yes|arpol=no|wp=no|bottom=no}} ojo74z08q9hkyd3k90mqqt40z8ln1kp 6 331967 2832604 2026-09-10T13:46:25Z Young1lim 21186 {{Information |Description=Carry Lookahead Adders 2B Single Level (20260910 - 20260909) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-09-10 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} 2832604 wikitext text/x-wiki == Summary == {{Information |Description=Carry Lookahead Adders 2B Single Level (20260910 - 20260909) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-09-10 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} == Licensing == {{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} 7iiozyrr7m8kn38p6lubzft4907nxpv 6 331968 2832605 2026-09-10T13:47:51Z Young1lim 21186 {{Information |Description=Carry Lookahead Adders 2C Multi-Level (20260910 - 20260909) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-09-10 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} 2832605 wikitext text/x-wiki == Summary == {{Information |Description=Carry Lookahead Adders 2C Multi-Level (20260910 - 20260909) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-09-10 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} == Licensing == {{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} kns2ai7vme2tshpviiuzgst9pd7gyf0 0 331969 2832606 2026-09-10T13:54:23Z Chris1366 3110712 Created page with " = Fear of Failure: How fear of failure influences motivation and behaviour = Author: Christina Griffiths == Overview == === Scenario === Alex is a university study who is desperate to succeed. Alex is currently struggling with feelings of intense anxiety every time an assignment is due, even to the point of physical distress. Alex’s anxiety causes him to procrastinate the assignments due to the idea he has of not wanting to fail which he often tells his friends. Al..." 2832606 wikitext text/x-wiki = Fear of Failure: How fear of failure influences motivation and behaviour = Author: Christina Griffiths == Overview == === Scenario === Alex is a university study who is desperate to succeed. Alex is currently struggling with feelings of intense anxiety every time an assignment is due, even to the point of physical distress. Alex’s anxiety causes him to procrastinate the assignments due to the idea he has of not wanting to fail which he often tells his friends. Alex is also very avoidant towards feedback. Alex often reflects on why fear of failure controls his motivation? And how can he change that feeling? === Key points === • Fear of failure is a very strong emotional and motivational force that shapes behaviour in academic, social, and work contexts. • It is linked to avoidance motivation, self-worth protection, perfectionism, and anxiety. • Learning to comprehend fear of failure helps explain procrastination, disengagement, self-sabotage, and emotional distress. === Focus questions === # What psychological theories explain fear of failure? # How does fear of failure influence motivation and behaviour? # What emotional processes maintain fear of failure? # How can people reduce fear of failure and improve motivation? == What is fear of failure? == === Key points === • Anxiety about negative evaluation, loss of self-worth, or fear of being a disappointment to others is a key contributor in the avoidant-orientated element which comes with fear of failure (Conroy, 2001). • Cognitive patterns such as catastrophising, perfectionistic concerns, and self-doubt are all associated with fear of failure. • Fear of failure often leads to behavioural avoidance, including procrastination, withdrawal, or reduced effort (Sagar & Stoeber, 2009). == Theoretical explanations == === Self-worth theory === ==== Key points ==== • The proposition of self-worth demonstrates that individuals equate ability with personal value; failure which could threaten or hinder identity (Covington, 1992). • The preservation of self-worth can be involved in students feeling the desire to avoid effort (“If I don’t try, failure doesn’t count”). • Fear of failure increases self-debilitating behaviours such as procrastination and excuses. === Self-determination theory (SDT) === ==== Key points ==== • SDT argues that fear of failure undermines intrinsic motivation by creating pressure and controlled regulation (Deci & Ryan, 2000). • When competence needs are threatened, people shift toward avoidance goals. • Autonomy-supportive environments reduce fear and increase adaptive motivation. === Achievement goal theory === ==== Key points ==== • Performance avoidant goals is a predictor of the fear associated with failure (Elliot & Church, 1997). • Instead of developing skills, these goals focus on avoidance. • Performance-avoidance goals are linked to anxiety, low persistence, and poor outcomes. == Emotional processes == === Key points === • Fear of failure activates anxiety, shame, and rumination, which intensify avoidance behaviour. • Emotion regulation difficulties (e.g., suppression) increase fear responses (Gross, 2015). • Social evaluation concerns amplify emotional distress, especially in high-pressure environments. == Behavioural outcomes == === Key points === • Procrastination is a common behavioural response to fear of failure (Sirois, 2014). • Fear of failure reduces persistence, creativity, and willingness to take risks. • Self-sabotage behaviours (e.g., last-minute work, avoidance of feedback) protect self-worth but harm performance. == Reducing fear of failure == === Key points === • Reframing failure as learning reduces avoidance motivation. • Building competence through small wins increases perceived ability and reduces fear. • Autonomy-supportive teaching improves intrinsic motivation and reduces fear-driven behaviour. • Cognitive-behavioural strategies (e.g., cognitive restructuring) reduce catastrophic thinking. == Learning Feature: Case Study == === Case Study: Maya === Maya, although high-achieving, tends to use avoidance when it comes to her studies, for example she often leaves assignments to the very last minute. She tells herself she “works better under pressure,” but secretly she fears not being good enough. When she receives feedback, she feels ashamed and avoids reading comments. === Reflection questions === • Which theories explain Maya’s behaviour? • How does fear of failure influence her motivation? • What strategies could help Maya reduce fear of failure? == Conclusion == Fear of failure is highlighted as a force which is both emotional and motivational and has strong influences in behaviour across academic, social, and work context. It’s driving force hold significant when it comes to self-worth concerns, avoidance motivation, and anxiety. It is driven by self-worth concerns, avoidance motivation, and anxiety. Understanding the psychological mechanisms behind fear of failure enables individuals to adopt strategies that reduce avoidance, increase intrinsic motivation, and support healthier emotional functioning. == See also == • Wikiversity: Motivation and emotion/Book/Perfectionism • Wikipedia: <nowiki>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fear_of_failure</nowiki> == External links == • <nowiki>https://www.psychologytoday.com/au/basics/fear-of-failure</nowiki> • <nowiki>https://positivepsychology.com/fear-of-failure/</nowiki> == References (APA) == Conroy, D. E. (2001). Progress in the development of a multidimensional measure of fear of failure. ''Anxiety, Stress & Coping, 14''(4), 431–452. Covington, M. V. (1992). ''Making the grade: A self-worth perspective on motivation and school reform.'' Cambridge University Press. Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). The “what” and “why” of goal pursuits. ''Psychological Inquiry, 11''(4), 227–268. Elliot, A. J., & Church, M. A. (1997). A hierarchical model of approach and avoidance achievement motivation. ''Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72''(1), 218–232. Gross, J. J. (2015). Emotion regulation: Current status and future prospects. ''Psychological Inquiry, 26''(1), 1–26. Sagar, S. S., & Stoeber, J. (2009). Perfectionism, fear of failure, and burnout in athletes. ''The International Journal of Sports Psychology, 40''(1), 1–16. Sirois, F. M. (2014). Procrastination and stress: Exploring the role of self-compassion. ''Self and Identity, 13''(2), 128–145. == AI Declaration == AI Use Declaration: Parts of this topic development and user page were drafted with assistance from Microsoft Copilot. Prompts included requests to generate chapter structure, key points, overview scenarios, and APA references. All AI-generated content was fact-checked, human rewritten, and supplemented with peer reviewed sources personally consulted by the author. AI was not used for the exam and is not cited as a source. 8dv7bfcqcv5ydou8ce6f4iabyyqy8zh 6 331970 2832608 2026-09-10T14:04:19Z Young1lim 21186 {{Information |Description=C04.SA0: Address and Dereference Operators (20260910 - 20260909) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-09-10 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} 2832608 wikitext text/x-wiki == Summary == {{Information |Description=C04.SA0: Address and Dereference Operators (20260910 - 20260909) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-09-10 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} == Licensing == {{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} cdjdc1ie3vuwqao2laiyanjuw1lhejc 6 331971 2832609 2026-09-10T14:29:38Z Young1lim 21186 {{Information |Description=Laurent.5: Permutation 6C (20260909 - 20260908) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-09-09 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} 2832609 wikitext text/x-wiki == Summary == {{Information |Description=Laurent.5: Permutation 6C (20260909 - 20260908) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-09-09 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} == Licensing == {{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} r3sdzyah224imux0w7i9bby6le32eag 6 331972 2832611 2026-09-10T14:30:33Z Young1lim 21186 {{Information |Description=Laurent.5: Permutation 6C (20260910 - 20260909) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-09-10 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} 2832611 wikitext text/x-wiki == Summary == {{Information |Description=Laurent.5: Permutation 6C (20260910 - 20260909) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-09-10 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} == Licensing == {{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} qfh0aguj0avnncsasgkeefs04y935rr 6 331973 2832621 2026-09-10T17:16:22Z Young1lim 21186 {{Information |Description=LCal.9A: Recursion (20260910 - 20260909) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-09-10 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} 2832621 wikitext text/x-wiki == Summary == {{Information |Description=LCal.9A: Recursion (20260910 - 20260909) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-09-10 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} == Licensing == {{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} cowz98khcy6chwi4ng38rx8yqc4vwx5 6 331974 2832637 2026-09-10T18:21:01Z Young1lim 21186 {{Information |Description=2. Newton-Raphson Method (20260907 - 20260902) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-09-10 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} 2832637 wikitext text/x-wiki == Summary == {{Information |Description=2. Newton-Raphson Method (20260907 - 20260902) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-09-10 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} == Licensing == {{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} pf7i5ao6ue1xjj7n0ikey6blfand111 6 331975 2832639 2026-09-10T18:23:23Z Young1lim 21186 {{Information |Description=2. Newton-Raphson Method (20260908 - 20260907) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-09-10 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} 2832639 wikitext text/x-wiki == Summary == {{Information |Description=2. Newton-Raphson Method (20260908 - 20260907) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-09-10 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} == Licensing == {{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} mtwrqo7k6uzsfksaeel1wf59c24bx8j 6 331976 2832641 2026-09-10T18:24:09Z Young1lim 21186 {{Information |Description=2. Newton-Raphson Method (20260909 - 20260908) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-09-10 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} 2832641 wikitext text/x-wiki == Summary == {{Information |Description=2. Newton-Raphson Method (20260909 - 20260908) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-09-10 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} == Licensing == {{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} fs9cdpsf8sciedxqvyv26eutv6awbwr 6 331977 2832644 2026-09-10T18:24:57Z Young1lim 21186 {{Information |Description=2. Newton-Raphson Method (20260910 - 20260909) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-09-10 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} 2832644 wikitext text/x-wiki == Summary == {{Information |Description=2. Newton-Raphson Method (20260910 - 20260909) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-09-10 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} == Licensing == {{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} gawcmfdbryh1dxnmll2m7o3qt4r9stz 1 331978 2832683 2026-09-10T19:55:11Z Mikael Häggström 12130 Archived 2832683 wikitext text/x-wiki {{archive}} == Banner links must be accessible on smartphones == On smartphones, the banners are hard to tap/click on, especially the Preprint one. I have difficulty changing the banners' format. [[User:George Ho|George Ho]] ([[User talk:George Ho|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/George Ho|contribs]]) 12:31, 29 January 2022 (UTC) :@[[User:George Ho|George Ho]]: Sorry for mising this earlier! Do you know if you were using the 'mobile view' or 'desktop view' on your smartphone? I've tried to make the tabs re-flow into a grid when on a mobie device, bit I think it only works in 'mobile view'. [[User:Evolution and evolvability|T.Shafee(Evo&#65120;Evo)]]^{[[User talk:Evolution and evolvability|talk]]} 02:06, 21 July 2022 (UTC) :: @[[User:Evolution and evolvability|Shafee]]: Using 'mobile view' on Android, the Preprint banner is hard to tap, yet I can access that journal via tapping the icon on the left of the banner. Others are still clickable, yet larger text is annoying on mobile view. --[[User:George Ho|George Ho]] ([[User talk:George Ho|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/George Ho|contribs]]) 06:27, 21 July 2022 (UTC) :::@[[User:George Ho|George Ho]]: Aha, now I see it. Thanks. I was looking at the top banner in grey rather than the list of journals. I'm also getting some of the text overlapping too. I'll aim to fix it up next week. [[User:Evolution and evolvability|T.Shafee(Evo&#65120;Evo)]]^{[[User talk:Evolution and evolvability|talk]]} 23:13, 21 July 2022 (UTC) ::::Three months have passed; have you fixed the issue yet? [[User:George Ho|George Ho]] ([[User talk:George Ho|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/George Ho|contribs]]) 08:39, 8 October 2022 (UTC) :::::@[[User:George Ho|George Ho]] Our recent redesign of the banners, courtesy of {{u|Infogiraffic}}, should have fixed this issue. Can you confirm if this works on your end? [[User:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: #0000FF;">OhanaUnited</span></b>]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: green;">^{Talk page}</span></b>]] 19:37, 22 May 2025 (UTC) ::::::The newer layout works on an iphone. [[User:George Ho|George Ho]] ([[User talk:George Ho|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/George Ho|contribs]]) 15:57, 23 May 2025 (UTC) ==References== {{reflist|2}} |} == How should unsubmitted preprints be handled? == I've noticed that there are a number of old, incomplete articles under the WikiJournal Preprints namespace, many of which are unlikely to be suitable for publication even if they were finished and submitted. A couple of examples are: * [[WikiJournal Preprints/COVID-19 ELIMINATION AND CELLDIFFERENTIATION]] * [[WikiJournal Preprints/Cultural Computational Publishing: A Sprint]] * [[WikiJournal Preprints/Medical gallery of Aria Rad]] * [[WikiJournal Preprints/Parts of a Book]] * [[WikiJournal Preprints/Zoosemiotics]] Does the WikiJournal project have any standing policies to reject these drafts automatically after some point, or do they just stay in the "unpublished pre-print" state indefinitely? (Is it possible that some of these pages have slipped under the radar, e.g. by not being in the appropriate categories?) Do all of them (especially the ones that never got beyond writing an abstract) need to be preserved for posterity, or can they be deleted after some period of time? [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 22:13, 12 December 2022 (UTC) :Ping? I'm also curious about the status of the following two articles: :* [[WikiJournal Preprints/Cryometeors]] :* [[WikiJournal Preprints/Sunflower Trypsin Inhibitor]] :These two display a message claiming that they are "an editorial article and [are] published without peer review", which I don't think is intended. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 03:26, 10 July 2023 (UTC) == Question regarding WikiJournal and duplicate content == Hi! I have two questions. I searched around a bit and didn't find anything. # When a stable WikiJournal article is the basis of a separate living page, say on Wikipedia or Wikiversity, do you know if it's possible to use a [[w:canonical link element]] to indicate the canonical version of the article for search engines? # If so, do you know if the WikiJournal User Group has a policy regarding which version is canonical? Thank you so much! [[User:Greg at Higher Math Help|Greg at Higher Math Help]] ([[User talk:Greg at Higher Math Help|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Greg at Higher Math Help|contribs]]) 22:34, 13 February 2023 (UTC) :@[[User:Greg at Higher Math Help|Greg at Higher Math Help]] I don't think canonical link element is supported by MediaWiki. It's limited by the software itself. The canonical version of the page is the WikiJournal PDF, which is linked on the wiki page and on Wikidata. [[User:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: #0000FF;">OhanaUnited</span></b>]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: green;">^{Talk page}</span></b>]] 04:24, 11 March 2023 (UTC) ::Thank you! [[User:Greg at Higher Math Help|Greg at Higher Math Help]] ([[User talk:Greg at Higher Math Help|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Greg at Higher Math Help|contribs]]) 02:24, 1 April 2023 (UTC) == Preprint Quality == I recently had an article accepted at the WIkiJournal of Medicine and was very disappointed with the PDF preprint quality/process (with no insult towards the editors). I know very little about how things work behind the scenes, but my understanding is that the PDF preprints are manually produced using MS Word. Though WikiJournal requires svgs, there is (to my knowledge) no way to retain the vector-ness of the svg files in Word and it generally results in poor quality rasterization. This can even be seen in the header images. I've made a little process to produce a preprint from the wikipedia page that relies on [https://mediawiki2latex.wmflabs.org/ mediawiki2latex], and the editors have [https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiversity/en/2/24/Alternative_androgen_pathways.pdf uploaded] my preprint. You can see I tried to mimic the existing preprint as best as I could given my fairly shallow latex knowledge and the constraints associated with trying to make this as automatic as possible. I don't have any stats on how much people use preprint PDFs, but I suspect many people rely on them. It is essential that the print quality is up to par any other academic journal. The existing method, I think, it probably too manual and results in an obviously poor quality print that will limit author interest. I've put my basic process here: https://github.com/mittimithai/wjlatexpreprint and suggest it that it be used as a basis for coming up with a standard, essentially automated process across all WikiJournals for high quality pdf preprints. WikiJournals should provide a baseline preprint and authors can then be responsible for custom typesetting. Using latex in this context is a bit different than writing one's own papers, mediawiki2latex output has to be transformed as reliably into PDF as possible. I tried to apply as much appropriate substitution as I could in the perl script but I am sure there can be some improvements made. [[User:Maneesh|Maneesh]] ([[User talk:Maneesh|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Maneesh|contribs]]) 18:48, 30 April 2023 (UTC) :Please consider using the Century Schoolbook font as a "serif" for the paragraph regular text, and Franklin Gothic font as a "sans-serif" font for the headers (titles). Or use any appropriate font set for the text and headers that the journal adopted, but the fonts have to fit each other. [[User:Maxim Masiutin|Maxim Masiutin]] ([[User talk:Maxim Masiutin|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Maxim Masiutin|contribs]]) 20:05, 1 May 2023 (UTC) ::I am not terribly partial to any font, wikimedia2latex makes use of KOMA which does things in certain ways that are partial to the author's views. There does seem to be a lot of "religion" in typesetting with very little of it empirically justified. Feel free to add in a free font to the github repo, I think all one needs to do is change the two lines in maininc.tex. The current lines I think implicitly depend on font locations in an ubntu install. [[User:Maneesh|Maneesh]] ([[User talk:Maneesh|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Maneesh|contribs]]) 20:55, 1 May 2023 (UTC) == Recent articles without reference deposits == Hello! I just wanted to flag that a few recent articles have not yet [[WikiJournal User Group/Editorial guidelines#Submitting reference metadata|had their references deposited into Crossref]]: * "[[WikiJournal of Science/Multiple object tracking|Multiple object tracking]]" (''WJS'') * "[[WikiJournal of Science/Non-canonical base pairing|Non-canonical base pairing]]" (''WJS'') * <s>"[[WikiJournal of Medicine/Alternative androgens pathways|Alternative androgens pathways]]" (''WJM'')</s> * "[[WikiJournal Preprints/Impact of xenogenic mesenchimal stem cells secretome on a humoral component of the immune system|Impact of xenogenic mesenchimal stem cells secretome on a humoral component of the immune system]]" (''WJM'') * "[[WikiJournal of Humanities/Loveday, 1458|Loveday, 1458]]" (''WJH'') Thanks! Kindly —[[User:Bobamnertiopsis|Collin]] (Bobamnertiopsis)^{[[User talk:Bobamnertiopsis|t]] [[Special:Contributions/Bobamnertiopsis|c]]} 22:07, 18 July 2023 (UTC) :Thanks {{u|Bobamnertiopsis}}. I'm tagging {{u|Silver Dovelet}} who's responsible for this task. [[User:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: #0000FF;">OhanaUnited</span></b>]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: green;">^{Talk page}</span></b>]] 14:17, 1 August 2023 (UTC) ::{{re|Bobamnertiopsis}} Can you check if the references for these publications have been deposited? [[User:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: #0000FF;">OhanaUnited</span></b>]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: green;">^{Talk page}</span></b>]] 03:36, 10 December 2023 (UTC) :::{{re|OhanaUnited}} yes, thanks for pinging me about this! It looks like "[[WikiJournal of Medicine/Alternative androgens pathways|Alternative androgens pathways]]"'s refs have been deposited (see https://api.crossref.org/works/10.15347/WJM/2023.003) but the other four have not yet been deposited (compare with https://api.crossref.org/works/10.15347/WJH/2023.001 e.g.; you can always swap out the DOI at the back of this link to see the metadata registered for a particular article). Thanks! —[[User:Bobamnertiopsis|Collin]] (Bobamnertiopsis)^{[[User talk:Bobamnertiopsis|t]] [[Special:Contributions/Bobamnertiopsis|c]]} 15:24, 10 December 2023 (UTC) ::::The remaining 4 should be deposited now. Thank you. [[User:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: #0000FF;">OhanaUnited</span></b>]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: green;">^{Talk page}</span></b>]] 04:47, 15 December 2023 (UTC) == Rejection rates == What are the rejection rates of WikiJournals? [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 13:19, 5 September 2023 (UTC) :@[[User:Juandev|Juandev]] Very good questions. We have not tallied the overall rejection rate (or individual rejection rate within each journal). Using 2023's data, my estimation is about 60-75% rejection rate in the medicine and science journals. But the overall % does not reflect the amount of work performed behind the scenes. Just over half of the rejected articles are "desk reject" or author filled out the submission form but never submitted the text. The rest are due to author abandoning submission partway (stale submission), rejection after peer review or author no longer has time to complete revision. [[User:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: #0000FF;">OhanaUnited</span></b>]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: green;">^{Talk page}</span></b>]] 03:06, 19 September 2023 (UTC) ::OK. I see. Thx. