Wikiversity enwikiversity https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Wikiversity:Main_Page MediaWiki 1.47.0-wmf.21 first-letter Media Special Talk User User talk Wikiversity Wikiversity talk File File talk MediaWiki MediaWiki talk Template Template talk Help Help talk Category Category talk School School talk Portal Portal talk Topic Topic talk Collection Collection talk Draft Draft talk TimedText TimedText talk Module Module talk Event Event talk 14 1570 2834345 2714501 2026-09-23T16:33:15Z ~2026-51523-45 3111504 2834345 wikitext text/x-wiki {{main|Wikiversity:Schools}} Schools are dynamically lysted at [[Wikiversity:Browse]] so be careful about what you include directly in this category. [[Category:Wikiversity]] so6ruclo5kyu7jqqv5duibr30f0d905 0 4591 2834344 2578397 2026-09-23T16:10:58Z AkashicLibrarian 3007579 Formatting fixes in Activities under Assignments. Corrected newlines. Matched uracil capitalization to previous nucleotide base capitalization. 2834344 wikitext text/x-wiki Welcome to the '''Exploring Molecular Biology''' learning project. [[Image:Gene hu.png|thumb|right|300px|Diagram of a typical [[w:Gene|gene]].]] ==Content summary== Independent study with group collaboration projects for exploration of the molecular basis of life. ==[[Portal:Learning Materials|Learning materials]]== Learning materials and [[Portal:Learning Projects|learning projects]] are located in the main Wikiversity namespace. Simply make a [[link]] to the name of the lesson (lessons are independent pages in the [[Wikiversity:Namespaces|main namespace]]) and start writing! * [[Primary Structure]] - participants explore the relation between gene sequence and protein sequence. * [[How to access the genome databases]] ===Lessons=== * Lesson 1: *Chemical structure of DNA **Phosphodiester bonds are formed 5' to 3' **A pairs with T **G pairs with C *Chemical structure of RNA **Understand the difference between DNA and RNA **Uracil pairs with Adenine **Hydroxy group on the 2' carbon ===Assignments=== ====Activities==== -Draw Ribose. Label the 5' (5 prime) carbon, the 3' carbon, and the 2' carbon. -Draw Deoxyribose. Label the 5' carbon and 3' carbon. -Draw adenine and guanine -Draw cytosine and thymine -Draw uracil -Draw adenosine tri-phosphate (ATP) -Draw *etc. ====Readings==== Each activity has a suggested associated background reading selection: * [[Wikipedia: Molecular biology]] * [[Wikipedia: DNA]] * [[Wikipedia: Purine]] * [[Wikipedia: Adenine]] * [[Wikipedia: Guanine]] * [[Wikipedia: Pyrimidine]] * [[Wikipedia: Thymine]] * [[Wikipedia: Cytosine]] * [[Wikipedia: RNA]] * [[Wikipedia: Uracil]] == See also == * [[Wikipedia: Nucleic acid structure]] ==[[/External resources/]]== Please place links to external learning resources on this subpage. *[https://archive.is/20121212121737/www2.hawaii.edu/~dserghi/BIOL407/BIOL407-Cal.html hawaii.edu/~dserghi/BIOL407] (Original link was dead, present link is to archive copy) *[https://www.britannica.com/science/molecular-biology molecular biology] (Written and fact-checked by The Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica) ==References== {{reflist}} [[Category:Molecular biology|*]] [[category:study guides]] m809op1z8miz82mi2xyitkd1z208am3 0 48728 2834347 2570352 2026-09-23T19:44:21Z ~2026-51353-53 3111514 /* 2007 */ Minor edit to include research from https://sixcolors.com/post/2019/04/review-kindle-paperwhite-2019-and-kindle-2019/ 2834347 wikitext text/x-wiki == Prehistoric to CE == === ~200000 BCE - Creation of tools and weapons made of stone === Found in Europe, Africa and East Asia === ~7000 BCE - Earliest Form of Metallurgy === Old World Neolithic peoples decorate copper by hammering === ~28000 BCE - First Fired Ceramics === === ~5500 BCE - Development of wooden wheel for transport === Introduced in Ancient Mesopotamia (present-day Iraq) === ~5000 BCE - Discovery of Ability to Extract Liquid Copper from Malachite and Azurite === First example of extractive metallurgy === ~3500 BCE - Smelting of Iron by Egyptians === Iron is the most dominant metallurgical material === ~3000 BCE to 300 BC - Manufacturing similar to paper with papyrus plant === Experimentation of materials for the writing of the Egyptians === ~3000 BCE - Combination of Tin Ore and Copper Ore to Produce Bronze === Discovered in area of modern Syria and Turkey === ~2200 BCE - Invention of Glass in Iran === A great nonmetallic engineering material === ~1500 BCE - Lost-Wax Casting === Developed by Metal Workers in Near East === ~1500 BCE Porcelain === Crafted by Potters in China === ~300 BCE - Development of Crucible Steel Making in India === === ~200 BCE - Iron Casting=== Introduced in China === ~100 BCE - Glass Blowing=== Likely Developed by Phoenicians == 0 CE - 999 CE == === 400 - Seven Meter High Iron Pillar Forged === 100AD Clear Glass. Romans added manganese oxide to the Syrian glass mix of 100BC 100AD The dome. Roman engineering in stone. 100AD Suspension bridge. Chinese development with vines, ropes and chains. Ancient societies invent some of the first machines for moving water and agriculture. 590 Chinese scientists discover explosive mixtures consisting of sulfur, charcoal, and saltpeter (potassium nitrate) 618 Paper money is first put into use during the Tang Dynasty of China (618–906) 700s Porcelain is invented in China 747 The first reported air conditioning system comprised of water-powered fan wheels, by Emperor Xuanzong of the Tang Dynasty. == 1000 CE - 1499 CE == === 1450 - Lead-Tin-Antimony Alloy to Cast in Copper Alloy Molds === Devised by Johannes Gutenberg Used in printing press 1150-1350 Blast furnace: Cast iron makes its appearance in central Europe 1180 Mirrors : The first reference to a "glass" mirror is 1180 by Alexander Neckham which states "If you remove the lead behind the glass then the image of the person you are looking at will disappear." 1105 1er. Windmill - France. 1100 La Pólvora (China). 1195 Magnetic Compass - Europe. 1200 Firearm (China). 1300 The types of wood - Turkestan appear. circa 1220. Wheel crane : The first reference to a wheel crane in the literature dates back to 1225 in France Wheelbarrow (circa 1170): Very useful in construction, mining, and agriculture. The first literary evidence on the use of wheelbarrows dates back to 1170 - 1250 in northwestern Europe. Mechanical watches (13th and 14th century): A European innovation, weight-driven watches were mainly used in city hall clocks. Paper mill (1282): The first accurate evidence of a paper mill powered by hydraulic power dates back to 1282 Magnets (1160): The first reference goes back to the Roman d'Enéas, written between 1155 and 1160. == 1500 CE - 1599 CE == === 1505 - Glass mirror. Venetian innovation of glass. === === 1530 - Gerardus Mercator helps to revolutionize navigation with better mapmaking. === === 1540 - Vannoccio Biringuccio publishes first systematic book on metallurgy. === === 1540 - Sand casting. Italian metallurgist casting with molten metal. === === 1556 - Georg Agricola's influential book on metallurgy. === === 1556 - Examination of Mining and Metallurgy Practiced in 16th Century. === === 1590 - A Dutch spectacle maker named Zacharias Janssen makes the first compound microscope. === == 1600 CE - 1699 CE == === ~1608 - The duth scientist Hans Lippersheyinvents the telescope Times === === ~1612 - The Flintlock firearm is developed in France === === ~1621 - John Napier invents the slide rule === === ~1643 - Torricelli makes the first barometer using mercury in a sealed glass tube === === ~1650 - Vacuum pump. German scientific invention by Otto von Guericke === === ~1651 - The Dutch scientist Anton van Leeuwenhoek develops a microscope === === ~1668 - Optical Microscopy that Magnifies Greater than 200 Times === == 1700 CE - 1799 CE == === 1709 - Replacement of Charcoal by Coke in Blast Furnace in Process of Iron Smelting === Discovered by Abraham Darby I === 1775 - Invention of Modern Concrete === 1766 - Henry Cavendish discovers hydrogen As a chemist, one of his most important findings was the discovery of hydrogen. On February 23, 1765, Cavendish was able to isolate this element and discover its properties, as well as carbon dioxide and other gases. Through his experiments it was established that hydrogen is the lightest 1766 to the Royal Society. Subsequently, he discovered the composition of waterof the known gases The results were published in the communication Factitious Airs, presented in 1766 to the Royal Society. He later discovered the composition of the natural water, stating that "it is composed of dephlogisticated air (oxygen) bound to phlogiston (hydrogen)". 1774 - Joseph Priestley discovers the oxygen and shows that the air is formed by different gases Priestley's family moved to a house next to a brewery and he became interested in the gas bubbling in this company. This discovery occurred when heated HgO, mercury monoxide, with which it obtained two vapors, one is condensed in mercury droplets (Hg). To that gas he picked it up in a container, observing that it increased the brilliance of a flame and that if it introduced live mice, they became very active and lived longer. Priestley inhaled from this gas and felt comfortable. A this gas, called it dephlogisticated air, but it was oxygen by nature. He was the first person to use the oxygen mask. Priestley communicated his observations to the French chemist Antoine Laurent de Lavoisier, who repeated the experiments, thus demonstrating that he was in the air and in the water, pointing out his role in respiration and combustion 1789 Zirconium 1789 Uranium 1790 Estroncio 1791 Titanio 1794 Itrio 1797 Beryllium 1797 Chrome Introduced by John Smeaton == 1800 CE - 1899 CE == === 1805 - Electroplating === Invented by Luigi Brugnatelli === 1807 - Foundation of Electrometallurgy and Electrochemistry === Process of electrolysis developed by Sir Humphry Davy Developed to separate element metals from salts === 1815 - Safety lamp for coal mines === Humphry Davy invents a safety lamp that is used in coal mines without triggering an explosion. === 1821 - Thermocouple === Invented by Thomas Johann Seebeck. === 1822 - Theory of Stress and Strain === Presented by Augustin Cauchy Measurements of compression and tensile strength of strong matierials, graded and simplified the smelting process. === 1824 - Patent issued for the invention of cement === Issued to Joseph Aspdin. === 1825 - Invention of electromagnet === Invented by William Sturgeon. === 1827 - Isolation of Elemental Aluminium === Accomplished by Friedrich Wohler === 1844 - Vulcanization of Rubber === Process invented by Charles Goodyear === 1849 - Ferroconcrete (reinforced concrete) === Invented by Joseph Monier. === 1850 - Invention of inverted microscope === Invented by J. Lawrence Smith === 1856 - Bottom-Blown Acid Process to Melt Low-Carbon Iron === Patented by Bessemer === 1859 - Discovery of celluloid. === Discovered by Alexander Parkes. It is generally considered the first thermoplastic. === 1860 - Invention of Linoleum === Fredrick Walton invents linoleum, comprised of linseed oil, pigments, pine rosin, and pine flour. === 1863 - Light Microscopy to Study Microstucture of Steel === Used by Henry Clifton Sorby === 1864 - Periodic Table of Elements === Introduced by Mendeleev === 1867 - Dynamite === Patented by Alfred Nobel === 1872 - Asphalt === It is first developed by Edward de Smedt at Columbia University. === 1872 - Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) === Is first created by Eugen Baumann. === 1876 - Basis of Understanding Modern Thermodynamics and Physical Chemistry === "On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances" published by J. Willar Gibbs === 1878 - Arc-type electric furnace === Patented by William Siemens. Leads to the modern electric arc furnace, which is the principle furnace type for the modern electric production of steel. === 1883 - First solar cell === Charles Fritts makes the first solar cells using selenium wafers. === 1883 - Invention of thermostat === Warren Johnson invents the first temperature regulating device known as a thermostat. === 1886 - Electrolytic Reduction of Alumina into Aluminium === Discovered by Charles Martin Hall and Paul Heroult === 1890 - Examination of Microstructure of Hard Steel Alloy === Adolf Martens finds banded regions of variously oriented microcrystals === 1893 - Patent for SiC === Edward Goodrich Acheson patents a method for making carborundum (SiC), an abrasive compound. === 1896 - Discovery of Radioactivity === Found by Pierre and Marie Curie === 1898 - Development of Phase Diagram of Iron and Carbon === Creating by William Roberts-Austen ===1900 CE - 1949 CE === ===1901 -Radio-wave signals across the Atlantic Ocean from England to Canada=== sends by Guglielmo Marconi ===1901 The first electric vacuum cleaner is developed=== ==1903 -Build the first engine-powered airplane.== Brothers Wilbur and Orville Wright === 1904 - Alloying Composition of Stainless Steel === Developed by Leon Guillet ===1905 -Explains the photoelectric effect.=== Albert Einstein ===1905 -Invents the chainsaw=== Samuel J. Bens ===1906 -Carrier pioneers the air conditioner.=== Willis Carrier ===1906 -Discovers chromatography.=== Mikhail Tswett ===1907 -Invents the electric clothes washer=== Alva Fisher ===1908 -Develops the electrostatic smoke precipitator (smokestackpollution scrubber). === Frederick Gardner ===1908 -Launches the Ford Model T, the world's first truly affordable car. === American industrialist and engineer Henry Ford ===1909- Develop the glass electrode, enabling very precise measurements of acidity.=== German chemists Fritz Haber and Zygmunt Klemensiewicz === 1909 - Bakelite === Synthesized by Leo Baekeland Bakelite is a thermosetting hard plastic === 1911 - Superconductivity === Discovered by Kammerlingh Omnes Found when studying pure metals at low temperatures ===1912- Describes the basic chemistry that leads to practical, lithium-ion rechargeable batteries (though they don't appear in a practical, commercial form until the 1990s).=== American chemist Gilbert Lewis ===1912 -Counter, a detector for radioactivity=== Hans Geiger develops the Geiger === 1912 - Diffraction of X-Rays by Crystals === Discovered by Max von Laue === 1913 - Publication of the Bohr Model of Atomic Structure === Theory that properties determined by number of electrons in orbits around nucleus ===1919 -Pioneers the mass spectrometer and uses it to discover many isotopes.=== Francis Aston === 1920 - Develops mechanical television=== John Logie Baird ===1920- Develops the principle of the modern, liquid-fueled space rocket=== Robert H. Goddard ===1920- Independently develop primitive optical character recognition (OCR) scanning systems.=== German engineer Gustav Tauschek and American Paul Handel ===1920 -Invents the magnetron, a device that can generate microwaves from electricity.=== Albert W. Hull === 1920 -Invents modern electronic television=== Philo T. Farnsworth === 1920 - Statement Regarding Structure of Polymers === Work Published by Hermann Staudinger Polymer Consists of Long Chains of Short Repeating Molecular Units === 1920 - Fracture Mechanics === Publication by A.A. Griffith of "The Phenomenon of Rupture and Flow of Solids" Problem of fracture in context of energy balance ===1921- Coin the word "robot" in a play about artificial humans.=== Karel Capek and his brother ===1921 -Develops the polygraph ("lie detector") machine=== John Larson === 1925 - Basis of Quantum Mechanics === Matrix mechanics developed by Werner Heisenberg Wave mechanics and the non-relativistic Schrodinger equation of atoms invented by Erwin Schrodinger === 1926 - "Superalloy" === Process Patented by Paul Merica Created by adding small amounts of aluminium to Ni-Cr alloy === 1927 - Light-Emitting Diode === Paper published by Oleg Losev ===1928 -Invents coolant chemicals for air conditioners and refrigerators=== Thomas Midgley, Jr. ===1928 -The electric refrigerator is invented.=== ===1930 -Pioneers color television=== Peter Goldmark ===1930 -Pioneer the modern ballpoint pen=== Laszlo and Georg Biro ===1930 -Creates the first solar-powered house=== Maria Telkes ===1930 -Oversees the development of radar=== Robert Watson Watt ===1930 -Develops the electronic pH meter=== Arnold Beckman ===1931 -Invents the xenon flash lamp for high-speed photography=== Harold E. Edgerton ===1932 -discovers the shape memory effect in a gold-cadmium alloy=== Arne Olander === 1933 - Transmission Electron Microscope === Built by Max Knoll and Ernst Ruska === 1934 - Theory of Dislocations to Explain Plastic Deformation of Ductile Materials === Proposed by Egon Orowan, Michael Polyani, and G.I. Taylor === 1935 - Polymer Nylon === Wallace Hume Carothers, Julian Hill are among researches who patented the process ===1936 -Invents the magnetic reed switch.=== W.B. Elwood ===1938 -Invents the principle of photocopying (xerography)=== Chester Carlson ===1938 -Invents a nonstick plastic coating called Teflon=== Roy Plunkett === 1939 - Builds the first truly practical helicopter === Igor Sikorsky === 1939 - Split Nucleus of Uranium Atom === Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassman bombard nucleus of uranium atom by bombarding with neutrons === 1939 - Discovery of P- and N-Type Regions in Silicon === Found by Russel Ohl, George Southworth, Jack Scaff, and Henry Theuerer === 1940 - Develop a compact magnetron for use in airplane radar navigation systems. === English physicists John Randall and Harry Boot === 1942 - Builds the first nuclear chain reactor at the University of Chicago.=== Enrico Fermi === 1945 - Proposes a kind of desk-sized memory store called Memex, which has some of the features later incorporated into electronic books and the World Wide Web (WWW). === US government scientist Vannevar Bush The term "metamaterials" was coined in 1999 by Rodger M. Walser of the University of Texas at Austin, and he defined metamaterials as "macroscopic composites having a manmade, three-dimensional, periodic cellular architecture designed to produce an optimized combination, not available in nature, of two or more responses to specific excitation." The first metamaterial was developed by W.E. Kock in 1946. He created the metal-lens antennas. === 1948 - Transistor === Fundamental component of all modern electronics Invented by John Bardeen, Walter H. Brattain, and William Schockley === 1949 - Patent barcodes—striped patterns that are initially developed for marking products in grocery stores.=== Bernard Silver and N. Joseph Woodland == 1950 CE - 1959 CE == === 1950 - X-ray crystallography reveal helical structure of DNA === Rosalind Franklin uses x-ray crystallography to create crystal-clear x-ray photographs that reveal the basic helical structure of the DNA molecule. === 1950 - Microwave laser and Microwave ovens === Charles Townes and Arthur Schawlow invent the maser (microwave laser). Gordon Gould coins the word "laser" and builds the first optical laser in 1958. Percy Spencer accidentally discovers how to cook with microwaves, inadvertently inventing the microwave oven. === 1951 - Experimental Breeder Reactor 1 === The Idaho National Engineering and Environmental Laboratory (INEEL) produces the world’s first usable amount of electricity from nuclear energy. When neutrons released in the fission process convert uranium into plutonium, they generate, or breed, more fissile material, thus producing new fuel as well as energy. No longer in operation, the reactor is now a registered national historic landmark and is open to the public for touring === 1952 - Glass into fine-grained ceramics === Corning research chemist S. Donald Stookey discovers a heat treatment process for transforming glass objects into fine-grained ceramics. Further development of this new Pyroceram composition leads to the introduction of CorningWare in 1957. === 1953 - High-density polyethylene === Karl Zeigler develops a method for creating a high-density polyethylene molecule that can be manufactured at low temperatures and pressures but has a very high melting point. === 1954 - Synthetic diamonds === Working at General Electric’s research laboratories, scientists use a high-pressure vessel to synthesize diamonds, converting a mixture of graphite and metal powder to minuscule diamonds. The process requires a temperature of 4,800°F and a pressure of 1.5 million pounds per square inch, but the tiny diamonds are invaluable as abrasives and cutting points. === 1955 - High molecular weight polypropylene developed === Building on the work of Karl Ziegler, Giullo Natta in Italy develops a high molecular weight polypropylene that has high tensile strength and is resistant to heat, ushering in an age of "designer" polymers. === 1955 - Silicon dioxide discovery === Carl Frosch and Link Derick at Bell Labs discover that silicon dioxide can act as a diffusion mask. That is, when a silicon wafer is heated to about 1200°C in an atmosphere of water vapor or oxygen, a thin skin of silicon dioxide forms on the surface.are diffused into the wafer while the active elements are protected by the oxide layer. === 1958 - Integrated circuit === Jack S. Kilby of Texas Instruments and Robert Noyce of Fairchild Semiconductor, create the integrated circuit, a composite semiconductor block in which transistor, resistor, condenser, and other electrical components are manufactured together as one unit. === 1958 - Carbon Fibers === Dr. Roger Bacon created the first high performance carbon fibers at the Parma Technical Center outside of Cleveland, OH === 1958 - "Microchip" === Created by Jack Kilby Integration of Capacitors, Resistors, Diodes, and Transistors in Germanium === 1959 - Introduction of the concepts of nanotechnology === Presentation by Richard Feynman of "There's Plenty of Room at the Bottom" === 1959 - Photolithography === == 1960 CE - 1969 CE == === 1960- Theodore Maiman invents the ruby laser. === The first working laser (pulsed ruby) is developed by Maimam of Hughes Aircraft Corporation. Javan, Bennet, and Herriot make the first He:Ne gas laser === 1960 - Spandex fibers are synthesized === === 1962 - Laser Diode === The first to demonstrate coherent light emission from a semiconductor diode (the first laser diode), is widely acknowledged to have been Robert N. Hall and his team at the General Electric research center in 1962. === 1962 - Polyimide resins are synthesized === === 1962- William Armistead and S. Donald Stookey of Corning Glass Works invent light-sensitive (photochromic) glass. === Modern photochromic lenses tend to be plastic and instead of silver chemicals they contain organic (carbon-based) molecules called naphthopyrans that react to light in a slightly different way: they subtly change their molecular structure when ultraviolet light strikes them. In this altered form, they soak up more ordinary light as it tries to pass by (technically, we say they have a different absorption spectrum), which is what makes the lenses darken. Imagine lots of molecules suddenly darkening inside a clear lens. It's a bit like closing the blinds in front of your window on a sunny day: as the slats turn, they progressively block out more and more light. === 1962 - The first SQUID superconducting quantum interference device is invented === A SQUID (for superconducting quantum interference device) is a very sensitive magnetometer used to measure extremely subtle magnetic fields, based on superconducting loops containing Josephson junctions. === 1963 - The first balloon embolectomy catheter is invented by Thomas Fogarty. === Thomas Fogarty invented the "medical industry standard" balloon embolectomy catheter. Patented in 1963, this inflated balloon extraction technique revolutionized surgical embolectomy procedures. The Foley catheter is a rubber tube with a balloon tip named after it's inventor. After insertion into the bladder via the urethra, the tip is filled using a syringe with sterilized liquid or air, in order to keep the catheter in place. This type of catheter allows for continuous draining of the bladder, important during and after surgery. === 1963 - Ivan Sutherland develops Sketchpad, one of the first computer-aided design programs. === === 1965 - A bulletproof nylon fabric, Kevlar, is invented at DuPont === Kevlar® or polyparaphenylene terephthalamide is a polyamide synthesized for the first time in 1965 by Polish-American chemist Stephanie Kwolek (1923-2014), who worked for DuPont. The obtaining of the fibers of Kevlar was complicated, emphasizing the contribution of Herbert Blades, that solved the problem of which solvent to use for the processing. === 1965 - Frank Pantridge develops the portable defibrillator for treating cardiac arrest patients. === === 1965 - James Russell invents the compact disk === A compact disk (cd) is a popular form of digital storage media used for computer files, pictures, and music. The plastic platter is read and written to by a laser in a CD drive. It comes in several varieties including CD-ROM, CD-R, and CD-RW. James Russell invented the compact disk in 1965. James Russell was granted a total of 22 patents for various elements of his compact disk system. However, the compact disk did not become popular until it was mass manufactured by Philips in 1980. === 1965 - Styrene–butadiene block copolymers are synthesized. === === 1965 - Commercial Scanning Electron Microscope === Introduced by Cambridge Instruments == 1970 CE - 1985 CE == {| class="wikitable" | colspan="2" |'''1970s (Late)''' |  |'''Arthroscope introduced''' {| class="wikitable" |Advances in fiber-optics technology give surgeons a view into joints and other surgical sites through an arthroscope, an instrument the diameter of a pencil, containing a small lens and light system, with a video camera at the outer end. Used initially as a diagnostic tool prior to open surgery, arthroscopic surgery, with its minimal incisions and generally shorter recovery time, is soon widely used to treat a variety of joint problems. |} |- | colspan="2" |'''1970s''' |  |'''Digital seismology''' {| class="wikitable" |The introduction of digital seismology in oil exploration increases accuracy in locating underground pools of oil. The technique of using seismic waves to look for oil is based on determining the time interval between the sending of a sound wave (generated by an explosion, an electric vibrator, or a falling weight) and the arrival of reflected or refracted waves at one or more seismic detectors. Analysis of differences in arrival times and amplitudes of the waves tells seismologists what kinds of rock the waves have traveled through. |} |- | colspan="2" | '''1970s''' |  |'''Mud pulse telemetry''' {| class="wikitable" |Teleco, Inc., of Greenville, South Carolina, and the U.S. Department of Energy introduce mud pulse telemetry, a system of relaying pressure pulses through drilling mud to convey the location of the drill bit. Mud pulse telemetry is now an oil industry standard, saving millions of dollars in time and labor. |} |- |  |'''1970''' |  |'''Optical fibers that meet purity standards''' {| class="wikitable" |Corning Glass Works scientists Donald Keck, Peter Schultz, and Robert Maurer report the creation of optical fibers that meet the standards set by Kao and Hockham. The purest glass ever made, it is composed of fused silica from the vapor phase and exhibits light loss of less than 20 decibels per kilometer (1 percent of the light remains after traveling 1 kilometer). By 1972 the team creates glass with a loss of 4 decibels per kilometer. Also in 1970, Morton Panish and Izuo Hayashi of Bell Laboratories, along with a group at the Ioffe Physical Institute in Leningrad, demonstrate a semiconductor laser that operates continuously at room temperature. Both breakthroughs will pave the way toward commercialization of fiber optics. |} |- | | | | |} '''1970''' The floppy disk (8 in.) is invented by Alan Shugart at IBM. {| class="wikitable" |  |'''1970s''' |  |'''Amorphous metal alloys created''' {| class="wikitable" |Amorphous metal alloys are made by cooling molten metal alloys extremely rapidly (more than a million degrees a second), producing a glassy solid with distinctive magnetic and mechanical properties. Such alloys are put to use in signal and power transformers and as sensors. |} |} {| class="wikitable" |'''1970s''' |  |'''Airbags become standard ''' {| class="wikitable" |Airbags, introduced in some models in the 1970s, become standard in more cars.  Originally installed only on the driver's side, they begin to appear on the front passenger side as well. |} |- |'''1970s''' |  |'''Fuel prices escalate, driving demand for fuel-efficient cars''' {| class="wikitable" |Fuel prices escalate, driving a demand for fuel-efficient cars, which increases the sale of small Japanese cars. This helps elevate the Japanese automobile industry to one of the greatest in the world. |} |- |'''1970s''' |  |'''Aswan High Dam''' {| class="wikitable" |The Aswan High Dam construction is completed, about 5 kilometers upstream from the original Aswan Dam (1902). Known as Saad el Aali in Arabic, it impounds the waters of the Nile to form Lake Nasser, the world’s third-largest reservoir, with a capacity of 5.97 trillion cubic feet. The project requires the relocation of thousands of people and floods some of Egypt’s monuments and temples, which are later raised. But the new dam controls annual floods along the Nile, supplies water for municipalities and irrigation, and provides Egypt with more than 10 billion kilowatt-hours of electric power every year. |} |- |'''1970''' |  |'''The first CD-ROM patented''' {| class="wikitable" |James T. Russell, working at Battelle Memorial Institute's Pacific Northwest Laboratories in Richland, Washington, patents the first systems capable of digital-to-optical recording and playback. The CD-ROM (compact disc read-only memory) is years ahead of its time, but in the mid-1980s audio companies purchase licenses to the technology. (See computers.) Russell goes on to earn dozens of patents for CD-ROM technology and other optical storage systems. |} |} '''1970''' Silica optical fibers grown by Corning Incorporated {| class="wikitable" |  |'''1970''' |  |'''Palo Alto Research Center (PARC)''' {| class="wikitable" |Xerox Corporation assembles a team of researchers in information and physical sciences in Palo Alto, California, with the goal of creating "the architecture of information." Over the next 30 years innovations emerging from the Palo Alto Research Center (PARC) include the concept of windows (1972), the first real personal computer (Alto in 1973), laser printers (1973), the concept of WYSIWYG (what you see is what you get) word processors (1974), and EtherNet (1974). In 2002 Xerox PARC incorporates as an independent company—Palo Alto Research Center, Inc. |} |} '''1970''' The first microfiber (polyester) is invented by Toray Industries in Japan; The first fabric comprised of microfibers, Ultrasuede, is also introduced {| class="wikitable" | '''1970''' |  |'''UNIX operating system''' {| class="wikitable" |At Bell Labs, Dennis Ritchie and Kenneth Thompson complete the UNIX operating system, which gains a wide following among scientists. |} |- |'''1970''' |  |'''Initial ARPANET host-to-host protocol''' {| class="wikitable" |In December the Network Working Group (NWG), formed at UCLA by Steve Crocker, deploys the initial ARPANET host-to-host protocol, called the Network Control Protocol (NCP). The primary function of the NCP is to establish connections, break connections, switch connections, and control flow over the ARPANET, which grows at the rate of one new node per month. |} |} '''1971''' The liquid crystal display (LCD) is invented by James Fergason {| class="wikitable" |'''1971''' |  |'''First soft contact lens''' {| class="wikitable" |Bausch & Lomb licenses Softlens, the first soft contact lens. The new product is the result of years of research by Czech scientists Otto Wichterle and Drahoslav Lim and is based on their earlier invention of a "hydrophilic" gel, a polymer material that is compatible with living tissue and therefore suitable for eye implants. Soft contacts allow more oxygen to reach the eye’s cornea than do hard plastic lenses. |} |} '''''1971''' Vacuum forming'' '''1971''' The first single chip microprocessor, Intel 4004, is introduced '''1971''' The video cassette recorder (VCR) is invented by Charles Ginsburg '''1971''' Hydrogels are synthesized {| class="wikitable" |'''1971''' |  |'''First space station, Salyut 1''' {| class="wikitable" |The Soviet Union launches the world’s first space station, ''Salyut 1'', in 1971. Two years later the United States sends its first space station, ''Skylab'', into orbit, where it hosts three crews before being abandoned in 1974. Russia continues to focus on long-duration space missions, launching the first modules of the ''Mir'' space station in 1986. |} |- |'''1971''' |  |'''Intel introduces "computer on a chip"''' {| class="wikitable" |Intel, founded in 1968 by Robert Noyce and Gordon Moore, introduces a "Computer on a chip," the 4004 four-bit microprocessor, design by Frederico Faggin, Ted Hoff, and Stan Mazor. It can execute 60,000 operations per second and changes the face of modern electronics by making it possible to include data processing hundreds of devices. A 4004 provides the computing power for NASA's Pioneer 10 spacecraft, launched the following year to survey Jupiter. 