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 10:17, 22 September 2023 (UTC) == Peer Reviews == As per my understanding off [[WikiJournal of Humanities/Peer reviewers]] only qualified external professionals are allowed to formally peer-review articles. Which seems a bit unnecessary considering anyone can write articles, also Nupedia vibes, this seriously hurts the journal's growth due to lack of volunteers. I believe that editors on wikipedia who've written extensively on related topics, should also be invited to peer-review articles, this would add a lot more volunteers (thus making the whole process faster and smoother), and get qualified people from wikipedia over to wikiversity. [[User:Crainsaw|Crainsaw]] ([[User talk:Crainsaw|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Crainsaw|contribs]]) 11:55, 17 December 2023 (UTC) == Current status of WikiJournals == I hate to say this, but so far, I've yet to see WikiJournal revolutionize academic journals in the way that Wikipedia affected encyclopedias severely. Furthermore, WikiJournals have been kinda slow to publish articles. Also, there have been many other open-access journals, especially ones using CC-BY-NC-ND. Also, many published articles happen to be adapted from Wikipedia articles and then copied (if not adapted) into Wikipedia articles, especially same ones. Maybe these are reasons for WMF to be reluctant to approve further development of WikiJournals. I did have high hopes for this project, yet my interests in the semi-project has.... waned. [[User:George Ho|George Ho]] ([[User talk:George Ho|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/George Ho|contribs]]) 23:54, 3 January 2024 (UTC) :I appreciate all the work that went into the publication of an article I worked on last year, without insulting the editors, I was overall disappointed (though they editorial team was able to get outstanding reviewers that were very patient with a very deficient initial draft). I proposed a mostly automated pdf workflow (see above) with no uptake/feedback. Good quality PDFs, I think, are a very very high priority. The current quality is very low and suffers from (what seems to be) a fairly manual process and immediately obvious rasterization artifacts which look unprofessional. Automation to bring the journal to a professional standard is essential before greater aspirations. [[User:Maneesh|Maneesh]] ([[User talk:Maneesh|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Maneesh|contribs]]) 18:35, 4 January 2024 (UTC) ::I should also add that WIkiJournal of Medicine articles don't appear properly indexed by Google Scholar, they don't look like proper journal articles. When I search for the title of my article: ::[PDF] [https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiversity/en/a/a7/Alternative_androgens_pathways.pdf Alternative androgen pathways] ::[https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=9gJaSxcAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=sra MG Masiutin], MK Yadav - upload.wikimedia.org ::Steroidogenic routes to androgens have been discovered and characterized over the last two ::decades that fall outside the Δ4 and Δ5" classical androgen pathways" to testosterone and … ::Save Cite [[scholar:related:x2717efivtkJ:scholar.google.com/&scioq="alternative+androgen+pathways"&hl=en&as_sdt=0,5|Related articles]] [https://scholar.google.com/scholar?cluster=15690227637562994375&hl=en&as_sdt=0,5 All 2 versions] ::[[WikiJournal of Medicine/Alternative androgens pathways|'''[HTML]''' wikiversity.org]] ::[HTML] [[WikiJournal of Medicine/Alternative androgens pathways]] ::[https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=9gJaSxcAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=sra MG Masiutin], MK Yadav - History - en.wikiversity.org ::… This expository review uses "'''alternative''' '''androgen''' '''pathways'''" to include what has been … ::lack of clear and consistent knowledge of '''alternative''' '''androgen''' '''pathways'''; the authors hope this … ::Save Cite [[scholar:related:J-L2yz0dY10J:scholar.google.com/&scioq="alternative+androgen+pathways"&hl=en&as_sdt=0,5|Related articles]] ::[https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiversity/en/archive/2/24/20230503121130%21Alternative_androgen_pathways.pdf '''<nowiki>[PDF]</nowiki>''' wikimedia.org] ::[PDF] [https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiversity/en/archive/2/24/20230503121130%21Alternative_androgen_pathways.pdf WikiJournal Preprints/Alternative Androgen Pathways] ::MG Masiutin, MK Yadav - upload.wikimedia.org ::… This expository review uses "'''alternative''' '''androgen''' '''pathways'''" to include what has been … ::lack of clear and consistent knowledge of '''alternative''' '''androgen''' '''pathways'''; the authors hope this … ::Save Cite [[scholar:related:wfMK5FH57gsJ:scholar.google.com/&scioq="alternative+androgen+pathways"&hl=en&as_sdt=0,5|Related articles]] [https://scholar.google.com/scholar?cluster=859898708987933633&hl=en&as_sdt=0,5 All 2 versions] ::Ensuring that the wikijournal articles don't look like some sort of second rate article in google scholar is very important. ::[[User:Maneesh|Maneesh]] ([[User talk:Maneesh|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Maneesh|contribs]]) 07:30, 5 January 2024 (UTC) :::I think the ''quality of the journals'' is fine ...IMO, what I have noticed is that the process[https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/WikiJournal_of_Medicine/Potential_upcoming_articles] is a little slow--[[User:Ozzie10aaaa|Ozzie10aaaa]] ([[User talk:Ozzie10aaaa|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ozzie10aaaa|contribs]]) 13:50, 14 January 2024 (UTC) == Notice about proposed deletion == It has been proposed to delete some unused files at [[Wikiversity:Requests_for_Deletion#Unused_files_uploaded_by_PCano]]. Someone suggested that WikiJournal might be interessted in the discussion so I made this notice. Feel free to join the discussion. --[[User:MGA73|MGA73]] ([[User talk:MGA73|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MGA73|contribs]]) 17:21, 27 February 2024 (UTC) :It might help if I put forth two questions. There is no need for answers to both, since an answer to one of them would allow us to delete a large number of image files: #Are the files at [[:Category:Files uploaded by PCano - unused]] of any use to the WikiJournals? #I vaguely remember an issue with Wikiversity image files that involved the WikiJournals and files that are imbedded in WikiJournal pdf files, but don't remember the details. The question is this: If a file is not used by any WikiJournal page, is it OK to delete it? --[[User:Guy vandegrift|Guy vandegrift]] ([[User talk:Guy vandegrift|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Guy vandegrift|contribs]]) 19:13, 27 February 2024 (UTC) q20wx8js2axo6we1ro7krsavmz2b2h9 2832684 2832683 2026-09-10T19:55:53Z Mikael Häggström 12130 Archived 2832684 wikitext text/x-wiki {{archive}} == Banner links must be accessible on smartphones == On smartphones, the banners are hard to tap/click on, especially the Preprint one. I have difficulty changing the banners' format. [[User:George Ho|George Ho]] ([[User talk:George Ho|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/George Ho|contribs]]) 12:31, 29 January 2022 (UTC) :@[[User:George Ho|George Ho]]: Sorry for mising this earlier! Do you know if you were using the 'mobile view' or 'desktop view' on your smartphone? I've tried to make the tabs re-flow into a grid when on a mobie device, bit I think it only works in 'mobile view'. [[User:Evolution and evolvability|T.Shafee(Evo&#65120;Evo)]]^{[[User talk:Evolution and evolvability|talk]]} 02:06, 21 July 2022 (UTC) :: @[[User:Evolution and evolvability|Shafee]]: Using 'mobile view' on Android, the Preprint banner is hard to tap, yet I can access that journal via tapping the icon on the left of the banner. Others are still clickable, yet larger text is annoying on mobile view. --[[User:George Ho|George Ho]] ([[User talk:George Ho|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/George Ho|contribs]]) 06:27, 21 July 2022 (UTC) :::@[[User:George Ho|George Ho]]: Aha, now I see it. Thanks. I was looking at the top banner in grey rather than the list of journals. I'm also getting some of the text overlapping too. I'll aim to fix it up next week. [[User:Evolution and evolvability|T.Shafee(Evo&#65120;Evo)]]^{[[User talk:Evolution and evolvability|talk]]} 23:13, 21 July 2022 (UTC) ::::Three months have passed; have you fixed the issue yet? [[User:George Ho|George Ho]] ([[User talk:George Ho|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/George Ho|contribs]]) 08:39, 8 October 2022 (UTC) :::::@[[User:George Ho|George Ho]] Our recent redesign of the banners, courtesy of {{u|Infogiraffic}}, should have fixed this issue. Can you confirm if this works on your end? [[User:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: #0000FF;">OhanaUnited</span></b>]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: green;">^{Talk page}</span></b>]] 19:37, 22 May 2025 (UTC) ::::::The newer layout works on an iphone. [[User:George Ho|George Ho]] ([[User talk:George Ho|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/George Ho|contribs]]) 15:57, 23 May 2025 (UTC) ==References== {{reflist|2}} |} == How should unsubmitted preprints be handled? == I've noticed that there are a number of old, incomplete articles under the WikiJournal Preprints namespace, many of which are unlikely to be suitable for publication even if they were finished and submitted. A couple of examples are: * [[WikiJournal Preprints/COVID-19 ELIMINATION AND CELLDIFFERENTIATION]] * [[WikiJournal Preprints/Cultural Computational Publishing: A Sprint]] * [[WikiJournal Preprints/Medical gallery of Aria Rad]] * [[WikiJournal Preprints/Parts of a Book]] * [[WikiJournal Preprints/Zoosemiotics]] Does the WikiJournal project have any standing policies to reject these drafts automatically after some point, or do they just stay in the "unpublished pre-print" state indefinitely? (Is it possible that some of these pages have slipped under the radar, e.g. by not being in the appropriate categories?) Do all of them (especially the ones that never got beyond writing an abstract) need to be preserved for posterity, or can they be deleted after some period of time? [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 22:13, 12 December 2022 (UTC) :Ping? I'm also curious about the status of the following two articles: :* [[WikiJournal Preprints/Cryometeors]] :* [[WikiJournal Preprints/Sunflower Trypsin Inhibitor]] :These two display a message claiming that they are "an editorial article and [are] published without peer review", which I don't think is intended. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 03:26, 10 July 2023 (UTC) == Question regarding WikiJournal and duplicate content == Hi! I have two questions. I searched around a bit and didn't find anything. # When a stable WikiJournal article is the basis of a separate living page, say on Wikipedia or Wikiversity, do you know if it's possible to use a [[w:canonical link element]] to indicate the canonical version of the article for search engines? # If so, do you know if the WikiJournal User Group has a policy regarding which version is canonical? Thank you so much! [[User:Greg at Higher Math Help|Greg at Higher Math Help]] ([[User talk:Greg at Higher Math Help|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Greg at Higher Math Help|contribs]]) 22:34, 13 February 2023 (UTC) :@[[User:Greg at Higher Math Help|Greg at Higher Math Help]] I don't think canonical link element is supported by MediaWiki. It's limited by the software itself. The canonical version of the page is the WikiJournal PDF, which is linked on the wiki page and on Wikidata. [[User:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: #0000FF;">OhanaUnited</span></b>]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: green;">^{Talk page}</span></b>]] 04:24, 11 March 2023 (UTC) ::Thank you! [[User:Greg at Higher Math Help|Greg at Higher Math Help]] ([[User talk:Greg at Higher Math Help|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Greg at Higher Math Help|contribs]]) 02:24, 1 April 2023 (UTC) == Preprint Quality == I recently had an article accepted at the WIkiJournal of Medicine and was very disappointed with the PDF preprint quality/process (with no insult towards the editors). I know very little about how things work behind the scenes, but my understanding is that the PDF preprints are manually produced using MS Word. Though WikiJournal requires svgs, there is (to my knowledge) no way to retain the vector-ness of the svg files in Word and it generally results in poor quality rasterization. This can even be seen in the header images. I've made a little process to produce a preprint from the wikipedia page that relies on [https://mediawiki2latex.wmflabs.org/ mediawiki2latex], and the editors have [https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiversity/en/2/24/Alternative_androgen_pathways.pdf uploaded] my preprint. You can see I tried to mimic the existing preprint as best as I could given my fairly shallow latex knowledge and the constraints associated with trying to make this as automatic as possible. I don't have any stats on how much people use preprint PDFs, but I suspect many people rely on them. It is essential that the print quality is up to par any other academic journal. The existing method, I think, it probably too manual and results in an obviously poor quality print that will limit author interest. I've put my basic process here: https://github.com/mittimithai/wjlatexpreprint and suggest it that it be used as a basis for coming up with a standard, essentially automated process across all WikiJournals for high quality pdf preprints. WikiJournals should provide a baseline preprint and authors can then be responsible for custom typesetting. Using latex in this context is a bit different than writing one's own papers, mediawiki2latex output has to be transformed as reliably into PDF as possible. I tried to apply as much appropriate substitution as I could in the perl script but I am sure there can be some improvements made. [[User:Maneesh|Maneesh]] ([[User talk:Maneesh|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Maneesh|contribs]]) 18:48, 30 April 2023 (UTC) :Please consider using the Century Schoolbook font as a "serif" for the paragraph regular text, and Franklin Gothic font as a "sans-serif" font for the headers (titles). Or use any appropriate font set for the text and headers that the journal adopted, but the fonts have to fit each other. [[User:Maxim Masiutin|Maxim Masiutin]] ([[User talk:Maxim Masiutin|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Maxim Masiutin|contribs]]) 20:05, 1 May 2023 (UTC) ::I am not terribly partial to any font, wikimedia2latex makes use of KOMA which does things in certain ways that are partial to the author's views. There does seem to be a lot of "religion" in typesetting with very little of it empirically justified. Feel free to add in a free font to the github repo, I think all one needs to do is change the two lines in maininc.tex. The current lines I think implicitly depend on font locations in an ubntu install. [[User:Maneesh|Maneesh]] ([[User talk:Maneesh|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Maneesh|contribs]]) 20:55, 1 May 2023 (UTC) == Recent articles without reference deposits == Hello! I just wanted to flag that a few recent articles have not yet [[WikiJournal User Group/Editorial guidelines#Submitting reference metadata|had their references deposited into Crossref]]: * "[[WikiJournal of Science/Multiple object tracking|Multiple object tracking]]" (''WJS'') * "[[WikiJournal of Science/Non-canonical base pairing|Non-canonical base pairing]]" (''WJS'') * <s>"[[WikiJournal of Medicine/Alternative androgens pathways|Alternative androgens pathways]]" (''WJM'')</s> * "[[WikiJournal Preprints/Impact of xenogenic mesenchimal stem cells secretome on a humoral component of the immune system|Impact of xenogenic mesenchimal stem cells secretome on a humoral component of the immune system]]" (''WJM'') * "[[WikiJournal of Humanities/Loveday, 1458|Loveday, 1458]]" (''WJH'') Thanks! Kindly —[[User:Bobamnertiopsis|Collin]] (Bobamnertiopsis)^{[[User talk:Bobamnertiopsis|t]] [[Special:Contributions/Bobamnertiopsis|c]]} 22:07, 18 July 2023 (UTC) :Thanks {{u|Bobamnertiopsis}}. I'm tagging {{u|Silver Dovelet}} who's responsible for this task. [[User:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: #0000FF;">OhanaUnited</span></b>]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: green;">^{Talk page}</span></b>]] 14:17, 1 August 2023 (UTC) ::{{re|Bobamnertiopsis}} Can you check if the references for these publications have been deposited? [[User:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: #0000FF;">OhanaUnited</span></b>]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: green;">^{Talk page}</span></b>]] 03:36, 10 December 2023 (UTC) :::{{re|OhanaUnited}} yes, thanks for pinging me about this! It looks like "[[WikiJournal of Medicine/Alternative androgens pathways|Alternative androgens pathways]]"'s refs have been deposited (see https://api.crossref.org/works/10.15347/WJM/2023.003) but the other four have not yet been deposited (compare with https://api.crossref.org/works/10.15347/WJH/2023.001 e.g.; you can always swap out the DOI at the back of this link to see the metadata registered for a particular article). Thanks! —[[User:Bobamnertiopsis|Collin]] (Bobamnertiopsis)^{[[User talk:Bobamnertiopsis|t]] [[Special:Contributions/Bobamnertiopsis|c]]} 15:24, 10 December 2023 (UTC) ::::The remaining 4 should be deposited now. Thank you. [[User:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: #0000FF;">OhanaUnited</span></b>]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: green;">^{Talk page}</span></b>]] 04:47, 15 December 2023 (UTC) == Rejection rates == What are the rejection rates of WikiJournals? [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 13:19, 5 September 2023 (UTC) :@[[User:Juandev|Juandev]] Very good questions. We have not tallied the overall rejection rate (or individual rejection rate within each journal). Using 2023's data, my estimation is about 60-75% rejection rate in the medicine and science journals. But the overall % does not reflect the amount of work performed behind the scenes. Just over half of the rejected articles are "desk reject" or author filled out the submission form but never submitted the text. The rest are due to author abandoning submission partway (stale submission), rejection after peer review or author no longer has time to complete revision. [[User:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: #0000FF;">OhanaUnited</span></b>]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: green;">^{Talk page}</span></b>]] 03:06, 19 September 2023 (UTC) ::OK. I see. Thx. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 10:17, 22 September 2023 (UTC) == Peer Reviews == As per my understanding off [[WikiJournal of Humanities/Peer reviewers]] only qualified external professionals are allowed to formally peer-review articles. Which seems a bit unnecessary considering anyone can write articles, also Nupedia vibes, this seriously hurts the journal's growth due to lack of volunteers. I believe that editors on wikipedia who've written extensively on related topics, should also be invited to peer-review articles, this would add a lot more volunteers (thus making the whole process faster and smoother), and get qualified people from wikipedia over to wikiversity. [[User:Crainsaw|Crainsaw]] ([[User talk:Crainsaw|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Crainsaw|contribs]]) 11:55, 17 December 2023 (UTC) == Current status of WikiJournals == I hate to say this, but so far, I've yet to see WikiJournal revolutionize academic journals in the way that Wikipedia affected encyclopedias severely. Furthermore, WikiJournals have been kinda slow to publish articles. Also, there have been many other open-access journals, especially ones using CC-BY-NC-ND. Also, many published articles happen to be adapted from Wikipedia articles and then copied (if not adapted) into Wikipedia articles, especially same ones. Maybe these are reasons for WMF to be reluctant to approve further development of WikiJournals. I did have high hopes for this project, yet my interests in the semi-project has.... waned. [[User:George Ho|George Ho]] ([[User talk:George Ho|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/George Ho|contribs]]) 23:54, 3 January 2024 (UTC) :I appreciate all the work that went into the publication of an article I worked on last year, without insulting the editors, I was overall disappointed (though they editorial team was able to get outstanding reviewers that were very patient with a very deficient initial draft). I proposed a mostly automated pdf workflow (see above) with no uptake/feedback. Good quality PDFs, I think, are a very very high priority. The current quality is very low and suffers from (what seems to be) a fairly manual process and immediately obvious rasterization artifacts which look unprofessional. Automation to bring the journal to a professional standard is essential before greater aspirations. [[User:Maneesh|Maneesh]] ([[User talk:Maneesh|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Maneesh|contribs]]) 18:35, 4 January 2024 (UTC) ::I should also add that WIkiJournal of Medicine articles don't appear properly indexed by Google Scholar, they don't look like proper journal articles. When I search for the title of my article: ::[PDF] [https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiversity/en/a/a7/Alternative_androgens_pathways.pdf Alternative androgen pathways] ::[https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=9gJaSxcAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=sra MG Masiutin], MK Yadav - upload.wikimedia.org ::Steroidogenic routes to androgens have been discovered and characterized over the last two ::decades that fall outside the Δ4 and Δ5" classical androgen pathways" to testosterone and … ::Save Cite [[scholar:related:x2717efivtkJ:scholar.google.com/&scioq="alternative+androgen+pathways"&hl=en&as_sdt=0,5|Related articles]] [https://scholar.google.com/scholar?cluster=15690227637562994375&hl=en&as_sdt=0,5 All 2 versions] ::[[WikiJournal of Medicine/Alternative androgens pathways|'''[HTML]''' wikiversity.org]] ::[HTML] [[WikiJournal of Medicine/Alternative androgens pathways]] ::[https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=9gJaSxcAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=sra MG Masiutin], MK Yadav - History - en.wikiversity.org ::… This expository review uses "'''alternative''' '''androgen''' '''pathways'''" to include what has been … ::lack of clear and consistent knowledge of '''alternative''' '''androgen''' '''pathways'''; the authors hope this … ::Save Cite [[scholar:related:J-L2yz0dY10J:scholar.google.com/&scioq="alternative+androgen+pathways"&hl=en&as_sdt=0,5|Related articles]] ::[https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiversity/en/archive/2/24/20230503121130%21Alternative_androgen_pathways.pdf '''<nowiki>[PDF]</nowiki>''' wikimedia.org] ::[PDF] [https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiversity/en/archive/2/24/20230503121130%21Alternative_androgen_pathways.pdf WikiJournal Preprints/Alternative Androgen Pathways] ::MG Masiutin, MK Yadav - upload.wikimedia.org ::… This expository review uses "'''alternative''' '''androgen''' '''pathways'''" to include what has been … ::lack of clear and consistent knowledge of '''alternative''' '''androgen''' '''pathways'''; the authors hope this … ::Save Cite [[scholar:related:wfMK5FH57gsJ:scholar.google.com/&scioq="alternative+androgen+pathways"&hl=en&as_sdt=0,5|Related articles]] [https://scholar.google.com/scholar?cluster=859898708987933633&hl=en&as_sdt=0,5 All 2 versions] ::Ensuring that the wikijournal articles don't look like some sort of second rate article in google scholar is very important. ::[[User:Maneesh|Maneesh]] ([[User talk:Maneesh|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Maneesh|contribs]]) 07:30, 5 January 2024 (UTC) :::I think the ''quality of the journals'' is fine ...IMO, what I have noticed is that the process[https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/WikiJournal_of_Medicine/Potential_upcoming_articles] is a little slow--[[User:Ozzie10aaaa|Ozzie10aaaa]] ([[User talk:Ozzie10aaaa|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ozzie10aaaa|contribs]]) 13:50, 14 January 2024 (UTC) == Notice about proposed deletion == It has been proposed to delete some unused files at [[Wikiversity:Requests_for_Deletion#Unused_files_uploaded_by_PCano]]. Someone suggested that WikiJournal might be interessted in the discussion so I made this notice. Feel free to join the discussion. --[[User:MGA73|MGA73]] ([[User talk:MGA73|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MGA73|contribs]]) 17:21, 27 February 2024 (UTC) :It might help if I put forth two questions. There is no need for answers to both, since an answer to one of them would allow us to delete a large number of image files: #Are the files at [[:Category:Files uploaded by PCano - unused]] of any use to the WikiJournals? #I vaguely remember an issue with Wikiversity image files that involved the WikiJournals and files that are imbedded in WikiJournal pdf files, but don't remember the details. The question is this: If a file is not used by any WikiJournal page, is it OK to delete it? --[[User:Guy vandegrift|Guy vandegrift]] ([[User talk:Guy vandegrift|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Guy vandegrift|contribs]]) 19:13, 27 February 2024 (UTC) == Reporting and affiliate expiration == Please see: [[meta:Talk:Proposal:_WikiJournal_as_a_sister_project#(Second_Reminder)_Notification_of_Affiliate_Expiration_-_Renewal_pending_submission_of_reporting_2]]. [[User:Mu301|mikeu]] ^{[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]} 04:15, 4 April 2024 (UTC) == Requested move == I propose we move this page / rename this page to WikiJournal (not to be confused with [[Wiki Journal]]), since [[m:WikiJournal User Group|WikiJournal User Group]] already has its own page. Can we gather enough votes to agree on this? [[User:Infogiraffic|Infogiraffic]] ([[User talk:Infogiraffic|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Infogiraffic|contribs]]) 18:51, 15 April 2025 (UTC) :I've made up my mind. I think we should rebrand WikiJournal. '''Wikiversity Press''' would become the new name. I recently created this [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Talk:Proposal:_WikiJournal_as_a_sister_project#Rebranding_WikiJournal_into_Wikiversity_Press logo], so people can start to distinguish between Wikiversity Press and the [[m:WikiJournal User Group|WikiJournal User Group]] and its [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:WikiJournal_logo.svg logo] more easily. [[User:Infogiraffic|Infogiraffic]] ([[User talk:Infogiraffic|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Infogiraffic|contribs]]) 14:19, 18 April 2025 (UTC) ::@[[User:Infogiraffic|Infogiraffic]] Respectfully, the change was unilaterally proposed by you. The 3 journal names were also changed by you without discussion. Your [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=WikiJournal_User_Group&diff=2713504&oldid=2705342 changes] to the main page also made it more difficult to access the journals because the journal titles are no longer clickable. Did someone from user group asked you to make these changes? [[User:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: #0000FF;">OhanaUnited</span></b>]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: green;">^{Talk page}</span></b>]] 20:24, 18 April 2025 (UTC) :::Hi, @[[User:OhanaUnited|OhanaUnited]]. Great feedback. The visitor message has now been edited to include the conditional status of the proposal. This is just me believing in the potential of WikiJournal and trying to gather support for a rebrand and revamp. I work independently from the WikiJournal User Group to improve things that I like to see thriving. I've listened to your advise regarding the titles; they are clickable now:) If you got more, feel free to share. [[User:Infogiraffic|Infogiraffic]] ([[User