3M Corporation introduces the ceramic chip carrier, designed to protect integrated circuits when they are attached or removed from circuit boards. The chip is bonded to a gold base inside a cavity in the square ceramic carrier, and the package is then hermetically sealed. |} |} {| class="wikitable" |'''1972''' |  |'''CAT or CT scan is introduced''' {| class="wikitable" |Computerized axial tomography, popularly known as CAT or CT scan, is introduced as the most important development in medical filming since the X ray some 75 years earlier. (See Imaging) |} |- |'''1972''' |  |'''First percolator with an automatic drip process''' {| class="wikitable" |Sunbeam develops the Mr. Coffee, the first percolator with an automatic drip process as well as an automatic cut-off control that lessens the danger of over-brewing. Mr. Coffee quickly becomes the country’s leading coffeemaker. |} |- |'''1972''' |  |'''CAT scan''' {| class="wikitable" |Engineer Godfrey Hounsfield of Britain’s EMI Laboratories and South African–born American physicist Allan Cormack of Tufts University develop the computerized axial tomography scanner, or CAT scan. With the help of a computer, the device combines many x-ray images to generate cross-sectional views as well as three-dimensional images of internal organs and structures. Used to guide the placement of instruments or treatments, CAT eventually becomes the primary tool for diagnosing brain and spinal disorders. (In 1979, Hounsfield and Cormack are awarded the Nobel Prize in physiology or medicine.) |} |- | '''1972''' |  |'''MRI adapted for medical purposes''' {| class="wikitable" |Using high-speed computers, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is adapted for medical purposes, offering better discrimination of soft tissue than x-ray CAT and is now widely used for noninvasive imaging throughout the body. Among the pioneers in the development of MRI are Felix Bloch and Edward Purcell (Nobel Prize winners in 1952), Paul Lauterbur, and Raymond Damadian. |} |- | '''1972''' |  |'''First public demonstration of the new network technology''' {| class="wikitable" |Robert Kahn at BBN, who is responsible for the ARPANET’s system design, organizes the first public demonstration of the new network technology at the International Conference on Computer Communications in Washington, D.C., linking 40 machines and a Terminal Interface Processor to the ARPANET. |} |- | '''1972''' |  |'''First public demonstration of the new network technology''' {| class="wikitable" |Robert Kahn at BBN, who is responsible for the ARPANET’s system design, organizes the first public demonstration of the new network technology at the International Conference on Computer Communications in Washington, D.C., linking 40 machines and a Terminal Interface Processor to the ARPANET. |} |- |'''1972''' |  |'''Pioneer 10 sent to the outer solar system''' {| class="wikitable" |''Pioneer 10'', the first mission to be sent to the outer solar system, is launched on March 2 by an Atlas-Centaur rocket. The spacecraft makes its closest approach to Jupiter on December 3, 1973, after which it is on an escape trajectory from the Solar System. NASA launches ''Pioneer 11'' on April 5, 1973, and in December 1974 the spacecraft gives scientists their closest view of Jupiter, from 26,600 miles above the cloud tops. Five years later ''Pioneer 11'' makes its closest approach to Saturn, sending back images of the planet’s rings, and then heads out of the solar system in the opposite direction from ''Pioneer 10''. The last successful data acquisitions from ''Pioneer 10'' occur on March 3, 2002, the 30th anniversary of its launch date, and on April 27, 2002. Its signal is last detected on January 23, 2003, after an uplink is transmitted to turn off the last operational experiment. |} |- |'''1972''' |  |'''Home video game systems become available''' {| class="wikitable" |In September, Magnavox ships Odyssey 100 home game systems to distributors. The system is test marketed in 25 cities, and 9,000 units are sold in Southern California Alone during the first month at a price of $99.95. In November, Nolan Bushnell forms Atari and ships Pong, a coin-operated video arcade game, designed and built by Al Alcorn. The following year Atari introduces its home version of the game, which soon outstrips Odyssey 100. |} |} '''1973''' The disposable lighter is invented by Bic. {| class="wikitable" |  |'''1973''' |  |'''Chemical vapor deposition process''' {| class="wikitable" |John MacChesney and Paul O’Connor at Bell Laboratories develop a modified chemical vapor deposition process that heats chemical vapors and oxygen to form ultratransparent glass that can be mass-produced into low-loss optical fiber. The process still remains the standard for fiber-optic cable manufacturing. |} |} {| class="wikitable" | '''1973''' |  |'''Paper describes basic design of the Internet and TCP''' {| class="wikitable" |In September, Kahn and Vinton Cerf, an electrical engineer and head of the International Network Working Group, present a paper at the University of Sussex in England describing the basic design of the Internet and an open-architecture network, later known as TCP (transmission control protocol), that will allow networks to communicate with each other. The paper is published as "A Protocol for Packet Network Interconnection" in ''IEEE Transactions on Communications''. |} |- |'''1973''' |  |'''First portable cell phone call is made''' {| class="wikitable" |The first portable cell phone call is made by Martin Cooper of Motorola to his research rival at Bell Labs, Joel Engel. Although mobile phones had been used in cars since the mid-1940s, Cooper’s was the first one invented for truly portable use. He and his team are awarded a patent in 1975. |} |- |'''1973''' |  |'''Interstate 70 opens west of Denver''' {| class="wikitable" |Interstate 70 in Colorado opens from Denver westward. It features the 1.75-mile Eisenhower Memorial Tunnel, the longest tunnel in the interstate program. |} |} '''1973''' Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is invented by Lauterbur and Damadian[ '''''1973''' The plastic bottle (PET)'' '''1974''' Post-it notes featuring a low-residue adhesive is invented by 3M {| class="wikitable" |'''1974''' |  |'''Energy Reorganization Act of 1974''' {| class="wikitable" |The Energy Reorganization Act of 1974 splits the Atomic Energy Commission into the Energy Research and Development Administration (ERDA) and the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC). ERDA’s responsibilities include overseeing the development and refinement of nuclear power, while the NRC takes up the issue of safe handling of nuclear materials. |} |- |'''1974''' |  |'''Texas Instruments introduces the TMS 1000''' {| class="wikitable" |Texas Instruments introduces the TMS 1000, destined to become the most widely used computer on a chip. Over the next quarter-century, more than 35 different versions of the chip are produced for use in toys and games, calculators, photcopying machines, appliances, burglar alarms, and jukeboxes. (Although TI engineers Michael Cochran and Gary Boone create the first microcomputer, a four-bit microprocessor, at about the same time Intel does in 1971, TI does not put its chip on the market immediately, using it in a calculator introduced in 1972.) |} |} === 1975 '''First home computer is marketed to hobbyists''' === The Altair 8800, widely considered the first home computer, is marketed to hobbyists by Micro Instrumentation Telemetry Systems. The build-it-yourself kit doesn’t have a keyboard, monitor, or its own programming language; data are input with a series of switches and lights. But it includes an Intel microprocessor and costs less than $400. Seizing an opportunity, fledgling entrepreneurs Bill Gates and Paul Allen propose writing a version of BASIC for the new computer. They start the project by forming a partnership called Microsoft. '''U.S. military begins using fiber optics''' The U.S. military begins using fiber optics to improve communications systems when the navy installs a fiber-optic telephone link on the USS Little Rock. Used to transmit data modulated into light waves, the specially designed bundles of transparent glass fibers are thinner and lighter than metal cables, have greater bandwidth, and can transmit data digitally while being less susceptible to interference. The first commercial applications come in 1977 when AT&T and GTE install fiber-optic telephone systems in Chicago and Boston. By 1988 and 1989, fiber-optic cables are carrying telephone calls across the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. === 1976 - '''Common channel interoffice signaling''' === AT&T introduces common channel interoffice signaling, a protocol that allows software-controlled, networked computers or switches to communicate with each other using a band other than those used for voice traffic. Basically a dedicated trunk, the network separates signaling functions from the voice path, checks the continuity of the circuit, and then relays the information. '''First home computer is marketed to hobbyists ''' The Altair 8800, widely considered the first home computer, is marketed to hobbyists by Micro Instrumentation Telemetry Systems. The build-it-yourself kit doesn’t have a keyboard, monitor, or its own programming language; data are input with a series of switches and lights. But it includes an Intel microprocessor and costs less than $400. Seizing an opportunity, fledgling entrepreneurs Bill Gates and Paul Allen propose writing a version of BASIC for the new computer. They start the project by forming a partnership called Microsoft. === 1977 '''NASA launches two Mars space probes''' === NASA launches two Mars space probes, Viking 1 on August 20 and Viking 2 on November 9, each consisting of an orbiter and a lander. The first probe lands on July 20, 1976, the second one on September 3. The Viking project’s primary mission ends on November 15, 11 days before Mars’s superior conjunction (its passage behind the Sun), although the two spacecraft continue to operate for several more years. The last transmission reaches Earth on November 11, 1982. After repeated efforts to regain contact, controllers at NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory close down the overall mission on May 21, 1983. '''Common channel interoffice signaling''' AT&T introduces common channel interoffice signaling, a protocol that allows software-controlled, networked computers or switches to communicate with each other using a band other than those used for voice traffic. Basically a dedicated trunk, the network separates signaling functions from the voice path, checks the continuity of the circuit, and then relays the information. === 1978 '''An artificial heart, Jarvik-7, is invented by Robert Jarvik.''' - === The first analog video optical disk player is introduced by MCA Discovision. First electronic sewing machine Singer introduces the Athena 2000, the world’s first electronic sewing machine. A wide variety of stitches, from basic straight to complicated decorative, are available at the touch of a button. The "brain" of the system is a chip that measures less than one-quarter of an inch and contains more than 8,000 transistors. First cochlear implant surgery Graeme Clarke in Australia carries out the first cochlear implant surgery. Advances in integrated circuit technology enable him to design a multiple electrode receiver-stimulator unit about the size of a quarter. === 1979 '''The first cassette Walkman TPS-L2 is invented by Masaru Ibuka of Sony.''' - === Public Utility Regulatory Policies Act Congress passes the Public Utility Regulatory Policies Act (PURPA), which spurs the growth of nonutility unregulated power generation. PURPA mandates that utilities buy power from qualified unregulated generators at the "avoided cost"—the cost the utility would pay to generate the power itself. Qualifying facilities must meet technical standards regarding energy source and efficiency but are exempt from state and federal regulation under the Federal Power Act and the Public Utility Holding Company Act. In addition, the federal government allows a 15 percent energy tax credit while continuing an existing 10 percent investment tax credit. === 1980 '''Compact disk players are introduced by Philips.'''- === Japanese electrical pioneer Akio Morita develops the Sony Walkman, the first truly portable player for recorded music. First circuit boards that have built-in self-testing technology Chuck Stroud, while working at Bell Laboratories, develops and designs 21 different microchips and three different circuit boards—the first to employ built-in self-testing (BIST) technology. BIST results in a significant reduction in the cost, and a significant increase in the quality of producing electronic components. '''TCP/IP standard adopted''' U.S. Department of Defense adopts the TCP/IP (transmission control protocol/internet protocol) suite as a standard. '''Fiber-optic cable links major citie''' AT&T announces that it will install fiber-optic cable linking major cities between Boston and Washington, D.C. The cable is designed to carry three different wavelengths through graded-index fiber—technology that carries video signals later that year from the Olympic Games in Lake Placid, New York. Two years later MCI announces a similar project using single-mode fiber carrying 400 bits per second. '''California wind farms''' In California more than 17,000 wind machines, ranging in output from 20 to 350 kilowatts, are installed on wind farms. At the height of development, these turbines have a collected rating of more than 1,700 megawatts and produce more than 3 million megawatt-hours of electricity, enough at peak output to power a city of 300,000. === 1981 - === The world’s largest solar-power generating station goes into operation (10 MW capacity). The scanning tunneling microscope (STM) is invented. Stung by Apple's success, IBM releases its own affordable personal computer (PC). The Space Shuttle makes its maiden voyage. Patricia Bath develops laser eye surgery for removing cataracts. === 1982 - === The first “personal computer” (PC) is introduced by IBM. Robert Denkwalter et al. from Allied Corporation are granted the first patent for dendrimers. Alexei Ekimov and Louis E. Brus (independently) discover quantum dots. === 1983 - === US phone companies begin to offer cellular phone service. Steve Jobs of Apple introduces a new computer featuring the first graphical user interface (GUI), named The Lisa. Compact discs (CDs) are launched as a new way to store music by the Sony and Philips corporations. === 1984 - === The CD-ROM is invented for computers. The first clumping kitty litter is invented by biochemist Thomas Nelson. The CD-ROM is invented for computers The first clumping kitty litter is invented by biochemist Thomas Nelson === 1985 - Antilock braking system (ABS) available on American cars === The Lincoln becomes the first American car to offer an anti lock braking system (ABS), which is made by Teves of Germany. ABS uses computerized sensing of wheel movement and hydraulic pressure to each wheel to adjust pressure so that the wheels continue to move somewhat rather than "locking up" during emergency braking. Donald Tomalia and coworkers at Dow Chemical report the discovery of hyper branched polymers, named dendrimers. Donald Tomalia and coworkers at Dow Chemical report the discovery of hyper branched polymers, named dendrimers == 1980 CE - 1989 CE == === 1981 - Scanning Probe Microscopes === Scanning probe microscopy (SPM) is a new branch of microscopy that forms images of surfaces using a physical probe that scans the specimen. ''' '''1987 - First laser surgery on a human cornea'''''' New York City ophthalmologist Steven Trokel performs the first laser surgery on a human cornea, after perfecting his technique on a cow’s eye. Nine years later the first computerized excimer laser—Lasik—designed to correct the refractive error myopia, is approved for use in the United States. The Lasik procedure has evolved from both the Russian-developed radial keratotomy and its laser-based successor photorefractive keratectomy. === 1988 - Giant Magnetoresistive Effect === GMR was independently discovered in Fe/Cr/Fe trilayers by a research team led by Peter Grünberg of the Jülich Research Centre (DE), who owns the patent, and in Fe/Cr multilayers by the group of Albert Fert of the University of Paris-Sud (FR), who first saw the large effect in multilayers that led to its naming, and first correctly explained the underlying physics. == 1990 CE - 1999 CE == == 1990 CE - Biotextiles are invented in the US === === 1991 - Discovery of Nanotubes === Found by Sumio Iijima === 1991 Sony announces the first carbon anode based commercial Li-ion cell === 1991 MiniDiscs (MDs) are introduced by Sony Electronics, Inc. === 1992 Prof. Jerome Schentag invents a computer-controlled “smart pill,” for drug-delivery applications === 1993 The Pentium processor is invented by Intel 1994 The first search engine for the World Wide Web is created by Filo and Yang[5] === 1994 - The International Technology Roadmap of Semiconductors === === 1995 Nanoimprint lithography is invented by Stephen Chou at Stanford === 1995 Digital Versatile Disk or Digital Video Disk (DVD) is invented '''1995-''' Broadcast.com becomes one of the world's first online radio stations. -Pierre Omidyar launches the eBay auction website. '''1996-''' WRAL-HD broadcasts the first high-definition television (HDTV) signal in the United States. '''1997-''' Electronics companies agree to make Wi-Fi a worldwide standard for wireless Internet. '''''1998 -''''' Motorola introduces Iridium service, the first global satellite-based wireless telephone service[7] - Adam Cohen (19 years old!) develops an “electrochemical paint brush” circuit that uses an STM probe to manipulate copper atoms on a silicon surface - Apple computer introduces the iMac 1998 Geoffrey Ozin at the University of Toronto develops synthetic seashells from SiO2 - Toyota Motor Corporation releases the Prius – the first mass-produced hybrid low-emission vehicle (LEV) - Television stations in the US began to transition from analog to digital signals '''1999 -''' Danish physicist Hau is able to control the speed of light, useful for potential applications in communications systems and optical computers. - Safeco Field in Seattle opens, featuring a retractable roof, and extensive drainage lines and heating coils to maintain ideal turf conditions. - The chemical ingredient used by mussels to anchor themselves to rocks is discovered, and used to synthesize a waterproof adhesive. - Molecular-based logic gates are demonstrated to work better than silicon based gates – an important precedent in the development of a molecular computer. '''''2000 -''''' Intel releases the Pentium IV microprocessor, consisting of 42 million transistors - Motorola releases the i1000 Plus – the first cell phone capable of connecting to the internet - Robotic pets (e.g., Poo-Chi, Tekno) are first introduced - The first generation of “digital jukeboxes,” the AudioReQuest ARQ1, retails for $800 and is the first device capable of storing thousands of MP3 songs '''2001 -''' Apple revolutionizes music listening by unveiling its iPod MP3 music player. - National Nanotechnology Initiative - A United States federal initiative of nanoscale science and technology. - Richard Palmer develops energy-absorbing D3O plastic. - Scott White, Nancy Sottos, and colleagues develop self-healing materials. '''2002 -''' The lightest substance on Earth, known as Aerogels, is developed by NASA - iRobot Corporation releases the first version of its Roomba® vacuum cleaning robot. === 2004 Graphene is discovered === Graphene was produced in a laboratory in 2004, by Russian-born scientists Andre Geim and Konstantin Novoselov working at the UK's University of Manchester. What are non-Newtonian materials? Ketchup, nail polish, toothpaste, whipped cream, cornstarch, blood, face cream, silly-putty, paint, and custard—what do these things have in common? Apparently nothing! In fact, they're all examples of non-Newtonian fluids. In everyday terms, they get either more viscous (thicker and less runny) or less viscous (thinner and more runny) if you push and poke them around a bit. Some of them are shear-thinning (they get less viscous), others are shear-thickening (getting more viscous) when you push them about: Shear thinning: Ketchup, toothpaste, blood, paint, nail polish, whipped cream, and face-cream start off relatively thick and viscous but become more runny if you subject them to forces. Shear thickening: Cornstarch, custard, many soups, and silly-putty work the opposite way. They thicken up when you subject them to forces. Some non-Newtonian materials are permanently changed by applied forces: custard stays thick, for example. Others are changed only temporarily and revert back to their original form when the force is removed. Ketchup thins when you shake it but thickens up again once it's sitting on your plate. Toothpaste thickens and thins repeatedly: it's thick inside the tube, thins and flows when you squeeze it, thickens back into a gel once it's sitting on your brush, and thins again when you brush it over your teeth === 2005 === -Computers A pioneering low-cost laptop for developing countries called OLPC is announced by MIT computing pioneer Nicholas Negroponte. Over the last few years, they've worked to create a trimmed-down, low-cost laptop suitable for people who live in developing countries where electricity and telephone access are harder to find. Their project is known as OLPC: One Laptop Per Child. What's different about the OLPC? In essence, an OLPC computer is no different from any other laptop: it's a machine with input, output, memory storage, and a processor—the key components of any computer. But in OLPC, these parts have been designed especially for developing countries. Here are some of the key features: Low cost: OLPC was originally designed to cost just $100. Although it failed to meet that target, it is still cheaper than most traditional laptops. Inexpensive LCD screen: The hi-tech screen is designed to work outdoors in bright sunlight, but costs only $35 to make—a fraction of the cost of a normal LCD flat panel display. Trimmed down operating system: The operating system is like the conductor of an orchestra: the part of a computer that makes all the other parts (from the processor chip to the buttons on the mouse) work in harmony. Originally, OLPC used only Linux (an efficient and low-cost operating system developed by thousands of volunteers), but it began offering Microsoft Windows versions as an alternative in 2008. Wireless broadband: In some parts of Africa, fewer than one person in a hundred has access to a wired, landline telephone, so dialup Internet access via telephone would be no use for OLPC users. Each machine's wireless chip will allow it to create an ad-hoc network with other machines nearby—so OLPC users will be able to talk to one another and exchange information effortlessly. Flash memory: Instead of an expensive and relatively unreliable hard drive, OLPC uses a huge lump of flash memory—like the memory used in USB flash memory sticks and digital camera memory cards. Own power: Home electricity supplies are scarce in many developing countries, so OLPC has a hand crank and built-in generator. One minute of cranking generates up to 10 minutes of power. Is OLPC a good idea? Anything that closes the digital divide, helping poorer children gain access to education and opportunity, must be a good thing. However, some critics have questioned whether projects like this are really meeting the most immediate needs of people in developing countries. According to the World Health Organization, around 1.1 billion people (18 percent of the world's population) have no access to safe drinking water, while 2.7 billion (a staggering 42 percent of the world's population) lack basic sanitation. During the 1990s, around 2 billion people were affected by major natural disasters such as floods and droughts. Every single day, 5000 children die because of dirty water—that's more people dying each day than were killed in the 9/11 terrorist attacks. With basic problems on this scale, it could be argued that providing access to computers and the Internet is not a high priority for most of the world's poorer people. Then again, education is one of the most important weapons in the fight against poverty. Perhaps computers could provide young people with the knowledge they need to help themselves, their families, and communities escape a life sentence of hardship? -Carbon nanotubes are synthesized in bulk, and spun into a yarn -iPod Nano and a video-capable iPod are introduced by Apple ===2006 === - High-definition DVD players become commercially available - Apple computer introduces MacBook Pro, MacBook, and iMac product lines that contain Intel dual-core chips – the first to contain over one billion transistors - Flat-panel display technologies employing carbon nanotubes are demonstrated - LG designs cellular phone that has a built-in breathalyzer for sobriety testing; this application is also tested as standard equipment for future automobiles ===2007 === - A nanowire battery is demonstrated by Dr. Cui at Stanford University - Electronic books Amazon.com launches its Kindle electronic book (e-boox;palma) reader. - Cellphones Touchscreens Apple introduces a touchscreen cellphone called the iPhone. === 2008 === - A low-cost solar concentrator is developed at MIT. - A bionic contact lens is invented by Babak Parviz. - “Buckypaper” is discovered at Florida State University - Nocera and coworkers at MIT develop a new catalyst to efficiently split water into H2 and O2 under ambient conditions, which may lead to a new paradigm for the large-scale deployment of solar energy. - Chemical vapor deposition is used for the first large-scale growth of graphene. - A self-healing rubber is made from vegetable oil. - Researchers at the Univ. of Pennsylvania report a robot (ckBot) that reassembles itself after being dismantled. === 2009 === - Tour (Rice) and Dai (Stanford) report the first precedents to unzip carbon nanotubes to form graphene nanoribbons. - The University of Maryland’s Joint Quantum Institute successfully transport data from one atom to another in a container one meter away (the first instance of pseudo-transportation!). - Dow Chemical Co. develops roofing shingles integrated with thin-film solar cells comprised of copper indium gallium diselenide, CIGS. - The Boeing 787 Dreamliner, the first jet airliner to use composite materials for most of its fuselage, is developed by Boeing. - Self-assembling peptides are used for self-cleaning window applications. - The $20 knee is designed by Stanford engineering students. - Berkeley researchers create an “invisibility cloak”. - A “smart” LCD screen that recognizes off-screen gestures is developed. - 18-cm long arrays of SWNTs were synthesized – the longest carbon nanotube array to date. - The first Android cell phone is released, based on a Google OS. - Simon Peers and Nicholas Godley unveil an 11-ft.-long spider-silk cloth made in Madagascar. - The first 3-D digital camera is introduced by Fujifilm. - The EnergyHub smart thermostat is developed === 2010 === - Apple releases their first tablet-PC, the iPad. - 3M/Littmann develops the first electronic stethoscope. - The first $35 computer is unveiled in India. - Powered exoskeletons are developed to provide mobility assistance for aged and infirmed people. - The British company Xeros develops a washing machine comprised of nylon beads, requiring 90% less water than traditional machines. - The “Smart Bullet” is developed by Allant Tech systems, funded by the United States military; this allows soldiers to measure the distance to a target using a laser range finder, dialing in exactly where the bullet should explode (over/past walls, the corner of buildings, etc.) at precise distances. - Computers - Touchscreens "Apple releases its touchscreen tablet computer, the iPad." - 3D Television "3D TV starts to become more widely available." There are several different ways of making a 3D TV, but all of them use the same basic principle: they have to produce two separate, moving images and send one of them to the viewer's left eye and the other to the right. To give the proper illusion of 3D, the left eye's image mustn't be seen by the right eye, while the right eye's image mustn't be seen by the left. Anaglyph: You have to wear eye glasses with colored lenses so your brain can fuse together the partly overlapping red and cyan pictures on the screen. Polarizing: You wear lenses that filter light waves in different ways so each eye sees a different picture. Active-shutter: The left and right lenses of your glasses are fitted with liquid crystals that effectively "open" and "close" at high speed, in rapid alternation, so your two eyes view separate images (frames) shown on the same screen. Lenticular: You don't need glasses with this system. Instead, a row of plastic lenses in front of the screen bends slightly different, side-by-side images so they travel to your left and right eyes. You must sit in the right place to see a 3D image. == Source == "[http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/12/071218101208.htm Top 10 Advances In Materials Science Over Last 50 Years]" Science Daily. December 19, 2007 "[http://www.materialmoments.org/vote.html The Greatest Moments in Materials Science and Engineering]" JOM [[Category:Materials Science and Engineering]] b5jo1z47dkep6io038vc5g1kk8swehy 0 242199 2834346 2467369 2026-09-23T19:19:42Z Avghydrator 3111462 corrected "tetraoxide" to "pentoxide" 2834346 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Compound''': A group of 2 or more elements chemically combined. ==Covalent Compounds== [[File:Sauerstoffmolekül Strukturformel.svg|thumb|The O₂ you breathe is a diatomic molecule.]] A '''covalent compound''' is a compound that is made out of neutral components (all nonmetals, such as H₂O, CO₂, C₁₂H₁₂O₁₂), has low melting and boiling points (often gases and liquids at room temperature), has covalent bonds (shared electrons), and exists as individual molecules. Exceptions are made to '''BRINClHOF''': Br₂, I₂, N₂, Cl₂, H₂, O₂, F₂. ;Naming #Count the number of atoms present of each nonmetal. #Choose a Greek prefix: {| class="wikitable" |- ! Number !! Greek Prefix |- | 1 || Mono |- | 2 || Dri |- | 3 || Tri |- | 4 || Tetra |- | 5 || Penta |- | 6 || Hexa |- | 7 || Hepta |- | 8 || Octa |- | 9 || Nona |- | 10 || Deca |} Examples are... *N₂O₅: '''Dinitrogen Pentaoxide''' *CO: '''Carbon Monoxide''' ;Formulas #Look at the Greek prefix. #Assign the number and the elements attached. Examples are... *Dinitrogen Pentoxide - '''N₂O₅''' *Carbon Monoxide - '''CO''' ==Ionic Compounds== When you think of an '''ionic compound''', think of salts, such as NaCl, CaCO₃, and KF. These compounds generally have a metal and one or more nonmetals. They have cations and anions and these two cancel each other out since the nuclear change must equal 0. They have high melting and boiling points and transfer electrons (ionic bonds). These exist as crystal lattices (the term, '''unit cell''', being the smallest crystal lattice). {{note|Some compounds can be both covalent and ionic--the ionic compounds contain [[Talk:The periodic table/Periodic Trends|polyatomic ions]]. '''Polyatomic ions''' are groups of covalently bonded nonmetals which exist as ions.}} There are two types of ionic compounds: '''Binary''' and '''Ternary'''. Binary ionic compounds consist of a metal and nonmetal, while ternary ionic compounds consist of a metal and polyatomic ion. There are also binary and ternary ionic compounds that have '''[[The_periodic_table#Transition_Metals|transitional metals]]''', and require roman numerals. Ternary ionic compounds with 2 polyatomic ions also exist as well. EXCEPTIONS: Lead (Pb) and Tin (Sn) '''NEED ROMAN NUMERALS''' while Silver (Ag) and Zinc (Zn) '''DO NOT NEED ROMAN NUMERALS''' as their charge is always +1 and +2, respectively. ===Binary Ionic Compounds=== ;Naming #Name the metal ion. #Name the nonmetal ion ending with '''-ide'''. Examples are... *NaCl: '''Sodium''' chlor''ide'' *LiCl: '''Lithium''' chlor''ide'' *Mg₃N₂: '''Magnesium''' nitr''ide'' ;Formulas #Determine the charge for each ion. #Cross over #Reduce Examples are... *CaCl₂: '''Calcium''' Chlor''ide'' *KF: '''Potassium''' Flour''ide'' *Li₂O: '''Lithium''' Ox''ide'' ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- *Magnesium bromide: Mg²Br^-1 → Mg₁Br₂ → '''MgBr₂''' *Calcium sulfide: Ca²S^-2 → Ca₂S₂ → '''CaS''' *Potassium chloride: K¹Cl¹ → K₁Cl₁ → '''KCl''' ====With Transition Metals==== ;Naming #Determine the charge. #Name the transition metal. #Put roman numerals and note the oxidation number of the transition metal (roman numeral in the chemical name gives the oxidation number of the <big>'''metal'''</big> ion). #Name the nonmetal ion. #Cross over. Examples are... *FeCl₂ - '''Iron (II) chloride''' *CuCl - '''Copper (I) chloride''' *Cr₂O₃ - '''Chromium (III) oxide''' *MnO - '''Manganese (II) oxide''' ;Formula #The roman numeral in the chemical name gives the oxidation number of the '''METAL''' ion. #Determine the metal ion. #Determine the nonmetal ion. #Cross over. Examples are... *CrCl₃ - '''Chromium (III) chloride''' *CuF₂ - '''Copper (II) flouride''' *CuF - '''Copper (I) flouride''' ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- *Iron (II) sulfide - Fe²S² → '''FeS''' *Iron (III) sulfide - Fe³S² → '''Fe₂S₃''' *Copper (II) oxide - Cu²O² → '''CuO''' ===Ternary Ionic Compounds=== ;Naming #Name the metal #Name the polyatomic ion Examples are.... *LiNO₃ - Lithium nitrate *Mg₃(PO₄)₂ - Magnesium phosphate *KNO₂ - Potassium nitrite *CaSO₄ - Calcium sulfate *LiNO₃ - Lithium nitrate ;Formulas #Determine the oxidation number of the metal #Write the formula for the polyatomic ion #Cross over Examples are... *Srontium nitrate - '''Sr(NO₃)2''' *Magnesium sulfate - '''MgSO₄''' *Potassium perchlorate - '''KClO₄''' ====With Transition Metals==== ;Naming #Determine the charge of the transition metal #Determine the name of the polyatomic ion #Name the transition metal ion #Roman numeral indicates the charge on the transition metal #Name the polyatomic ion. Examples are... *Cu(NO₃)₂ - '''Copper (II) nitrate''' *MgSO₃ - '''Magnesium (II) sulfate''' ;Formula #Determine the charge on the transition metal. #Write the formula for the polyatomic ion. #Cross Examples are... *Chromium (II) phosphate - '''Cr₃(PO₄)₂''' *Iron (II) nitrate - '''Fe(NO₃)₂''' *Copper (I) nitrate - '''Cu(NO₃)''' *Copper (II) perchlorate - '''Cu(ClO4)₂''' ===Ternary Ionic Compounds with 2 Polyatomic Ions=== The polyatomic cation has to be ammonium (NH₄). Name the ammonium, then the polyatomic ion. ==Acids== '''Acids''' always have an <big>H</big> in front of them; so it is easy. Examples are '''HCl, HBr, HClO₄'''. ===Binary Acids=== '''Binary Acids''' always have an <big>H</big> in front of them and are followed by a '''nonmetal''' (hydroanionic acid). ===Ternary Acids=== '''Ternary Acids''' do not have a <big>hydro prefix</big> in front of them (but they do have an '''H'''). You have to know your polyatomic ions in order to master the acids: *If the polyatomic ion ends in '''-ate''', the acid will end in '''-ic'''. *If the polyatomic ion ends in '''-ite''', the acid will end in '''-ous'''. *If the polyatomic ion ends in '''-ide''', the acid will be named '''hydroanionic acid'''. {{note|Here is a great saying for you to remember this: I '''ate''' something '''ic'''ky. Don't b'''ite''' '''-ous'''}} Examples are... *'''HCl''' - Hydrochloric acid *'''HBr''' - Hydrobromic acid *'''HF''' - Hydroflouric acid *'''HNO₃''' - Nitric acid *'''HNO₂''' - Nitrous acid *'''HPO₃''' - Phosphorous acid *'''HCN''' - Hydrocyanic acid ==Bases== Bases always have an '''OH^-1''' in front of them as the anion. This is known as the '''hydroxide'''. ;Naming Examples are... *'''KOH''' - Potassium hydroxide *'''Ca(OH)₂''' - Calcium hydroxide *'''Fe(OH)₂''' - Iron (II) hydroxide ;Formula #Determine the oxidation number for the cation. #Cross the oxidation number of the cation to the hydroxide Examples are... *Strontium hydroxide - '''Sr(OH)₂''' *Manganese (II) hydroxide - '''Mn(OH)₂''' ==Hydrates== Hydrates are made up of a '''salt and a H₂O''' (water molecule). ;Naming and Formula #Name the salt #Name the prefix + hydrate Examples are... *Li₂SO₄ • 4H₂O - '''Lithium sulfate tetrahydrate''' *Na₃PO₄ • 5H₂O - '''Sodium phosphate pentahydrate''' *Copper (III) sulfate hexahydrate - '''Cu₂(SO₄)₃ • 6H₂O''' *Copper (I) sulfate trihydrate - '''Cu₂SO₄ • 3H₂O''' {{subpage navbar}} [[Category:High School Chemistry]] rwarhge58tsw8vtzgv846vzhl483nyv 0 264913 2834354 2834316 2026-09-24T01:11:46Z Jtneill 10242 /* Overview */ Expand 2834354 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|Tutorial 7: Core emotions|seventh}} {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} --> <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/In development}} --> ==Overview== * Explores the psychology of core [[emotion]]s – what are the criteria for an emotion and what are the core emotions? * The "emotion sort" class exercise involves collectively sorting hundreds of emotion words to linguistically model underlying families or clusters of emotional experience * Discusses "emotion knowledge" as a component "emotional intelligence" and considers "linguistic relativism", the idea that language shapes experience ==Criteria== What are the criteria for a core emotion? To be classified as a core or basic emotion, the affective state should exhibit each of the following criteria: # Distinct antecedent casual trigger (provokes by same circumstances each time) # Inescapable (inevitable) activation # Rapid onset # Distinct pattern of physiology (e.g., pattern of brain activity, heart-rate) # Automatic (unlearned) appraisal # Distinct subjective experience (feeling state) # Distinct cognition (thoughts, images, and memories) # Distinct expression (facial and body) # Brief duration (short-lived) # Universal presence in other cultures and primates ==Non-emotions== If an affective experience does not constitute an emotion, it could instead be a(n): # Attitude (e.g., hate) # Behaviour (e.g., aggression) # Cognition (e.g., confused) # Disorder (e.g., depression, behavioural conduct disorder) # Mood (e.g., grumpy) # Personality trait (e.g., neuroticism) ==Core emotions== What are the core emotions? Theoretical models typically identify about six to eight core emotions, usually including: # Fear # Anger # Disgust # Sadness # Interest # Joy # Surprise # Contempt ==Emotion sort exercise== Linguistic models of emotion are developed from analysis of language (words) used to describe different affective states. The goal of this exercise is to organise many (250+) [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Emotion/List|emotion-related words]] into core emotion families: {{anchor|Activity}}{{RoundBoxTop|theme=10}} '''Activity: Emotion sort''' [[File:Antu 67EF addoninstaller.0.svg|right|100px]] # Open this [https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/1KYv0xfA-1lJVyLATiY7bnRl_RCXxXKClvV4sTVilpHQ/edit?usp=sharing list of emotion words] # Each person selects an emotion word and classifies it as either a: ## core emotion (and allocates it to a core emotion family) ## non-emotion (and indicates the reason it doesn't qualify as an emotion) # Classifications can be changed if you disagree # Repeat until all words are classified—a progress bar will be displayed # If unsure, use chat or the comments column # Discuss the: #* experience of categorising: e.g., what was like? easy? hard? why? #* unusual/unknown words or emotions you'd like to share or want to know more about? #* results based on data analysis about: #** % classified as emotions or not emotions #** which emotion families were most popular and which words were allocated to each emotion family #** which reasons were most used for excluding affective states as emotions {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[File:Emotion sort exercise - Core emotions.svg|center|550px|thumb|Bar chart showing the frequency of affective words sorted into 19 categories of emotion]] ==Emotion knowledge== [[File:Bananas by cactus cowboy.svg|thumb|right|175px|'''Schadenfreude''' (pronounced shar-den-frood-ar) is a German word for pleasure that arises from the misfortune of others (e.g., laughing when someone slips on a banana peel).]] [[File:Emotions wheel.png|thumb|right|450px|'''Emotions wheel''' showing aspects of seven core emotions]] What is emotion knowledge? Emotion knowledge is part of [[#Emotional intelligence|emotional intelligence]]. Emotion knowledge refers to the library or vocabulary of distinct emotion concepts (represented by words) that a person has access to. The bigger the library, the more chance there is of being able to distinguish between subtle shades and nuances of emotional states (e.g., various flavours of anger or joy): {{quote|"the finer and more sophisticated one's emotion knowledge is, the greater his or her capacity to respond to each life event with a specialised and highly appropriate reaction" (Reeve, 2009, p. 353).