talk:Infogiraffic|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Infogiraffic|contribs]]) 07:05, 19 April 2025 (UTC) ::::Oh, and no journal names were changed. I simply copy pasted the existing ones. If you prefer so, we can opt to display the shorter variants instead of the longer ones. [[User:Infogiraffic|Infogiraffic]] ([[User talk:Infogiraffic|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Infogiraffic|contribs]]) 07:17, 19 April 2025 (UTC) :::::Thanks for responding to my question. Please note that the WikiJournal User Group has not discussed any rebranding initiatives and any changes to the name (such as changing to Wikiversity Press) risk diluting the brand recognition that we made and built up over the last 10 years with the Wikimedia movement, open access community, WikiJournal editorial board members, and external reviewers. I appreciate your approach to be bold in the redesign for the main page, which has display issues on mobile. I made some changes to the display title to clarify any confusion around the journal titles. I have reached out to the editorial boards and at this point nobody knew about your rebranding proposal. Some also raised questions why revamping would require a name change without any consultation (especially when it was brought up during the final exam period and week of Easter holiday). At this point I am '''opposing''' the requested move and politely ask you seek adequate consensus from the community before making more references to Wikiversity Press or rebranding. [[User:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: #0000FF;">OhanaUnited</span></b>]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: green;">^{Talk page}</span></b>]] 23:26, 19 April 2025 (UTC) ::::::Thank you greatly for your effort(s) in representing the board, providing context, and defending the integrity of the WikiJournal community. I understand your perspective and hesitancy toward my boldness. However, as an outsider, WikiJournal seems to have fared quite under the radar with almost no publicity among notable news channels. So to me, there does not seem to be much dilutable brand recognition to begin with as of now. Furthermore, it is out in the open that the community has ignored offers to buy / rent the eerily eponymous domain name [https://en.wikijournal.org/wiki/Main_Page wikijournal.org], as can be read [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Talk:WikiJournal_User_Group/Archive_2019#Selling_wikijournal.org here] and [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Talk:Proposal:_WikiJournal_as_a_sister_project#Wikijournal.org here]. Not the ideal vantage point from which to brand a broadly appealing publishing house without confusing at least some unfamiliar people about its connection, if you ask me. Wikiversity Press aims to alleviate this imbroglio, by starting anew while conforming to the conventional naming procedure that is used at a variety of prestigious universities. Also, the logo conveys stature instead of playful lambency, which is, in my eyes, exactly what we would need to try and close the "Academia-Wikipedia gap" that is so elegantly expressed on the WikiJournal homepage. I am not here to take credit for anything. Take the name or renounce it; no strings attached. If no consensus is gathered, I will rest my case. But otherwise, I would happily assist in further developing the platform by introducing new UI and UX related improvements, as well as streamlining pagination, submissions, and peer-review. Sincerely, [[User:Infogiraffic|Infogiraffic]] ([[User talk:Infogiraffic|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Infogiraffic|contribs]]) 18:16, 20 April 2025 (UTC) :::::::Hello [[User:Infogiraffic|Infogiraffic]]. First of all, I'd like to give you a big thank you for your improvements to the wiki page! Also, I appreciate the effort in coming up with an alternative name and logo. However, I'd also like to point out several factors that led us to having the brand and logo as we have. The project actually started out in 2014 as "Wikiversity Journal", which is somewhat more similar to "Wikiversity Press", but then had a big discussion with multiple alternative names, of which WikiJournal came out as the winner - [[Talk:WikiJournal_User_Group/Archive_2016_naming_vote#Name_election]]. Reasons for changing from Wikiversity Press to WikiJournal included making it shorter. Also, we do not necessarily want to associate with Wikiversity, and are hoping to have a separate wiki as a Sister Project in the future, and if we for some reason went back to a "Wikiversity"-containing name then we would likely need to change it again if we became a separate wiki. While "Wikiversity Press" was not among the choices in the past election, and I agree it has some good points as you mentioned, I think it is less specific than "journal", and may be mistaken as a news, books or magazine publisher. Similarly for the logo, if you see the upload history of the WikiJournal logo [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:WikiJournal_logo.svg] it actually started out as something more Wikiversity-like, but then we've strived to make it something more unique. So thanks again for the proposal, but with everything taken together I have to say '''oppose''' to this newly suggested project name and logo. [[User:Mikael Häggström|Mikael Häggström]] ([[User talk:Mikael Häggström|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mikael Häggström|contribs]]) 21:49, 7 May 2025 (UTC) ==Deletion of preprint on Commons== See *[[Commons:Commons:Deletion_requests/File:Dravidian_Arc_-_Reframing_Ancient_India’s_Civilisational_Origins.pdf]] Wikimedia Commons reviewers deleted someone's preprint submission because 1) preprints out of scope for Commons and 2) someone thought it seemed like AI. The author there insists that the work is their original creation without AI. My question for WikiJournal: how welcome are preprints here? Is this the kind of case that I can generally invite for submission here? [[User:Bluerasberry|<span style="background:#cedff2;color:#11e">''' Blue Rasberry '''</span>]][[User talk:Bluerasberry|<span style="cursor:help"><span style="background:#cedff2;color:#11e">(talk)</span></span>]] 15:52, 11 November 2025 (UTC) :Hey Lane. As I [https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Commons_talk:Project_scope&diff=prev&oldid=1114944379 responded on Commons], we welcome preprints but it needs to follow the specific instructions on [[WikiJournal Preprints]] to store their content as a wiki page. Since the file is already deleted, it is difficult for me to assess the contents or the merits of the PDF. In theory, a standalone PDF preprint can be uploaded locally in Wikiversity but subject to Wikiversity's local policies around project scope on files. This is another example why it's importantly to have WikiJournal as a standalone sister project because we can develop our local rules and policies that are not restricted by Wikiversity or Commons. [[User:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: #0000FF;">OhanaUnited</span></b>]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: green;">^{Talk page}</span></b>]] 04:32, 25 November 2025 (UTC) ==Proposal - offer optional presubmission review== I do not want to make an additional workload for WikiJournal editors, but I want to share a story, and I have an idea that I want to workshop with others. The idea is presubmission review. Optionally but recommended, for people who are new to WikiJournal and who want to save themselves time and save our reviewers time, they pre-submit their work. In the presubmission, they do this: #Submit work citation metadata, including title, author names, institutional affiliation #Does the work contain any of the following: ##AI-generated text or images ##Any ideas which university and scholarly consensus view as pseudoscience ##Text or images which do not have open access, Wikimedia-compatible, Creative Commons licensing #Please provide a citation to any existing, published, peer reviewed work which explores a similar topic as this submission, and which this paper will cite I have talked with some other wiki editors and it seems there is the idea that the Wikimedia platform attracts submissions which are 1) authorless or a person's first published work 2) AI/pseudoscience/non compatible content 3) essays or other writing formats which do not build onto or cite existing scholarship. By having a presubmissiom process, I think we could improve sentiment about WikiJournal in these ways - #Wikimedia Commons and others would be more confident that we have a screening process for incompatible content #Authors could minimize their time and labor submitting if their content is not a fit #Authors also demonstrate that they can navigate the Wikimedia platform, including making an account, posting some content, and becoming oriented before trying to make a full submission #WikiJournal Reviewers have another way to connect with people early in the process, and a place to tell people to begin I am hoping that a pre-submission process should take 5 minutes for a beginner Wikipedian and not more than 15 minutes for someone totally new to the Wikimedia platform. Thoughts? [[User:Bluerasberry|<span style="background:#cedff2;color:#11e">''' Blue Rasberry '''</span>]][[User talk:Bluerasberry|<span style="cursor:help"><span style="background:#cedff2;color:#11e">(talk)</span></span>]] 16:13, 15 December 2025 (UTC) g8q1pc3etebap79uwu9h89v8faakkif 3 331979 2832706 2026-09-10T20:35:36Z Jtneill 10242 Welcome 2832706 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Welcome== {{Robelbox|theme=9|title='''[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Welcome]] to [[Wikiversity:What is Wikiversity|Wikiversity]], Chris1366!'''|width=100%}} <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> You can [[Wikiversity:Contact|contact us]] with [[Wikiversity:Questions|questions]] at the [[Wikiversity:Colloquium|colloquium]] or get in touch with [[User talk:Jtneill|me personally]] if you would like some [[Help:Contents|help]]. Remember to [[Wikiversity:Signature#How to add your signature|sign]] your comments when [[Wikiversity:Who are Wikiversity participants?|participating]] in [[Wikiversity:Talk page|discussions]]. Using the signature icon [[File:OOjs UI icon signature-ltr.svg]] makes it simple. We invite you to [[Wikiversity:Be bold|be bold]] and [[Wikiversity|assume good faith]]. Please abide by our [[Wikiversity:Civility|civility]], [[Wikiversity:Privacy policy|privacy]], and [[Foundation:Terms of Use|terms of use]] policies. To find your way around, check out: <!-- The Left column --> <div style="width:50.0%; float:left"> * [[Wikiversity:Introduction|Introduction to Wikiversity]] * [[Help:Guides|Take a guided tour]] and learn [[Help:Editing|how to edit]] * [[Wikiversity:Browse|Browse]] or visit an educational level portal:<br>[[Portal:Pre-school Education|pre-school]] | [[Portal:Primary Education|primary]] | [[Portal:Secondary Education|secondary]] | [[Portal:Tertiary Education|tertiary]] | [[Portal:Non-formal Education|non-formal]] * [[Wikiversity:Introduction explore|Explore]] links in left-hand navigation menu </div> <!-- The Right column --> <div style="width:50.0%; float:left"> * Read an [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity teachers|introduction for teachers]] * Learn [[Help:How to write an educational resource|how to write an educational resource]] * Find out about [[Wikiversity:Research|research]] activities * Give [[Wikiversity:Feedback|feedback]] about your observations * Discuss issues or ask questions at the [[Wikiversity:Colloquium|colloquium]] </div> <br clear="both"/> To get started, experiment in the [[wikiversity:sandbox|sandbox]] or on [[special:mypage|your userpage]]. See you around Wikiversity! ---- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 20:35, 10 September 2026 (UTC)</div> <!-- Template:Welcome --> {{Robelbox/close}} tew3toqgmqpnto23p5k2fx61qol2t0z 2832710 2832706 2026-09-10T20:41:00Z Jtneill 10242 /* Topic selection */ new topic ([[mw:c:Special:MyLanguage/User:JWBTH/CD|CD]]) 2832710 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Welcome== {{Robelbox|theme=9|title='''[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Welcome]] to [[Wikiversity:What is Wikiversity|Wikiversity]], Chris1366!'''|width=100%}} <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> You can [[Wikiversity:Contact|contact us]] with [[Wikiversity:Questions|questions]] at the [[Wikiversity:Colloquium|colloquium]] or get in touch with [[User talk:Jtneill|me personally]] if you would like some [[Help:Contents|help]]. Remember to [[Wikiversity:Signature#How to add your signature|sign]] your comments when [[Wikiversity:Who are Wikiversity participants?|participating]] in [[Wikiversity:Talk page|discussions]]. Using the signature icon [[File:OOjs UI icon signature-ltr.svg]] makes it simple. We invite you to [[Wikiversity:Be bold|be bold]] and [[Wikiversity|assume good faith]]. Please abide by our [[Wikiversity:Civility|civility]], [[Wikiversity:Privacy policy|privacy]], and [[Foundation:Terms of Use|terms of use]] policies. To find your way around, check out: <!-- The Left column --> <div style="width:50.0%; float:left"> * [[Wikiversity:Introduction|Introduction to Wikiversity]] * [[Help:Guides|Take a guided tour]] and learn [[Help:Editing|how to edit]] * [[Wikiversity:Browse|Browse]] or visit an educational level portal:<br>[[Portal:Pre-school Education|pre-school]] | [[Portal:Primary Education|primary]] | [[Portal:Secondary Education|secondary]] | [[Portal:Tertiary Education|tertiary]] | [[Portal:Non-formal Education|non-formal]] * [[Wikiversity:Introduction explore|Explore]] links in left-hand navigation menu </div> <!