}} Emotion knowledge can be improved, in part, by expanding one's linguistic repertoire for describing emotions. ==Emotional intelligence== # What is [[Emotional intelligence|emotional intelligence]]? ##One of several [[w:Theory of multiple intelligence|multiple intelligence]]ss proposed by Gardener (1983) ##Also known as emotional quotient (EQ) ##[[Emotion knowledge]] or [[w:Emotional literacy|emotional literacy]] are components of emotional intelligence # Goleman's (1995) conceptualisation of emotional intelligence suggested four aspects, based on awareness/management and self/other distinctions (see Table 1). # Criticism: The term "intelligence" implies a fixed, steady state, however the four aspects of emotional intelligence are learnable and trainable, such as in school and the workplace. # How can emotional intelligence be trained or enhanced? '''Table 1'''. Four Quadrants of Emotional Intelligence (based on Goleman, 1995) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !Awareness !Management |- |'''Self''' |Self-awareness |Self-management |- |'''Other''' |Social awareness |Relationship management |} == Foreign emotion words== [[File:Non-English emotion words exercise.png|400px|thumb|Non-English emotion words and definitions suggested by a class in 2023.]] [[File:Path in Epping Forest - geograph.org.uk - 2523517.jpg|thumb|right|175px|'''Friluftsliv''' (pronounced free-loofts-liv) is a Norwegian word for the practice of purposefully spending time outdoors and the physical and mental health benefits that this engenders.]] Many varieties, shades, subtleties, and nuances of emotion are not so well described in English, but are well captured in some of the other 7,000 human languages. Some of these words are imported to English and are known as [[w:Loanword|loanwords]] or borrowed words. For example, [[wikt:schadenfreude|schadenfreude]] (German for the pleasure derived from the misfortune of others) can be found in the English dictionary. However, there remain many recognisable affective states for which there is no English equivalent or commonly adopted loanword. {{anchor|Words}} What words from other languages describe unique types of emotion? Share an example (word, definition, and language), based on your language knowledge or by [[/Non-English emotion words|exploring this list]]). ==Linguistic relativity== What are the psychological implications of our emotion knowledge? For example, the [[w:Linguistic relativity|Sapir-Whorf hypothesis]] (linguistic relativity) argues that language enables experience. According to this [[w:Essentialism|essentialist]] view, our emotional vocabulary enables but also limits our capacity for emotional experience. In other words, our consciousness and experience is determined by our language. Therefore, expanding our language, can expand our emotional experience. So, linguistic relativity implies that we can enrich our emotional lives by expanding our emotional vocabulary and incorporating more non-English emotion words. There are two forms of linguistic relativity: * '''Linguistic determinism''' (strong form): This claims that language completely controls and limits what you are able to think. Contemporary linguists and researchers have largely rejected this extreme view. * '''Linguistic influence''' (weak form): This proposes that our native language guides our attention, shapes cognitive habits, and makes certain concepts easier to process. Modern research supports this weaker version (e.g., see Vine et al., 2020). For a deeper dive, see the work of [https://scholar.google.com/citations?hl=en&user=KYOCMe0AAAAJ&view_op=list_works&citft=1&email_for_op=JamesTNeill%40gmail.com&gmla=AJsN-F6j5ww5q8q1NDhd-S-S5TKin27AiS2FjfdcUfkAVXE5YmU8yO2AKhpvl4zVnK9DydZiplyaDTbSiR07LuIndWHHRf5kRoyKUzi4uOkOI-xZ4Kf2XVza_DPjHMCvHpGTvzzzwuEddowKzs8IaU-p8KmARjs-EPENQ-8nNkxQMzms7CDipXgQXAQje0klOsKdU-tMXPC8MfCd-AI381ZWZ14SE60TcAYDsJMkNswaSvgjOQ10Yn-JJz8LV86D7NuLTSukCsSe James Pennebaker] (Google Scholar). ==Recording== * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/003c127bf5ae4b76b22997ddbe64842c Tutorial 7] (2026)<!-- * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/a1e53e9772ce4e7bab3e486fc15df7e1 Tutorial 7] (2025) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/b174165b101b4ba4beaaba6c52444c1e Tutorial 7] (2024) - Note: Recording fails ~40:20 mins * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/98e8da8bfb6f4267a9dfc70ebd0d070a Tutorial 7] (2023) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/44f3c37bd25640e4ba577978df0b9df9 Tutorial 7] (2022) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/5c1bf52c472449babbee04cb1e0871e2 Tutorial 7] (2021) --> ==See also== <!-- ;Additional tutorial material * [[../Emotion/Emotional intelligence/|Emotional intelligence]] ;Book chapters --> ;Wikipedia * [[w:Emotional intelligence|Emotional intelligence]] * [[w:Emotional literacy|Emotional literacy]] * [[w:Emotional self-regulation|Emotional self-regulation]] * [[w:Emotion classifcation|Emotion classification]] * [[w:Emotion perception|Emotion perception]] * [[w:Emotion recognistion|Emotion recognition]] ;Lecture * [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Nature of emotion|Nature of emotion]] ;Tutorials * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Learned optimism|Learned optimism]] (Previous tutorial) * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Measuring emotion|Measuring emotion]] (Next tutorial) ;Admin * [[/Instructor notes/]] ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Gardner, H. (1983), ''[[w:Theory of multiple intelligences|Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences]]''. Basic Books. Goleman, D. (1995). ''[[w:Emotional intelligence|Emotional intelligence]]''. Bantam. Vine, V., Boyd, R. L., & Pennebaker, J. W. (2020). Natural emotion vocabularies as windows on distress and well-being. ''Nature Communications'', ''11''(1), 4525. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-18349-0 }} ==External links== * [http://changingminds.org/explanations/emotions/basic%20emotions.htm Basic emotions] (changingminds.org) * [https://www.psypost.org/2015/10/children-who-understand-emotions-become-more-attentive-over-time-38140 Children who understand emotions become more attentive over time] (PsyPost, 2015) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Y7m9eNoB3NU Daniel Goleman introduces emotional intelligence] (YouTube; 5:30 mins) * [http://news.berkeley.edu/2017/09/06/27-emotions/ Emoji fans take heart: Scientists pinpoint 27 states of emotion] (University of California, Berkeley, 2017); [https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/emogifs/map.html Interactive emotion map with videos] * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n6MRsGwyMuQ Emotional intelligence by Daniel Goleman: Animated book summary] (YouTube; 7:28 mins) * [https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-09-07/how-emojis-like-thumbs-up-can-get-you-in-trouble-with-the-law/102810282 Emojis like thumbs-up or a full moon are tiny icons, but they can have big legal implications] (ABC news, 2023) * [http://www.carls-sims-4-guide.com/emotions/ List of emotions in Sims 4: Emotion system mechanics, moods, and how to get sims feeling each] (carls-sims-4-guide.com) * [https://www.psypost.org/2020/09/new-research-finds-our-vocabularies-can-act-as-a-window-into-psychological-and-physical-well-being-57971 New research finds our vocabularies can act as a window into psychological and physical well-being] (psypost.org) * [http://www.personalityresearch.org/basicemotions/plutchik.html Plutchik] (personalityresearch.org) - [[:commons:File:Plutchik-wheel.svg|Wheel of emotions]] <noinclude>{{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Navigation}}</noinclude> [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Core emotions]] [[Category:Emotional intelligence]] g9fcqni8a41kvbyuzbvkuuj2hkkvqeh 2834355 2834354 2026-09-24T01:13:34Z Jtneill 10242 /* Criteria */ The exact number and nature of such criteria vary between theorists. 2834355 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|Tutorial 7: Core emotions|seventh}} {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} --> <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/In development}} --> ==Overview== * Explores the psychology of core [[emotion]]s – what are the criteria for an emotion and what are the core emotions? * The "emotion sort" class exercise involves collectively sorting hundreds of emotion words to linguistically model underlying families or clusters of emotional experience * Discusses "emotion knowledge" as a component "emotional intelligence" and considers "linguistic relativism", the idea that language shapes experience ==Criteria for core emotions== What are the criteria for a core emotion? To be classified as a core or basic emotion, the affective state should exhibit each of the following criteria: # Distinct antecedent casual trigger (provokes by same circumstances each time) # Inescapable (inevitable) activation # Rapid onset # Distinct pattern of physiology (e.g., pattern of brain activity, heart-rate) # Automatic (unlearned) appraisal # Distinct subjective experience (feeling state) # Distinct cognition (thoughts, images, and memories) # Distinct expression (facial and body) # Brief duration (short-lived) # Universal presence in other cultures and primates The exact number and nature of such criteria vary between theorists. ==Non-emotions== If an affective experience does not constitute an emotion, it could instead be a(n): # Attitude (e.g., hate) # Behaviour (e.g., aggression) # Cognition (e.g., confused) # Disorder (e.g., depression, behavioural conduct disorder) # Mood (e.g., grumpy) # Personality trait (e.g., neuroticism) ==Core emotions== What are the core emotions? Theoretical models typically identify about six to eight core emotions, usually including: # Fear # Anger # Disgust # Sadness # Interest # Joy # Surprise # Contempt ==Emotion sort exercise== Linguistic models of emotion are developed from analysis of language (words) used to describe different affective states. The goal of this exercise is to organise many (250+) [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Emotion/List|emotion-related words]] into core emotion families: {{anchor|Activity}}{{RoundBoxTop|theme=10}} '''Activity: Emotion sort''' [[File:Antu 67EF addoninstaller.0.svg|right|100px]] # Open this [https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/1KYv0xfA-1lJVyLATiY7bnRl_RCXxXKClvV4sTVilpHQ/edit?usp=sharing list of emotion words] # Each person selects an emotion word and classifies it as either a: ## core emotion (and allocates it to a core emotion family) ## non-emotion (and indicates the reason it doesn't qualify as an emotion) # Classifications can be changed if you disagree # Repeat until all words are classified—a progress bar will be displayed # If unsure, use chat or the comments column # Discuss the: #* experience of categorising: e.g., what was like? easy? hard? why? #* unusual/unknown words or emotions you'd like to share or want to know more about? #* results based on data analysis about: #** % classified as emotions or not emotions #** which emotion families were most popular and which words were allocated to each emotion family #** which reasons were most used for excluding affective states as emotions {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[File:Emotion sort exercise - Core emotions.svg|center|550px|thumb|Bar chart showing the frequency of affective words sorted into 19 categories of emotion]] ==Emotion knowledge== [[File:Bananas by cactus cowboy.svg|thumb|right|175px|'''Schadenfreude''' (pronounced shar-den-frood-ar) is a German word for pleasure that arises from the misfortune of others (e.g., laughing when someone slips on a banana peel).]] [[File:Emotions wheel.png|thumb|right|450px|'''Emotions wheel''' showing aspects of seven core emotions]] What is emotion knowledge? Emotion knowledge is part of [[#Emotional intelligence|emotional intelligence]]. Emotion knowledge refers to the library or vocabulary of distinct emotion concepts (represented by words) that a person has access to. The bigger the library, the more chance there is of being able to distinguish between subtle shades and nuances of emotional states (e.g., various flavours of anger or joy): {{quote|"the finer and more sophisticated one's emotion knowledge is, the greater his or her capacity to respond to each life event with a specialised and highly appropriate reaction" (Reeve, 2009, p. 353).}} Emotion knowledge can be improved, in part, by expanding one's linguistic repertoire for describing emotions. ==Emotional intelligence== # What is [[Emotional intelligence|emotional intelligence]]? ##One of several [[w:Theory of multiple intelligence|multiple intelligence]]ss proposed by Gardener (1983) ##Also known as emotional quotient (EQ) ##[[Emotion knowledge]] or [[w:Emotional literacy|emotional literacy]] are components of emotional intelligence # Goleman's (1995) conceptualisation of emotional intelligence suggested four aspects, based on awareness/management and self/other distinctions (see Table 1). # Criticism: The term "intelligence" implies a fixed, steady state, however the four aspects of emotional intelligence are learnable and trainable, such as in school and the workplace. # How can emotional intelligence be trained or enhanced? '''Table 1'''. Four Quadrants of Emotional Intelligence (based on Goleman, 1995) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !Awareness !Management |- |'''Self''' |Self-awareness |Self-management |- |'''Other''' |Social awareness |Relationship management |} == Foreign emotion words== [[File:Non-English emotion words exercise.png|400px|thumb|Non-English emotion words and definitions suggested by a class in 2023.]] [[File:Path in Epping Forest - geograph.org.uk - 2523517.jpg|thumb|right|175px|'''Friluftsliv''' (pronounced free-loofts-liv) is a Norwegian word for the practice of purposefully spending time outdoors and the physical and mental health benefits that this engenders.]] Many varieties, shades, subtleties, and nuances of emotion are not so well described in English, but are well captured in some of the other 7,000 human languages. Some of these words are imported to English and are known as [[w:Loanword|loanwords]] or borrowed words. For example, [[wikt:schadenfreude|schadenfreude]] (German for the pleasure derived from the misfortune of others) can be found in the English dictionary. However, there remain many recognisable affective states for which there is no English equivalent or commonly adopted loanword. {{anchor|Words}} What words from other languages describe unique types of emotion? Share an example (word, definition, and language), based on your language knowledge or by [[/Non-English emotion words|exploring this list]]). ==Linguistic relativity== What are the psychological implications of our emotion knowledge? For example, the [[w:Linguistic relativity|Sapir-Whorf hypothesis]] (linguistic relativity) argues that language enables experience. According to this [[w:Essentialism|essentialist]] view, our emotional vocabulary enables but also limits our capacity for emotional experience. In other words, our consciousness and experience is determined by our language. Therefore, expanding our language, can expand our emotional experience. So, linguistic relativity implies that we can enrich our emotional lives by expanding our emotional vocabulary and incorporating more non-English emotion words. There are two forms of linguistic relativity: * '''Linguistic determinism''' (strong form): This claims that language completely controls and limits what you are able to think. Contemporary linguists and researchers have largely rejected this extreme view. * '''Linguistic influence''' (weak form): This proposes that our native language guides our attention, shapes cognitive habits, and makes certain concepts easier to process. Modern research supports this weaker version (e.g., see Vine et al., 2020). For a deeper dive, see the work of [https://scholar.google.com/citations?hl=en&user=KYOCMe0AAAAJ&view_op=list_works&citft=1&email_for_op=JamesTNeill%40gmail.com&gmla=AJsN-F6j5ww5q8q1NDhd-S-S5TKin27AiS2FjfdcUfkAVXE5YmU8yO2AKhpvl4zVnK9DydZiplyaDTbSiR07LuIndWHHRf5kRoyKUzi4uOkOI-xZ4Kf2XVza_DPjHMCvHpGTvzzzwuEddowKzs8IaU-p8KmARjs-EPENQ-8nNkxQMzms7CDipXgQXAQje0klOsKdU-tMXPC8MfCd-AI381ZWZ14SE60TcAYDsJMkNswaSvgjOQ10Yn-JJz8LV86D7NuLTSukCsSe James Pennebaker] (Google Scholar). ==Recording== * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/003c127bf5ae4b76b22997ddbe64842c Tutorial 7] (2026)<!-- * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/a1e53e9772ce4e7bab3e486fc15df7e1 Tutorial 7] (2025) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/b174165b101b4ba4beaaba6c52444c1e Tutorial 7] (2024) - Note: Recording fails ~40:20 mins * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/98e8da8bfb6f4267a9dfc70ebd0d070a Tutorial 7] (2023) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/44f3c37bd25640e4ba577978df0b9df9 Tutorial 7] (2022) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/5c1bf52c472449babbee04cb1e0871e2 Tutorial 7] (2021) --> ==See also== <!-- ;Additional tutorial material * [[../Emotion/Emotional intelligence/|Emotional intelligence]] ;Book chapters --> ;Wikipedia * [[w:Emotional intelligence|Emotional intelligence]] * [[w:Emotional literacy|Emotional literacy]] * [[w:Emotional self-regulation|Emotional self-regulation]] * [[w:Emotion classifcation|Emotion classification]] * [[w:Emotion perception|Emotion perception]] * [[w:Emotion recognistion|Emotion recognition]] ;Lecture * [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Nature of emotion|Nature of emotion]] ;Tutorials * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Learned optimism|Learned optimism]] (Previous tutorial) * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Measuring emotion|Measuring emotion]] (Next tutorial) ;Admin * [[/Instructor notes/]] ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Gardner, H. (1983), ''[[w:Theory of multiple intelligences|Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences]]''. Basic Books. Goleman, D. (1995). ''[[w:Emotional intelligence|Emotional intelligence]]''. Bantam. Vine, V., Boyd, R. L., & Pennebaker, J. W. (2020). Natural emotion vocabularies as windows on distress and well-being. ''Nature Communications'', ''11''(1), 4525. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-18349-0 }} ==External links== * [http://changingminds.org/explanations/emotions/basic%20emotions.htm Basic emotions] (changingminds.org) * [https://www.psypost.org/2015/10/children-who-understand-emotions-become-more-attentive-over-time-38140 Children who understand emotions become more attentive over time] (PsyPost, 2015) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Y7m9eNoB3NU Daniel Goleman introduces emotional intelligence] (YouTube; 5:30 mins) * [http://news.berkeley.edu/2017/09/06/27-emotions/ Emoji fans take heart: Scientists pinpoint 27 states of emotion] (University of California, Berkeley, 2017); [https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/emogifs/map.html Interactive emotion map with videos] * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n6MRsGwyMuQ Emotional intelligence by Daniel Goleman: Animated book summary] (YouTube; 7:28 mins) * [https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-09-07/how-emojis-like-thumbs-up-can-get-you-in-trouble-with-the-law/102810282 Emojis like thumbs-up or a full moon are tiny icons, but they can have big legal implications] (ABC news, 2023) * [http://www.carls-sims-4-guide.com/emotions/ List of emotions in Sims 4: Emotion system mechanics, moods, and how to get sims feeling each] (carls-sims-4-guide.com) * [https://www.psypost.org/2020/09/new-research-finds-our-vocabularies-can-act-as-a-window-into-psychological-and-physical-well-being-57971 New research finds our vocabularies can act as a window into psychological and physical well-being] (psypost.org) * [http://www.personalityresearch.org/basicemotions/plutchik.html Plutchik] (personalityresearch.org) - [[:commons:File:Plutchik-wheel.svg|Wheel of emotions]] <noinclude>{{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Navigation}}</noinclude> [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Core emotions]] [[Category:Emotional intelligence]] df6yzqjf355118psfbeg46epsupks6d 2834356 2834355 2026-09-24T01:17:52Z Jtneill 10242 /* Non-emotions */ + Wikipedia links 2834356 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|Tutorial 7: Core emotions|seventh}} {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} --> <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/In development}} --> ==Overview== * Explores the psychology of core [[emotion]]s – what are the criteria for an emotion and what are the core emotions? * The "emotion sort" class exercise involves collectively sorting hundreds of emotion words to linguistically model underlying families or clusters of emotional experience * Discusses "emotion knowledge" as a component "emotional intelligence" and considers "linguistic relativism", the idea that language shapes experience ==Criteria for core emotions== What are the criteria for a core emotion? To be classified as a core or basic emotion, the affective state should exhibit each of the following criteria: # Distinct antecedent casual trigger (provokes by same circumstances each time) # Inescapable (inevitable) activation # Rapid onset # Distinct pattern of physiology (e.g., pattern of brain activity, heart-rate) # Automatic (unlearned) appraisal # Distinct subjective experience (feeling state) # Distinct cognition (thoughts, images, and memories) # Distinct expression (facial and body) # Brief duration (short-lived) # Universal presence in other cultures and primates The exact number and nature of such criteria vary between theorists. ==Non-emotions== Not all affective experiences (i.e., feelings) represent core human emotions. If an affective experience does not constitute an emotion, it could instead be a(n): # [[w:Attitude (psychology)|Attitude]] (e.g., hate) # [[w:Behavior|Behaviour]] (e.g., aggression) # [[w:Cognition|Cognition]] (e.g., confused) # [[w:Mental disorder|Disorder]] (e.g., depression, behavioural conduct disorder) # [[w:Mood (psychology)|Mood]] (e.g., grumpy) # [[w:Trait theory|Personality trait]] (e.g., neuroticism) ==Core emotions== What are the core emotions? Theoretical models typically identify about six to eight core emotions, usually including: # Fear # Anger # Disgust # Sadness # Interest # Joy # Surprise # Contempt ==Emotion sort exercise== Linguistic models of emotion are developed from analysis of language (words) used to describe different affective states. The goal of this exercise is to organise many (250+) [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Emotion/List|emotion-related words]] into core emotion families: {{anchor|Activity}}{{RoundBoxTop|theme=10}} '''Activity: Emotion sort''' [[File:Antu 67EF addoninstaller.0.svg|right|100px]] # Open this [https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/1KYv0xfA-1lJVyLATiY7bnRl_RCXxXKClvV4sTVilpHQ/edit?usp=sharing list of emotion words] # Each person selects an emotion word and classifies it as either a: ## core emotion (and allocates it to a core emotion family) ## non-emotion (and indicates the reason it doesn't qualify as an emotion) # Classifications can be changed if you disagree # Repeat until all words are classified—a progress bar will be displayed # If unsure, use chat or the comments column # Discuss the: #* experience of categorising: e.g., what was like? easy? hard? why? #* unusual/unknown words or emotions you'd like to share or want to know more about? #* results based on data analysis about: #** % classified as emotions or not emotions #** which emotion families were most popular and which words were allocated to each emotion family #** which reasons were most used for excluding affective states as emotions {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[File:Emotion sort exercise - Core emotions.svg|center|550px|thumb|Bar chart showing the frequency of affective words sorted into 19 categories of emotion]] ==Emotion knowledge== [[File:Bananas by cactus cowboy.svg|thumb|right|175px|'''Schadenfreude''' (pronounced shar-den-frood-ar) is a German word for pleasure that arises from the misfortune of others (e.g., laughing when someone slips on a banana peel).]] [[File:Emotions wheel.png|thumb|right|450px|'''Emotions wheel''' showing aspects of seven core emotions]] What is emotion knowledge? Emotion knowledge is part of [[#Emotional intelligence|emotional intelligence]]. Emotion knowledge refers to the library or vocabulary of distinct emotion concepts (represented by words) that a person has access to. The bigger the library, the more chance there is of being able to distinguish between subtle shades and nuances of emotional states (e.g., various flavours of anger or joy): {{quote|"the finer and more sophisticated one's emotion knowledge is, the greater his or her capacity to respond to each life event with a specialised and highly appropriate reaction" (Reeve, 2009, p. 353).}} Emotion knowledge can be improved, in part, by expanding one's linguistic repertoire for describing emotions. ==Emotional intelligence== # What is [[Emotional intelligence|emotional intelligence]]? ##One of several [[w:Theory of multiple intelligence|multiple intelligence]]ss proposed by Gardener (1983) ##Also known as emotional quotient (EQ) ##[[Emotion knowledge]] or [[w:Emotional literacy|emotional literacy]] are components of emotional intelligence # Goleman's (1995) conceptualisation of emotional intelligence suggested four aspects, based on awareness/management and self/other distinctions (see Table 1). # Criticism: The term "intelligence" implies a fixed, steady state, however the four aspects of emotional intelligence are learnable and trainable, such as in school and the workplace. # How can emotional intelligence be trained or enhanced? '''Table 1'''. Four Quadrants of Emotional Intelligence (based on Goleman, 1995) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !Awareness !Management |- |'''Self''' |Self-awareness |Self-management |- |'''Other''' |Social awareness |Relationship management |} == Foreign emotion words== [[File:Non-English emotion words exercise.png|400px|thumb|Non-English emotion words and definitions suggested by a class in 2023.]] [[File:Path in Epping Forest - geograph.org.uk - 2523517.jpg|thumb|right|175px|'''Friluftsliv''' (pronounced free-loofts-liv) is a Norwegian word for the practice of purposefully spending time outdoors and the physical and mental health benefits that this engenders.]] Many varieties, shades, subtleties, and nuances of emotion are not so well described in English, but are well captured in some of the other 7,000 human languages. Some of these words are imported to English and are known as [[w:Loanword|loanwords]] or borrowed words. For example, [[wikt:schadenfreude|schadenfreude]] (German for the pleasure derived from the misfortune of others) can be found in the English dictionary. However, there remain many recognisable affective states for which there is no English equivalent or commonly adopted loanword. {{anchor|Words}} What words from other languages describe unique types of emotion? Share an example (word, definition, and language), based on your language knowledge or by [[/Non-English emotion words|exploring this list]]). ==Linguistic relativity== What are the psychological implications of our emotion knowledge? For example, the [[w:Linguistic relativity|Sapir-Whorf hypothesis]] (linguistic relativity) argues that language enables experience. According to this [[w:Essentialism|essentialist]] view, our emotional vocabulary enables but also limits our capacity for emotional experience. In other words, our consciousness and experience is determined by our language. Therefore, expanding our language, can expand our emotional experience. So, linguistic relativity implies that we can enrich our emotional lives by expanding our emotional vocabulary and incorporating more non-English emotion words. There are two forms of linguistic relativity: * '''Linguistic determinism''' (strong form): This claims that language completely controls and limits what you are able to think. Contemporary linguists and researchers have largely rejected this extreme view. * '''Linguistic influence''' (weak form): This proposes that our native language guides our attention, shapes cognitive habits, and makes certain concepts easier to process. Modern research supports this weaker version (e.g., see Vine et al., 2020). For a deeper dive, see the work of [https://scholar.google.com/citations?hl=en&user=KYOCMe0AAAAJ&view_op=list_works&citft=1&email_for_op=JamesTNeill%40gmail.com&gmla=AJsN-F6j5ww5q8q1NDhd-S-S5TKin27AiS2FjfdcUfkAVXE5YmU8yO2AKhpvl4zVnK9DydZiplyaDTbSiR07LuIndWHHRf5kRoyKUzi4uOkOI-xZ4Kf2XVza_DPjHMCvHpGTvzzzwuEddowKzs8IaU-p8KmARjs-EPENQ-8nNkxQMzms7CDipXgQXAQje0klOsKdU-tMXPC8MfCd-AI381ZWZ14SE60TcAYDsJMkNswaSvgjOQ10Yn-JJz8LV86D7NuLTSukCsSe James Pennebaker] (Google Scholar). ==Recording== * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/003c127bf5ae4b76b22997ddbe64842c Tutorial 7] (2026)<!-- * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/a1e53e9772ce4e7bab3e486fc15df7e1 Tutorial 7] (2025) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/b174165b101b4ba4beaaba6c52444c1e Tutorial 7] (2024) - Note: Recording fails ~40:20 mins * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/98e8da8bfb6f4267a9dfc70ebd0d070a Tutorial 7] (2023) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/44f3c37bd25640e4ba577978df0b9df9 Tutorial 7] (2022) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/5c1bf52c472449babbee04cb1e0871e2 Tutorial 7] (2021) --> ==See also== <!-- ;Additional tutorial material * [[../Emotion/Emotional intelligence/|Emotional intelligence]] ;Book chapters --> ;Wikipedia * [[w:Emotional intelligence|Emotional intelligence]] * [[w:Emotional literacy|Emotional literacy]] * [[w:Emotional self-regulation|Emotional self-regulation]] * [[w:Emotion classifcation|Emotion classification]] * [[w:Emotion perception|Emotion perception]] * [[w:Emotion recognistion|Emotion recognition]] ;Lecture * [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Nature of emotion|Nature of emotion]] ;Tutorials * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Learned optimism|Learned optimism]] (Previous tutorial) * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Measuring emotion|Measuring emotion]] (Next tutorial) ;Admin * [[/Instructor notes/]] ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Gardner, H. (1983), ''[[w:Theory of multiple intelligences|Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences]]''. Basic Books. Goleman, D. (1995). ''[[w:Emotional intelligence|Emotional intelligence]]''. Bantam. Vine, V., Boyd, R. L., & Pennebaker, J. W. (2020). Natural emotion vocabularies as windows on distress and well-being. ''Nature Communications'', ''11''(1), 4525. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-18349-0 }} ==External links== * [http://changingminds.org/explanations/emotions/basic%20emotions.htm Basic emotions] (changingminds.org) * [https://www.psypost.org/2015/10/children-who-understand-emotions-become-more-attentive-over-time-38140 Children who understand emotions become more attentive over time] (PsyPost, 2015) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Y7m9eNoB3NU Daniel Goleman introduces emotional intelligence] (YouTube; 5:30 mins) * [http://news.berkeley.edu/2017/09/06/27-emotions/ Emoji fans take heart: Scientists pinpoint 27 states of emotion] (University of California, Berkeley, 2017); [https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/emogifs/map.html Interactive emotion map with videos] * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n6MRsGwyMuQ Emotional intelligence by Daniel Goleman: Animated book summary] (YouTube; 7:28 mins) * [https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-09-07/how-emojis-like-thumbs-up-can-get-you-in-trouble-with-the-law/102810282 Emojis like thumbs-up or a full moon are tiny icons, but they can have big legal implications] (ABC news, 2023) * [http://www.carls-sims-4-guide.com/emotions/ List of emotions in Sims 4: Emotion system mechanics, moods, and how to get sims feeling each] (carls-sims-4-guide.com) * [https://www.psypost.org/2020/09/new-research-finds-our-vocabularies-can-act-as-a-window-into-psychological-and-physical-well-being-57971 New research finds our vocabularies can act as a window into psychological and physical well-being] (psypost.org) * [http://www.personalityresearch.org/basicemotions/plutchik.html Plutchik] (personalityresearch.org) - [[:commons:File:Plutchik-wheel.svg|Wheel of emotions]] <noinclude>{{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Navigation}}</noinclude> [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Core emotions]] [[Category:Emotional intelligence]] srxc4i60593bdo9kjnnloc40e308ra0 2834357 2834356 2026-09-24T01:18:56Z Jtneill 10242 /* Core emotions */ + Reeve (2024) citation 2834357 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|Tutorial 7: Core emotions|seventh}} {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} --> <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/In development}} --> ==Overview== * Explores the psychology of core [[emotion]]s – what are the criteria for an emotion and what are the core emotions? * The "emotion sort" class exercise involves collectively sorting hundreds of emotion words to linguistically model underlying families or clusters of emotional experience * Discusses "emotion knowledge" as a component "emotional intelligence" and considers "linguistic relativism", the idea that language shapes experience ==Criteria for core emotions== What are the criteria for a core emotion? To be classified as a core or basic emotion, the affective state should exhibit each of the following criteria: # Distinct antecedent casual trigger (provokes by same circumstances each time) # Inescapable (inevitable) activation # Rapid onset # Distinct pattern of physiology (e.g., pattern of brain activity, heart-rate) # Automatic (unlearned) appraisal # Distinct subjective experience (feeling state) # Distinct cognition (thoughts, images, and memories) # Distinct expression (facial and body) # Brief duration (short-lived) # Universal presence in other cultures and primates The exact number and nature of such criteria vary between theorists. ==Non-emotions== Not all affective experiences (i.e., feelings) represent core human emotions. If an affective experience does not constitute an emotion, it could instead be a(n): # [[w:Attitude (psychology)|Attitude]] (e.g., hate) # [[w:Behavior|Behaviour]] (e.g., aggression) # [[w:Cognition|Cognition]] (e.g., confused) # [[w:Mental disorder|Disorder]] (e.g., depression, behavioural conduct disorder) # [[w:Mood (psychology)|Mood]] (e.g., grumpy) # [[w:Trait theory|Personality trait]] (e.g., neuroticism) ==Core emotions== What are the core human emotions? Theoretical models typically identify about six to eight core emotions (Reeve, 2024), usually including: # Fear # Anger # Disgust # Sadness # Interest # Joy # Surprise # Contempt ==Emotion sort exercise== Linguistic models of emotion are developed from analysis of language (words) used to describe different affective states. The goal of this exercise is to organise many (250+) [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Emotion/List|emotion-related words]] into core emotion families: {{anchor|Activity}}{{RoundBoxTop|theme=10}} '''Activity: Emotion sort''' [[File:Antu 67EF addoninstaller.0.svg|right|100px]] # Open this [https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/1KYv0xfA-1lJVyLATiY7bnRl_RCXxXKClvV4sTVilpHQ/edit?usp=sharing list of emotion words] # Each person selects an emotion word and classifies it as either a: ## core emotion (and allocates it to a core emotion family) ## non-emotion (and indicates the reason it doesn't qualify as an emotion) # Classifications can be changed if you disagree # Repeat until all words are classified—a progress bar will be displayed # If unsure, use chat or the comments column # Discuss the: #* experience of categorising: e.g., what was like? easy? hard? why? #* unusual/unknown words or emotions you'd like to share or want to know more about? #* results based on data analysis about: #** % classified as emotions or not emotions #** which emotion families were most popular and which words were allocated to each emotion family #** which reasons were most used for excluding affective states as emotions {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[File:Emotion sort exercise - Core emotions.svg|center|550px|thumb|Bar chart showing the frequency of affective words sorted into 19 categories of emotion]] ==Emotion knowledge== [[File:Bananas by cactus cowboy.svg|thumb|right|175px|'''Schadenfreude''' (pronounced shar-den-frood-ar) is a German word for pleasure that arises from the misfortune of others (e.g., laughing when someone slips on a banana peel).]] [[File:Emotions wheel.png|thumb|right|450px|'''Emotions wheel''' showing aspects of seven core emotions]] What is emotion knowledge? Emotion knowledge is part of [[#Emotional intelligence|emotional intelligence]]. Emotion knowledge refers to the library or vocabulary of distinct emotion concepts (represented by words) that a person has access to. The bigger the library, the more chance there is of being able to distinguish between subtle shades and nuances of emotional states (e.g., various flavours of anger or joy): {{quote|"the finer and more sophisticated one's emotion knowledge is, the greater his or her capacity to respond to each life event with a specialised and highly appropriate reaction" (Reeve, 2009, p. 353).}} Emotion knowledge can be improved, in part, by expanding one's linguistic repertoire for describing emotions. ==Emotional intelligence== # What is [[Emotional intelligence|emotional intelligence]]? ##One of several [[w:Theory of multiple intelligence|multiple intelligence]]ss proposed by Gardener (1983) ##Also known as emotional quotient (EQ) ##[[Emotion knowledge]] or [[w:Emotional literacy|emotional literacy]] are components of emotional intelligence # Goleman's (1995) conceptualisation of emotional intelligence suggested four aspects, based on awareness/management and self/other distinctions (see Table 1). # Criticism: The term "intelligence" implies a fixed, steady state, however the four aspects of emotional intelligence are learnable and trainable, such as in school and the workplace. # How can emotional intelligence be trained or enhanced? '''Table 1'''. Four Quadrants of Emotional Intelligence (based on Goleman, 1995) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !Awareness !Management |- |'''Self''' |Self-awareness |Self-management |- |'''Other''' |Social awareness |Relationship management |} == Foreign emotion words== [[File:Non-English emotion words exercise.png|400px|thumb|Non-English emotion words and definitions suggested by a class in 2023.]] [[File:Path in Epping Forest - geograph.org.uk - 2523517.jpg|thumb|right|175px|'''Friluftsliv''' (pronounced free-loofts-liv) is a Norwegian word for the practice of purposefully spending time outdoors and the physical and mental health benefits that this engenders.]] Many varieties, shades, subtleties, and nuances of emotion are not so well described in English, but are well captured in some of the other 7,000 human languages. Some of these words are imported to English and are known as [[w:Loanword|loanwords]] or borrowed words. For example, [[wikt:schadenfreude|schadenfreude]] (German for the pleasure derived from the misfortune of others) can be found in the English dictionary. However, there remain many recognisable affective states for which there is no English equivalent or commonly adopted loanword. {{anchor|Words}} What words from other languages describe unique types of emotion? Share an example (word, definition, and language), based on your language knowledge or by [[/Non-English emotion words|exploring this list]]). ==Linguistic relativity== What are the psychological implications of our emotion knowledge? For example, the [[w:Linguistic relativity|Sapir-Whorf hypothesis]] (linguistic relativity) argues that language enables experience. According to this [[w:Essentialism|essentialist]] view, our emotional vocabulary enables but also limits our capacity for emotional experience. In other words, our consciousness and experience is determined by our language. Therefore, expanding our language, can expand our emotional experience. So, linguistic relativity implies that we can enrich our emotional lives by expanding our emotional vocabulary and incorporating more non-English emotion words. There are two forms of linguistic relativity: * '''Linguistic determinism''' (strong form): This claims that language completely controls and limits what you are able to think. Contemporary linguists and researchers have largely rejected this extreme view. * '''Linguistic influence''' (weak form): This proposes that our native language guides our attention, shapes cognitive habits, and makes certain concepts easier to process. Modern research supports this weaker version (e.g., see Vine et al., 2020). For a deeper dive, see the work of [https://scholar.google.com/citations?hl=en&user=KYOCMe0AAAAJ&view_op=list_works&citft=1&email_for_op=JamesTNeill%40gmail.com&gmla=AJsN-F6j5ww5q8q1NDhd-S-S5TKin27AiS2FjfdcUfkAVXE5YmU8yO2AKhpvl4zVnK9DydZiplyaDTbSiR07LuIndWHHRf5kRoyKUzi4uOkOI-xZ4Kf2XVza_DPjHMCvHpGTvzzzwuEddowKzs8IaU-p8KmARjs-EPENQ-8nNkxQMzms7CDipXgQXAQje0klOsKdU-tMXPC8MfCd-AI381ZWZ14SE60TcAYDsJMkNswaSvgjOQ10Yn-JJz8LV86D7NuLTSukCsSe James Pennebaker] (Google Scholar). ==Recording== * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/003c127bf5ae4b76b22997ddbe64842c Tutorial 7] (2026)<!-- * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/a1e53e9772ce4e7bab3e486fc15df7e1 Tutorial 7] (2025) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/b174165b101b4ba4beaaba6c52444c1e Tutorial 7] (2024) - Note: Recording fails ~40:20 mins * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/98e8da8bfb6f4267a9dfc70ebd0d070a Tutorial 7] (2023) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/44f3c37bd25640e4ba577978df0b9df9 Tutorial 7] (2022) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/5c1bf52c472449babbee04cb1e0871e2 Tutorial 7] (2021) --> ==See also== <!-- ;Additional tutorial material * [[../Emotion/Emotional intelligence/|Emotional intelligence]] ;Book chapters --> ;Wikipedia * [[w:Emotional intelligence|Emotional intelligence]] * [[w:Emotional literacy|Emotional literacy]] * [[w:Emotional self-regulation|Emotional self-regulation]] * [[w:Emotion classifcation|Emotion classification]] * [[w:Emotion perception|Emotion perception]] * [[w:Emotion recognistion|Emotion recognition]] ;Lecture * [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Nature of emotion|Nature of emotion]] ;Tutorials * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Learned optimism|Learned optimism]] (Previous tutorial) * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Measuring emotion|Measuring emotion]] (Next tutorial) ;Admin * [[/Instructor notes/]] ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Gardner, H. (1983), ''[[w:Theory of multiple intelligences|Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences]]''. Basic Books. Goleman, D. (1995). ''[[w:Emotional intelligence|Emotional intelligence]]''. Bantam. Vine, V., Boyd, R. L., & Pennebaker, J. W. (2020). Natural emotion vocabularies as windows on distress and well-being. ''Nature Communications'', ''11''(1), 4525. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-18349-0 }} ==External links== * [http://changingminds.org/explanations/emotions/basic%20emotions.htm Basic emotions] (changingminds.org) * [https://www.psypost.org/2015/10/children-who-understand-emotions-become-more-attentive-over-time-38140 Children who understand emotions become more attentive over time] (PsyPost, 2015) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Y7m9eNoB3NU Daniel Goleman introduces emotional intelligence] (YouTube; 5:30 mins) * [http://news.berkeley.edu/2017/09/06/27-emotions/ Emoji fans take heart: Scientists pinpoint 27 states of emotion] (University of California, Berkeley, 2017); [https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/emogifs/map.html Interactive emotion map with videos] * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n6MRsGwyMuQ Emotional intelligence by Daniel Goleman: Animated book summary] (YouTube; 7:28 mins) * [https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-09-07/how-emojis-like-thumbs-up-can-get-you-in-trouble-with-the-law/102810282 Emojis like thumbs-up or a full moon are tiny icons, but they can have big legal implications] (ABC news, 2023) * [http://www.carls-sims-4-guide.com/emotions/ List of emotions in Sims 4: Emotion system mechanics, moods, and how to get sims feeling each] (carls-sims-4-guide.com) * [https://www.psypost.org/2020/09/new-research-finds-our-vocabularies-can-act-as-a-window-into-psychological-and-physical-well-being-57971 New research finds our vocabularies can act as a window into psychological and physical well-being] (psypost.org) * [http://www.personalityresearch.org/basicemotions/plutchik.html Plutchik] (personalityresearch.org) - [[:commons:File:Plutchik-wheel.svg|Wheel of emotions]] <noinclude>{{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Navigation}}</noinclude> [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Core emotions]] [[Category:Emotional intelligence]] mnv52b8frstiiur2vgt1u6vvughawea 2834358 2834357 2026-09-24T01:24:29Z Jtneill 10242 /* Emotion sort exercise */ + Ortony et al. 1987 citation 2834358 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|Tutorial 7: Core emotions|seventh}} {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} --> <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/In development}} --> ==Overview== * Explores the psychology of core [[emotion]]s – what are the criteria for an emotion and what are the core emotions? * The "emotion sort" class exercise involves collectively sorting hundreds of emotion words to linguistically model underlying families or clusters of emotional experience * Discusses "emotion knowledge" as a component "emotional intelligence" and considers "linguistic relativism", the idea that language shapes experience ==Criteria for core emotions== What are the criteria for a core emotion? To be classified as a core or basic emotion, the affective state should exhibit each of the following criteria: # Distinct antecedent casual trigger (provokes by same circumstances each time) # Inescapable (inevitable) activation # Rapid onset # Distinct pattern of physiology (e.g., pattern of brain activity, heart-rate) # Automatic (unlearned) appraisal # Distinct subjective experience (feeling state) # Distinct cognition (thoughts, images, and memories) # Distinct expression (facial and body) # Brief duration (short-lived) # Universal presence in other cultures and primates The exact number and nature of such criteria vary between theorists. ==Non-emotions== Not all affective experiences (i.e., feelings) represent core human emotions. If an affective experience does not constitute an emotion, it could instead be a(n): # [[w:Attitude (psychology)|Attitude]] (e.g., hate) # [[w:Behavior|Behaviour]] (e.g., aggression) # [[w:Cognition|Cognition]] (e.g., confused) # [[w:Mental disorder|Disorder]] (e.g., depression, behavioural conduct disorder) # [[w:Mood (psychology)|Mood]] (e.g., grumpy) # [[w:Trait theory|Personality trait]] (e.g., neuroticism) ==Core emotions== What are the core human emotions? Theoretical models typically identify about six to eight core emotions (Reeve, 2024), usually including: # Fear # Anger # Disgust # Sadness # Interest # Joy # Surprise # Contempt ==Emotion sort exercise== Models of emotion can be developed from analysis of language (words) used to describe different affective states (e.g., Ortony et al., 1987). The goal of this exercise is to organise many (250+) [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Emotion/List|emotion-related words]] into core emotion families: {{anchor|Activity}}{{RoundBoxTop|theme=10}} '''Activity: Emotion sort''' [[File:Antu 67EF addoninstaller.0.svg|right|100px]] # Open this [https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/1KYv0xfA-1lJVyLATiY7bnRl_RCXxXKClvV4sTVilpHQ/edit?usp=sharing list of emotion words] # Each person selects an emotion word and classifies it as either a: ## core emotion (and allocates it to a core emotion family) ## non-emotion (and indicates the reason it doesn't qualify as an emotion) # Classifications can be changed if you disagree # Repeat until all words are classified—a progress bar will be displayed # If unsure, use chat or the comments column # Discuss the: #* experience of categorising: e.g., what was like? easy? hard? why? #* unusual/unknown words or emotions you'd like to share or want to know more about? #* results based on data analysis about: #** % classified as emotions or not emotions #** which emotion families were most popular and which words were allocated to each emotion family #** which reasons were most used for excluding affective states as emotions {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[File:Emotion sort exercise - Core emotions.svg|center|550px|thumb|Bar chart showing the frequency of affective words sorted into 19 categories of emotion]] ==Emotion knowledge== [[File:Bananas by cactus cowboy.svg|thumb|right|175px|'''Schadenfreude''' (pronounced shar-den-frood-ar) is a German word for pleasure that arises from the misfortune of others (e.g., laughing when someone slips on a banana peel).]] [[File:Emotions wheel.png|thumb|right|450px|'''Emotions wheel''' showing aspects of seven core emotions]] What is emotion knowledge? Emotion knowledge is part of [[#Emotional intelligence|emotional intelligence]]. Emotion knowledge refers to the library or vocabulary of distinct emotion concepts (represented by words) that a person has access to. The bigger the library, the more chance there is of being able to distinguish between subtle shades and nuances of emotional states (e.g., various flavours of anger or joy): {{quote|"the finer and more sophisticated one's emotion knowledge is, the greater his or her capacity to respond to each life event with a specialised and highly appropriate reaction" (Reeve, 2009, p. 353).}} Emotion knowledge can be improved, in part, by expanding one's linguistic repertoire for describing emotions. ==Emotional intelligence== # What is [[Emotional intelligence|emotional intelligence]]? ##One of several [[w:Theory of multiple intelligence|multiple intelligence]]ss proposed by Gardener (1983) ##Also known as emotional quotient (EQ) ##[[Emotion knowledge]] or [[w:Emotional literacy|emotional literacy]] are components of emotional intelligence # Goleman's (1995) conceptualisation of emotional intelligence suggested four aspects, based on awareness/management and self/other distinctions (see Table 1). # Criticism: The term "intelligence" implies a fixed, steady state, however the four aspects of emotional intelligence are learnable and trainable, such as in school and the workplace. # How can emotional intelligence be trained or enhanced? '''Table 1'''. Four Quadrants of Emotional Intelligence (based on Goleman, 1995) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !Awareness !Management |- |'''Self''' |Self-awareness |Self-management |- |'''Other''' |Social awareness |Relationship management |} == Foreign emotion words== [[File:Non-English emotion words exercise.png|400px|thumb|Non-English emotion words and definitions suggested by a class in 2023.]] [[File:Path in Epping Forest - geograph.org.uk - 2523517.jpg|thumb|right|175px|'''Friluftsliv''' (pronounced free-loofts-liv) is a Norwegian word for the practice of purposefully spending time outdoors and the physical and mental health benefits that this engenders.]] Many varieties, shades, subtleties, and nuances of emotion are not so well described in English, but are well captured in some of the other 7,000 human languages. Some of these words are imported to English and are known as [[w:Loanword|loanwords]] or borrowed words. For example, [[wikt:schadenfreude|schadenfreude]] (German for the pleasure derived from the misfortune of others) can be found in the English dictionary. However, there remain many recognisable affective states for which there is no English equivalent or commonly adopted loanword. {{anchor|Words}} What words from other languages describe unique types of emotion? Share an example (word, definition, and language), based on your language knowledge or by [[/Non-English emotion words|exploring this list]]). ==Linguistic relativity== What are the psychological implications of our emotion knowledge? For example, the [[w:Linguistic relativity|Sapir-Whorf hypothesis]] (linguistic relativity) argues that language enables experience. According to this [[w:Essentialism|essentialist]] view, our emotional vocabulary enables but also limits our capacity for emotional experience. In other words, our consciousness and experience is determined by our language. Therefore, expanding our language, can expand our emotional experience. So, linguistic relativity implies that we can enrich our emotional lives by expanding our emotional vocabulary and incorporating more non-English emotion words. There are two forms of linguistic relativity: * '''Linguistic determinism''' (strong form): This claims that language completely controls and limits what you are able to think. Contemporary linguists and researchers have largely rejected this extreme view. * '''Linguistic influence''' (weak form): This proposes that our native language guides our attention, shapes cognitive habits, and makes certain concepts easier to process. Modern research supports this weaker version (e.g., see Vine et al., 2020). For a deeper dive, see the work of [https://scholar.google.com/citations?hl=en&user=KYOCMe0AAAAJ&view_op=list_works&citft=1&email_for_op=JamesTNeill%40gmail.com&gmla=AJsN-F6j5ww5q8q1NDhd-S-S5TKin27AiS2FjfdcUfkAVXE5YmU8yO2AKhpvl4zVnK9DydZiplyaDTbSiR07LuIndWHHRf5kRoyKUzi4uOkOI-xZ4Kf2XVza_DPjHMCvHpGTvzzzwuEddowKzs8IaU-p8KmARjs-EPENQ-8nNkxQMzms7CDipXgQXAQje0klOsKdU-tMXPC8MfCd-AI381ZWZ14SE60TcAYDsJMkNswaSvgjOQ10Yn-JJz8LV86D7NuLTSukCsSe James Pennebaker] (Google Scholar). ==Recording== * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/003c127bf5ae4b76b22997ddbe64842c Tutorial 7] (2026)<!-- * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/a1e53e9772ce4e7bab3e486fc15df7e1 Tutorial 7] (2025) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/b174165b101b4ba4beaaba6c52444c1e Tutorial 7] (2024) - Note: Recording fails ~40:20 mins * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/98e8da8bfb6f4267a9dfc70ebd0d070a Tutorial 7] (2023) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/44f3c37bd25640e4ba577978df0b9df9 Tutorial 7] (2022) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/5c1bf52c472449babbee04cb1e0871e2 Tutorial 7] (2021) --> ==See also== <!-- ;Additional tutorial material * [[../Emotion/Emotional intelligence/|Emotional intelligence]] ;Book chapters --> ;Wikipedia * [[w:Emotional intelligence|Emotional intelligence]] * [[w:Emotional literacy|Emotional literacy]] * [[w:Emotional self-regulation|Emotional self-regulation]] * [[w:Emotion classifcation|Emotion classification]] * [[w:Emotion perception|Emotion perception]] * [[w:Emotion recognistion|Emotion recognition]] ;Lecture * [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Nature of emotion|Nature of emotion]] ;Tutorials * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Learned optimism|Learned optimism]] (Previous tutorial) * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Measuring emotion|Measuring emotion]] (Next tutorial) ;Admin * [[/Instructor notes/]] ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Gardner, H. (1983), ''[[w:Theory of multiple intelligences|Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences]]''. Basic Books. Goleman, D. (1995). ''[[w:Emotional intelligence|Emotional intelligence]]''. Bantam. Vine, V., Boyd, R. L., & Pennebaker, J. W. (2020). Natural emotion vocabularies as windows on distress and well-being. ''Nature Communications'', ''11''(1), 4525. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-18349-0 }} ==External links== * [http://changingminds.org/explanations/emotions/basic%20emotions.htm Basic emotions] (changingminds.org) * [https://www.psypost.org/2015/10/children-who-understand-emotions-become-more-attentive-over-time-38140 Children who understand emotions become more attentive over time] (PsyPost, 2015) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Y7m9eNoB3NU Daniel Goleman introduces emotional intelligence] (YouTube; 5:30 mins) * [http://news.berkeley.edu/2017/09/06/27-emotions/ Emoji fans take heart: Scientists pinpoint 27 states of emotion] (University of California, Berkeley, 2017); [https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/emogifs/map.html Interactive emotion map with videos] * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n6MRsGwyMuQ Emotional intelligence by Daniel Goleman: Animated book summary] (YouTube; 7:28 mins) * [https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-09-07/how-emojis-like-thumbs-up-can-get-you-in-trouble-with-the-law/102810282 Emojis like thumbs-up or a full moon are tiny icons, but they can have big legal implications] (ABC news, 2023) * [http://www.carls-sims-4-guide.com/emotions/ List of emotions in Sims 4: Emotion system mechanics, moods, and how to get sims feeling each] (carls-sims-4-guide.com) * [https://www.psypost.org/2020/09/new-research-finds-our-vocabularies-can-act-as-a-window-into-psychological-and-physical-well-being-57971 New research finds our vocabularies can act as a window into psychological and physical well-being] (psypost.org) * [http://www.personalityresearch.org/basicemotions/plutchik.html Plutchik] (personalityresearch.org) - [[:commons:File:Plutchik-wheel.svg|Wheel of emotions]] <noinclude>{{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Navigation}}</noinclude> [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Core emotions]] [[Category:Emotional intelligence]] 1x8jsmdimygpgeokyaezwwqj18fj0wm 2834359 2834358 2026-09-24T01:25:05Z Jtneill 10242 /* References */ Ortony, A., Clore, G. L., & Foss, M. A. (1987). The referential structure of the affective lexicon. ''Cognitive Science'', ''11''(3), 341–364. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15516709cog1103_4 2834359 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|Tutorial 7: Core emotions|seventh}} {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} --> <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/In development}} --> ==Overview== * Explores the psychology of core [[emotion]]s – what are the criteria for an emotion and what are the core emotions? * The "emotion sort" class exercise involves collectively sorting hundreds of emotion words to linguistically model underlying families or clusters of emotional experience * Discusses "emotion knowledge" as a component "emotional intelligence" and considers "linguistic relativism", the idea that language shapes experience ==Criteria for core emotions== What are the criteria for a core emotion? To be classified as a core or basic emotion, the affective state should exhibit each of the following criteria: # Distinct antecedent casual trigger (provokes by same circumstances each time) # Inescapable (inevitable) activation # Rapid onset # Distinct pattern of physiology (e.g., pattern of brain activity, heart-rate) # Automatic (unlearned) appraisal # Distinct subjective experience (feeling state) # Distinct cognition (thoughts, images, and memories) # Distinct expression (facial and body) # Brief duration (short-lived) # Universal presence in other cultures and primates The exact number and nature of such criteria vary between theorists. ==Non-emotions== Not all affective experiences (i.e., feelings) represent core human emotions. If an affective experience does not constitute an emotion, it could instead be a(n): # [[w:Attitude (psychology)|Attitude]] (e.g., hate) # [[w:Behavior|Behaviour]] (e.g., aggression) # [[w:Cognition|Cognition]] (e.g., confused) # [[w:Mental disorder|Disorder]] (e.g., depression, behavioural conduct disorder) # [[w:Mood (psychology)|Mood]] (e.g., grumpy) # [[w:Trait theory|Personality trait]] (e.g., neuroticism) ==Core emotions== What are the core human emotions? Theoretical models typically identify about six to eight core emotions (Reeve, 2024), usually including: # Fear # Anger # Disgust # Sadness # Interest # Joy # Surprise # Contempt ==Emotion sort exercise== Models of emotion can be developed from analysis of language (words) used to describe different affective states (e.g., Ortony et al., 1987). The goal of this exercise is to organise many (250+) [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Emotion/List|emotion-related words]] into core emotion families: {{anchor|Activity}}{{RoundBoxTop|theme=10}} '''Activity: Emotion sort''' [[File:Antu 67EF addoninstaller.0.svg|right|100px]] # Open this [https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/1KYv0xfA-1lJVyLATiY7bnRl_RCXxXKClvV4sTVilpHQ/edit?usp=sharing list of emotion words] # Each person selects an emotion word and classifies it as either a: ## core emotion (and allocates it to a core emotion family) ## non-emotion (and indicates the reason it doesn't qualify as an emotion) # Classifications can be changed if you disagree # Repeat until all words are classified—a progress bar will be displayed # If unsure, use chat or the comments column # Discuss the: #* experience of categorising: e.g., what was like? easy? hard? why? #* unusual/unknown words or emotions you'd like to share or want to know more about? #* results based on data analysis about: #** % classified as emotions or not emotions #** which emotion families were most popular and which words were allocated to each emotion family #** which reasons were most used for excluding affective states as emotions {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[File:Emotion sort exercise - Core emotions.svg|center|550px|thumb|Bar chart showing the frequency of affective words sorted into 19 categories of emotion]] ==Emotion knowledge== [[File:Bananas by cactus cowboy.svg|thumb|right|175px|'''Schadenfreude''' (pronounced shar-den-frood-ar) is a German word for pleasure that arises from the misfortune of others (e.g., laughing when someone slips on a banana peel).]] [[File:Emotions wheel.png|thumb|right|450px|'''Emotions wheel''' showing aspects of seven core emotions]] What is emotion knowledge? Emotion knowledge is part of [[#Emotional intelligence|emotional intelligence]]. Emotion knowledge refers to the library or vocabulary of distinct emotion concepts (represented by words) that a person has access to. The bigger the library, the more chance there is of being able to distinguish between subtle shades and nuances of emotional states (e.g., various flavours of anger or joy): {{quote|"the finer and more sophisticated one's emotion knowledge is, the greater his or her capacity to respond to each life event with a specialised and highly appropriate reaction" (Reeve, 2009, p. 353).}} Emotion knowledge can be improved, in part, by expanding one's linguistic repertoire for describing emotions. ==Emotional intelligence== # What is [[Emotional intelligence|emotional intelligence]]? ##One of several [[w:Theory of multiple intelligence|multiple intelligence]]ss proposed by Gardener (1983) ##Also known as emotional quotient (EQ) ##[[Emotion knowledge]] or [[w:Emotional literacy|emotional literacy]] are components of emotional intelligence # Goleman's (1995) conceptualisation of emotional intelligence suggested four aspects, based on awareness/management and self/other distinctions (see Table 1). # Criticism: The term "intelligence" implies a fixed, steady state, however the four aspects of emotional intelligence are learnable and trainable, such as in school and the workplace. # How can emotional intelligence be trained or enhanced? '''Table 1'''. Four Quadrants of Emotional Intelligence (based on Goleman, 1995) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !Awareness !Management |- |'''Self''' |Self-awareness |Self-management |- |'''Other''' |Social awareness |Relationship management |} == Foreign emotion words== [[File:Non-English emotion words exercise.png|400px|thumb|Non-English emotion words and definitions suggested by a class in 2023.]] [[File:Path in Epping Forest - geograph.org.uk - 2523517.jpg|thumb|right|175px|'''Friluftsliv''' (pronounced free-loofts-liv) is a Norwegian word for the practice of purposefully spending time outdoors and the physical and mental health benefits that this engenders.]] Many varieties, shades, subtleties, and nuances of emotion are not so well described in English, but are well captured in some of the other 7,000 human languages. Some of these words are imported to English and are known as [[w:Loanword|loanwords]] or borrowed words. For example, [[wikt:schadenfreude|schadenfreude]] (German for the pleasure derived from the misfortune of others) can be found in the English dictionary. However, there remain many recognisable affective states for which there is no English equivalent or commonly adopted loanword. {{anchor|Words}} What words from other languages describe unique types of emotion? Share an example (word, definition, and language), based on your language knowledge or by [[/Non-English emotion words|exploring this list]]). ==Linguistic relativity== What are the psychological implications of our emotion knowledge? For example, the [[w:Linguistic relativity|Sapir-Whorf hypothesis]] (linguistic relativity) argues that language enables experience. According to this [[w:Essentialism|essentialist]] view, our emotional vocabulary enables but also limits our capacity for emotional experience. In other words, our consciousness and experience is determined by our language. Therefore, expanding our language, can expand our emotional experience. So, linguistic relativity implies that we can enrich our emotional lives by expanding our emotional vocabulary and incorporating more non-English emotion words. There are two forms of linguistic relativity: * '''Linguistic determinism''' (strong form): This claims that language completely controls and limits what you are able to think. Contemporary linguists and researchers have largely rejected this extreme view. * '''Linguistic influence''' (weak form): This proposes that our native language guides our attention, shapes cognitive habits, and makes certain concepts easier to process. Modern research supports this weaker version (e.g., see Vine et al., 2020). For a deeper dive, see the work of [https://scholar.google.com/citations?hl=en&user=KYOCMe0AAAAJ&view_op=list_works&citft=1&email_for_op=JamesTNeill%40gmail.com&gmla=AJsN-F6j5ww5q8q1NDhd-S-S5TKin27AiS2FjfdcUfkAVXE5YmU8yO2AKhpvl4zVnK9DydZiplyaDTbSiR07LuIndWHHRf5kRoyKUzi4uOkOI-xZ4Kf2XVza_DPjHMCvHpGTvzzzwuEddowKzs8IaU-p8KmARjs-EPENQ-8nNkxQMzms7CDipXgQXAQje0klOsKdU-tMXPC8MfCd-AI381ZWZ14SE60TcAYDsJMkNswaSvgjOQ10Yn-JJz8LV86D7NuLTSukCsSe James Pennebaker] (Google Scholar). ==Recording== * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/003c127bf5ae4b76b22997ddbe64842c Tutorial 7] (2026)<!-- * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/a1e53e9772ce4e7bab3e486fc15df7e1 Tutorial 7] (2025) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/b174165b101b4ba4beaaba6c52444c1e Tutorial 7] (2024) - Note: Recording fails ~40:20 mins * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/98e8da8bfb6f4267a9dfc70ebd0d070a Tutorial 7] (2023) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/44f3c37bd25640e4ba577978df0b9df9 Tutorial 7] (2022) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/5c1bf52c472449babbee04cb1e0871e2 Tutorial 7] (2021) --> ==See also== <!-- ;Additional tutorial material * [[../Emotion/Emotional intelligence/|Emotional intelligence]] ;Book chapters --> ;Wikipedia * [[w:Emotional intelligence|Emotional intelligence]] * [[w:Emotional literacy|Emotional literacy]] * [[w:Emotional self-regulation|Emotional self-regulation]] * [[w:Emotion classifcation|Emotion classification]] * [[w:Emotion perception|Emotion perception]] * [[w:Emotion recognistion|Emotion recognition]] ;Lecture * [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Nature of emotion|Nature of emotion]] ;Tutorials * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Learned optimism|Learned optimism]] (Previous tutorial) * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Measuring emotion|Measuring emotion]] (Next tutorial) ;Admin * [[/Instructor notes/]] ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Ortony, A., Clore, G. L., & Foss, M. A. (1987). The referential structure of the affective lexicon. ''Cognitive Science'', ''11''(3), 341–364. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15516709cog1103_4 Gardner, H. (1983), ''[[w:Theory of multiple intelligences|Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences]]''. Basic Books. Goleman, D. (1995). ''[[w:Emotional intelligence|Emotional intelligence]]''. Bantam. Vine, V., Boyd, R. L., & Pennebaker, J. W. (2020). Natural emotion vocabularies as windows on distress and well-being. ''Nature Communications'', ''11''(1), 4525. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-18349-0 }} ==External links== * [http://changingminds.org/explanations/emotions/basic%20emotions.htm Basic emotions] (changingminds.org) * [https://www.psypost.org/2015/10/children-who-understand-emotions-become-more-attentive-over-time-38140 Children who understand emotions become more attentive over time] (PsyPost, 2015) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Y7m9eNoB3NU Daniel Goleman introduces emotional intelligence] (YouTube; 5:30 mins) * [http://news.berkeley.edu/2017/09/06/27-emotions/ Emoji fans take heart: Scientists pinpoint 27 states of emotion] (University of California, Berkeley, 2017); [https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/emogifs/map.html Interactive emotion map with videos] * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n6MRsGwyMuQ Emotional intelligence by Daniel Goleman: Animated book summary] (YouTube; 7:28 mins) * [https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-09-07/how-emojis-like-thumbs-up-can-get-you-in-trouble-with-the-law/102810282 Emojis like thumbs-up or a full moon are tiny icons, but they can have big legal implications] (ABC news, 2023) * [http://www.carls-sims-4-guide.com/emotions/ List of emotions in Sims 4: Emotion system mechanics, moods, and how to get sims feeling each] (carls-sims-4-guide.com) * [https://www.psypost.org/2020/09/new-research-finds-our-vocabularies-can-act-as-a-window-into-psychological-and-physical-well-being-57971 New research finds our vocabularies can act as a window into psychological and physical well-being] (psypost.org) * [http://www.personalityresearch.org/basicemotions/plutchik.html Plutchik] (personalityresearch.org) - [[:commons:File:Plutchik-wheel.svg|Wheel of emotions]] <noinclude>{{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Navigation}}</noinclude> [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Core emotions]] [[Category:Emotional intelligence]] dlzw4k8wuvhf4jfojsivb5y8bk0csc6 2834360 2834359 2026-09-24T01:27:01Z Jtneill 10242 /* References */ Clore, G. L., Ortony, A., & Foss, M. A. (1987). The psychological foundations of the affective lexicon. ''Journal of Personality and Social Psychology'', ''53''(4), 751–766. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.53.4.751 2834360 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|Tutorial 7: Core emotions|seventh}} {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} --> <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/In development}} --> ==Overview== * Explores the psychology of core [[emotion]]s – what are the criteria for an emotion and what are the core emotions? * The "emotion sort" class exercise involves collectively sorting hundreds of emotion words to linguistically model underlying families or clusters of emotional experience * Discusses "emotion knowledge" as a component "emotional intelligence" and considers "linguistic relativism", the idea that language shapes experience ==Criteria for core emotions== What are the criteria for a core emotion? To be classified as a core or basic emotion, the affective state should exhibit each of the following criteria: # Distinct antecedent casual trigger (provokes by same circumstances each time) # Inescapable (inevitable) activation # Rapid onset # Distinct pattern of physiology (e.g., pattern of brain activity, heart-rate) # Automatic (unlearned) appraisal # Distinct subjective experience (feeling state) # Distinct cognition (thoughts, images, and memories) # Distinct expression (facial and body) # Brief duration (short-lived) # Universal presence in other cultures and primates The exact number and nature of such criteria vary between theorists. ==Non-emotions== Not all affective experiences (i.e., feelings) represent core human emotions. If an affective experience does not constitute an emotion, it could instead be a(n): # [[w:Attitude (psychology)|Attitude]] (e.g., hate) # [[w:Behavior|Behaviour]] (e.g., aggression) # [[w:Cognition|Cognition]] (e.g., confused) # [[w:Mental disorder|Disorder]] (e.g., depression, behavioural conduct disorder) # [[w:Mood (psychology)|Mood]] (e.g., grumpy) # [[w:Trait theory|Personality trait]] (e.g., neuroticism) ==Core emotions== What are the core human emotions? Theoretical models typically identify about six to eight core emotions (Reeve, 2024), usually including: # Fear # Anger # Disgust # Sadness # Interest # Joy # Surprise # Contempt ==Emotion sort exercise== Models of emotion can be developed from analysis of language (words) used to describe different affective states (e.g., Ortony et al., 1987). The goal of this exercise is to organise many (250+) [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Emotion/List|emotion-related words]] into core emotion families: {{anchor|Activity}}{{RoundBoxTop|theme=10}} '''Activity: Emotion sort''' [[File:Antu 67EF addoninstaller.0.svg|right|100px]] # Open this [https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/1KYv0xfA-1lJVyLATiY7bnRl_RCXxXKClvV4sTVilpHQ/edit?usp=sharing list of emotion words] # Each person selects an emotion word and classifies it as either a: ## core emotion (and allocates it to a core emotion family) ## non-emotion (and indicates the reason it doesn't qualify as an emotion) # Classifications can be changed if you disagree # Repeat until all words are classified—a progress bar will be displayed # If unsure, use chat or the comments column # Discuss the: #* experience of categorising: e.g., what was like? easy? hard? why? #* unusual/unknown words or emotions you'd like to share or want to know more about? #* results based on data analysis about: #** % classified as emotions or not emotions #** which emotion families were most popular and which words were allocated to each emotion family #** which reasons were most used for excluding affective states as emotions {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[File:Emotion sort exercise - Core emotions.svg|center|550px|thumb|Bar chart showing the frequency of affective words sorted into 19 categories of emotion]] ==Emotion knowledge== [[File:Bananas by cactus cowboy.svg|thumb|right|175px|'''Schadenfreude''' (pronounced shar-den-frood-ar) is a German word for pleasure that arises from the misfortune of others (e.g., laughing when someone slips on a banana peel).]] [[File:Emotions wheel.png|thumb|right|450px|'''Emotions wheel''' showing aspects of seven core emotions]] What is emotion knowledge? Emotion knowledge is part of [[#Emotional intelligence|emotional intelligence]]. Emotion knowledge refers to the library or vocabulary of distinct emotion concepts (represented by words) that a person has access to. The bigger the library, the more chance there is of being able to distinguish between subtle shades and nuances of emotional states (e.g., various flavours of anger or joy): {{quote|"the finer and more sophisticated one's emotion knowledge is, the greater his or her capacity to respond to each life event with a specialised and highly appropriate reaction" (Reeve, 2009, p. 353).