-- The Right column --> <div style="width:50.0%; float:left"> * Read an [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity teachers|introduction for teachers]] * Learn [[Help:How to write an educational resource|how to write an educational resource]] * Find out about [[Wikiversity:Research|research]] activities * Give [[Wikiversity:Feedback|feedback]] about your observations * Discuss issues or ask questions at the [[Wikiversity:Colloquium|colloquium]] </div> <br clear="both"/> To get started, experiment in the [[wikiversity:sandbox|sandbox]] or on [[special:mypage|your userpage]]. See you around Wikiversity! ---- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 20:35, 10 September 2026 (UTC)</div> <!-- Template:Welcome --> {{Robelbox/close}} == Topic selection == It looks like you may be up to the Week 1 topic selection task which was covered in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Topic selection|Tutorial 1]]. As it is now Week 5, all unallocated [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026|2026 topics]] were moved into planning for [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2027|2027]]. So, if you don't yet have a topic, either let me know which 2027 topic you'd like to tackle or negotiate a new topic. However, note that [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Fear of failure|fear of failure was already covered in 2013]], so wouldn't be an approved topic for 2026. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 20:41, 10 September 2026 (UTC) 70i9w1edrbij8fzeavlebxgwn242e9y 3 331981 2832722 2026-09-10T21:11:46Z Jtneill 10242 Welcome 2832722 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Welcome== {{Robelbox|theme=9|title='''[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Welcome]] to [[Wikiversity:What is Wikiversity|Wikiversity]], Yellowvines!'''|width=100%}} <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> You can [[Wikiversity:Contact|contact us]] with [[Wikiversity:Questions|questions]] at the [[Wikiversity:Colloquium|colloquium]] or get in touch with [[User talk:Jtneill|me personally]] if you would like some [[Help:Contents|help]]. Remember to [[Wikiversity:Signature#How to add your signature|sign]] your comments when [[Wikiversity:Who are Wikiversity participants?|participating]] in [[Wikiversity:Talk page|discussions]]. Using the signature icon [[File:OOjs UI icon signature-ltr.svg]] makes it simple. We invite you to [[Wikiversity:Be bold|be bold]] and [[Wikiversity|assume good faith]]. Please abide by our [[Wikiversity:Civility|civility]], [[Wikiversity:Privacy policy|privacy]], and [[Foundation:Terms of Use|terms of use]] policies. To find your way around, check out: <!-- The Left column --> <div style="width:50.0%; float:left"> * [[Wikiversity:Introduction|Introduction to Wikiversity]] * [[Help:Guides|Take a guided tour]] and learn [[Help:Editing|how to edit]] * [[Wikiversity:Browse|Browse]] or visit an educational level portal:<br>[[Portal:Pre-school Education|pre-school]] | [[Portal:Primary Education|primary]] | [[Portal:Secondary Education|secondary]] | [[Portal:Tertiary Education|tertiary]] | [[Portal:Non-formal Education|non-formal]] * [[Wikiversity:Introduction explore|Explore]] links in left-hand navigation menu </div> <!-- The Right column --> <div style="width:50.0%; float:left"> * Read an [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity teachers|introduction for teachers]] * Learn [[Help:How to write an educational resource|how to write an educational resource]] * Find out about [[Wikiversity:Research|research]] activities * Give [[Wikiversity:Feedback|feedback]] about your observations * Discuss issues or ask questions at the [[Wikiversity:Colloquium|colloquium]] </div> <br clear="both"/> To get started, experiment in the [[wikiversity:sandbox|sandbox]] or on [[special:mypage|your userpage]]. See you around Wikiversity! ---- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 21:11, 10 September 2026 (UTC)</div> <!-- Template:Welcome --> {{Robelbox/close}} dkl6ta3ef020mtqk4rqnqaplbwvhww2 2 331982 2832733 2026-09-10T22:22:18Z Indexcard88 118020 Created page with "[[../September_10th_2026|September 10th 2026]]" 2832733 wikitext text/x-wiki [[../September_10th_2026|September 10th 2026]] sidho2vh54qr6btogd2ru7oztth1nr9 2 331983 2832734 2026-09-10T22:23:32Z Indexcard88 118020 Created page with "Asking for wisdom. Asking for grace. Asking for justice. Asking for peace. Asking for blessing. Asking for the right words." 2832734 wikitext text/x-wiki Asking for wisdom. Asking for grace. Asking for justice. Asking for peace. Asking for blessing. Asking for the right words. jnhj2rnk9pjgr38m1r1obta058mv4x8 0 331984 2832741 2026-09-10T23:41:53Z The Citer 3110681 Created page with "[[Image:Lunularia cruciata.jpg|thumb|300px|right|This is a Liverwort.]] Marchantiophytes are non-vascular land plants in the division Marchantiophyta, also known as hepatics. ==Information== Name Meaning: Marchantia-like plant, liver plant English Common Name: Liverworts Major distinguishing characteristics: Ephemeral unbranched sporophytes, no vascular system Approximate number of species described: 9,000 ==Classes== *Haplomitriopsida *Jungermanniopsida *Marchantiops..." 2832741 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Image:Lunularia cruciata.jpg|thumb|300px|right|This is a Liverwort.]] Marchantiophytes are non-vascular land plants in the division Marchantiophyta, also known as hepatics. ==Information== Name Meaning: Marchantia-like plant, liver plant English Common Name: Liverworts Major distinguishing characteristics: Ephemeral unbranched sporophytes, no vascular system Approximate number of species described: 9,000 ==Classes== *Haplomitriopsida *Jungermanniopsida *Marchantiopsida ==Evolutionary History== [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epiphyte Epiphytic] thalloid liverworts evolved during the Triassic to the Cretaceous. ==References== [[Wikipedia:Liverwort]] lke49v1tdmabciqcltpqgigq7237xox 1 331985 2832760 2026-09-11T03:31:24Z Jtneill 10242 Topic development feedback 2832760 wikitext text/x-wiki <!-- Official topic development feedback --> {{METF/2026 |1= <!-- Title --> # Title and subtitle are correctly worded and use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] |2= <!-- Heading structure --> <!-- 1-level --> # Basic, [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project/Structure|1-level heading structure]] – could benefit from further development, perhaps using a 2-level structure (i.e., use subheadings) <!-- Alignment with focus questions --> # Excellent alignment between sub-title, focus questions, and heading structure |3= <!-- Overview--> <!-- Scenario --> # Make the scenario concrete and down-to-earth, using a realistic real-world example of the target psychological phenomenon rather than an abstract description. # Move diagrams into the main body text; use an image in the opening scenario which more directly illustrates the practical situation <!-- Description --> # A basic description of the problem/topic is planned or presented <!-- Style --> # Use present, rather than future, tense # Use 3rd person point of view for main body text (except 1st/2nd person point of view can work within feature boxes for scenarios) <!-- Focus questions --> # Focus questions are aligned with sub-title and top-level headings # I've reworded the focus questions to simplify them |4= <!-- Key points--> <!-- Overall --> # Basic development # Consider describing what volunteer counselling involves # Consider the functionalist perspective of volunteering offered by Clary and Snyder (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Functionalist theory and self-tracking|Tutorial 5]]) # Provide more detailed edit summaries <!-- Theory and research --> # Strive for an integrated balance of the best psychological theory and research about this topic, with practical examples. <!-- Conclusion --> # Conclusion is underway # What are the practical, take-home messages? (address the focus questions) |5= <!-- Figure --> # A figure(s) is presented, captioned, and cited |6= <!-- Learning feature --> <!-- Interwiki links ---> # Add in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] for first mention of key terms to [[w:|Wikipedia]] and/or [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]] (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) <!-- Scenarios/examples/case studies --> # Consider incorporating additional scenarios, examples, or case studies to illustrate key concepts. These could build on the Overview scenario or introduce new real-world situations in the main body of the chapter to demonstrate how the concepts apply in practice. <!-- Quiz --> # Promising use of quiz question(s) # Place each quiz question in the most relevant section # Focus the quiz question(s) on the take-home messages <!-- Tables --> # Also consider using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|table(s)]] to summarise key information |7= <!-- References --> <!-- Overall --> # Good; 5 out of 6 references provided <!-- Systematic reviews --> # What are the most relevant systematic reviews/meta-analyses about this topic? <!-- APA style --> # Check and correct [https://apastyle.apa.org/instructional-aids/reference-guide.pdf APA referencing style]: ## make doi hyperlinks active (i.e., clickable) |8= <!-- Resources --> <!-- See also --> # See also ## Excellent <!-- External links --> # External links ## Target an international audience; Australians only represent 0.33% of the world population ## Link to the most relevant external resources about this topic |9= <!-- User page --> # Used effectively <!-- Description about self --> # Description about self provided <!-- Links to profile(s) --> # Consider linking to your [https://portfolio.canberra.edu.au/ eportfolio] page and/or any other professional online profile or resume such as [https://www.linkedin.com/ LinkedIn]. This is not required, but it can be useful to interlink your professional networks. <!-- Link to book chapter --> # A link to the book chapter is provided |10= <!-- Social contribution --> # Excellent – at least three different types of contributions with direct link(s) to evidence }} -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 03:31, 11 September 2026 (UTC) hatqri4odbnjpeqpg92lif5fa3w0n5t 3 331986 2832767 2026-09-11T05:13:34Z Jtneill 10242 Welcome 2832767 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Welcome== {{Robelbox|theme=9|title='''[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Welcome]] to [[Wikiversity:What is Wikiversity|Wikiversity]], Avj.06!'''|width=100%}} <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> You can [[Wikiversity:Contact|contact us]] with [[Wikiversity:Questions|questions]] at the [[Wikiversity:Colloquium|colloquium]] or get in touch with [[User talk:Jtneill|me personally]] if you would like some [[Help:Contents|help]]. Remember to [[Wikiversity:Signature#How to add your signature|sign]] your comments when [[Wikiversity:Who are Wikiversity participants?|participating]] in [[Wikiversity:Talk page|discussions]]. Using the signature icon [[File:OOjs UI icon signature-ltr.svg]] makes it simple. We invite you to [[Wikiversity:Be bold|be bold]] and [[Wikiversity|assume good faith]]. Please abide by our [[Wikiversity:Civility|civility]], [[Wikiversity:Privacy policy|privacy]], and [[Foundation:Terms of Use|terms of use]] policies. To find your way around, check out: <!-- The Left column --> <div style="width:50.0%; float:left"> * [[Wikiversity:Introduction|Introduction to Wikiversity]] * [[Help:Guides|Take a guided tour]] and learn [[Help:Editing|how to edit]] * [[Wikiversity:Browse|Browse]] or visit an educational level portal:<br>[[Portal:Pre-school Education|pre-school]] | [[Portal:Primary Education|primary]] | [[Portal:Secondary Education|secondary]] | [[Portal:Tertiary Education|tertiary]] | [[Portal:Non-formal Education|non-formal]] * [[Wikiversity:Introduction explore|Explore]] links in left-hand navigation menu </div> <!-- The Right column --> <div style="width:50.0%; float:left"> * Read an [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity teachers|introduction for teachers]] * Learn [[Help:How to write an educational resource|how to write an educational resource]] * Find out about [[Wikiversity:Research|research]] activities * Give [[Wikiversity:Feedback|feedback]] about your observations * Discuss issues or ask questions at the [[Wikiversity:Colloquium|colloquium]] </div> <br clear="both"/> To get started, experiment in the [[wikiversity:sandbox|sandbox]] or on [[special:mypage|your userpage]]. See you around Wikiversity! ---- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 05:13, 11 September 2026 (UTC)</div> <!-- Template:Welcome --> {{Robelbox/close}} bzy8sm2y3bgc4srrwvscj4lmz548bkh 3 331988 2832787 2026-09-11T09:34:53Z Jtneill 10242 Welcome + speedy deletion explanation 2832787 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Welcome== {{Robelbox|theme=9|title='''[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Welcome]] to [[Wikiversity:What is Wikiversity|Wikiversity]], RahyaEducationAcademy!'''|width=100%}} <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> You can [[Wikiversity:Contact|contact us]] with [[Wikiversity:Questions|questions]] at the [[Wikiversity:Colloquium|colloquium]] or get in touch with [[User talk:Jtneill|me personally]] if you would like some [[Help:Contents|help]]. Remember to [[Wikiversity:Signature#How to add your signature|sign]] your comments when [[Wikiversity:Who are Wikiversity participants?|participating]] in [[Wikiversity:Talk page|discussions]]. Using the signature icon [[File:OOjs UI icon signature-ltr.svg]] makes it simple. We invite you to [[Wikiversity:Be bold|be bold]] and [[Wikiversity|assume good faith]]. Please abide by our [[Wikiversity:Civility|civility]], [[Wikiversity:Privacy policy|privacy]], and [[Foundation:Terms of Use|terms of use]] policies. To find your way around, check out: <!-- The Left column --> <div style="width:50.0%; float:left"> * [[Wikiversity:Introduction|Introduction to Wikiversity]] * [[Help:Guides|Take a guided tour]] and learn [[Help:Editing|how to edit]] * [[Wikiversity:Browse|Browse]] or visit an educational level portal:<br>[[Portal:Pre-school Education|pre-school]] | [[Portal:Primary Education|primary]] | [[Portal:Secondary Education|secondary]] | [[Portal:Tertiary Education|tertiary]] | [[Portal:Non-formal Education|non-formal]] * [[Wikiversity:Introduction explore|Explore]] links in left-hand navigation menu </div> <!-- The Right column --> <div style="width:50.0%; float:left"> * Read an [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity teachers|introduction for teachers]] * Learn [[Help:How to write an educational resource|how to write an educational resource]] * Find out about [[Wikiversity:Research|research]] activities * Give [[Wikiversity:Feedback|feedback]] about your observations * Discuss issues or ask questions at the [[Wikiversity:Colloquium|colloquium]] </div> <br clear="both"/> To get started, experiment in the [[wikiversity:sandbox|sandbox]] or on [[special:mypage|your userpage]]. See you around Wikiversity! ---- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 09:34, 11 September 2026 (UTC)</div> <!-- Template:Welcome --> {{Robelbox/close}} ==[[Online MBA and Regular MBA: A Comparative Guide]]== This article has been deleted because it appeared to be advertising. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 09:34, 11 September 2026 (UTC) 77iufnrggnk1a9sh7tfzsga7gfv2us7 1 331989 2832790 2026-09-11T10:09:40Z Jtneill 10242 Topic development feedback 2832790 wikitext text/x-wiki <!-- Official topic development feedback --> {{METF/2026 |1= <!-- Title --> # Title and subtitle are correctly worded and use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] |2= <!-- Heading structure --> <!-- 2-level --> # Promising [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project/Structure|2-level heading structure]] – could benefit from further development and/or refinement <!-- Conceptual --> # The sub-title suggests three main questions; consider aligning the headings more strongly with these questions # Consider renaming "Understanding emotional regulation" to "What is emotional dysregulation?" # Consider renaming "Assocation between ..." because this doesn't directly map to the sub-title questions # Be careful not to overly focus on: (a) disorders; (b) clinical treatments because neither of these are called for in the title or sub-title; psychopathologies and psychotherapies may be relevant but they are not sufficient to address the psychological topic, which is broader <!-- Other ---> # Remove [[wikt:acronym#Noun|acronym]]s from headings # Remove citations from headings <!-- Alignment with focus questions --> # Develop closer alignment between sub-title, focus questions, and top-level headings |3= <!-- Overview--> # Very good <!-- Scenario --> # A scenario or case study is presented in a feature box with an image at the start of this section # Increase the image size <!-- Description --> # A clear description of the problem/topic is planned or presented # Simplify/abbreviate the description of the problem/topic. Move detail into subsequent sections. <!-- Style --> # Use present, rather than future, tense <!-- Focus questions --> # Develop closer alignment between the sub-title, focus questions, and top-level headings |4= <!-- Key points--> <!-- Overall --> # Key points are well developed for each section # Excellent theoretical models; be selective (e.g., concentrate on top 2 or 3): * See also: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/1047840X.2014.940781#d1e276 <!-- Scope --> # It may be that all planned aspects cannot be reasonably covered within the book chapter word count, so be selective and concentrate on key aspects that address the question in the sub-title <!-- Theory and research --> # Promising balance of theory and research <!-- Conclusion --> # Conclusion is well underway # What are the practical, take-home messages? (address the focus questions) |5= <!-- Figure --> # Excellent - Relevant figure(s) presented, captioned, and cited |6= <!-- Learning feature --> <!-- Interwiki links ---> # Excellent in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] for first mention of key terms to [[w:|Wikipedia]] and/or [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]] <!-- Scenarios/examples/case studies --> # Consider incorporating additional scenarios, examples, or case studies to illustrate key concepts. These could build on the Overview scenario or introduce new real-world situations in the main body of the chapter to demonstrate how the concepts apply in practice. <!-- Quiz --> # Promising use of quiz question(s) # Place each quiz question in the most relevant section # Focus the quiz question(s) on the take-home messages <!-- Tables --> # Also consider using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|table(s)]] to summarise key information |7= <!-- References --> <!-- Overall --> # Excellent <!-- Systematic reviews --> # Well done on identifying relevant systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses <!-- APA style --> # Check and correct [https://apastyle.apa.org/instructional-aids/reference-guide.pdf APA referencing style]: ## page numbers should be separated by an en-dash (–) rather than a hyphen (-) <!-- Resources --> <!-- See also --> # See also ## Excellent <!-- External links --> # External links ## Excellent ## Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] |9= <!-- User page --> # Excellent <!-- Description about self --> # Excellent description about self provided <!-- Links to profile(s) --> # Consider linking to your [https://portfolio.canberra.edu.au/ eportfolio] page and/or any other professional online profile or resume such as [https://www.linkedin.com/ LinkedIn]. This is not required, but it can be useful to interlink your professional networks. <!-- Link to book chapter --> # A link to the book chapter is provided |10= <!-- Social contribution --> # Excellent – at least three different types of contributions with direct link(s) to evidence }} -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 10:09, 11 September 2026 (UTC) 1v231omcvnrdcc42b3v9oh3s6ruwucu 2 331990 2832792 2026-09-11T10:27:25Z Gauri Guptaa 3008577 Created page with "{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin:0 0 1em 1em; font-size:90%" |- ! colspan="2" style="background:#f2f2f2" | Course Progress Tracker |- | '''Author''' || [[User:Gauri Guptaa|Gauri Guptaa]] |- | '''Version''' || 1.0.0 |- | '''Status''' || Stable |- | '''Released''' || 2026-07-21 |- | '''Source''' || [[User:Gauri Guptaa/courseProgressTracker.js]] |- | '''Works on''' || English Wikiversity, main namespace (NS 0) |- | '''License''' || [[CC0|CC0-1.0]] |} '''cour..." 2832792 wikitext text/x-wiki {| class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin:0 0 1em 1em; font-size:90%" |- ! colspan="2" style="background:#f2f2f2" | Course Progress Tracker |- | '''Author''' || [[User:Gauri Guptaa|Gauri Guptaa]] |- | '''Version''' || 1.0.0 |- | '''Status''' || Stable |- | '''Released''' || 2026-07-21 |- | '''Source''' || [[User:Gauri Guptaa/courseProgressTracker.js]] |- | '''Works on''' || English Wikiversity, main namespace (NS 0) |- | '''License''' || [[CC0|CC0-1.0]] |} '''courseProgressTracker''' is a userscript for [[Wikiversity]] that adds a persistent progress bar and a "Mark as done" button to learning resource pages. Completed pages are saved in the browser so progress is remembered across sessions without editing any page. == What it does == Wikiversity has no built-in way to track which lessons you have completed. This script adds that functionality directly on every chapter page. The script adds: * A green progress bar above the page heading showing how many pages in the current book you have completed out of the total. * A "☐ Mark as done" button that toggles to "✅ Done" when clicked. * A "Reset progress" link to clear all saved progress for the current book. * Progress is stored in <code>mw.storage</code> (browser localStorage) so it persists across page loads and browser sessions. * On the book root page, the progress bar shows overall completion without the mark-as-done button. == Installation == # Go to [[Special:MyPage/common.js]] on English Wikiversity. # Add this line and save: <syntaxhighlight lang="javascript"> mw.loader.load( '//en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:Gauri_Guptaa/courseProgressTracker.js&action=raw&ctype=text/javascript' ); </syntaxhighlight> # [[Wikipedia:Bypass your cache|Bypass your cache]] with {{key press|Ctrl|Shift|R}} and open any Wikiversity learning resource to test. == How to use it == # Open any Wikiversity book chapter — for example a subpage like <code>Introduction to Python/Variables</code>. # A progress bar and "Mark as done" button appear below the page heading. # Click "Mark as done" when you finish a chapter — it turns green with a ✅. # Click again to undo. # Navigate to the book root page to see overall progress. # Click "Reset progress" to clear all saved progress for that book. == Requirements == * Works on English Wikiversity main namespace (NS 0) only. * Progress is stored locally in the browser — it is not synced across devices. * Read-only — never edits any wiki page. == APIs used == {| class="wikitable" |- ! API ! Purpose |- | <code>action=query&list=allpages&apprefix=BookName/</code> | Count total subpages of the current book to calculate completion percentage |- | <code>mw.storage</code> | Save and load completed page titles persistently in the browser |} == See also == * [[User:Gauri Guptaa/Scripts]] — full list of scripts by this author * [[Wikiversity:Learning projects]] — Wikiversity learning resource guidelines [[Category:Wikiversity user scripts]] [[Category:User scripts]] naxco2avmrsbedhw0h0xjt318xqcx1g 0 331991 2832793 2026-09-11T10:35:04Z The Citer 3110681 Plant Divisions (Phyla)/Angiospermae 2832793 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Image:Tree of Angiosperm Phylogeny 2024.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Many species of Angiospermae phylogenetic picture.]] Flowering plants are plants that bear flowers and fruits, and form the clade Angiospermae (/ˌændʒiəˈspɜːrmiː/). The term ''angiosperm'' is derived from the Greek words ἀγγεῖον (angeion; 'container, vessel') and σπέρμα (sperma; 'seed'), meaning that the seeds are enclosed within a fruit. The group was formerly called Magnoliophyta. Angiosperms are by far the most diverse group of land plants with 64 orders, 416 families, approximately 13,000 known genera and 300,000 known species! The diversity of flowering plants is not evenly distributed. Nearly all species belong to the eudicot (75%), monocot (23%), and magnoliid (2%) clades. The remaining five clades contain a little over 250 species in total; i.e. less than 0.1% of flowering plant diversity, divided among nine families. The 25 most speciated families are: {| class="wikitable sortable" |+ The 25 largest angiosperm families<ref name="Stevens 2011"/> |- ! <!--Rank, by size--> !! Group !! Family !! English name !! No. of spp. |- | 1 || Eudicot || Asteraceae or Compositae || daisy || 22,750 |- | 2 || Monocot || Orchidaceae || orchid || 21,950 |- | 3 || Eudicot || Fabaceae or Leguminosae || pea, legume || 19,400 |- | 4 || Eudicot || Rubiaceae || Rubia|madder || 13,150<ref>{{cite web|title=Kew Scientist 30|date=October 2006|url=https://www.kew.org/kewscientist/ks_30.