}} Emotion knowledge can be improved, in part, by expanding one's linguistic repertoire for describing emotions. ==Emotional intelligence== # What is [[Emotional intelligence|emotional intelligence]]? ##One of several [[w:Theory of multiple intelligence|multiple intelligence]]ss proposed by Gardener (1983) ##Also known as emotional quotient (EQ) ##[[Emotion knowledge]] or [[w:Emotional literacy|emotional literacy]] are components of emotional intelligence # Goleman's (1995) conceptualisation of emotional intelligence suggested four aspects, based on awareness/management and self/other distinctions (see Table 1). # Criticism: The term "intelligence" implies a fixed, steady state, however the four aspects of emotional intelligence are learnable and trainable, such as in school and the workplace. # How can emotional intelligence be trained or enhanced? '''Table 1'''. Four Quadrants of Emotional Intelligence (based on Goleman, 1995) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !Awareness !Management |- |'''Self''' |Self-awareness |Self-management |- |'''Other''' |Social awareness |Relationship management |} == Foreign emotion words== [[File:Non-English emotion words exercise.png|400px|thumb|Non-English emotion words and definitions suggested by a class in 2023.]] [[File:Path in Epping Forest - geograph.org.uk - 2523517.jpg|thumb|right|175px|'''Friluftsliv''' (pronounced free-loofts-liv) is a Norwegian word for the practice of purposefully spending time outdoors and the physical and mental health benefits that this engenders.]] Many varieties, shades, subtleties, and nuances of emotion are not so well described in English, but are well captured in some of the other 7,000 human languages. Some of these words are imported to English and are known as [[w:Loanword|loanwords]] or borrowed words. For example, [[wikt:schadenfreude|schadenfreude]] (German for the pleasure derived from the misfortune of others) can be found in the English dictionary. However, there remain many recognisable affective states for which there is no English equivalent or commonly adopted loanword. {{anchor|Words}} What words from other languages describe unique types of emotion? Share an example (word, definition, and language), based on your language knowledge or by [[/Non-English emotion words|exploring this list]]). ==Linguistic relativity== What are the psychological implications of our emotion knowledge? For example, the [[w:Linguistic relativity|Sapir-Whorf hypothesis]] (linguistic relativity) argues that language enables experience. According to this [[w:Essentialism|essentialist]] view, our emotional vocabulary enables but also limits our capacity for emotional experience. In other words, our consciousness and experience is determined by our language. Therefore, expanding our language, can expand our emotional experience. So, linguistic relativity implies that we can enrich our emotional lives by expanding our emotional vocabulary and incorporating more non-English emotion words. There are two forms of linguistic relativity: * '''Linguistic determinism''' (strong form): This claims that language completely controls and limits what you are able to think. Contemporary linguists and researchers have largely rejected this extreme view. * '''Linguistic influence''' (weak form): This proposes that our native language guides our attention, shapes cognitive habits, and makes certain concepts easier to process. Modern research supports this weaker version (e.g., see Vine et al., 2020). For a deeper dive, see the work of [https://scholar.google.com/citations?hl=en&user=KYOCMe0AAAAJ&view_op=list_works&citft=1&email_for_op=JamesTNeill%40gmail.com&gmla=AJsN-F6j5ww5q8q1NDhd-S-S5TKin27AiS2FjfdcUfkAVXE5YmU8yO2AKhpvl4zVnK9DydZiplyaDTbSiR07LuIndWHHRf5kRoyKUzi4uOkOI-xZ4Kf2XVza_DPjHMCvHpGTvzzzwuEddowKzs8IaU-p8KmARjs-EPENQ-8nNkxQMzms7CDipXgQXAQje0klOsKdU-tMXPC8MfCd-AI381ZWZ14SE60TcAYDsJMkNswaSvgjOQ10Yn-JJz8LV86D7NuLTSukCsSe James Pennebaker] (Google Scholar). ==Recording== * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/003c127bf5ae4b76b22997ddbe64842c Tutorial 7] (2026)<!-- * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/a1e53e9772ce4e7bab3e486fc15df7e1 Tutorial 7] (2025) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/b174165b101b4ba4beaaba6c52444c1e Tutorial 7] (2024) - Note: Recording fails ~40:20 mins * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/98e8da8bfb6f4267a9dfc70ebd0d070a Tutorial 7] (2023) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/44f3c37bd25640e4ba577978df0b9df9 Tutorial 7] (2022) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/5c1bf52c472449babbee04cb1e0871e2 Tutorial 7] (2021) --> ==See also== <!-- ;Additional tutorial material * [[../Emotion/Emotional intelligence/|Emotional intelligence]] ;Book chapters --> ;Wikipedia * [[w:Emotional intelligence|Emotional intelligence]] * [[w:Emotional literacy|Emotional literacy]] * [[w:Emotional self-regulation|Emotional self-regulation]] * [[w:Emotion classifcation|Emotion classification]] * [[w:Emotion perception|Emotion perception]] * [[w:Emotion recognistion|Emotion recognition]] ;Lecture * [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Nature of emotion|Nature of emotion]] ;Tutorials * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Learned optimism|Learned optimism]] (Previous tutorial) * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Measuring emotion|Measuring emotion]] (Next tutorial) ;Admin * [[/Instructor notes/]] ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Clore, G. L., Ortony, A., & Foss, M. A. (1987). The psychological foundations of the affective lexicon. ''Journal of Personality and Social Psychology'', ''53''(4), 751–766. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.53.4.751 Ortony, A., Clore, G. L., & Foss, M. A. (1987). The referential structure of the affective lexicon. ''Cognitive Science'', ''11''(3), 341–364. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15516709cog1103_4 Gardner, H. (1983), ''[[w:Theory of multiple intelligences|Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences]]''. Basic Books. Goleman, D. (1995). ''[[w:Emotional intelligence|Emotional intelligence]]''. Bantam. Vine, V., Boyd, R. L., & Pennebaker, J. W. (2020). Natural emotion vocabularies as windows on distress and well-being. ''Nature Communications'', ''11''(1), 4525. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-18349-0 }} ==External links== * [http://changingminds.org/explanations/emotions/basic%20emotions.htm Basic emotions] (changingminds.org) * [https://www.psypost.org/2015/10/children-who-understand-emotions-become-more-attentive-over-time-38140 Children who understand emotions become more attentive over time] (PsyPost, 2015) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Y7m9eNoB3NU Daniel Goleman introduces emotional intelligence] (YouTube; 5:30 mins) * [http://news.berkeley.edu/2017/09/06/27-emotions/ Emoji fans take heart: Scientists pinpoint 27 states of emotion] (University of California, Berkeley, 2017); [https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/emogifs/map.html Interactive emotion map with videos] * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n6MRsGwyMuQ Emotional intelligence by Daniel Goleman: Animated book summary] (YouTube; 7:28 mins) * [https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-09-07/how-emojis-like-thumbs-up-can-get-you-in-trouble-with-the-law/102810282 Emojis like thumbs-up or a full moon are tiny icons, but they can have big legal implications] (ABC news, 2023) * [http://www.carls-sims-4-guide.com/emotions/ List of emotions in Sims 4: Emotion system mechanics, moods, and how to get sims feeling each] (carls-sims-4-guide.com) * [https://www.psypost.org/2020/09/new-research-finds-our-vocabularies-can-act-as-a-window-into-psychological-and-physical-well-being-57971 New research finds our vocabularies can act as a window into psychological and physical well-being] (psypost.org) * [http://www.personalityresearch.org/basicemotions/plutchik.html Plutchik] (personalityresearch.org) - [[:commons:File:Plutchik-wheel.svg|Wheel of emotions]] <noinclude>{{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Navigation}}</noinclude> [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Core emotions]] [[Category:Emotional intelligence]] hrlnsunrw2yi26q6h6b3jnzsjapvipg 2834363 2834360 2026-09-24T02:51:34Z Jtneill 10242 /* Overview */ 2834363 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|Tutorial 7: Core emotions|seventh}} {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} --> <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/In development}} --> ==Overview== * Explores the psychology of core [[emotion]]s–what are the criteria for an emotion and what are the core emotions? * The "emotion sort" class exercise involves collectively sorting hundreds of emotion words to linguistically model underlying families or clusters of emotional experience * Discusses "emotion knowledge" as a component "emotional intelligence" and considers "linguistic relativism", the idea that language shapes experience ==Criteria for core emotions== What are the criteria for a core emotion? To be classified as a core or basic emotion, the affective state should exhibit each of the following criteria: # Distinct antecedent casual trigger (provokes by same circumstances each time) # Inescapable (inevitable) activation # Rapid onset # Distinct pattern of physiology (e.g., pattern of brain activity, heart-rate) # Automatic (unlearned) appraisal # Distinct subjective experience (feeling state) # Distinct cognition (thoughts, images, and memories) # Distinct expression (facial and body) # Brief duration (short-lived) # Universal presence in other cultures and primates The exact number and nature of such criteria vary between theorists. ==Non-emotions== Not all affective experiences (i.e., feelings) represent core human emotions. If an affective experience does not constitute an emotion, it could instead be a(n): # [[w:Attitude (psychology)|Attitude]] (e.g., hate) # [[w:Behavior|Behaviour]] (e.g., aggression) # [[w:Cognition|Cognition]] (e.g., confused) # [[w:Mental disorder|Disorder]] (e.g., depression, behavioural conduct disorder) # [[w:Mood (psychology)|Mood]] (e.g., grumpy) # [[w:Trait theory|Personality trait]] (e.g., neuroticism) ==Core emotions== What are the core human emotions? Theoretical models typically identify about six to eight core emotions (Reeve, 2024), usually including: # Fear # Anger # Disgust # Sadness # Interest # Joy # Surprise # Contempt ==Emotion sort exercise== Models of emotion can be developed from analysis of language (words) used to describe different affective states (e.g., Ortony et al., 1987). The goal of this exercise is to organise many (250+) [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Emotion/List|emotion-related words]] into core emotion families: {{anchor|Activity}}{{RoundBoxTop|theme=10}} '''Activity: Emotion sort''' [[File:Antu 67EF addoninstaller.0.svg|right|100px]] # Open this [https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/1KYv0xfA-1lJVyLATiY7bnRl_RCXxXKClvV4sTVilpHQ/edit?usp=sharing list of emotion words] # Each person selects an emotion word and classifies it as either a: ## core emotion (and allocates it to a core emotion family) ## non-emotion (and indicates the reason it doesn't qualify as an emotion) # Classifications can be changed if you disagree # Repeat until all words are classified—a progress bar will be displayed # If unsure, use chat or the comments column # Discuss the: #* experience of categorising: e.g., what was like? easy? hard? why? #* unusual/unknown words or emotions you'd like to share or want to know more about? #* results based on data analysis about: #** % classified as emotions or not emotions #** which emotion families were most popular and which words were allocated to each emotion family #** which reasons were most used for excluding affective states as emotions {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[File:Emotion sort exercise - Core emotions.svg|center|550px|thumb|Bar chart showing the frequency of affective words sorted into 19 categories of emotion]] ==Emotion knowledge== [[File:Bananas by cactus cowboy.svg|thumb|right|175px|'''Schadenfreude''' (pronounced shar-den-frood-ar) is a German word for pleasure that arises from the misfortune of others (e.g., laughing when someone slips on a banana peel).]] [[File:Emotions wheel.png|thumb|right|450px|'''Emotions wheel''' showing aspects of seven core emotions]] What is emotion knowledge? Emotion knowledge is part of [[#Emotional intelligence|emotional intelligence]]. Emotion knowledge refers to the library or vocabulary of distinct emotion concepts (represented by words) that a person has access to. The bigger the library, the more chance there is of being able to distinguish between subtle shades and nuances of emotional states (e.g., various flavours of anger or joy): {{quote|"the finer and more sophisticated one's emotion knowledge is, the greater his or her capacity to respond to each life event with a specialised and highly appropriate reaction" (Reeve, 2009, p. 353).}} Emotion knowledge can be improved, in part, by expanding one's linguistic repertoire for describing emotions. ==Emotional intelligence== # What is [[Emotional intelligence|emotional intelligence]]? ##One of several [[w:Theory of multiple intelligence|multiple intelligence]]ss proposed by Gardener (1983) ##Also known as emotional quotient (EQ) ##[[Emotion knowledge]] or [[w:Emotional literacy|emotional literacy]] are components of emotional intelligence # Goleman's (1995) conceptualisation of emotional intelligence suggested four aspects, based on awareness/management and self/other distinctions (see Table 1). # Criticism: The term "intelligence" implies a fixed, steady state, however the four aspects of emotional intelligence are learnable and trainable, such as in school and the workplace. # How can emotional intelligence be trained or enhanced? '''Table 1'''. Four Quadrants of Emotional Intelligence (based on Goleman, 1995) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !Awareness !Management |- |'''Self''' |Self-awareness |Self-management |- |'''Other''' |Social awareness |Relationship management |} == Foreign emotion words== [[File:Non-English emotion words exercise.png|400px|thumb|Non-English emotion words and definitions suggested by a class in 2023.]] [[File:Path in Epping Forest - geograph.org.uk - 2523517.jpg|thumb|right|175px|'''Friluftsliv''' (pronounced free-loofts-liv) is a Norwegian word for the practice of purposefully spending time outdoors and the physical and mental health benefits that this engenders.]] Many varieties, shades, subtleties, and nuances of emotion are not so well described in English, but are well captured in some of the other 7,000 human languages. Some of these words are imported to English and are known as [[w:Loanword|loanwords]] or borrowed words. For example, [[wikt:schadenfreude|schadenfreude]] (German for the pleasure derived from the misfortune of others) can be found in the English dictionary. However, there remain many recognisable affective states for which there is no English equivalent or commonly adopted loanword. {{anchor|Words}} What words from other languages describe unique types of emotion? Share an example (word, definition, and language), based on your language knowledge or by [[/Non-English emotion words|exploring this list]]). ==Linguistic relativity== What are the psychological implications of our emotion knowledge? For example, the [[w:Linguistic relativity|Sapir-Whorf hypothesis]] (linguistic relativity) argues that language enables experience. According to this [[w:Essentialism|essentialist]] view, our emotional vocabulary enables but also limits our capacity for emotional experience. In other words, our consciousness and experience is determined by our language. Therefore, expanding our language, can expand our emotional experience. So, linguistic relativity implies that we can enrich our emotional lives by expanding our emotional vocabulary and incorporating more non-English emotion words. There are two forms of linguistic relativity: * '''Linguistic determinism''' (strong form): This claims that language completely controls and limits what you are able to think. Contemporary linguists and researchers have largely rejected this extreme view. * '''Linguistic influence''' (weak form): This proposes that our native language guides our attention, shapes cognitive habits, and makes certain concepts easier to process. Modern research supports this weaker version (e.g., see Vine et al., 2020). For a deeper dive, see the work of [https://scholar.google.com/citations?hl=en&user=KYOCMe0AAAAJ&view_op=list_works&citft=1&email_for_op=JamesTNeill%40gmail.com&gmla=AJsN-F6j5ww5q8q1NDhd-S-S5TKin27AiS2FjfdcUfkAVXE5YmU8yO2AKhpvl4zVnK9DydZiplyaDTbSiR07LuIndWHHRf5kRoyKUzi4uOkOI-xZ4Kf2XVza_DPjHMCvHpGTvzzzwuEddowKzs8IaU-p8KmARjs-EPENQ-8nNkxQMzms7CDipXgQXAQje0klOsKdU-tMXPC8MfCd-AI381ZWZ14SE60TcAYDsJMkNswaSvgjOQ10Yn-JJz8LV86D7NuLTSukCsSe James Pennebaker] (Google Scholar). ==Recording== * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/003c127bf5ae4b76b22997ddbe64842c Tutorial 7] (2026)<!-- * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/a1e53e9772ce4e7bab3e486fc15df7e1 Tutorial 7] (2025) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/b174165b101b4ba4beaaba6c52444c1e Tutorial 7] (2024) - Note: Recording fails ~40:20 mins * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/98e8da8bfb6f4267a9dfc70ebd0d070a Tutorial 7] (2023) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/44f3c37bd25640e4ba577978df0b9df9 Tutorial 7] (2022) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/5c1bf52c472449babbee04cb1e0871e2 Tutorial 7] (2021) --> ==See also== <!-- ;Additional tutorial material * [[../Emotion/Emotional intelligence/|Emotional intelligence]] ;Book chapters --> ;Wikipedia * [[w:Emotional intelligence|Emotional intelligence]] * [[w:Emotional literacy|Emotional literacy]] * [[w:Emotional self-regulation|Emotional self-regulation]] * [[w:Emotion classifcation|Emotion classification]] * [[w:Emotion perception|Emotion perception]] * [[w:Emotion recognistion|Emotion recognition]] ;Lecture * [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Nature of emotion|Nature of emotion]] ;Tutorials * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Learned optimism|Learned optimism]] (Previous tutorial) * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Measuring emotion|Measuring emotion]] (Next tutorial) ;Admin * [[/Instructor notes/]] ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Clore, G. L., Ortony, A., & Foss, M. A. (1987). The psychological foundations of the affective lexicon. ''Journal of Personality and Social Psychology'', ''53''(4), 751–766. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.53.4.751 Ortony, A., Clore, G. L., & Foss, M. A. (1987). The referential structure of the affective lexicon. ''Cognitive Science'', ''11''(3), 341–364. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15516709cog1103_4 Gardner, H. (1983), ''[[w:Theory of multiple intelligences|Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences]]''. Basic Books. Goleman, D. (1995). ''[[w:Emotional intelligence|Emotional intelligence]]''. Bantam. Vine, V., Boyd, R. L., & Pennebaker, J. W. (2020). Natural emotion vocabularies as windows on distress and well-being. ''Nature Communications'', ''11''(1), 4525. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-18349-0 }} ==External links== * [http://changingminds.org/explanations/emotions/basic%20emotions.htm Basic emotions] (changingminds.org) * [https://www.psypost.org/2015/10/children-who-understand-emotions-become-more-attentive-over-time-38140 Children who understand emotions become more attentive over time] (PsyPost, 2015) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Y7m9eNoB3NU Daniel Goleman introduces emotional intelligence] (YouTube; 5:30 mins) * [http://news.berkeley.edu/2017/09/06/27-emotions/ Emoji fans take heart: Scientists pinpoint 27 states of emotion] (University of California, Berkeley, 2017); [https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/emogifs/map.html Interactive emotion map with videos] * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n6MRsGwyMuQ Emotional intelligence by Daniel Goleman: Animated book summary] (YouTube; 7:28 mins) * [https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-09-07/how-emojis-like-thumbs-up-can-get-you-in-trouble-with-the-law/102810282 Emojis like thumbs-up or a full moon are tiny icons, but they can have big legal implications] (ABC news, 2023) * [http://www.carls-sims-4-guide.com/emotions/ List of emotions in Sims 4: Emotion system mechanics, moods, and how to get sims feeling each] (carls-sims-4-guide.com) * [https://www.psypost.org/2020/09/new-research-finds-our-vocabularies-can-act-as-a-window-into-psychological-and-physical-well-being-57971 New research finds our vocabularies can act as a window into psychological and physical well-being] (psypost.org) * [http://www.personalityresearch.org/basicemotions/plutchik.html Plutchik] (personalityresearch.org) - [[:commons:File:Plutchik-wheel.svg|Wheel of emotions]] <noinclude>{{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Navigation}}</noinclude> [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Core emotions]] [[Category:Emotional intelligence]] qe3zkkrn8ztkhv7fu475hk5aavwdhgb 2834364 2834363 2026-09-24T02:57:53Z Jtneill 10242 /* See also */ * [[w:Emotion#Basic emotions theory|Basic emotions theory]] 2834364 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|Tutorial 7: Core emotions|seventh}} {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} --> <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/In development}} --> ==Overview== * Explores the psychology of core [[emotion]]s–what are the criteria for an emotion and what are the core emotions? * The "emotion sort" class exercise involves collectively sorting hundreds of emotion words to linguistically model underlying families or clusters of emotional experience * Discusses "emotion knowledge" as a component "emotional intelligence" and considers "linguistic relativism", the idea that language shapes experience ==Criteria for core emotions== What are the criteria for a core emotion? To be classified as a core or basic emotion, the affective state should exhibit each of the following criteria: # Distinct antecedent casual trigger (provokes by same circumstances each time) # Inescapable (inevitable) activation # Rapid onset # Distinct pattern of physiology (e.g., pattern of brain activity, heart-rate) # Automatic (unlearned) appraisal # Distinct subjective experience (feeling state) # Distinct cognition (thoughts, images, and memories) # Distinct expression (facial and body) # Brief duration (short-lived) # Universal presence in other cultures and primates The exact number and nature of such criteria vary between theorists. ==Non-emotions== Not all affective experiences (i.e., feelings) represent core human emotions. If an affective experience does not constitute an emotion, it could instead be a(n): # [[w:Attitude (psychology)|Attitude]] (e.g., hate) # [[w:Behavior|Behaviour]] (e.g., aggression) # [[w:Cognition|Cognition]] (e.g., confused) # [[w:Mental disorder|Disorder]] (e.g., depression, behavioural conduct disorder) # [[w:Mood (psychology)|Mood]] (e.g., grumpy) # [[w:Trait theory|Personality trait]] (e.g., neuroticism) ==Core emotions== What are the core human emotions? Theoretical models typically identify about six to eight core emotions (Reeve, 2024), usually including: # Fear # Anger # Disgust # Sadness # Interest # Joy # Surprise # Contempt ==Emotion sort exercise== Models of emotion can be developed from analysis of language (words) used to describe different affective states (e.g., Ortony et al., 1987). The goal of this exercise is to organise many (250+) [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Emotion/List|emotion-related words]] into core emotion families: {{anchor|Activity}}{{RoundBoxTop|theme=10}} '''Activity: Emotion sort''' [[File:Antu 67EF addoninstaller.0.svg|right|100px]] # Open this [https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/1KYv0xfA-1lJVyLATiY7bnRl_RCXxXKClvV4sTVilpHQ/edit?usp=sharing list of emotion words] # Each person selects an emotion word and classifies it as either a: ## core emotion (and allocates it to a core emotion family) ## non-emotion (and indicates the reason it doesn't qualify as an emotion) # Classifications can be changed if you disagree # Repeat until all words are classified—a progress bar will be displayed # If unsure, use chat or the comments column # Discuss the: #* experience of categorising: e.g., what was like? easy? hard? why? #* unusual/unknown words or emotions you'd like to share or want to know more about? #* results based on data analysis about: #** % classified as emotions or not emotions #** which emotion families were most popular and which words were allocated to each emotion family #** which reasons were most used for excluding affective states as emotions {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[File:Emotion sort exercise - Core emotions.svg|center|550px|thumb|Bar chart showing the frequency of affective words sorted into 19 categories of emotion]] ==Emotion knowledge== [[File:Bananas by cactus cowboy.svg|thumb|right|175px|'''Schadenfreude''' (pronounced shar-den-frood-ar) is a German word for pleasure that arises from the misfortune of others (e.g., laughing when someone slips on a banana peel).]] [[File:Emotions wheel.png|thumb|right|450px|'''Emotions wheel''' showing aspects of seven core emotions]] What is emotion knowledge? Emotion knowledge is part of [[#Emotional intelligence|emotional intelligence]]. Emotion knowledge refers to the library or vocabulary of distinct emotion concepts (represented by words) that a person has access to. The bigger the library, the more chance there is of being able to distinguish between subtle shades and nuances of emotional states (e.g., various flavours of anger or joy): {{quote|"the finer and more sophisticated one's emotion knowledge is, the greater his or her capacity to respond to each life event with a specialised and highly appropriate reaction" (Reeve, 2009, p. 353).}} Emotion knowledge can be improved, in part, by expanding one's linguistic repertoire for describing emotions. ==Emotional intelligence== # What is [[Emotional intelligence|emotional intelligence]]? ##One of several [[w:Theory of multiple intelligence|multiple intelligence]]ss proposed by Gardener (1983) ##Also known as emotional quotient (EQ) ##[[Emotion knowledge]] or [[w:Emotional literacy|emotional literacy]] are components of emotional intelligence # Goleman's (1995) conceptualisation of emotional intelligence suggested four aspects, based on awareness/management and self/other distinctions (see Table 1). # Criticism: The term "intelligence" implies a fixed, steady state, however the four aspects of emotional intelligence are learnable and trainable, such as in school and the workplace. # How can emotional intelligence be trained or enhanced? '''Table 1'''. Four Quadrants of Emotional Intelligence (based on Goleman, 1995) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !Awareness !Management |- |'''Self''' |Self-awareness |Self-management |- |'''Other''' |Social awareness |Relationship management |} == Foreign emotion words== [[File:Non-English emotion words exercise.png|400px|thumb|Non-English emotion words and definitions suggested by a class in 2023.]] [[File:Path in Epping Forest - geograph.org.uk - 2523517.jpg|thumb|right|175px|'''Friluftsliv''' (pronounced free-loofts-liv) is a Norwegian word for the practice of purposefully spending time outdoors and the physical and mental health benefits that this engenders.]] Many varieties, shades, subtleties, and nuances of emotion are not so well described in English, but are well captured in some of the other 7,000 human languages. Some of these words are imported to English and are known as [[w:Loanword|loanwords]] or borrowed words. For example, [[wikt:schadenfreude|schadenfreude]] (German for the pleasure derived from the misfortune of others) can be found in the English dictionary. However, there remain many recognisable affective states for which there is no English equivalent or commonly adopted loanword. {{anchor|Words}} What words from other languages describe unique types of emotion? Share an example (word, definition, and language), based on your language knowledge or by [[/Non-English emotion words|exploring this list]]). ==Linguistic relativity== What are the psychological implications of our emotion knowledge? For example, the [[w:Linguistic relativity|Sapir-Whorf hypothesis]] (linguistic relativity) argues that language enables experience. According to this [[w:Essentialism|essentialist]] view, our emotional vocabulary enables but also limits our capacity for emotional experience. In other words, our consciousness and experience is determined by our language. Therefore, expanding our language, can expand our emotional experience. So, linguistic relativity implies that we can enrich our emotional lives by expanding our emotional vocabulary and incorporating more non-English emotion words. There are two forms of linguistic relativity: * '''Linguistic determinism''' (strong form): This claims that language completely controls and limits what you are able to think. Contemporary linguists and researchers have largely rejected this extreme view. * '''Linguistic influence''' (weak form): This proposes that our native language guides our attention, shapes cognitive habits, and makes certain concepts easier to process. Modern research supports this weaker version (e.g., see Vine et al., 2020). For a deeper dive, see the work of [https://scholar.google.com/citations?hl=en&user=KYOCMe0AAAAJ&view_op=list_works&citft=1&email_for_op=JamesTNeill%40gmail.com&gmla=AJsN-F6j5ww5q8q1NDhd-S-S5TKin27AiS2FjfdcUfkAVXE5YmU8yO2AKhpvl4zVnK9DydZiplyaDTbSiR07LuIndWHHRf5kRoyKUzi4uOkOI-xZ4Kf2XVza_DPjHMCvHpGTvzzzwuEddowKzs8IaU-p8KmARjs-EPENQ-8nNkxQMzms7CDipXgQXAQje0klOsKdU-tMXPC8MfCd-AI381ZWZ14SE60TcAYDsJMkNswaSvgjOQ10Yn-JJz8LV86D7NuLTSukCsSe James Pennebaker] (Google Scholar). ==Recording== * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/003c127bf5ae4b76b22997ddbe64842c Tutorial 7] (2026)<!-- * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/a1e53e9772ce4e7bab3e486fc15df7e1 Tutorial 7] (2025) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/b174165b101b4ba4beaaba6c52444c1e Tutorial 7] (2024) - Note: Recording fails ~40:20 mins * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/98e8da8bfb6f4267a9dfc70ebd0d070a Tutorial 7] (2023) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/44f3c37bd25640e4ba577978df0b9df9 Tutorial 7] (2022) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/5c1bf52c472449babbee04cb1e0871e2 Tutorial 7] (2021) --> ==See also== <!-- ;Additional tutorial material * [[../Emotion/Emotional intelligence/|Emotional intelligence]] ;Book chapters --> ;Wikipedia * [[w:Emotion#Basic emotions theory|Basic emotions theory]] * [[w:Emotional intelligence|Emotional intelligence]] * [[w:Emotional literacy|Emotional literacy]] * [[w:Emotional self-regulation|Emotional self-regulation]] * [[w:Emotion classifcation|Emotion classification]] * [[w:Emotion perception|Emotion perception]] * [[w:Emotion recognistion|Emotion recognition]] ;Lecture * [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Nature of emotion|Nature of emotion]] ;Tutorials * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Learned optimism|Learned optimism]] (Previous tutorial) * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Measuring emotion|Measuring emotion]] (Next tutorial) ;Admin * [[/Instructor notes/]] ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Clore, G. L., Ortony, A., & Foss, M. A. (1987). The psychological foundations of the affective lexicon. ''Journal of Personality and Social Psychology'', ''53''(4), 751–766. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.53.4.751 Ortony, A., Clore, G. L., & Foss, M. A. (1987). The referential structure of the affective lexicon. ''Cognitive Science'', ''11''(3), 341–364. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15516709cog1103_4 Gardner, H. (1983), ''[[w:Theory of multiple intelligences|Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences]]''. Basic Books. Goleman, D. (1995). ''[[w:Emotional intelligence|Emotional intelligence]]''. Bantam. Vine, V., Boyd, R. L., & Pennebaker, J. W. (2020). Natural emotion vocabularies as windows on distress and well-being. ''Nature Communications'', ''11''(1), 4525. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-18349-0 }} ==External links== * [http://changingminds.org/explanations/emotions/basic%20emotions.htm Basic emotions] (changingminds.org) * [https://www.psypost.org/2015/10/children-who-understand-emotions-become-more-attentive-over-time-38140 Children who understand emotions become more attentive over time] (PsyPost, 2015) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Y7m9eNoB3NU Daniel Goleman introduces emotional intelligence] (YouTube; 5:30 mins) * [http://news.berkeley.edu/2017/09/06/27-emotions/ Emoji fans take heart: Scientists pinpoint 27 states of emotion] (University of California, Berkeley, 2017); [https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/emogifs/map.html Interactive emotion map with videos] * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n6MRsGwyMuQ Emotional intelligence by Daniel Goleman: Animated book summary] (YouTube; 7:28 mins) * [https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-09-07/how-emojis-like-thumbs-up-can-get-you-in-trouble-with-the-law/102810282 Emojis like thumbs-up or a full moon are tiny icons, but they can have big legal implications] (ABC news, 2023) * [http://www.carls-sims-4-guide.com/emotions/ List of emotions in Sims 4: Emotion system mechanics, moods, and how to get sims feeling each] (carls-sims-4-guide.com) * [https://www.psypost.org/2020/09/new-research-finds-our-vocabularies-can-act-as-a-window-into-psychological-and-physical-well-being-57971 New research finds our vocabularies can act as a window into psychological and physical well-being] (psypost.org) * [http://www.personalityresearch.org/basicemotions/plutchik.html Plutchik] (personalityresearch.org) - [[:commons:File:Plutchik-wheel.svg|Wheel of emotions]] <noinclude>{{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Navigation}}</noinclude> [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Core emotions]] [[Category:Emotional intelligence]] guvizsmjqudna2plll7iqscc9lhspvi 2834365 2834364 2026-09-24T06:12:08Z Jtneill 10242 + Beyond language 2834365 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|Tutorial 7: Core emotions|seventh}} {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} --> <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/In development}} --> ==Overview== * Explores the psychology of core [[emotion]]s–what are the criteria for an emotion and what are the core emotions? * The "emotion sort" class exercise involves collectively sorting hundreds of emotion words to linguistically model underlying families or clusters of emotional experience * Discusses "emotion knowledge" as a component "emotional intelligence" and considers "linguistic relativism", the idea that language shapes experience ==Criteria for core emotions== What are the criteria for a core emotion? To be classified as a core or basic emotion, the affective state should exhibit each of the following criteria: # Distinct antecedent casual trigger (provokes by same circumstances each time) # Inescapable (inevitable) activation # Rapid onset # Distinct pattern of physiology (e.g., pattern of brain activity, heart-rate) # Automatic (unlearned) appraisal # Distinct subjective experience (feeling state) # Distinct cognition (thoughts, images, and memories) # Distinct expression (facial and body) # Brief duration (short-lived) # Universal presence in other cultures and primates The exact number and nature of such criteria vary between theorists. ==Non-emotions== Not all affective experiences (i.e., feelings) represent core human emotions. If an affective experience does not constitute an emotion, it could instead be a(n): # [[w:Attitude (psychology)|Attitude]] (e.g., hate) # [[w:Behavior|Behaviour]] (e.g., aggression) # [[w:Cognition|Cognition]] (e.g., confused) # [[w:Mental disorder|Disorder]] (e.g., depression, behavioural conduct disorder) # [[w:Mood (psychology)|Mood]] (e.g., grumpy) # [[w:Trait theory|Personality trait]] (e.g., neuroticism) ==Core emotions== What are the core human emotions? Theoretical models typically identify about six to eight core emotions (Reeve, 2024), usually including: # Fear # Anger # Disgust # Sadness # Interest # Joy # Surprise # Contempt ==Emotion sort exercise== Models of emotion can be developed from analysis of language (words) used to describe different affective states (e.g., Ortony et al., 1987). The goal of this exercise is to organise many (250+) [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Emotion/List|emotion-related words]] into core emotion families: {{anchor|Activity}}{{RoundBoxTop|theme=10}} '''Activity: Emotion sort''' [[File:Antu 67EF addoninstaller.0.svg|right|100px]] # Open this [https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/1KYv0xfA-1lJVyLATiY7bnRl_RCXxXKClvV4sTVilpHQ/edit?usp=sharing list of emotion words] # Each person selects an emotion word and classifies it as either a: ## core emotion (and allocates it to a core emotion family) ## non-emotion (and indicates the reason it doesn't qualify as an emotion) # Classifications can be changed if you disagree # Repeat until all words are classified—a progress bar will be displayed # If unsure, use chat or the comments column # Discuss the: #* experience of categorising: e.g., what was like? easy? hard? why? #* unusual/unknown words or emotions you'd like to share or want to know more about? #* results based on data analysis about: #** % classified as emotions or not emotions #** which emotion families were most popular and which words were allocated to each emotion family #** which reasons were most used for excluding affective states as emotions {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[File:Emotion sort exercise - Core emotions.svg|center|550px|thumb|Bar chart showing the frequency of affective words sorted into 19 categories of emotion]] ==Emotion knowledge== [[File:Bananas by cactus cowboy.svg|thumb|right|175px|'''Schadenfreude''' (pronounced shar-den-frood-ar) is a German word for pleasure that arises from the misfortune of others (e.g., laughing when someone slips on a banana peel).]] [[File:Emotions wheel.png|thumb|right|450px|'''Emotions wheel''' showing aspects of seven core emotions]] What is emotion knowledge? Emotion knowledge is part of [[#Emotional intelligence|emotional intelligence]]. Emotion knowledge refers to the library or vocabulary of distinct emotion concepts (represented by words) that a person has access to. The bigger the library, the more chance there is of being able to distinguish between subtle shades and nuances of emotional states (e.g., various flavours of anger or joy): {{quote|"the finer and more sophisticated one's emotion knowledge is, the greater his or her capacity to respond to each life event with a specialised and highly appropriate reaction" (Reeve, 2009, p. 353).