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927005410/https://www.kew.org/kewscientist/ks_30.pdf|archive-date=27 September 2007}}</ref> |- | 5 || Monocot || Poaceae or Gramineae || grass || 10,035 |- | 6 || Eudicot || Lamiaceae or Labiatae || mint || 7,175 |- | 7 || Eudicot || Euphorbiaceae || spurge || 5,735 |- | 8 || Eudicot || Melastomataceae || melastome || 5,005 |- | 9 || Eudicot || Myrtaceae || myrtle || 4,625 |- | 10 || Eudicot || Apocynaceae || dogbane || 4,555 |- | 11 || Monocot || Cyperaceae || sedge || 4,350 |- | 12 || Eudicot || Malvaceae || mallow || 4,225 |- | 13 || Monocot || Araceae || arum || 4,025 |- | 14 || Eudicot || Ericaceae || heath || 3,995 |- | 15 || Eudicot || Gesneriaceae || gesneriad || 3,870 |- | 16 || Eudicot || Apiaceae or Umbelliferae || parsley || 3,780 |- | 17 || Eudicot || Brassicaceae or Cruciferae || cabbage || 3,710 |- | 18 || Magnoliid dicot || Piperaceae || pepper || 3,600 |- | 19 || Monocot || Bromeliaceae || bromeliad || 3,540 |- | 20 || Eudicot || Acanthaceae || acanthus || 3,500 |- | 21 || Eudicot || Rosaceae || rose || 2,830 |- | 22 || Eudicot || Boraginaceae || borage || 2,740 |- | 23 || Eudicot || Urticaceae || nettle || 2,625 |- | 24 || Eudicot || Ranunculaceae || buttercup || 2,525 |- | 25 || Magnoliid dicot || Lauraceae || laurel || 2,500 |} ==More facts== ===Name Meaning=== Magnolia-like plant ===Major distinguishing characteristics=== Flowers and fruit, vascular system with vessels ==Evolutionary history== The evolutionary success and rapid diversification of angiosperms are largely attributed to their coevolutionary relationships with animal pollinators, particularly insects, birds, and bats. Unlike [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gymnosperm gymnosperms], which today rely on wind for pollen dispersal, angiosperms developed specialized traits—such as nectar production, vivid pigmentations, and complex volatile scents—to attract specific floral visitors. ==Classes== No one really knows how to divide Angiospermae in to classes. (See talk) However, we can still list the defined orders. ===Orders=== Acorales – Alismatales – Amborellales – Apiales – Aquifoliales – Arecales – Asparagales – Asterales – Austrobaileyales – Berberidopsidales – Boraginales – Brassicales – Bruniales – Buxales – Canellales – Caryophyllales – Celastrales – Ceratophyllales – Chloranthales – Commelinales – Cornales – Crossosomatales – Cucurbitales – Dilleniales – Dioscoreales – Dipsacales – Ericales – Escalloniales – Fabales – Fagales – Garryales – Gentianales – Geraniales – Gunnerales – Huerteales – Icacinales – Lamiales – Laurales – Liliales – Magnoliales – Malpighiales – Malvales – Metteniusales – Myrtales – Nymphaeales – Oxalidales – Pandanales – Paracryphiales – Petrosaviales – Picramniales – Piperales – Poales – Proteales – Ranunculales – Rosales – Santalales – Sapindales – Saxifragales – Solanales – Trochodendrales – Vahliales – Vitales – Zingiberales – Zygophyllales ==References== [[Wikipedia:Flowering plant]]<br> [[Wikispecies:Magnoliopsida]] doug68nx14e4ukp66vsihmz0fz71ixb 2832795 2832793 2026-09-11T10:40:18Z The Citer 3110681 /* Classes */ 2832795 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Image:Tree of Angiosperm Phylogeny 2024.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Many species of Angiospermae phylogenetic picture.]] Flowering plants are plants that bear flowers and fruits, and form the clade Angiospermae (/ˌændʒiəˈspɜːrmiː/). The term ''angiosperm'' is derived from the Greek words ἀγγεῖον (angeion; 'container, vessel') and σπέρμα (sperma; 'seed'), meaning that the seeds are enclosed within a fruit. The group was formerly called Magnoliophyta. Angiosperms are by far the most diverse group of land plants with 64 orders, 416 families, approximately 13,000 known genera and 300,000 known species! The diversity of flowering plants is not evenly distributed. Nearly all species belong to the eudicot (75%), monocot (23%), and magnoliid (2%) clades. The remaining five clades contain a little over 250 species in total; i.e. less than 0.1% of flowering plant diversity, divided among nine families. The 25 most speciated families are: {| class="wikitable sortable" |+ The 25 largest angiosperm families<ref name="Stevens 2011"/> |- ! <!--Rank, by size--> !! Group !! Family !! English name !! No. of spp. |- | 1 || Eudicot || Asteraceae or Compositae || daisy || 22,750 |- | 2 || Monocot || Orchidaceae || orchid || 21,950 |- | 3 || Eudicot || Fabaceae or Leguminosae || pea, legume || 19,400 |- | 4 || Eudicot || Rubiaceae || Rubia|madder || 13,150<ref>{{cite web|title=Kew Scientist 30|date=October 2006|url=https://www.kew.org/kewscientist/ks_30.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927005410/https://www.kew.org/kewscientist/ks_30.pdf|archive-date=27 September 2007}}</ref> |- | 5 || Monocot || Poaceae or Gramineae || grass || 10,035 |- | 6 || Eudicot || Lamiaceae or Labiatae || mint || 7,175 |- | 7 || Eudicot || Euphorbiaceae || spurge || 5,735 |- | 8 || Eudicot || Melastomataceae || melastome || 5,005 |- | 9 || Eudicot || Myrtaceae || myrtle || 4,625 |- | 10 || Eudicot || Apocynaceae || dogbane || 4,555 |- | 11 || Monocot || Cyperaceae || sedge || 4,350 |- | 12 || Eudicot || Malvaceae || mallow || 4,225 |- | 13 || Monocot || Araceae || arum || 4,025 |- | 14 || Eudicot || Ericaceae || heath || 3,995 |- | 15 || Eudicot || Gesneriaceae || gesneriad || 3,870 |- | 16 || Eudicot || Apiaceae or Umbelliferae || parsley || 3,780 |- | 17 || Eudicot || Brassicaceae or Cruciferae || cabbage || 3,710 |- | 18 || Magnoliid dicot || Piperaceae || pepper || 3,600 |- | 19 || Monocot || Bromeliaceae || bromeliad || 3,540 |- | 20 || Eudicot || Acanthaceae || acanthus || 3,500 |- | 21 || Eudicot || Rosaceae || rose || 2,830 |- | 22 || Eudicot || Boraginaceae || borage || 2,740 |- | 23 || Eudicot || Urticaceae || nettle || 2,625 |- | 24 || Eudicot || Ranunculaceae || buttercup || 2,525 |- | 25 || Magnoliid dicot || Lauraceae || laurel || 2,500 |} ==More facts== ===Name Meaning=== Magnolia-like plant ===Major distinguishing characteristics=== Flowers and fruit, vascular system with vessels ==Evolutionary history== The evolutionary success and rapid diversification of angiosperms are largely attributed to their coevolutionary relationships with animal pollinators, particularly insects, birds, and bats. Unlike [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gymnosperm gymnosperms], which today rely on wind for pollen dispersal, angiosperms developed specialized traits—such as nectar production, vivid pigmentations, and complex volatile scents—to attract specific floral visitors. ==Classes== No one really knows how to divide Angiospermae in to classes. (See [[Talk:Plant Divisions (Phyla)/Magnoliophyta|talk]]) However, we can still list the defined orders. ===Orders=== Acorales – Alismatales – Amborellales – Apiales – Aquifoliales – Arecales – Asparagales – Asterales – Austrobaileyales – Berberidopsidales – Boraginales – Brassicales – Bruniales – Buxales – Canellales – Caryophyllales – Celastrales – Ceratophyllales – Chloranthales – Commelinales – Cornales – Crossosomatales – Cucurbitales – Dilleniales – Dioscoreales – Dipsacales – Ericales – Escalloniales – Fabales – Fagales – Garryales – Gentianales – Geraniales – Gunnerales – Huerteales – Icacinales – Lamiales – Laurales – Liliales – Magnoliales – Malpighiales – Malvales – Metteniusales – Myrtales – Nymphaeales – Oxalidales – Pandanales – Paracryphiales – Petrosaviales – Picramniales – Piperales – Poales – Proteales – Ranunculales – Rosales – Santalales – Sapindales – Saxifragales – Solanales – Trochodendrales – Vahliales – Vitales – Zingiberales – Zygophyllales ==References== [[Wikipedia:Flowering plant]]<br> [[Wikispecies:Magnoliopsida]] fja97aquyu8tpjxm6vqh99r8lihewbv 2832796 2832795 2026-09-11T10:43:22Z The Citer 3110681 I don't want people to think I'm a fraud. 2832796 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Image:Tree of Angiosperm Phylogeny 2024.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Many species of Angiospermae phylogenetic picture.]] Flowering plants are plants that bear flowers and fruits, and form the clade Angiospermae (/ˌændʒiəˈspɜːrmiː/). The term ''angiosperm'' is derived from the Greek words ἀγγεῖον (angeion; 'container, vessel') and σπέρμα (sperma; 'seed'), meaning that the seeds are enclosed within a fruit. The group was formerly called Magnoliophyta. Angiosperms are by far the most diverse group of land plants with 64 orders, 416 families, approximately 13,000 known genera and 300,000 known species! The diversity of flowering plants is not evenly distributed. Nearly all species belong to the eudicot (75%), monocot (23%), and magnoliid (2%) clades. The remaining five clades contain a little over 250 species in total; i.e. less than 0.1% of flowering plant diversity, divided among nine families. The 25 most speciated families are: {| class="wikitable sortable" |+ The 25 largest angiosperm families |- ! <!--Rank, by size--> !! Group !! Family !! English name !! No. of spp. |- | 1 || Eudicot || Asteraceae or Compositae || daisy || 22,750 |- | 2 || Monocot || Orchidaceae || orchid || 21,950 |- | 3 || Eudicot || Fabaceae or Leguminosae || pea, legume || 19,400 |- | 4 || Eudicot || Rubiaceae || Rubia|madder || 13,150<ref>{{cite web|title=Kew Scientist 30|date=October 2006|url=https://www.kew.org/kewscientist/ks_30.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927005410/https://www.kew.org/kewscientist/ks_30.pdf|archive-date=27 September 2007}}</ref> |- | 5 || Monocot || Poaceae or Gramineae || grass || 10,035 |- | 6 || Eudicot || Lamiaceae or Labiatae || mint || 7,175 |- | 7 || Eudicot || Euphorbiaceae || spurge || 5,735 |- | 8 || Eudicot || Melastomataceae || melastome || 5,005 |- | 9 || Eudicot || Myrtaceae || myrtle || 4,625 |- | 10 || Eudicot || Apocynaceae || dogbane || 4,555 |- | 11 || Monocot || Cyperaceae || sedge || 4,350 |- | 12 || Eudicot || Malvaceae || mallow || 4,225 |- | 13 || Monocot || Araceae || arum || 4,025 |- | 14 || Eudicot || Ericaceae || heath || 3,995 |- | 15 || Eudicot || Gesneriaceae || gesneriad || 3,870 |- | 16 || Eudicot || Apiaceae or Umbelliferae || parsley || 3,780 |- | 17 || Eudicot || Brassicaceae or Cruciferae || cabbage || 3,710 |- | 18 || Magnoliid dicot || Piperaceae || pepper || 3,600 |- | 19 || Monocot || Bromeliaceae || bromeliad || 3,540 |- | 20 || Eudicot || Acanthaceae || acanthus || 3,500 |- | 21 || Eudicot || Rosaceae || rose || 2,830 |- | 22 || Eudicot || Boraginaceae || borage || 2,740 |- | 23 || Eudicot || Urticaceae || nettle || 2,625 |- | 24 || Eudicot || Ranunculaceae || buttercup || 2,525 |- | 25 || Magnoliid dicot || Lauraceae || laurel || 2,500 |} ==More facts== ===Name Meaning=== Magnolia-like plant ===Major distinguishing characteristics=== Flowers and fruit, vascular system with vessels ==Evolutionary history== The evolutionary success and rapid diversification of angiosperms are largely attributed to their coevolutionary relationships with animal pollinators, particularly insects, birds, and bats. Unlike [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gymnosperm gymnosperms], which today rely on wind for pollen dispersal, angiosperms developed specialized traits—such as nectar production, vivid pigmentations, and complex volatile scents—to attract specific floral visitors. ==Classes== No one really knows how to divide Angiospermae in to classes. (See [[Talk:Plant Divisions (Phyla)/Magnoliophyta|talk]]) However, we can still list the defined orders. ===Orders=== Acorales – Alismatales – Amborellales – Apiales – Aquifoliales – Arecales – Asparagales – Asterales – Austrobaileyales – Berberidopsidales – Boraginales – Brassicales – Bruniales – Buxales – Canellales – Caryophyllales – Celastrales – Ceratophyllales – Chloranthales – Commelinales – Cornales – Crossosomatales – Cucurbitales – Dilleniales – Dioscoreales – Dipsacales – Ericales – Escalloniales – Fabales – Fagales – Garryales – Gentianales – Geraniales – Gunnerales – Huerteales – Icacinales – Lamiales – Laurales – Liliales – Magnoliales – Malpighiales – Malvales – Metteniusales – Myrtales – Nymphaeales – Oxalidales – Pandanales – Paracryphiales – Petrosaviales – Picramniales – Piperales – Poales – Proteales – Ranunculales – Rosales – Santalales – Sapindales – Saxifragales – Solanales – Trochodendrales – Vahliales – Vitales – Zingiberales – Zygophyllales ==References== [[Wikipedia:Flowering plant]]<br> [[Wikispecies:Magnoliopsida]] i0zqzi3r1ojr9w0movcac3sj50stw01 1 331992 2832794 2026-09-11T10:38:38Z The Citer 3110681 /* Can we divide Magnoliophyta into usable classes? */ new section 2832794 wikitext text/x-wiki == Can we divide Magnoliophyta into usable classes? == [[User:The Citer|The Citer]] ([[User talk:The Citer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/The Citer|contribs]]) 10:38, 11 September 2026 (UTC) 916f83sthe7mcac8i1902brq6i5idpj 6 331993 2832800 2026-09-11T11:29:41Z Young1lim 21186 {{Information |Description=Work2.1A: Libraries (20260909 - 20260908) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-09-11 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} 2832800 wikitext text/x-wiki == Summary == {{Information |Description=Work2.1A: Libraries (20260909 - 20260908) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-09-11 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} == Licensing == {{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} 3idcixq1awnpetw9yermmvhxdoay8cu 6 331994 2832802 2026-09-11T11:30:29Z Young1lim 21186 {{Information |Description=Work2.1A: Libraries (20260910 - 20260909) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-09-11 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} 2832802 wikitext text/x-wiki == Summary == {{Information |Description=Work2.1A: Libraries (20260910 - 20260909) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-09-11 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} == Licensing == {{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} 4hwu7yb9yvkftswh62ln0l9r10ajttf 6 331995 2832804 2026-09-11T11:31:15Z Young1lim 21186 {{Information |Description=Work2.1A: Libraries (20260911 - 20260910) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-09-11 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} 2832804 wikitext text/x-wiki == Summary == {{Information |Description=Work2.1A: Libraries (20260911 - 20260910) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-09-11 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} == Licensing == {{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} ial2ngybzw0x25e1jgi7tpmpnv0wbrh