}} Emotion knowledge can be improved, in part, by expanding one's linguistic repertoire for describing emotions. ==Emotional intelligence== # What is [[Emotional intelligence|emotional intelligence]]? ##One of several [[w:Theory of multiple intelligence|multiple intelligence]]ss proposed by Gardener (1983) ##Also known as emotional quotient (EQ) ##[[Emotion knowledge]] or [[w:Emotional literacy|emotional literacy]] are components of emotional intelligence # Goleman's (1995) conceptualisation of emotional intelligence suggested four aspects, based on awareness/management and self/other distinctions (see Table 1). # Criticism: The term "intelligence" implies a fixed, steady state, however the four aspects of emotional intelligence are learnable and trainable, such as in school and the workplace. # How can emotional intelligence be trained or enhanced? '''Table 1'''. Four Quadrants of Emotional Intelligence (based on Goleman, 1995) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !Awareness !Management |- |'''Self''' |Self-awareness |Self-management |- |'''Other''' |Social awareness |Relationship management |} == Foreign emotion words== [[File:Non-English emotion words exercise.png|400px|thumb|Non-English emotion words and definitions suggested by a class in 2023.]] [[File:Path in Epping Forest - geograph.org.uk - 2523517.jpg|thumb|right|175px|'''Friluftsliv''' (pronounced free-loofts-liv) is a Norwegian word for the practice of purposefully spending time outdoors and the physical and mental health benefits that this engenders.]] Many varieties, shades, subtleties, and nuances of emotion are not so well described in English, but are well captured in some of the other 7,000 human languages. Some of these words are imported to English and are known as [[w:Loanword|loanwords]] or borrowed words. For example, [[wikt:schadenfreude|schadenfreude]] (German for the pleasure derived from the misfortune of others) can be found in the English dictionary. However, there remain many recognisable affective states for which there is no English equivalent or commonly adopted loanword. {{anchor|Words}} What words from other languages describe unique types of emotion? Share an example (word, definition, and language), based on your language knowledge or by [[/Non-English emotion words|exploring this list]]). ==Linguistic relativity== What are the psychological implications of our emotion knowledge? For example, the [[w:Linguistic relativity|Sapir-Whorf hypothesis]] (linguistic relativity) argues that language enables experience. According to this [[w:Essentialism|essentialist]] view, our emotional vocabulary enables but also limits our capacity for emotional experience. In other words, our consciousness and experience is determined by our language. Therefore, expanding our language, can expand our emotional experience. So, linguistic relativity implies that we can enrich our emotional lives by expanding our emotional vocabulary and incorporating more non-English emotion words. There are two forms of linguistic relativity: * '''Linguistic determinism''' (strong form): This claims that language completely controls and limits what you are able to think. Contemporary linguists and researchers have largely rejected this extreme view. * '''Linguistic influence''' (weak form): This proposes that our native language guides our attention, shapes cognitive habits, and makes certain concepts easier to process. Modern research supports this weaker version (e.g., see Vine et al., 2020). For a deeper dive, see the work of [https://scholar.google.com/citations?hl=en&user=KYOCMe0AAAAJ&view_op=list_works&citft=1&email_for_op=JamesTNeill%40gmail.com&gmla=AJsN-F6j5ww5q8q1NDhd-S-S5TKin27AiS2FjfdcUfkAVXE5YmU8yO2AKhpvl4zVnK9DydZiplyaDTbSiR07LuIndWHHRf5kRoyKUzi4uOkOI-xZ4Kf2XVza_DPjHMCvHpGTvzzzwuEddowKzs8IaU-p8KmARjs-EPENQ-8nNkxQMzms7CDipXgQXAQje0klOsKdU-tMXPC8MfCd-AI381ZWZ14SE60TcAYDsJMkNswaSvgjOQ10Yn-JJz8LV86D7NuLTSukCsSe James Pennebaker] (Google Scholar). ==Beyond language== * Besides words, how else do we represent, understand, and communicate our emotions? For example: ** emoticons and emojis ** memes ** music ** colour ==Recording== * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/003c127bf5ae4b76b22997ddbe64842c Tutorial 7] (2026)<!-- * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/a1e53e9772ce4e7bab3e486fc15df7e1 Tutorial 7] (2025) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/b174165b101b4ba4beaaba6c52444c1e Tutorial 7] (2024) - Note: Recording fails ~40:20 mins * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/98e8da8bfb6f4267a9dfc70ebd0d070a Tutorial 7] (2023) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/44f3c37bd25640e4ba577978df0b9df9 Tutorial 7] (2022) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/5c1bf52c472449babbee04cb1e0871e2 Tutorial 7] (2021) --> ==See also== <!-- ;Additional tutorial material * [[../Emotion/Emotional intelligence/|Emotional intelligence]] ;Book chapters --> ;Wikipedia * [[w:Emotion#Basic emotions theory|Basic emotions theory]] * [[w:Emotional intelligence|Emotional intelligence]] * [[w:Emotional literacy|Emotional literacy]] * [[w:Emotional self-regulation|Emotional self-regulation]] * [[w:Emotion classifcation|Emotion classification]] * [[w:Emotion perception|Emotion perception]] * [[w:Emotion recognistion|Emotion recognition]] ;Lecture * [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Nature of emotion|Nature of emotion]] ;Tutorials * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Learned optimism|Learned optimism]] (Previous tutorial) * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Measuring emotion|Measuring emotion]] (Next tutorial) ;Admin * [[/Instructor notes/]] ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Clore, G. L., Ortony, A., & Foss, M. A. (1987). The psychological foundations of the affective lexicon. ''Journal of Personality and Social Psychology'', ''53''(4), 751–766. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.53.4.751 Ortony, A., Clore, G. L., & Foss, M. A. (1987). The referential structure of the affective lexicon. ''Cognitive Science'', ''11''(3), 341–364. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15516709cog1103_4 Gardner, H. (1983), ''[[w:Theory of multiple intelligences|Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences]]''. Basic Books. Goleman, D. (1995). ''[[w:Emotional intelligence|Emotional intelligence]]''. Bantam. Vine, V., Boyd, R. L., & Pennebaker, J. W. (2020). Natural emotion vocabularies as windows on distress and well-being. ''Nature Communications'', ''11''(1), 4525. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-18349-0 }} ==External links== * [http://changingminds.org/explanations/emotions/basic%20emotions.htm Basic emotions] (changingminds.org) * [https://www.psypost.org/2015/10/children-who-understand-emotions-become-more-attentive-over-time-38140 Children who understand emotions become more attentive over time] (PsyPost, 2015) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Y7m9eNoB3NU Daniel Goleman introduces emotional intelligence] (YouTube; 5:30 mins) * [http://news.berkeley.edu/2017/09/06/27-emotions/ Emoji fans take heart: Scientists pinpoint 27 states of emotion] (University of California, Berkeley, 2017); [https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/emogifs/map.html Interactive emotion map with videos] * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n6MRsGwyMuQ Emotional intelligence by Daniel Goleman: Animated book summary] (YouTube; 7:28 mins) * [https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-09-07/how-emojis-like-thumbs-up-can-get-you-in-trouble-with-the-law/102810282 Emojis like thumbs-up or a full moon are tiny icons, but they can have big legal implications] (ABC news, 2023) * [http://www.carls-sims-4-guide.com/emotions/ List of emotions in Sims 4: Emotion system mechanics, moods, and how to get sims feeling each] (carls-sims-4-guide.com) * [https://www.psypost.org/2020/09/new-research-finds-our-vocabularies-can-act-as-a-window-into-psychological-and-physical-well-being-57971 New research finds our vocabularies can act as a window into psychological and physical well-being] (psypost.org) * [http://www.personalityresearch.org/basicemotions/plutchik.html Plutchik] (personalityresearch.org) - [[:commons:File:Plutchik-wheel.svg|Wheel of emotions]] <noinclude>{{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Navigation}}</noinclude> [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Core emotions]] [[Category:Emotional intelligence]] pgeehj9yqnjthhpichirl5jqm1107ki 2834367 2834365 2026-09-24T06:24:12Z Jtneill 10242 /* Beyond language */ + disgust emoji image 2834367 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|Tutorial 7: Core emotions|seventh}} {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} --> <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/In development}} --> ==Overview== * Explores the psychology of core [[emotion]]s–what are the criteria for an emotion and what are the core emotions? * The "emotion sort" class exercise involves collectively sorting hundreds of emotion words to linguistically model underlying families or clusters of emotional experience * Discusses "emotion knowledge" as a component "emotional intelligence" and considers "linguistic relativism", the idea that language shapes experience ==Criteria for core emotions== What are the criteria for a core emotion? To be classified as a core or basic emotion, the affective state should exhibit each of the following criteria: # Distinct antecedent casual trigger (provokes by same circumstances each time) # Inescapable (inevitable) activation # Rapid onset # Distinct pattern of physiology (e.g., pattern of brain activity, heart-rate) # Automatic (unlearned) appraisal # Distinct subjective experience (feeling state) # Distinct cognition (thoughts, images, and memories) # Distinct expression (facial and body) # Brief duration (short-lived) # Universal presence in other cultures and primates The exact number and nature of such criteria vary between theorists. ==Non-emotions== Not all affective experiences (i.e., feelings) represent core human emotions. If an affective experience does not constitute an emotion, it could instead be a(n): # [[w:Attitude (psychology)|Attitude]] (e.g., hate) # [[w:Behavior|Behaviour]] (e.g., aggression) # [[w:Cognition|Cognition]] (e.g., confused) # [[w:Mental disorder|Disorder]] (e.g., depression, behavioural conduct disorder) # [[w:Mood (psychology)|Mood]] (e.g., grumpy) # [[w:Trait theory|Personality trait]] (e.g., neuroticism) ==Core emotions== What are the core human emotions? Theoretical models typically identify about six to eight core emotions (Reeve, 2024), usually including: # Fear # Anger # Disgust # Sadness # Interest # Joy # Surprise # Contempt ==Emotion sort exercise== Models of emotion can be developed from analysis of language (words) used to describe different affective states (e.g., Ortony et al., 1987). The goal of this exercise is to organise many (250+) [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Emotion/List|emotion-related words]] into core emotion families: {{anchor|Activity}}{{RoundBoxTop|theme=10}} '''Activity: Emotion sort''' [[File:Antu 67EF addoninstaller.0.svg|right|100px]] # Open this [https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/1KYv0xfA-1lJVyLATiY7bnRl_RCXxXKClvV4sTVilpHQ/edit?usp=sharing list of emotion words] # Each person selects an emotion word and classifies it as either a: ## core emotion (and allocates it to a core emotion family) ## non-emotion (and indicates the reason it doesn't qualify as an emotion) # Classifications can be changed if you disagree # Repeat until all words are classified—a progress bar will be displayed # If unsure, use chat or the comments column # Discuss the: #* experience of categorising: e.g., what was like? easy? hard? why? #* unusual/unknown words or emotions you'd like to share or want to know more about? #* results based on data analysis about: #** % classified as emotions or not emotions #** which emotion families were most popular and which words were allocated to each emotion family #** which reasons were most used for excluding affective states as emotions {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[File:Emotion sort exercise - Core emotions.svg|center|550px|thumb|Bar chart showing the frequency of affective words sorted into 19 categories of emotion]] ==Emotion knowledge== [[File:Bananas by cactus cowboy.svg|thumb|right|175px|'''Schadenfreude''' (pronounced shar-den-frood-ar) is a German word for pleasure that arises from the misfortune of others (e.g., laughing when someone slips on a banana peel).]] [[File:Emotions wheel.png|thumb|right|450px|'''Emotions wheel''' showing aspects of seven core emotions]] What is emotion knowledge? Emotion knowledge is part of [[#Emotional intelligence|emotional intelligence]]. Emotion knowledge refers to the library or vocabulary of distinct emotion concepts (represented by words) that a person has access to. The bigger the library, the more chance there is of being able to distinguish between subtle shades and nuances of emotional states (e.g., various flavours of anger or joy): {{quote|"the finer and more sophisticated one's emotion knowledge is, the greater his or her capacity to respond to each life event with a specialised and highly appropriate reaction" (Reeve, 2009, p. 353).}} Emotion knowledge can be improved, in part, by expanding one's linguistic repertoire for describing emotions. ==Emotional intelligence== # What is [[Emotional intelligence|emotional intelligence]]? ##One of several [[w:Theory of multiple intelligence|multiple intelligence]]ss proposed by Gardener (1983) ##Also known as emotional quotient (EQ) ##[[Emotion knowledge]] or [[w:Emotional literacy|emotional literacy]] are components of emotional intelligence # Goleman's (1995) conceptualisation of emotional intelligence suggested four aspects, based on awareness/management and self/other distinctions (see Table 1). # Criticism: The term "intelligence" implies a fixed, steady state, however the four aspects of emotional intelligence are learnable and trainable, such as in school and the workplace. # How can emotional intelligence be trained or enhanced? '''Table 1'''. Four Quadrants of Emotional Intelligence (based on Goleman, 1995) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !Awareness !Management |- |'''Self''' |Self-awareness |Self-management |- |'''Other''' |Social awareness |Relationship management |} == Foreign emotion words== [[File:Non-English emotion words exercise.png|400px|thumb|Non-English emotion words and definitions suggested by a class in 2023.]] [[File:Path in Epping Forest - geograph.org.uk - 2523517.jpg|thumb|right|175px|'''Friluftsliv''' (pronounced free-loofts-liv) is a Norwegian word for the practice of purposefully spending time outdoors and the physical and mental health benefits that this engenders.]] Many varieties, shades, subtleties, and nuances of emotion are not so well described in English, but are well captured in some of the other 7,000 human languages. Some of these words are imported to English and are known as [[w:Loanword|loanwords]] or borrowed words. For example, [[wikt:schadenfreude|schadenfreude]] (German for the pleasure derived from the misfortune of others) can be found in the English dictionary. However, there remain many recognisable affective states for which there is no English equivalent or commonly adopted loanword. {{anchor|Words}} What words from other languages describe unique types of emotion? Share an example (word, definition, and language), based on your language knowledge or by [[/Non-English emotion words|exploring this list]]). ==Linguistic relativity== What are the psychological implications of our emotion knowledge? For example, the [[w:Linguistic relativity|Sapir-Whorf hypothesis]] (linguistic relativity) argues that language enables experience. According to this [[w:Essentialism|essentialist]] view, our emotional vocabulary enables but also limits our capacity for emotional experience. In other words, our consciousness and experience is determined by our language. Therefore, expanding our language, can expand our emotional experience. So, linguistic relativity implies that we can enrich our emotional lives by expanding our emotional vocabulary and incorporating more non-English emotion words. There are two forms of linguistic relativity: * '''Linguistic determinism''' (strong form): This claims that language completely controls and limits what you are able to think. Contemporary linguists and researchers have largely rejected this extreme view. * '''Linguistic influence''' (weak form): This proposes that our native language guides our attention, shapes cognitive habits, and makes certain concepts easier to process. Modern research supports this weaker version (e.g., see Vine et al., 2020). For a deeper dive, see the work of [https://scholar.google.com/citations?hl=en&user=KYOCMe0AAAAJ&view_op=list_works&citft=1&email_for_op=JamesTNeill%40gmail.com&gmla=AJsN-F6j5ww5q8q1NDhd-S-S5TKin27AiS2FjfdcUfkAVXE5YmU8yO2AKhpvl4zVnK9DydZiplyaDTbSiR07LuIndWHHRf5kRoyKUzi4uOkOI-xZ4Kf2XVza_DPjHMCvHpGTvzzzwuEddowKzs8IaU-p8KmARjs-EPENQ-8nNkxQMzms7CDipXgQXAQje0klOsKdU-tMXPC8MfCd-AI381ZWZ14SE60TcAYDsJMkNswaSvgjOQ10Yn-JJz8LV86D7NuLTSukCsSe James Pennebaker] (Google Scholar). ==Beyond language== [[File:Twemoji13 1f92e.svg|right|173px|thumb|Emojis are used to help communicate emotional reactions and experiences.]] * Besides words, how else do we represent, understand, and communicate our emotions? For example: ** emoticons and emojis ** memes ** music ** colour ** ? ==Recording== * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/003c127bf5ae4b76b22997ddbe64842c Tutorial 7] (2026)<!-- * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/a1e53e9772ce4e7bab3e486fc15df7e1 Tutorial 7] (2025) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/b174165b101b4ba4beaaba6c52444c1e Tutorial 7] (2024) - Note: Recording fails ~40:20 mins * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/98e8da8bfb6f4267a9dfc70ebd0d070a Tutorial 7] (2023) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/44f3c37bd25640e4ba577978df0b9df9 Tutorial 7] (2022) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/5c1bf52c472449babbee04cb1e0871e2 Tutorial 7] (2021) --> ==See also== <!-- ;Additional tutorial material * [[../Emotion/Emotional intelligence/|Emotional intelligence]] ;Book chapters --> ;Wikipedia * [[w:Emotion#Basic emotions theory|Basic emotions theory]] * [[w:Emotional intelligence|Emotional intelligence]] * [[w:Emotional literacy|Emotional literacy]] * [[w:Emotional self-regulation|Emotional self-regulation]] * [[w:Emotion classifcation|Emotion classification]] * [[w:Emotion perception|Emotion perception]] * [[w:Emotion recognistion|Emotion recognition]] ;Lecture * [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Nature of emotion|Nature of emotion]] ;Tutorials * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Learned optimism|Learned optimism]] (Previous tutorial) * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Measuring emotion|Measuring emotion]] (Next tutorial) ;Admin * [[/Instructor notes/]] ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Clore, G. L., Ortony, A., & Foss, M. A. (1987). The psychological foundations of the affective lexicon. ''Journal of Personality and Social Psychology'', ''53''(4), 751–766. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.53.4.751 Ortony, A., Clore, G. L., & Foss, M. A. (1987). The referential structure of the affective lexicon. ''Cognitive Science'', ''11''(3), 341–364. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15516709cog1103_4 Gardner, H. (1983), ''[[w:Theory of multiple intelligences|Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences]]''. Basic Books. Goleman, D. (1995). ''[[w:Emotional intelligence|Emotional intelligence]]''. Bantam. Vine, V., Boyd, R. L., & Pennebaker, J. W. (2020). Natural emotion vocabularies as windows on distress and well-being. ''Nature Communications'', ''11''(1), 4525. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-18349-0 }} ==External links== * [http://changingminds.org/explanations/emotions/basic%20emotions.htm Basic emotions] (changingminds.org) * [https://www.psypost.org/2015/10/children-who-understand-emotions-become-more-attentive-over-time-38140 Children who understand emotions become more attentive over time] (PsyPost, 2015) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Y7m9eNoB3NU Daniel Goleman introduces emotional intelligence] (YouTube; 5:30 mins) * [http://news.berkeley.edu/2017/09/06/27-emotions/ Emoji fans take heart: Scientists pinpoint 27 states of emotion] (University of California, Berkeley, 2017); [https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/emogifs/map.html Interactive emotion map with videos] * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n6MRsGwyMuQ Emotional intelligence by Daniel Goleman: Animated book summary] (YouTube; 7:28 mins) * [https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-09-07/how-emojis-like-thumbs-up-can-get-you-in-trouble-with-the-law/102810282 Emojis like thumbs-up or a full moon are tiny icons, but they can have big legal implications] (ABC news, 2023) * [http://www.carls-sims-4-guide.com/emotions/ List of emotions in Sims 4: Emotion system mechanics, moods, and how to get sims feeling each] (carls-sims-4-guide.com) * [https://www.psypost.org/2020/09/new-research-finds-our-vocabularies-can-act-as-a-window-into-psychological-and-physical-well-being-57971 New research finds our vocabularies can act as a window into psychological and physical well-being] (psypost.org) * [http://www.personalityresearch.org/basicemotions/plutchik.html Plutchik] (personalityresearch.org) - [[:commons:File:Plutchik-wheel.svg|Wheel of emotions]] <noinclude>{{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Navigation}}</noinclude> [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Core emotions]] [[Category:Emotional intelligence]] 6x4oxnk23mmezhehriufn0sjzmp52dg 2834368 2834367 2026-09-24T06:38:16Z Jtneill 10242 /* Beyond language */ * Just as we did in the emotion sort exercise with words, various media could each be analysed to construct models of human emotion e.g., see this [https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/emogifs/map.html multidimensional, interactive map of distinct emotion categories based on responses to animated gifs][https://news.berkeley.edu/2017/09/06/27-emotions/] 2834368 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|Tutorial 7: Core emotions|seventh}} {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} --> <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/In development}} --> ==Overview== * Explores the psychology of core [[emotion]]s–what are the criteria for an emotion and what are the core emotions? * The "emotion sort" class exercise involves collectively sorting hundreds of emotion words to linguistically model underlying families or clusters of emotional experience * Discusses "emotion knowledge" as a component "emotional intelligence" and considers "linguistic relativism", the idea that language shapes experience ==Criteria for core emotions== What are the criteria for a core emotion? To be classified as a core or basic emotion, the affective state should exhibit each of the following criteria: # Distinct antecedent casual trigger (provokes by same circumstances each time) # Inescapable (inevitable) activation # Rapid onset # Distinct pattern of physiology (e.g., pattern of brain activity, heart-rate) # Automatic (unlearned) appraisal # Distinct subjective experience (feeling state) # Distinct cognition (thoughts, images, and memories) # Distinct expression (facial and body) # Brief duration (short-lived) # Universal presence in other cultures and primates The exact number and nature of such criteria vary between theorists. ==Non-emotions== Not all affective experiences (i.e., feelings) represent core human emotions. If an affective experience does not constitute an emotion, it could instead be a(n): # [[w:Attitude (psychology)|Attitude]] (e.g., hate) # [[w:Behavior|Behaviour]] (e.g., aggression) # [[w:Cognition|Cognition]] (e.g., confused) # [[w:Mental disorder|Disorder]] (e.g., depression, behavioural conduct disorder) # [[w:Mood (psychology)|Mood]] (e.g., grumpy) # [[w:Trait theory|Personality trait]] (e.g., neuroticism) ==Core emotions== What are the core human emotions? Theoretical models typically identify about six to eight core emotions (Reeve, 2024), usually including: # Fear # Anger # Disgust # Sadness # Interest # Joy # Surprise # Contempt ==Emotion sort exercise== Models of emotion can be developed from analysis of language (words) used to describe different affective states (e.g., Ortony et al., 1987). The goal of this exercise is to organise many (250+) [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Emotion/List|emotion-related words]] into core emotion families: {{anchor|Activity}}{{RoundBoxTop|theme=10}} '''Activity: Emotion sort''' [[File:Antu 67EF addoninstaller.0.svg|right|100px]] # Open this [https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/1KYv0xfA-1lJVyLATiY7bnRl_RCXxXKClvV4sTVilpHQ/edit?usp=sharing list of emotion words] # Each person selects an emotion word and classifies it as either a: ## core emotion (and allocates it to a core emotion family) ## non-emotion (and indicates the reason it doesn't qualify as an emotion) # Classifications can be changed if you disagree # Repeat until all words are classified—a progress bar will be displayed # If unsure, use chat or the comments column # Discuss the: #* experience of categorising: e.g., what was like? easy? hard? why? #* unusual/unknown words or emotions you'd like to share or want to know more about? #* results based on data analysis about: #** % classified as emotions or not emotions #** which emotion families were most popular and which words were allocated to each emotion family #** which reasons were most used for excluding affective states as emotions {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[File:Emotion sort exercise - Core emotions.svg|center|550px|thumb|Bar chart showing the frequency of affective words sorted into 19 categories of emotion]] ==Emotion knowledge== [[File:Bananas by cactus cowboy.svg|thumb|right|175px|'''Schadenfreude''' (pronounced shar-den-frood-ar) is a German word for pleasure that arises from the misfortune of others (e.g., laughing when someone slips on a banana peel).]] [[File:Emotions wheel.png|thumb|right|450px|'''Emotions wheel''' showing aspects of seven core emotions]] What is emotion knowledge? Emotion knowledge is part of [[#Emotional intelligence|emotional intelligence]]. Emotion knowledge refers to the library or vocabulary of distinct emotion concepts (represented by words) that a person has access to. The bigger the library, the more chance there is of being able to distinguish between subtle shades and nuances of emotional states (e.g., various flavours of anger or joy): {{quote|"the finer and more sophisticated one's emotion knowledge is, the greater his or her capacity to respond to each life event with a specialised and highly appropriate reaction" (Reeve, 2009, p. 353).}} Emotion knowledge can be improved, in part, by expanding one's linguistic repertoire for describing emotions. ==Emotional intelligence== # What is [[Emotional intelligence|emotional intelligence]]? ##One of several [[w:Theory of multiple intelligence|multiple intelligence]]ss proposed by Gardener (1983) ##Also known as emotional quotient (EQ) ##[[Emotion knowledge]] or [[w:Emotional literacy|emotional literacy]] are components of emotional intelligence # Goleman's (1995) conceptualisation of emotional intelligence suggested four aspects, based on awareness/management and self/other distinctions (see Table 1). # Criticism: The term "intelligence" implies a fixed, steady state, however the four aspects of emotional intelligence are learnable and trainable, such as in school and the workplace. # How can emotional intelligence be trained or enhanced? '''Table 1'''. Four Quadrants of Emotional Intelligence (based on Goleman, 1995) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !Awareness !Management |- |'''Self''' |Self-awareness |Self-management |- |'''Other''' |Social awareness |Relationship management |} == Foreign emotion words== [[File:Non-English emotion words exercise.png|400px|thumb|Non-English emotion words and definitions suggested by a class in 2023.]] [[File:Path in Epping Forest - geograph.org.uk - 2523517.jpg|thumb|right|175px|'''Friluftsliv''' (pronounced free-loofts-liv) is a Norwegian word for the practice of purposefully spending time outdoors and the physical and mental health benefits that this engenders.]] Many varieties, shades, subtleties, and nuances of emotion are not so well described in English, but are well captured in some of the other 7,000 human languages. Some of these words are imported to English and are known as [[w:Loanword|loanwords]] or borrowed words. For example, [[wikt:schadenfreude|schadenfreude]] (German for the pleasure derived from the misfortune of others) can be found in the English dictionary. However, there remain many recognisable affective states for which there is no English equivalent or commonly adopted loanword. {{anchor|Words}} What words from other languages describe unique types of emotion? Share an example (word, definition, and language), based on your language knowledge or by [[/Non-English emotion words|exploring this list]]). ==Linguistic relativity== What are the psychological implications of our emotion knowledge? For example, the [[w:Linguistic relativity|Sapir-Whorf hypothesis]] (linguistic relativity) argues that language enables experience. According to this [[w:Essentialism|essentialist]] view, our emotional vocabulary enables but also limits our capacity for emotional experience. In other words, our consciousness and experience is determined by our language. Therefore, expanding our language, can expand our emotional experience. So, linguistic relativity implies that we can enrich our emotional lives by expanding our emotional vocabulary and incorporating more non-English emotion words. There are two forms of linguistic relativity: * '''Linguistic determinism''' (strong form): This claims that language completely controls and limits what you are able to think. Contemporary linguists and researchers have largely rejected this extreme view. * '''Linguistic influence''' (weak form): This proposes that our native language guides our attention, shapes cognitive habits, and makes certain concepts easier to process. Modern research supports this weaker version (e.g., see Vine et al., 2020). For a deeper dive, see the work of [https://scholar.google.com/citations?hl=en&user=KYOCMe0AAAAJ&view_op=list_works&citft=1&email_for_op=JamesTNeill%40gmail.com&gmla=AJsN-F6j5ww5q8q1NDhd-S-S5TKin27AiS2FjfdcUfkAVXE5YmU8yO2AKhpvl4zVnK9DydZiplyaDTbSiR07LuIndWHHRf5kRoyKUzi4uOkOI-xZ4Kf2XVza_DPjHMCvHpGTvzzzwuEddowKzs8IaU-p8KmARjs-EPENQ-8nNkxQMzms7CDipXgQXAQje0klOsKdU-tMXPC8MfCd-AI381ZWZ14SE60TcAYDsJMkNswaSvgjOQ10Yn-JJz8LV86D7NuLTSukCsSe James Pennebaker] (Google Scholar). ==Beyond language== [[File:Twemoji13 1f92e.svg|right|173px|thumb|Emojis are used to help communicate emotional reactions and experiences.]] * Besides words, how else do we represent, understand, and communicate our emotions? For example: ** emoticons and emojis ** memes ** music ** colour ** ? * Just as we did in the emotion sort exercise with words, various media could each be analysed to construct models of human emotion e.g., see this [https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/emogifs/map.html multidimensional, interactive map of distinct emotion categories based on responses to animated gifs][https://news.berkeley.edu/2017/09/06/27-emotions/] ==Recording== * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/003c127bf5ae4b76b22997ddbe64842c Tutorial 7] (2026)<!-- * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/a1e53e9772ce4e7bab3e486fc15df7e1 Tutorial 7] (2025) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/b174165b101b4ba4beaaba6c52444c1e Tutorial 7] (2024) - Note: Recording fails ~40:20 mins * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/98e8da8bfb6f4267a9dfc70ebd0d070a Tutorial 7] (2023) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/44f3c37bd25640e4ba577978df0b9df9 Tutorial 7] (2022) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/5c1bf52c472449babbee04cb1e0871e2 Tutorial 7] (2021) --> ==See also== <!-- ;Additional tutorial material * [[../Emotion/Emotional intelligence/|Emotional intelligence]] ;Book chapters --> ;Wikipedia * [[w:Emotion#Basic emotions theory|Basic emotions theory]] * [[w:Emotional intelligence|Emotional intelligence]] * [[w:Emotional literacy|Emotional literacy]] * [[w:Emotional self-regulation|Emotional self-regulation]] * [[w:Emotion classifcation|Emotion classification]] * [[w:Emotion perception|Emotion perception]] * [[w:Emotion recognistion|Emotion recognition]] ;Lecture * [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Nature of emotion|Nature of emotion]] ;Tutorials * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Learned optimism|Learned optimism]] (Previous tutorial) * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Measuring emotion|Measuring emotion]] (Next tutorial) ;Admin * [[/Instructor notes/]] ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Clore, G. L., Ortony, A., & Foss, M. A. (1987). The psychological foundations of the affective lexicon. ''Journal of Personality and Social Psychology'', ''53''(4), 751–766. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.53.4.751 Ortony, A., Clore, G. L., & Foss, M. A. (1987). The referential structure of the affective lexicon. ''Cognitive Science'', ''11''(3), 341–364. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15516709cog1103_4 Gardner, H. (1983), ''[[w:Theory of multiple intelligences|Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences]]''. Basic Books. Goleman, D. (1995). ''[[w:Emotional intelligence|Emotional intelligence]]''. Bantam. Vine, V., Boyd, R. L., & Pennebaker, J. W. (2020). Natural emotion vocabularies as windows on distress and well-being. ''Nature Communications'', ''11''(1), 4525. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-18349-0 }} ==External links== * [http://changingminds.org/explanations/emotions/basic%20emotions.htm Basic emotions] (changingminds.org) * [https://www.psypost.org/2015/10/children-who-understand-emotions-become-more-attentive-over-time-38140 Children who understand emotions become more attentive over time] (PsyPost, 2015) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Y7m9eNoB3NU Daniel Goleman introduces emotional intelligence] (YouTube; 5:30 mins) * [http://news.berkeley.edu/2017/09/06/27-emotions/ Emoji fans take heart: Scientists pinpoint 27 states of emotion] (University of California, Berkeley, 2017); [https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/emogifs/map.html Interactive emotion map with videos] * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n6MRsGwyMuQ Emotional intelligence by Daniel Goleman: Animated book summary] (YouTube; 7:28 mins) * [https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-09-07/how-emojis-like-thumbs-up-can-get-you-in-trouble-with-the-law/102810282 Emojis like thumbs-up or a full moon are tiny icons, but they can have big legal implications] (ABC news, 2023) * [http://www.carls-sims-4-guide.com/emotions/ List of emotions in Sims 4: Emotion system mechanics, moods, and how to get sims feeling each] (carls-sims-4-guide.com) * [https://www.psypost.org/2020/09/new-research-finds-our-vocabularies-can-act-as-a-window-into-psychological-and-physical-well-being-57971 New research finds our vocabularies can act as a window into psychological and physical well-being] (psypost.org) * [http://www.personalityresearch.org/basicemotions/plutchik.html Plutchik] (personalityresearch.org) - [[:commons:File:Plutchik-wheel.svg|Wheel of emotions]] <noinclude>{{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Navigation}}</noinclude> [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Core emotions]] [[Category:Emotional intelligence]] nvu3an7vhr0arvwd5yg3i8htof8sshf 2834369 2834368 2026-09-24T06:51:27Z Jtneill 10242 /* Beyond language */ Expand re interactive map 2834369 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|Tutorial 7: Core emotions|seventh}} {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} --> <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/In development}} --> ==Overview== * Explores the psychology of core [[emotion]]s–what are the criteria for an emotion and what are the core emotions? * The "emotion sort" class exercise involves collectively sorting hundreds of emotion words to linguistically model underlying families or clusters of emotional experience * Discusses "emotion knowledge" as a component "emotional intelligence" and considers "linguistic relativism", the idea that language shapes experience ==Criteria for core emotions== What are the criteria for a core emotion? To be classified as a core or basic emotion, the affective state should exhibit each of the following criteria: # Distinct antecedent casual trigger (provokes by same circumstances each time) # Inescapable (inevitable) activation # Rapid onset # Distinct pattern of physiology (e.g., pattern of brain activity, heart-rate) # Automatic (unlearned) appraisal # Distinct subjective experience (feeling state) # Distinct cognition (thoughts, images, and memories) # Distinct expression (facial and body) # Brief duration (short-lived) # Universal presence in other cultures and primates The exact number and nature of such criteria vary between theorists. ==Non-emotions== Not all affective experiences (i.e., feelings) represent core human emotions. If an affective experience does not constitute an emotion, it could instead be a(n): # [[w:Attitude (psychology)|Attitude]] (e.g., hate) # [[w:Behavior|Behaviour]] (e.g., aggression) # [[w:Cognition|Cognition]] (e.g., confused) # [[w:Mental disorder|Disorder]] (e.g., depression, behavioural conduct disorder) # [[w:Mood (psychology)|Mood]] (e.g., grumpy) # [[w:Trait theory|Personality trait]] (e.g., neuroticism) ==Core emotions== What are the core human emotions? Theoretical models typically identify about six to eight core emotions (Reeve, 2024), usually including: # Fear # Anger # Disgust # Sadness # Interest # Joy # Surprise # Contempt ==Emotion sort exercise== Models of emotion can be developed from analysis of language (words) used to describe different affective states (e.g., Ortony et al., 1987). The goal of this exercise is to organise many (250+) [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Emotion/List|emotion-related words]] into core emotion families: {{anchor|Activity}}{{RoundBoxTop|theme=10}} '''Activity: Emotion sort''' [[File:Antu 67EF addoninstaller.0.svg|right|100px]] # Open this [https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/1KYv0xfA-1lJVyLATiY7bnRl_RCXxXKClvV4sTVilpHQ/edit?usp=sharing list of emotion words] # Each person selects an emotion word and classifies it as either a: ## core emotion (and allocates it to a core emotion family) ## non-emotion (and indicates the reason it doesn't qualify as an emotion) # Classifications can be changed if you disagree # Repeat until all words are classified—a progress bar will be displayed # If unsure, use chat or the comments column # Discuss the: #* experience of categorising: e.g., what was like? easy? hard? why? #* unusual/unknown words or emotions you'd like to share or want to know more about? #* results based on data analysis about: #** % classified as emotions or not emotions #** which emotion families were most popular and which words were allocated to each emotion family #** which reasons were most used for excluding affective states as emotions {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[File:Emotion sort exercise - Core emotions.svg|center|550px|thumb|Bar chart showing the frequency of affective words sorted into 19 categories of emotion]] ==Emotion knowledge== [[File:Bananas by cactus cowboy.svg|thumb|right|175px|'''Schadenfreude''' (pronounced shar-den-frood-ar) is a German word for pleasure that arises from the misfortune of others (e.g., laughing when someone slips on a banana peel).]] [[File:Emotions wheel.png|thumb|right|450px|'''Emotions wheel''' showing aspects of seven core emotions]] What is emotion knowledge? Emotion knowledge is part of [[#Emotional intelligence|emotional intelligence]]. Emotion knowledge refers to the library or vocabulary of distinct emotion concepts (represented by words) that a person has access to. The bigger the library, the more chance there is of being able to distinguish between subtle shades and nuances of emotional states (e.g., various flavours of anger or joy): {{quote|"the finer and more sophisticated one's emotion knowledge is, the greater his or her capacity to respond to each life event with a specialised and highly appropriate reaction" (Reeve, 2009, p. 353).}} Emotion knowledge can be improved, in part, by expanding one's linguistic repertoire for describing emotions. ==Emotional intelligence== # What is [[Emotional intelligence|emotional intelligence]]? ##One of several [[w:Theory of multiple intelligence|multiple intelligence]]ss proposed by Gardener (1983) ##Also known as emotional quotient (EQ) ##[[Emotion knowledge]] or [[w:Emotional literacy|emotional literacy]] are components of emotional intelligence # Goleman's (1995) conceptualisation of emotional intelligence suggested four aspects, based on awareness/management and self/other distinctions (see Table 1). # Criticism: The term "intelligence" implies a fixed, steady state, however the four aspects of emotional intelligence are learnable and trainable, such as in school and the workplace. # How can emotional intelligence be trained or enhanced? '''Table 1'''. Four Quadrants of Emotional Intelligence (based on Goleman, 1995) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !Awareness !Management |- |'''Self''' |Self-awareness |Self-management |- |'''Other''' |Social awareness |Relationship management |} == Foreign emotion words== [[File:Non-English emotion words exercise.png|400px|thumb|Non-English emotion words and definitions suggested by a class in 2023.]] [[File:Path in Epping Forest - geograph.org.uk - 2523517.jpg|thumb|right|175px|'''Friluftsliv''' (pronounced free-loofts-liv) is a Norwegian word for the practice of purposefully spending time outdoors and the physical and mental health benefits that this engenders.]] Many varieties, shades, subtleties, and nuances of emotion are not so well described in English, but are well captured in some of the other 7,000 human languages. Some of these words are imported to English and are known as [[w:Loanword|loanwords]] or borrowed words. For example, [[wikt:schadenfreude|schadenfreude]] (German for the pleasure derived from the misfortune of others) can be found in the English dictionary. However, there remain many recognisable affective states for which there is no English equivalent or commonly adopted loanword. {{anchor|Words}} What words from other languages describe unique types of emotion? Share an example (word, definition, and language), based on your language knowledge or by [[/Non-English emotion words|exploring this list]]). ==Linguistic relativity== What are the psychological implications of our emotion knowledge? For example, the [[w:Linguistic relativity|Sapir-Whorf hypothesis]] (linguistic relativity) argues that language enables experience. According to this [[w:Essentialism|essentialist]] view, our emotional vocabulary enables but also limits our capacity for emotional experience. In other words, our consciousness and experience is determined by our language. Therefore, expanding our language, can expand our emotional experience. So, linguistic relativity implies that we can enrich our emotional lives by expanding our emotional vocabulary and incorporating more non-English emotion words. There are two forms of linguistic relativity: * '''Linguistic determinism''' (strong form): This claims that language completely controls and limits what you are able to think. Contemporary linguists and researchers have largely rejected this extreme view. * '''Linguistic influence''' (weak form): This proposes that our native language guides our attention, shapes cognitive habits, and makes certain concepts easier to process. Modern research supports this weaker version (e.g., see Vine et al., 2020). For a deeper dive, see the work of [https://scholar.google.com/citations?hl=en&user=KYOCMe0AAAAJ&view_op=list_works&citft=1&email_for_op=JamesTNeill%40gmail.com&gmla=AJsN-F6j5ww5q8q1NDhd-S-S5TKin27AiS2FjfdcUfkAVXE5YmU8yO2AKhpvl4zVnK9DydZiplyaDTbSiR07LuIndWHHRf5kRoyKUzi4uOkOI-xZ4Kf2XVza_DPjHMCvHpGTvzzzwuEddowKzs8IaU-p8KmARjs-EPENQ-8nNkxQMzms7CDipXgQXAQje0klOsKdU-tMXPC8MfCd-AI381ZWZ14SE60TcAYDsJMkNswaSvgjOQ10Yn-JJz8LV86D7NuLTSukCsSe James Pennebaker] (Google Scholar). ==Beyond language== [[File:Twemoji13 1f92e.svg|right|173px|thumb|Emojis are used to help communicate emotional reactions and experiences.]] * Besides words, how else do we represent, understand, and communicate our emotions? For example: ** emoticons and emojis ** memes ** music ** colour ** ? * Just as we did in the emotion sort exercise with words, various media could each be analysed to construct models of human emotion * Check out this [https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/emogifs/map.html multidimensional, interactive map] based on research which found 27 distinct underlying emotional patterns in response to hundreds of animated gifs: ** Scroll around to view video clips most associated with each emotion cluster ** The data at the top shows each clip's emotion weighting ** To find out more about the study, see https://news.berkeley.edu/2017/09/06/27-emotions//  ==Recording== * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/003c127bf5ae4b76b22997ddbe64842c Tutorial 7] (2026)<!-- * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/a1e53e9772ce4e7bab3e486fc15df7e1 Tutorial 7] (2025) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/b174165b101b4ba4beaaba6c52444c1e Tutorial 7] (2024) - Note: Recording fails ~40:20 mins * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/98e8da8bfb6f4267a9dfc70ebd0d070a Tutorial 7] (2023) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/44f3c37bd25640e4ba577978df0b9df9 Tutorial 7] (2022) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/5c1bf52c472449babbee04cb1e0871e2 Tutorial 7] (2021) --> ==See also== <!-- ;Additional tutorial material * [[../Emotion/Emotional intelligence/|Emotional intelligence]] ;Book chapters --> ;Wikipedia * [[w:Emotion#Basic emotions theory|Basic emotions theory]] * [[w:Emotional intelligence|Emotional intelligence]] * [[w:Emotional literacy|Emotional literacy]] * [[w:Emotional self-regulation|Emotional self-regulation]] * [[w:Emotion classifcation|Emotion classification]] * [[w:Emotion perception|Emotion perception]] * [[w:Emotion recognistion|Emotion recognition]] ;Lecture * [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Nature of emotion|Nature of emotion]] ;Tutorials * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Learned optimism|Learned optimism]] (Previous tutorial) * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Measuring emotion|Measuring emotion]] (Next tutorial) ;Admin * [[/Instructor notes/]] ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Clore, G. L., Ortony, A., & Foss, M. A. (1987). The psychological foundations of the affective lexicon. ''Journal of Personality and Social Psychology'', ''53''(4), 751–766. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.53.4.751 Ortony, A., Clore, G. L., & Foss, M. A. (1987). The referential structure of the affective lexicon. ''Cognitive Science'', ''11''(3), 341–364. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15516709cog1103_4 Gardner, H. (1983), ''[[w:Theory of multiple intelligences|Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences]]''. Basic Books. Goleman, D. (1995). ''[[w:Emotional intelligence|Emotional intelligence]]''. Bantam. Vine, V., Boyd, R. L., & Pennebaker, J. W. (2020). Natural emotion vocabularies as windows on distress and well-being. ''Nature Communications'', ''11''(1), 4525. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-18349-0 }} ==External links== * [http://changingminds.org/explanations/emotions/basic%20emotions.htm Basic emotions] (changingminds.org) * [https://www.psypost.org/2015/10/children-who-understand-emotions-become-more-attentive-over-time-38140 Children who understand emotions become more attentive over time] (PsyPost, 2015) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Y7m9eNoB3NU Daniel Goleman introduces emotional intelligence] (YouTube; 5:30 mins) * [http://news.berkeley.edu/2017/09/06/27-emotions/ Emoji fans take heart: Scientists pinpoint 27 states of emotion] (University of California, Berkeley, 2017); [https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/emogifs/map.html Interactive emotion map with videos] * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n6MRsGwyMuQ Emotional intelligence by Daniel Goleman: Animated book summary] (YouTube; 7:28 mins) * [https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-09-07/how-emojis-like-thumbs-up-can-get-you-in-trouble-with-the-law/102810282 Emojis like thumbs-up or a full moon are tiny icons, but they can have big legal implications] (ABC news, 2023) * [http://www.carls-sims-4-guide.com/emotions/ List of emotions in Sims 4: Emotion system mechanics, moods, and how to get sims feeling each] (carls-sims-4-guide.com) * [https://www.psypost.org/2020/09/new-research-finds-our-vocabularies-can-act-as-a-window-into-psychological-and-physical-well-being-57971 New research finds our vocabularies can act as a window into psychological and physical well-being] (psypost.org) * [http://www.personalityresearch.org/basicemotions/plutchik.html Plutchik] (personalityresearch.org) - [[:commons:File:Plutchik-wheel.svg|Wheel of emotions]] <noinclude>{{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Navigation}}</noinclude> [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Core emotions]] [[Category:Emotional intelligence]] mlok14cw6fyrq0lkq9gwejlo2p351rs 2834370 2834369 2026-09-24T06:52:39Z Jtneill 10242 /* Beyond language */ 2834370 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|Tutorial 7: Core emotions|seventh}} {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} --> <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/In development}} --> ==Overview== * Explores the psychology of core [[emotion]]s–what are the criteria for an emotion and what are the core emotions? * The "emotion sort" class exercise involves collectively sorting hundreds of emotion words to linguistically model underlying families or clusters of emotional experience * Discusses "emotion knowledge" as a component "emotional intelligence" and considers "linguistic relativism", the idea that language shapes experience ==Criteria for core emotions== What are the criteria for a core emotion? To be classified as a core or basic emotion, the affective state should exhibit each of the following criteria: # Distinct antecedent casual trigger (provokes by same circumstances each time) # Inescapable (inevitable) activation # Rapid onset # Distinct pattern of physiology (e.g., pattern of brain activity, heart-rate) # Automatic (unlearned) appraisal # Distinct subjective experience (feeling state) # Distinct cognition (thoughts, images, and memories) # Distinct expression (facial and body) # Brief duration (short-lived) # Universal presence in other cultures and primates The exact number and nature of such criteria vary between theorists. ==Non-emotions== Not all affective experiences (i.e., feelings) represent core human emotions. If an affective experience does not constitute an emotion, it could instead be a(n): # [[w:Attitude (psychology)|Attitude]] (e.g., hate) # [[w:Behavior|Behaviour]] (e.g., aggression) # [[w:Cognition|Cognition]] (e.g., confused) # [[w:Mental disorder|Disorder]] (e.g., depression, behavioural conduct disorder) # [[w:Mood (psychology)|Mood]] (e.g., grumpy) # [[w:Trait theory|Personality trait]] (e.g., neuroticism) ==Core emotions== What are the core human emotions? Theoretical models typically identify about six to eight core emotions (Reeve, 2024), usually including: # Fear # Anger # Disgust # Sadness # Interest # Joy # Surprise # Contempt ==Emotion sort exercise== Models of emotion can be developed from analysis of language (words) used to describe different affective states (e.g., Ortony et al., 1987). The goal of this exercise is to organise many (250+) [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Emotion/List|emotion-related words]] into core emotion families: {{anchor|Activity}}{{RoundBoxTop|theme=10}} '''Activity: Emotion sort''' [[File:Antu 67EF addoninstaller.0.svg|right|100px]] # Open this [https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/1KYv0xfA-1lJVyLATiY7bnRl_RCXxXKClvV4sTVilpHQ/edit?usp=sharing list of emotion words] # Each person selects an emotion word and classifies it as either a: ## core emotion (and allocates it to a core emotion family) ## non-emotion (and indicates the reason it doesn't qualify as an emotion) # Classifications can be changed if you disagree # Repeat until all words are classified—a progress bar will be displayed # If unsure, use chat or the comments column # Discuss the: #* experience of categorising: e.g., what was like? easy? hard? why? #* unusual/unknown words or emotions you'd like to share or want to know more about? #* results based on data analysis about: #** % classified as emotions or not emotions #** which emotion families were most popular and which words were allocated to each emotion family #** which reasons were most used for excluding affective states as emotions {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[File:Emotion sort exercise - Core emotions.svg|center|550px|thumb|Bar chart showing the frequency of affective words sorted into 19 categories of emotion]] ==Emotion knowledge== [[File:Bananas by cactus cowboy.svg|thumb|right|175px|'''Schadenfreude''' (pronounced shar-den-frood-ar) is a German word for pleasure that arises from the misfortune of others (e.g., laughing when someone slips on a banana peel).]] [[File:Emotions wheel.png|thumb|right|450px|'''Emotions wheel''' showing aspects of seven core emotions]] What is emotion knowledge? Emotion knowledge is part of [[#Emotional intelligence|emotional intelligence]]. Emotion knowledge refers to the library or vocabulary of distinct emotion concepts (represented by words) that a person has access to. The bigger the library, the more chance there is of being able to distinguish between subtle shades and nuances of emotional states (e.g., various flavours of anger or joy): {{quote|"the finer and more sophisticated one's emotion knowledge is, the greater his or her capacity to respond to each life event with a specialised and highly appropriate reaction" (Reeve, 2009, p. 353).}} Emotion knowledge can be improved, in part, by expanding one's linguistic repertoire for describing emotions. ==Emotional intelligence== # What is [[Emotional intelligence|emotional intelligence]]? ##One of several [[w:Theory of multiple intelligence|multiple intelligence]]ss proposed by Gardener (1983) ##Also known as emotional quotient (EQ) ##[[Emotion knowledge]] or [[w:Emotional literacy|emotional literacy]] are components of emotional intelligence # Goleman's (1995) conceptualisation of emotional intelligence suggested four aspects, based on awareness/management and self/other distinctions (see Table 1). # Criticism: The term "intelligence" implies a fixed, steady state, however the four aspects of emotional intelligence are learnable and trainable, such as in school and the workplace. # How can emotional intelligence be trained or enhanced? '''Table 1'''. Four Quadrants of Emotional Intelligence (based on Goleman, 1995) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !Awareness !Management |- |'''Self''' |Self-awareness |Self-management |- |'''Other''' |Social awareness |Relationship management |} == Foreign emotion words== [[File:Non-English emotion words exercise.png|400px|thumb|Non-English emotion words and definitions suggested by a class in 2023.]] [[File:Path in Epping Forest - geograph.org.uk - 2523517.jpg|thumb|right|175px|'''Friluftsliv''' (pronounced free-loofts-liv) is a Norwegian word for the practice of purposefully spending time outdoors and the physical and mental health benefits that this engenders.]] Many varieties, shades, subtleties, and nuances of emotion are not so well described in English, but are well captured in some of the other 7,000 human languages. Some of these words are imported to English and are known as [[w:Loanword|loanwords]] or borrowed words. For example, [[wikt:schadenfreude|schadenfreude]] (German for the pleasure derived from the misfortune of others) can be found in the English dictionary. However, there remain many recognisable affective states for which there is no English equivalent or commonly adopted loanword. {{anchor|Words}} What words from other languages describe unique types of emotion? Share an example (word, definition, and language), based on your language knowledge or by [[/Non-English emotion words|exploring this list]]). ==Linguistic relativity== What are the psychological implications of our emotion knowledge? For example, the [[w:Linguistic relativity|Sapir-Whorf hypothesis]] (linguistic relativity) argues that language enables experience. According to this [[w:Essentialism|essentialist]] view, our emotional vocabulary enables but also limits our capacity for emotional experience. In other words, our consciousness and experience is determined by our language. Therefore, expanding our language, can expand our emotional experience. So, linguistic relativity implies that we can enrich our emotional lives by expanding our emotional vocabulary and incorporating more non-English emotion words. There are two forms of linguistic relativity: * '''Linguistic determinism''' (strong form): This claims that language completely controls and limits what you are able to think. Contemporary linguists and researchers have largely rejected this extreme view. * '''Linguistic influence''' (weak form): This proposes that our native language guides our attention, shapes cognitive habits, and makes certain concepts easier to process. Modern research supports this weaker version (e.g., see Vine et al., 2020). For a deeper dive, see the work of [https://scholar.google.com/citations?hl=en&user=KYOCMe0AAAAJ&view_op=list_works&citft=1&email_for_op=JamesTNeill%40gmail.com&gmla=AJsN-F6j5ww5q8q1NDhd-S-S5TKin27AiS2FjfdcUfkAVXE5YmU8yO2AKhpvl4zVnK9DydZiplyaDTbSiR07LuIndWHHRf5kRoyKUzi4uOkOI-xZ4Kf2XVza_DPjHMCvHpGTvzzzwuEddowKzs8IaU-p8KmARjs-EPENQ-8nNkxQMzms7CDipXgQXAQje0klOsKdU-tMXPC8MfCd-AI381ZWZ14SE60TcAYDsJMkNswaSvgjOQ10Yn-JJz8LV86D7NuLTSukCsSe James Pennebaker] (Google Scholar). ==Beyond language== [[File:Twemoji13 1f92e.svg|right|173px|thumb|Emojis are used to help communicate emotional reactions and experiences.]] * Besides words, how else do we represent, understand, and communicate our emotions? For example: ** emoticons and emojis ** memes ** music ** colour ** ? * Just as we did in the emotion sort exercise with words, various media could each be analysed to construct models of human emotion * Check out this [https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/emogifs/map.html multidimensional, interactive map] based on research which found 27 distinct underlying emotional patterns in response to hundreds of animated gifs: ** Scroll around to view video clips most associated with each emotion cluster ** The data at the top shows each clip's emotion weighting ** [https://news.berkeley.edu/2017/09/06/27-emotions Find out more about the study] (berkely.edu) ==Recording== * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/003c127bf5ae4b76b22997ddbe64842c Tutorial 7] (2026)<!-- * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/a1e53e9772ce4e7bab3e486fc15df7e1 Tutorial 7] (2025) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/b174165b101b4ba4beaaba6c52444c1e Tutorial 7] (2024) - Note: Recording fails ~40:20 mins * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/98e8da8bfb6f4267a9dfc70ebd0d070a Tutorial 7] (2023) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/44f3c37bd25640e4ba577978df0b9df9 Tutorial 7] (2022) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/5c1bf52c472449babbee04cb1e0871e2 Tutorial 7] (2021) --> ==See also== <!-- ;Additional tutorial material * [[../Emotion/Emotional intelligence/|Emotional intelligence]] ;Book chapters --> ;Wikipedia * [[w:Emotion#Basic emotions theory|Basic emotions theory]] * [[w:Emotional intelligence|Emotional intelligence]] * [[w:Emotional literacy|Emotional literacy]] * [[w:Emotional self-regulation|Emotional self-regulation]] * [[w:Emotion classifcation|Emotion classification]] * [[w:Emotion perception|Emotion perception]] * [[w:Emotion recognistion|Emotion recognition]] ;Lecture * [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Nature of emotion|Nature of emotion]] ;Tutorials * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Learned optimism|Learned optimism]] (Previous tutorial) * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Measuring emotion|Measuring emotion]] (Next tutorial) ;Admin * [[/Instructor notes/]] ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Clore, G. L., Ortony, A., & Foss, M. A. (1987). The psychological foundations of the affective lexicon. ''Journal of Personality and Social Psychology'', ''53''(4), 751–766. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.53.4.751 Ortony, A., Clore, G. L., & Foss, M. A. (1987). The referential structure of the affective lexicon. ''Cognitive Science'', ''11''(3), 341–364. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15516709cog1103_4 Gardner, H. (1983), ''[[w:Theory of multiple intelligences|Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences]]''. Basic Books. Goleman, D. (1995). ''[[w:Emotional intelligence|Emotional intelligence]]''. Bantam. Vine, V., Boyd, R. L., & Pennebaker, J. W. (2020). Natural emotion vocabularies as windows on distress and well-being. ''Nature Communications'', ''11''(1), 4525. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-18349-0 }} ==External links== * [http://changingminds.org/explanations/emotions/basic%20emotions.htm Basic emotions] (changingminds.org) * [https://www.psypost.org/2015/10/children-who-understand-emotions-become-more-attentive-over-time-38140 Children who understand emotions become more attentive over time] (PsyPost, 2015) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Y7m9eNoB3NU Daniel Goleman introduces emotional intelligence] (YouTube; 5:30 mins) * [http://news.berkeley.edu/2017/09/06/27-emotions/ Emoji fans take heart: Scientists pinpoint 27 states of emotion] (University of California, Berkeley, 2017); [https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/emogifs/map.html Interactive emotion map with videos] * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n6MRsGwyMuQ Emotional intelligence by Daniel Goleman: Animated book summary] (YouTube; 7:28 mins) * [https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-09-07/how-emojis-like-thumbs-up-can-get-you-in-trouble-with-the-law/102810282 Emojis like thumbs-up or a full moon are tiny icons, but they can have big legal implications] (ABC news, 2023) * [http://www.carls-sims-4-guide.com/emotions/ List of emotions in Sims 4: Emotion system mechanics, moods, and how to get sims feeling each] (carls-sims-4-guide.com) * [https://www.psypost.org/2020/09/new-research-finds-our-vocabularies-can-act-as-a-window-into-psychological-and-physical-well-being-57971 New research finds our vocabularies can act as a window into psychological and physical well-being] (psypost.org) * [http://www.personalityresearch.org/basicemotions/plutchik.html Plutchik] (personalityresearch.org) - [[:commons:File:Plutchik-wheel.svg|Wheel of emotions]] <noinclude>{{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Navigation}}</noinclude> [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Core emotions]] [[Category:Emotional intelligence]] n2dxa87hvhzl1nkotj76z47esp1wq4u 2834371 2834370 2026-09-24T06:53:17Z Jtneill 10242 /* Beyond language */ 2834371 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|Tutorial 7: Core emotions|seventh}} {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} --> <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/In development}} --> ==Overview== * Explores the psychology of core [[emotion]]s–what are the criteria for an emotion and what are the core emotions? * The "emotion sort" class exercise involves collectively sorting hundreds of emotion words to linguistically model underlying families or clusters of emotional experience * Discusses "emotion knowledge" as a component "emotional intelligence" and considers "linguistic relativism", the idea that language shapes experience ==Criteria for core emotions== What are the criteria for a core emotion? To be classified as a core or basic emotion, the affective state should exhibit each of the following criteria: # Distinct antecedent casual trigger (provokes by same circumstances each time) # Inescapable (inevitable) activation # Rapid onset # Distinct pattern of physiology (e.g., pattern of brain activity, heart-rate) # Automatic (unlearned) appraisal # Distinct subjective experience (feeling state) # Distinct cognition (thoughts, images, and memories) # Distinct expression (facial and body) # Brief duration (short-lived) # Universal presence in other cultures and primates The exact number and nature of such criteria vary between theorists. ==Non-emotions== Not all affective experiences (i.e., feelings) represent core human emotions. If an affective experience does not constitute an emotion, it could instead be a(n): # [[w:Attitude (psychology)|Attitude]] (e.g., hate) # [[w:Behavior|Behaviour]] (e.g., aggression) # [[w:Cognition|Cognition]] (e.g., confused) # [[w:Mental disorder|Disorder]] (e.g., depression, behavioural conduct disorder) # [[w:Mood (psychology)|Mood]] (e.g., grumpy) # [[w:Trait theory|Personality trait]] (e.g., neuroticism) ==Core emotions== What are the core human emotions? Theoretical models typically identify about six to eight core emotions (Reeve, 2024), usually including: # Fear # Anger # Disgust # Sadness # Interest # Joy # Surprise # Contempt ==Emotion sort exercise== Models of emotion can be developed from analysis of language (words) used to describe different affective states (e.g., Ortony et al., 1987). The goal of this exercise is to organise many (250+) [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Emotion/List|emotion-related words]] into core emotion families: {{anchor|Activity}}{{RoundBoxTop|theme=10}} '''Activity: Emotion sort''' [[File:Antu 67EF addoninstaller.0.svg|right|100px]] # Open this [https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/1KYv0xfA-1lJVyLATiY7bnRl_RCXxXKClvV4sTVilpHQ/edit?usp=sharing list of emotion words] # Each person selects an emotion word and classifies it as either a: ## core emotion (and allocates it to a core emotion family) ## non-emotion (and indicates the reason it doesn't qualify as an emotion) # Classifications can be changed if you disagree # Repeat until all words are classified—a progress bar will be displayed # If unsure, use chat or the comments column # Discuss the: #* experience of categorising: e.g., what was like? easy? hard? why? #* unusual/unknown words or emotions you'd like to share or want to know more about? #* results based on data analysis about: #** % classified as emotions or not emotions #** which emotion families were most popular and which words were allocated to each emotion family #** which reasons were most used for excluding affective states as emotions {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[File:Emotion sort exercise - Core emotions.svg|center|550px|thumb|Bar chart showing the frequency of affective words sorted into 19 categories of emotion]] ==Emotion knowledge== [[File:Bananas by cactus cowboy.svg|thumb|right|175px|'''Schadenfreude''' (pronounced shar-den-frood-ar) is a German word for pleasure that arises from the misfortune of others (e.g., laughing when someone slips on a banana peel).]] [[File:Emotions wheel.png|thumb|right|450px|'''Emotions wheel''' showing aspects of seven core emotions]] What is emotion knowledge? Emotion knowledge is part of [[#Emotional intelligence|emotional intelligence]]. Emotion knowledge refers to the library or vocabulary of distinct emotion concepts (represented by words) that a person has access to. The bigger the library, the more chance there is of being able to distinguish between subtle shades and nuances of emotional states (e.g., various flavours of anger or joy): {{quote|"the finer and more sophisticated one's emotion knowledge is, the greater his or her capacity to respond to each life event with a specialised and highly appropriate reaction" (Reeve, 2009, p. 353).}} Emotion knowledge can be improved, in part, by expanding one's linguistic repertoire for describing emotions. ==Emotional intelligence== # What is [[Emotional intelligence|emotional intelligence]]? ##One of several [[w:Theory of multiple intelligence|multiple intelligence]]ss proposed by Gardener (1983) ##Also known as emotional quotient (EQ) ##[[Emotion knowledge]] or [[w:Emotional literacy|emotional literacy]] are components of emotional intelligence # Goleman's (1995) conceptualisation of emotional intelligence suggested four aspects, based on awareness/management and self/other distinctions (see Table 1). # Criticism: The term "intelligence" implies a fixed, steady state, however the four aspects of emotional intelligence are learnable and trainable, such as in school and the workplace. # How can emotional intelligence be trained or enhanced? '''Table 1'''. Four Quadrants of Emotional Intelligence (based on Goleman, 1995) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !Awareness !Management |- |'''Self''' |Self-awareness |Self-management |- |'''Other''' |Social awareness |Relationship management |} == Foreign emotion words== [[File:Non-English emotion words exercise.png|400px|thumb|Non-English emotion words and definitions suggested by a class in 2023.]] [[File:Path in Epping Forest - geograph.org.uk - 2523517.jpg|thumb|right|175px|'''Friluftsliv''' (pronounced free-loofts-liv) is a Norwegian word for the practice of purposefully spending time outdoors and the physical and mental health benefits that this engenders.]] Many varieties, shades, subtleties, and nuances of emotion are not so well described in English, but are well captured in some of the other 7,000 human languages. Some of these words are imported to English and are known as [[w:Loanword|loanwords]] or borrowed words. For example, [[wikt:schadenfreude|schadenfreude]] (German for the pleasure derived from the misfortune of others) can be found in the English dictionary. However, there remain many recognisable affective states for which there is no English equivalent or commonly adopted loanword. {{anchor|Words}} What words from other languages describe unique types of emotion? Share an example (word, definition, and language), based on your language knowledge or by [[/Non-English emotion words|exploring this list]]). ==Linguistic relativity== What are the psychological implications of our emotion knowledge? For example, the [[w:Linguistic relativity|Sapir-Whorf hypothesis]] (linguistic relativity) argues that language enables experience. According to this [[w:Essentialism|essentialist]] view, our emotional vocabulary enables but also limits our capacity for emotional experience. In other words, our consciousness and experience is determined by our language. Therefore, expanding our language, can expand our emotional experience. So, linguistic relativity implies that we can enrich our emotional lives by expanding our emotional vocabulary and incorporating more non-English emotion words. There are two forms of linguistic relativity: * '''Linguistic determinism''' (strong form): This claims that language completely controls and limits what you are able to think. Contemporary linguists and researchers have largely rejected this extreme view. * '''Linguistic influence''' (weak form): This proposes that our native language guides our attention, shapes cognitive habits, and makes certain concepts easier to process. Modern research supports this weaker version (e.g., see Vine et al., 2020). For a deeper dive, see the work of [https://scholar.google.com/citations?hl=en&user=KYOCMe0AAAAJ&view_op=list_works&citft=1&email_for_op=JamesTNeill%40gmail.com&gmla=AJsN-F6j5ww5q8q1NDhd-S-S5TKin27AiS2FjfdcUfkAVXE5YmU8yO2AKhpvl4zVnK9DydZiplyaDTbSiR07LuIndWHHRf5kRoyKUzi4uOkOI-xZ4Kf2XVza_DPjHMCvHpGTvzzzwuEddowKzs8IaU-p8KmARjs-EPENQ-8nNkxQMzms7CDipXgQXAQje0klOsKdU-tMXPC8MfCd-AI381ZWZ14SE60TcAYDsJMkNswaSvgjOQ10Yn-JJz8LV86D7NuLTSukCsSe James Pennebaker] (Google Scholar). ==Beyond language== [[File:Twemoji13 1f92e.svg|right|173px|thumb|Emojis are used to help communicate emotional reactions and experiences.]] * Besides words, how else do we represent, understand, and communicate our emotions? For example: ** emoticons and emojis ** memes ** music ** colour ** ? * Just as we did in the emotion sort exercise with words, various media could each be analysed to construct models of human emotion * Check out this [https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/emogifs/map.html multidimensional, interactive map] based on research which found 27 distinct underlying emotional patterns in response to thousands of animated gifs: ** Scroll around to view video clips most associated with each emotion cluster ** The data at the top shows each clip's emotion weighting ** [https://news.berkeley.edu/2017/09/06/27-emotions Find out more about the study] (berkely.edu) ==Recording== * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/003c127bf5ae4b76b22997ddbe64842c Tutorial 7] (2026)<!-- * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/a1e53e9772ce4e7bab3e486fc15df7e1 Tutorial 7] (2025) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/b174165b101b4ba4beaaba6c52444c1e Tutorial 7] (2024) - Note: Recording fails ~40:20 mins * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/98e8da8bfb6f4267a9dfc70ebd0d070a Tutorial 7] (2023) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/44f3c37bd25640e4ba577978df0b9df9 Tutorial 7] (2022) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/5c1bf52c472449babbee04cb1e0871e2 Tutorial 7] (2021) --> ==See also== <!-- ;Additional tutorial material * [[../Emotion/Emotional intelligence/|Emotional intelligence]] ;Book chapters --> ;Wikipedia * [[w:Emotion#Basic emotions theory|Basic emotions theory]] * [[w:Emotional intelligence|Emotional intelligence]] * [[w:Emotional literacy|Emotional literacy]] * [[w:Emotional self-regulation|Emotional self-regulation]] * [[w:Emotion classifcation|Emotion classification]] * [[w:Emotion perception|Emotion perception]] * [[w:Emotion recognistion|Emotion recognition]] ;Lecture * [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Nature of emotion|Nature of emotion]] ;Tutorials * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Learned optimism|Learned optimism]] (Previous tutorial) * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Measuring emotion|Measuring emotion]] (Next tutorial) ;Admin * [[/Instructor notes/]] ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Clore, G. L., Ortony, A., & Foss, M. A. (1987). The psychological foundations of the affective lexicon. ''Journal of Personality and Social Psychology'', ''53''(4), 751–766. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.53.4.751 Ortony, A., Clore, G. L., & Foss, M. A. (1987). The referential structure of the affective lexicon. ''Cognitive Science'', ''11''(3), 341–364. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15516709cog1103_4 Gardner, H. (1983), ''[[w:Theory of multiple intelligences|Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences]]''. Basic Books. Goleman, D. (1995). ''[[w:Emotional intelligence|Emotional intelligence]]''. Bantam. Vine, V., Boyd, R. L., & Pennebaker, J. W. (2020). Natural emotion vocabularies as windows on distress and well-being. ''Nature Communications'', ''11''(1), 4525. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-18349-0 }} ==External links== * [http://changingminds.org/explanations/emotions/basic%20emotions.htm Basic emotions] (changingminds.org) * [https://www.psypost.org/2015/10/children-who-understand-emotions-become-more-attentive-over-time-38140 Children who understand emotions become more attentive over time] (PsyPost, 2015) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Y7m9eNoB3NU Daniel Goleman introduces emotional intelligence] (YouTube; 5:30 mins) * [http://news.berkeley.edu/2017/09/06/27-emotions/ Emoji fans take heart: Scientists pinpoint 27 states of emotion] (University of California, Berkeley, 2017); [https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/emogifs/map.html Interactive emotion map with videos] * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n6MRsGwyMuQ Emotional intelligence by Daniel Goleman: Animated book summary] (YouTube; 7:28 mins) * [https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-09-07/how-emojis-like-thumbs-up-can-get-you-in-trouble-with-the-law/102810282 Emojis like thumbs-up or a full moon are tiny icons, but they can have big legal implications] (ABC news, 2023) * [http://www.carls-sims-4-guide.com/emotions/ List of emotions in Sims 4: Emotion system mechanics, moods, and how to get sims feeling each] (carls-sims-4-guide.com) * [https://www.psypost.org/2020/09/new-research-finds-our-vocabularies-can-act-as-a-window-into-psychological-and-physical-well-being-57971 New research finds our vocabularies can act as a window into psychological and physical well-being] (psypost.org) * [http://www.personalityresearch.org/basicemotions/plutchik.html Plutchik] (personalityresearch.org) - [[:commons:File:Plutchik-wheel.svg|Wheel of emotions]] <noinclude>{{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Navigation}}</noinclude> [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Core emotions]] [[Category:Emotional intelligence]] s57ip7cph6ix5y9yta8f8weexu6eppc 0 301040 2834343 2833788 2026-09-23T15:03:30Z D.H 52339 /* Einstein's contributions */ 2834343 wikitext text/x-wiki {| style="width:20%; font-size:13px;" align=right |{{../Other Topics (header)}} |} ==Early history of the twin paradox== {{Lorentzbox|Text={{center|Date of article creation: 9 November 2023; Last major revision: 20 July 2026}}}} a) When was the [[:w:twin paradox]] applied to life forms and human beings? :*Historical accounts<ref group=S name=miller /><ref group=S name=pes /><ref group=S name=during /> report that {{slink||Einstein 1911-HU}} discussed the aging of living organisms, and that {{slink||Langevin 1911-HU}} and {{slink||Wiechert 1911-HU}} explicitly discussed the aging of human beings. :*More details in sections {{slink||Human beings in 1911|Twins from 1911 to 1920}}, including newspaper articles from 1911 written by {{slink||Lämmel 1911-HU}} and {{slink||Müller 1911-HU}} that clearly show that Einstein was the first to explicitly discuss the aging of human beings as well. b) Who was the first to formulate the principle of maximal proper time along straight worldlines, upon which differential aging in the standard twin paradox is based? :*Historical accounts<ref group=S name=miller /><ref group=S name=during /> mention Langevin (1911), Laue (1911). :*More details in section {{slink||Maximal proper time}} with the contributions of Langevin (1911), Wiechert (1911), Study (1911), Laue (1911-13). c) Who was the first to formulate [[w:Triangle inequality#Reversal in Minkowski space|inverse triangle inequality]] in Minkowski space, which represents the simplest version of the twin paradox? :*See details in section {{slink||Triangle inequality}} with the contributions of Robb (1914-20), Eddington (1922), Rogers (1922). d) Who was the first to show that any influence of proper acceleration on clocks can be neglected in the computation of the twin paradox from the viewpoint of the stay-at-home twin? :*Historical accounts<ref group=S name=miller /><ref group=S name=pes /> mention Einstein (1911), Laue (1913). :*More details in section {{slink||Negligibility of proper acceleration}} with the contributions of Einstein (1911), Wiechert (1911), Laue (1913), Lorentz (1913). e) Who was the first to introduce the three clock/brother example that completely removes acceleration from the clock/twin paradox? :*Historical accounts<ref group=S name=debs /><ref group=S name=alizzi /> date it back to Lange (1927) and Lord Halsbury (1957). :*More details in section {{slink||Relay (three brothers) experiment}} with the contributions of Grünbaum (1911) and Wiechert (1920-22). f) Who was the first to use acceleration as an asymmetry indicator? :*Historical accounts<ref group=S name=miller /><ref name=cuvaj group=S /><ref group=S name=pes /> mention Langevin (1911), Einstein (1918). :*More details in section {{slink||Acceleration as asymmetry indicator}} with the contributions of Langevin (1911), Sommerfeld (1913), Lorentz (1913), Einstein (1914-20). g) Who was the first to use different frame distribution as asymmetry indicator as an asymmetry indicator? :*Historical accounts<ref group=S name=miller /><ref group=S name=pes /> mention Laue (1911-13). :*More details in section {{slink||Frame distribution as asymmetry indicator}} with the contributions of Laue (1911-13), Bloch (1918). h) Who was the first to describe the perspective of the traveler? :*Historical accounts<ref group=S name=miller /><ref group=S name=beng /> mention Langevin (1911), Lorentz (1914), Einstein (1918). :*More details in section {{slink||Perspective of the traveler}} with the contributions of Langevin (1911), Lorentz (1913-14), Einstein (1918), Thirring (1921). i) Who was the first to describe a round-trip experiment in curved spacetime? :*See section {{slink||Curved spacetime}} with the contribution of Becquerel (1922). j) Who was the first to denote the round-trip experiment as paradoxical? :*Historical accounts<ref group=S name=miller /><ref group=S name=during /> point to Laue (1911). :*See section {{slink||Paradoxical?}} for details. k) Who was the first to misunderstand the twin paradox? :*See section {{slink||Misunderstandings}} with the contributions of Berg (1910), Wiechert (1911), Campbell (1911/12), Gruner (1912). l) What were Einstein's contributions? :*See section {{slink||Einstein's contributions}}. ==Human beings in 1911== {| class="wikitable" style="background-color:white;{{text default color}};" ![[w:Albert Einstein|Einstein]] |- |{{anchor|Einstein 1905}}In 1905<ref name=einstein05 /> he showed that a clock moving on a round-trip away from A and back along a polygonal or curved path, is retarded with respect to a clock stationary at A by approximately <math>\tfrac{1}{2}t(v/V)^{2}</math> at reunion. For example, a clock on the equator is retarded with respect to a clock on the pole. He described this consequence as being "peculiar" (German: eigentümlich). {{anchor|Einstein 1911-HU}}In a lecture given on January 1911<ref name=einstein11a /> (published in November), he extended this "funny" (German: drollig) experiment to living organisms: {| ! width=55% | Einstein wrote ! English translation |- | style="padding: 0px 20px 0px 20px;" |Wenn wir z. B. einen lebenden Organismus in eine Schachtel hineinbrächten und ihn dieselbe Hin- und Herbewegung ausführen lassen wie vorher die Uhr, so könnte man es erreichen, dass dieser Organismus nach einem beliebig langen Fluge beliebig wenig geändert wieder an seinen ursprünglichen Ort zurückkehrt, während ganz entsprechend beschaffene Organismen, welche an den ursprünglichen Orten ruhend geblieben sind, bereits längst neuen Generationen Platz gemacht haben. Für den bewegten Organismus war die lange Zeit der Reise nur ein Augenblick, falls die Bewegung annähernd mit Lichtgeschwindigkeit erfolgte! | style="padding: 0px 20px 0px 20px;" |For example, if we put a living organism in a box and make it undergo the same back and forth movement as the clock before, we could achieve that this organism returns to its original location with arbitrary little change after a flight of arbitrary length, whereas completely identical organisms that remained at rest in the original location have long since made room for new generations. To the moving organism, the long journey was only a moment if the movement happened close to the speed of light! |} {{Lorentzbox|Text=Two participants of that lecture, {{slink||Lämmel 1911-HU}} and {{slink||Müller 1911-HU}}, report that Einstein also talked about the aging of ''human beings''.}} |- !{{anchor|Lämmel 1911-HU}}[[w:Rudolf Lämmel|Lämmel]] |- |He attended Einstein's 1911 lecture and gave a popular report about it in the Swiss newspaper "[[w:Neue Zürcher Zeitung|Neue Zürcher Zeitung]]" published on 28 April 1911,<ref name=lammel /> including additional details. Regarding the round-trip clock experiment he wrote: {| ! width=50% | Lämmel wrote ! English translation |- | style="padding: 0px 20px 0px 20px;" |Bewegt sich eine Uhr mit Lichtgeschwindigkeit längs einer Geraden, auf der gerichtete Uhren stehen, so scheint die bewegte Uhr, beurteilt vom Standpunkt der ruhenden aus, im oben stizzierten Sinn, stillzustehen. Kehrt die Uhr, nach einem Ruck, mit Lichtgeschwindigkeit wieder zurück zur Zentral-Uhr, so ist, nach Einstein, für den Beobachter bei der Zentral-Uhr die Sache so, als ob ein mit der bewegten Uhr mitgeführter Beobachter (samt dessen Uhr) nicht gealtert hätte. Hinge also des letzteren Alter von den Angaben des ruhenden Beobachters ab, so könnte der von einer großen Reise ins Weltall zurückkehrende Beobachter bei der Zentral-Uhr spätere Generationen antreffen – er selber hätte nicht gealtert. Welche Bedeutung diese ''ad absurdum'' geführte Gedankenspielerei etwa hat, läßt sich heute nicht absehen – vielleicht, ja wahrscheinlich ist sie ohne jeden Einfluß auf die tatsächlichen Verhältnisse. Aber man sieht dabei immerhin, daß die Physik imstande ist, die kühnsten Träume der Phantasie noch – zu überbieten. | style="padding: 0px 20px 0px 20px;" |Let a clock be moving at speed of light along a line on which regulated clocks are standing, then the moving clock's hand appears to be standing still (in the sense described above) as judged from the standpoint of the resting one. If the clock, after one jolt, comes back with light speed to the central clock, then according to Einstein the matter presents itself to the observer at the central clock, as if the observer comoving with the clock (together with his clock itself) hasn't been grown older. Thus if the age of the latter would depend on the indications of the resting observer, the observer returning from a great journey into space could meet later generations at the central-clock – he himself hasn't been grown older. The importance of this play of thought led ''ad absurdum'' cannot be seen today – maybe, or even probably, it is without any influence on the actual situations. Though at least one can see that physics is able to – surpass – even the boldest dreams and fantasies. |} Lämmel in December 1920 (published 1921)<ref name=lammel2 /> again alluded to Einstein's lectures in Zürich (possibly the one from 1911, and maybe also later ones), describing a discussion between himself and Einstein. After Einstein concluded that the travelers who came back after their journey will probably meet their former contemporaries as old men while they themselves could have been away for only a few years, Lämmel objected that this conclusion is only drawn with respect to rods and clocks, but not with respect to living beings. Einstein responded though, that all processes in the blood, in the nerves etc. are eventually periodical oscillations, i.e. motions. Yet to any such motion the relativity principle applies, thus the conclusion regarding the unevenly rapid aging it permissive. {{Lorentzbox|Text=While the official publication of Einstein's January lecture ({{slink||Einstein 1911-HU}}) mentions the aging of organisms, Lämmel recalls the reference to the aging of a human space traveler ("observer returning from a great journey into space"). This means that Einstein was the first to use human beings in the clock/twin paradox on January 16 which was first published by Lämmel on April 28, 1911. In comparison, {{slink||Langevin 1911-HU}} used space travelers in a lecture on April 10 with publication in July, and {{slink||Wiechert 1911-HU}} used space travelers in lectures held between March 25 and May 23 with publication in July/September. It seems very unlikely that before April 28, Lämmel became somehow aware of the content of Langevin's or Wiechert's lectures held a few weeks earlier, in order to use them in his description of Einstein's lecture.}} |- !{{anchor|Langevin 1911-HU}}[[w:Paul Langevin|Langevin]] |- |On 10 April 1911, published July 1911,<ref name=langevin1 /> he held a now famous lecture popularizing the clock/twin paradox which he derived from the proper time integral as described in {{slink||Langevin 1911-PT}}. He demonstrated that a moving radioactive sample of radium is less evolved and less aged and therefore more active at return then the ones that remained in the laboratory. He also used light signals and the Doppler effect to visualize the effect. The most famous part concerned his description of the aging of human space travelers: {| ! width=50% | Langevin wrote ! [[:s:Translation:The Evolution of Space and Time|English Wikisource translation]] |- | style="padding: 0px 20px 0px 20px;" |Cette remarque fournit le moyen, à celui d’entre nous qui voudrait y consacrer deux années de sa vie, de savoir ce que sera la Terre dans deux cents ans, d’explorer l’avenir de la Terre en faisant dans la vie de celle-ci un saut en avant qui pour elle durera deux siècles et pour lui durera deux ans, mais ceci sans espoir de retour, sans possibilité de venir nous informer du résultat de son voyage puisque toute tentative du même genre ne pourrait que le transporter de plus en plus avant. Il suffirait pour cela que notre voyageur consente à s’enfermer dans un projectile que la Terre lancerait avec une vitesse suffisamment voisine de celle de la lumière, quoique inférieure, ce qui est physiquement possible, en s’arrangeant pour qu’une rencontre, avec une étoile par exemple, se produise au bout d’une année de la vie du voyageur et le renvoie vers la Terre avec la même vitesse. Revenu à la Terre ayant vieilli de deux ans, il sortira de son arche et trouvera notre globe vieilli de deux cents ans si sa vitesse est restée dans l’intervalle inférieure d’un vingt-millième seulement à la vitesse de la lumière. Les faits expérimentaux les plus sûrement établis de la physique nous permettent d’affirmer qu’il en serait bien ainsi. | style="padding: 0px 20px 0px 20px;" |This remark provides the means for any among us who wants to devote two years of his life, to find out what the Earth will be in two hundred years, and to explore the future of the Earth, by making in his life a jump ahead that will last two centuries for Earth and for him it will last two years, but without hope of return, without possibility of coming to inform us of the result of his voyage, since any attempt of the same kind could only transport him increasingly further. For this it is sufficient that our traveler consents to be locked in a projectile that would be launched from Earth with a velocity sufficiently close to that of light but lower, which is physically possible, while arranging an encounter with, for example, a star that happens after one year of the traveler's life, and which sends him back to Earth with the same velocity. Returned to Earth he has aged two years, then he leaves his ark and finds our world two hundred years older, if his velocity remained in the range of only one twenty-thousandth less than the velocity of light. The most established experimental facts of physics allow us to assert that this would actually be so. |} {{Lorentzbox|Text=Reading his lecture in full, one finds the word "paradoxical" only in relation to the constancy of light speed, not on relation to the round-trip clock experiment.}} |- !{{anchor|Wiechert 1911-HU}}[[w:Emil Wiechert|Wiechert]] |- |In lectures on 25 March and 23 May 1911, submitted July and published September 1911,<ref name=wiechert11 /> he described the round-trip clock experiment with two equal clocks regulated to the same rate and brought to the same pointer position, or by introducing the same chemical process two times, or by introducing ''two life forms that began their life at the same time''. At the end of his paper he applied this to human travelers: {| ! width=50% | Wiechert wrote ! English translation |- | style="padding: 0px 20px 0px 20px;" |Nehmen wir aber wieder eine Relativgeschwindigkeit an, die bis auf 3 Proz. der Lichtgeschwindigkeit nahekommt, dann wird das Verhältnis der empfundenen Zeitlängen wie 4:1. Das Bild mag etwas weiter noch ausgemalt werden. Denken wir uns, daß ein Beobachter durch den Raum unseres Sternhimmels mit dieser Geschwindigkeit in einer Kreisbahn mit einem Radius von 16 Lichtjahren fährt, dann wird er nach unserer Zeitrechnung nach je 100 Jahren wieder an unserem Sonnensystem vorüberkommen. In seinem Gefährt wird dabei die Zentrifugalkraft so auf ihn einwirken, daß sie gemäß den Relativitätsgesetzen der Einwirkung der Schwerkraft auf uns Erdenbewohner gleich erscheint. Es sind also die wirkenden Kräfte nur so groß, daß der Phantasie die Möglichkeit geboten wird, den Reisenden als menschliches Wesen zu denken. Da hier dauernd <math>\sqrt{1-v^{2}/c^{2}}</math> ist, fließt die Eigenzeit für den Reisenden viermal langsamer dahin, als für die Bewohner der Gestirne. Wenn er also nach 100 unserer Jahre wieder zu unserem Sonnensystem zurückkehrt, wird er sich selbst nur um 25 Jahre gealtert fühlen. Erreicht er nach der Entwicklung seines Körpers und nach seiner Zeitempfindung ein Alter von 75 Jahren, so entspricht dies doch einer dreimaligen Wiederkehr zu unserem Sonnensystem, also 300 unserer Erdenjahre. | style="padding: 0px 20px 0px 20px;" |Yet if we again assume a relative velocity approximating the speed of light by 3 percent, then the ratio of the experienced duration of time becomes 4:1. This image can be further extended. Let's imagine that an observer travels with that velocity on a circular path at a radius of 16 light years through the space of our galaxy, then according to our time calculation he passes by our solar system every 100 years. In his vehicle the centrifugal force will act on him in such a way, that in accordance with the relativity laws it will appear to be equal to the force of gravity acting upon the inhabitants of Earth. Thus the acting forces are only thus big, in order to give our fantasy the possibility to imagine the traveler as a human being. Since we have <math>\sqrt{1-v^{2}/c^{2}}</math> throughout, proper time flows four times slower for the traveler than for the inhabitants of the stars. Thus when he comes back to our solar system after 100 of our years, he will feel to have aged only by about 25 years. If he reaches an age of 75 years according to the development of his body and his own time experience, then this corresponds to a threefold return to our solar system, i.e. 300 of our Earth years. |} {{Lorentzbox|Text=a) Wiechert (1915)<ref name=wiechert15 /> later provided a short historical survey of the clock/twin paradox. He referred to the fact that already {{slink||Einstein 1905}} considered the case of two clocks ("Einstein's clock experiment"), and even though [[w:Hermann Minkowski|Minkowski]] himself didn't consider the case, his proper time formula provides the result in a straight forward manner. The latter was done by himself in lectures on 25 March and 23 May 1911, as well as by Langevin published in July 1911. Wiechert pointed out that he himself and Langevin used "humorist" examples in order to clarify the situation: While Wiechert argued that one has to make a journey in order to stay young, Langevin argued that one has to romp about in a laboratory in order to stay young. Both of them used human beings, arguing that their physical and mental life should have been influenced in the same way as any other process in nature. b) The dates given by Wiechert (1915) are not complete. The correct ones are: *Langevin's lecture on 10 April 1911, published in July. *Wiechert's lectures on 25 March and 23 May 1911, submitted on July 26, published in September. *He was still unaware of Einstein's lecture from January 1911, published in November 1911.}} |- !{{anchor|Müller 1911-HU}}[[w:Fritz Müller-Partenkirchen|Müller]] |- |The freelance writer and law student Fritz Müller (who was later known as [[w:Fritz Müller-Partenkirchen|Müller-Partenkirchen]]) attended Einstein's lecture and wrote a popular report about it in the German newspaper "[[w:Berliner Tageblatt|Berliner Tageblatt]]" on 16th and 23rd October 1911,<ref name=muller /> in which he gave further details (compare with {{slink||Lämmel 1911-HU}}). Regarding the clock/twin paradox he wrote: {| ! width=50% | Müller wrote ! English translation |- | style="padding: 0px 20px 0px 20px;" |Zwei gleichgehende Uhren sollen je einen Beobachter haben und nebeneinander ruhen. Nun soll die eine mit ihrem Beobachter plötzlich mit Lichtgeschwindigkeit in den Weltenraum hinausreisen. Vorher haben die beiden vereinbart, sich alle Sekunden mit einem Lichtsignal die Zeit zu telegraphieren. [...] In unserem Grenzfall, wo die Reise mit Lichtgeschwindigkeit vor sich geht, müßte der ruhende Beobachter erklären, jene andere Uhr käme in der Zeit überhaupt nicht voran. Die Zeit stünde dort still. Tatsächlich kommen die Einsteinschen Gleichungen zu diesem Resultat. Für den mit der Uhr reisenden Beobachter, sagt Einstein, gelte dasselbe. Das heißt, im Urteil des Zurückbleibenden würde jener niemals alt. „Und wenn er auf einer gebrochenen Reiselinie wieder an seinen Ausgangspunkt zurückkehrte?" fragt man den Vortragenden in der Diskussion. – „So bliebe er in unserem Urteil so jung wie bei der Ausreise," erwidert Einstein mit vollem Ernst, „selbst wenn wir Zurückgebliebenen inzwischen Männer mit weißen Bärten geworden sind – die Gleichungen liefern für jede Richtung der Bewegung, auch für eine gebrochene Bewegung, unerschütterlich die selben Resultate." – Wir sehen einander an. Das klingt märchenhaft. Märchenhaft? Gewiß, die alten Märchen vom Mönch von Heisterbach, vom Rip van Winkle, von Urashima Taro steigen auf. Merkwürdig, wie die Volksphantasie bei den Deutschen, bei den Amerikanern, bei den Japanern in der gleichen Richtung gearbeitet hat – alle drei Märchen erzählen ja von Leuten, deren Leben still steht, viele hundert Jahre lang, während die andern altern. So fanden sie bei ihrer Rückkehr ein anderes Land und eine andere Generation. | style="padding: 0px 20px 0px 20px;" |Two synchronous clocks at rest next to each other, shall each be accompanied by an observer. Now one of them, together with its observer, suddenly travels into space at the speed of light. Previously, both have arranged that every second they telegraph their time to each other using light signals. [...] In our limiting case where the journey happens at light speed, the resting observer would have to declare that the other clock would not proceed in time at all. Time would stand still at this place. Einstein's equations indeed produce this result. As to the observer traveling with the clock, says Einstein, the same is true. That means in the judgment of the remaining one, the other one would never become old. Then the lecturer [i.e. Einstein] was asked in the discussion: "And if he comes back to his starting point on a curved travel path?", to which Einstein replied in full earnest: "Then in our judgment he would remain as young as he was at departure, even if we remaining ones became men with white beards in the meantime, the equations unshakably give the same result in every direction of motion, also for curved motion". We look at each other. That sounds fabulous. Fabulous? Of course, the old fairy tales of [[w:Heisterbach Abbey|w:The monk of Heisterbach]] or [[w:Rip Van Winkle]] or [[w:Urashima Tarō]] come forward. Strange, how the folk fantasy of the Germans, the Americans, the Japanese worked in the same direction, all three fairy tales indeed tell about people whose life stands still, many hundred years long, while the other ones grow old. Thus they found another country and another generation when they returned. |} {{Lorentzbox|Text=Müller's account confirms {{slink||Lämmel 1911-HU}} that Einstein indeed mentioned human beings, but his description also suggests that Einstein was the first to use mutually sent light signals. However, as this was published in October, it cannot be excluded that Müller's description of light signals was influenced by {{slink||Langevin 1911-HU}}, published in July, in which light signals were used as well.}} |} ==Twins from 1911 to 1920== We now provide a list of authors who employed ''twins'', i.e. ''two'' life forms or humans that initially were of ''same age'' when the round-trip began: {| class="wikitable" style="background-color:white;" |- ! Author !! Date !! Description |- |[[w:Emil Wiechert|Wiechert]]<ref name=wiechert11 /> |1911 |Two life forms that begin their life at the ''same time'' (German: "Zwei Lebewesen [..] die ihr Leben gleichzeitig beginnen"), of which the moving one returns retarded in its progression with respect to the stationary one. |- |[[w:Paul Gruner|Gruner]]<ref name=gruner /> |1912 |Two persons of ''same age'' (French: "deux personnes du même âge"), of which the moving one returns less developed than stationary one. |- |[[w:Max von Laue|Laue]]<ref name=laue3 /> |1913 |The moving life form returns younger than its ''former agemates'' (German: "ehemaligen Altersgenossen"). |- |[[w:Hermann Weyl|Weyl]]<ref name=weyl /> |Easter 1918 | {| ! width=50% | German original ! English translation |- | style="padding: 0px 20px 0px 20px;" |Von zwei Zwillingsbrüdern, die sich in einem Weltpunkt A trennen, bleibe der eine in der Heimat (d. h. ruhe dauernd in einem tauglichen Bezugsraum), der andere aber unternehme Reisen, bei denen er Geschwindigkeiten (relativ zur »Heimat«) entwickelt, die der Lichtgeschwindigkeit nahekommen; dann wird sich der Reisende, wenn er dereinst in die Heimat zurückkehrt, als merklich jünger herausstellen denn der Seßhafte. |Suppose we have two twin-brothers who take leave from one another at a world-point A, and suppose one remains at home (that is, permanently at rest in an allowable reference-space), whilst the other sets out on voyages, during which he moves with velocities (relative to “home”) that approximate to that of light. When the wanderer returns home in later years he will appear appreciably younger than the one who stayed at home. |} {{Lorentzbox|Text=Weyl was the first to ''explicitly use twins'' in relation to the round-trip experiment. The fourth edition (1920) of that book was translated from German into English and French in 1922.}} |- |[[w:Albert Einstein|Einstein]]<ref name=einstein20 /> |1920/21 |{{Anchor|Einstein 1921-TW}} {| ! width=50% | German original ! English translation |- | style="padding: 0px 20px 0px 20px;" | Trifft A wieder bei B ein, so kann es sich ereignen, daß der beharrende Zwilling inzwischen 60 Erdjahre alt geworden ist, während der zurückkehrende nur 15 Jahre zählt, oder sich gar noch im Säuglingsstadium befindet. [..] Bei diesen Zwillingen, erklärte Einstein, haben wir zunächst eine ''Gefühls -Paradoxie'' vor uns. Eine ''Denk-Paradoxie'' würde indeß nur dann vorliegen, wenn sich für das Verhalten der beiden Geschöpfe kein zureichender Grund anführen ließe. |If A then returns to B, it may happen that the twin who stayed at home is now sixty years old, whereas the wanderer is only fifteen years of age, or is perhaps only an infant still. [..] In the case of these two twins, Einstein declared, we have merely a paradox of ''feeling''. It would be a paradox of ''thought'' only if no sufficient ground could be suggested for the behaviour of these two creatures. |} {{Lorentzbox|Text=This was based on an interview of Einstein by Moszkowski. While the expression "clock paradox" was used since 1911/12 (see section {{slink||Paradoxical?}}), this seems to be the first time that it was rebranded as "twin paradox". The copyright mark indicates 1920, while the title page indicates 1921. The translation from German into English also appeared in 1921.}} |} ==Maximal proper time== {| class="wikitable" style="background-color:white;" |- ! Author !! Early examples |- |[[w:Paul Langevin|Langevin]] 1911 |{{anchor|Langevin 1911-PT}}In April 1911 (published July),<ref name=langevin1 /> he described the round-trip experiment without formulas using two portions of matter present at two events happening at the same place. The ''integration of proper time'' along the entire wordlines shows that the portion of matter that starts a closed cycle by receding and finally coming back, will have a ''smaller proper time'' than the one that stayed behind. In October 1911 (published 1912),<ref name=langevin2 /> Langevin again showed that the portion of matter that described a closed cycle will have a ''smaller proper time'' <math>R</math> than the one that stayed in an inertial frame, which is defined by the equation: :<math>\begin{matrix}V^{2}\left(t-t_{0}\right)^{2}=d^{2}-R\\ \left[d^{2}=\left(x-x_{0}\right)^{2}+\left(y-y_{0}\right)^{2}+\left(z-z_{0}\right)^{2}\right] \end{matrix}</math> |- |[[w:Emil Wiechert|Wiechert]]<ref name=wiechert11 /> Lectures March-May 1911 submitted July published September |{{anchor|Wiechert 1911-PT}}Let two equal processes be observed in two equal material systems colocated in two moments (1) and (2), and let there velocities have been changed in arbitrarily different ways in the meantime. It follows that the ratio of advancement of those processes is given by the two intervals <math>\Delta\tau </math> of their respective ''proper times''. He concluded that any round-trip clock experiment can be easily comprehended from that theorem by computation. The corresponding integral is: :<math>\Delta\tau=\int_{1}^{2}d\tau=\int_{1}^{2}dt\sqrt{1-\frac{\mathfrak{v}^{2}}{c^{2}}}</math> |- |[[w:Eduard Study|Study]]<ref name=study /> June 1911 |Minkowski's concept of worldlines implies that the straight path between two points of the same worldline is the ''longest'' among all paths between those points, if the path length on a worldline is defined by the related proper time. {{Lorentzbox|Text=Study's book was purely mathematical without mentioning clocks or the round-trip experiment, alluding to his result only in a footnote.}} |- |[[w:Max von Laue|Laue]] 1911-13 |{{anchor|Laue 1911/12-PT}}In December 1911 (published 1912),<ref name=laue1 /> Laue showed without formulas that the round-trip experiment is represented by a curved worldline, which at worldpoint A decomposes into a row of curves, after which all of them will be re-united at worldpoint B to a single line. Of all curves connecting the points A and B having time-like direction throughout, the straight connection has the ''longest proper time.'' {{anchor|Laue 1912/13-PT}}In December 1912 (published 1913) in the second edition of this relativity book,<ref name=laue1 /> Laue described the proper time integral between events 1 and 2 of a slowly accelerated clock covering a broken line and a stationary clock covering a straight worldline. Of all worldlines covering 1 and 2, the straight line has the ''longest proper time''. Therefore the traveling clock in the round-trip experiment is retarded at reunion, because its curved worldline corresponds to a shorter proper time. This result he presented in terms of the following inequality, of which the right-hand side refers to the straight curve of the stationary clock, while all others possible curves are represented on left-hand side: :<math>\tfrac{1}{c}\int_{1}^{2}\sqrt{du^{2}-\left(dx^{2}+dy^{2}+dz^{2}\right)}<\tfrac{1}{c}\int_{1}^{2}du</math> {{Lorentzbox|Text={{anchor|Sommerfeld 1913-PT}}Similar treatments can be found in the textbooks of [[w:Arnold Sommerfeld|Sommerfeld]] (1913),<ref name=sommerfeld /> [[w:Hermann Weyl|Weyl]] (1918),<ref name=weyl /> [[w:Wolfgang Pauli|Pauli]] (1921),<ref name=pauli /> [[w:August Kopff|Kopff]] (1921),<ref name=kopff /> [[w:Jean Becquerel|Becquerel]] (1922).<ref name=becqu1 />}} |} ==Triangle inequality== {| class="wikitable" style="background-color:white;{{text default color}};" |- ! Author !! Early examples |- |style="vertical-align:top"|[[w:Alfred Robb|Robb]] 1914-1920 |{{anchor|Robb 1914-TR}}In 1914<ref name=robb1 /> he showed that there are three types of triangles formed by intervals in Minkowski space, depending on whether one deals with "separation lines" (spacelike intervals), "optical lines" (lightlike intervals), or "inertia lines" (timelike intervals representing the path of nonaccelerated particles defined by <math>{\scriptstyle \left(x_{1}-x_{0}\right)^{2}+\left(y_{1}-y_{0}\right)^{2}+\left(z_{1}-z_{0}\right)^{2}-c^{2}\left(t_{1}-t_{0}\right)^{2}<0}</math>). As to a triangle formed by inertia lines, he showed that the sum of a certain two sides is ''less'' than that of the third one. {{Lorentzbox|Text=So the triangle inequality derived from time-like intervals in Minkowski space is ''[[w:Triangle inequality#Reversal in Minkowski space|inverse]]'' to the inequality in Euclidean space. This inverse inequality directly represents the most simple variant of the twin paradox: the traveler follows two sides of the time-triangle, while the stay-at-home observer follows the third side indicating maximal proper time.}} [[File:RobbTriangle.svg|right|150px]] In 1920<ref name=robb2 /> Robb gave a numerical example of the triangle ABC with time-like intervals ("inertia lines") defined by coordinates :<math>\begin{matrix} & x & y & z & t\\ A\ & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0\\ B\ & 0 & 0 & 0 & 10\\ C\ & 4 & 0 & 0 & 5 \end{matrix}</math> which he plugged into :<math>\bar{s}^{2}=\left(t_{1}-t_{0}\right)^{2}-\left(x_{1}-x_{0}\right)^{2}-\left(y_{1}-y_{0}\right)^{2}-\left(z_{1}-z_{0}\right)^{2}</math> from which he obtained the sides AB=10, AC=3, CB=3 and the inequality <math>AC+CB<AB</math>. |- |[[w:Arthur Eddington|Eddington]]<ref name=edding2 /> 1922 |He distinguished between the "space-triangle" for spacelike intervals, and the "time-triangle" for time-like intervals. The latter is measured with a clock from A to B and from B to C, with the sum of those readings ''is always less'' than the reading of a clock measuring directly from A to C. In the ordinary space-triangle any two sides are together greater than the third side; in the time-triangle two sides are together ''less'' than the third side. |- |Rogers<ref name=rogers /> 1922 |He showed that the "pure time-triangle" C, A, B (in their proper time order) satisfies the relation <math>\cosh C=\tfrac{\alpha^{2}+\beta^{2}-\gamma^{2}}{2\alpha\beta}</math>, where <math>\cosh C</math> denotes the unit-scalar product of the vectors CA, CB, and <math>\alpha,\beta,\gamma </math> the real and positive intervals BC, CA, AB. Since <math>\alpha>\beta </math> and <math>\cosh C>1</math>, it follows that <math>\alpha>\beta+\gamma </math>. That is, "the greatest side of pure time-triangle is greater than the sum of the other two sides". It follows at once that the stationary value of the proper time integral is an "absolute maximum". |} ==Negligibility of proper acceleration== {| class="wikitable" style="background-color:white;" |- ! Author !! Early examples |- |style="vertical-align:top" |[[w:Albert Einstein|Einstein]] 1905-1918 |In 1905,<ref name=einstein05 /> Einstein used velocity time dilation <math>\tau=t\sqrt{1-\left(\frac{v}{V}\right)^{2}}</math> to derive the retardation of a clock performing a round-trip with constant speed <math>v</math> along a polygonal path or a continuously curved line, without mentioning any influence of acceleration at turnaround. {{anchor|Einstein 1911-VA}} In 1911 (published 1912),<ref name=einstein3 /> Einstein said that special relativity doesn't say anything about what happened to the clock's pointer position during the acceleration that changes the clock's direction along the round-trip, yet the influence of this change must be getting smaller the longer the clock ''is moving uniformly'', i.e. the longer one chooses the dimensions of the path. {{anchor|Einstein 1912-VA}}In an unpublished manuscript on special relativity from 1912,<ref name=einst12manu /> he pointed out that any influence of acceleration during the round-trip experiment, can be neglected if one makes the time of acceleration negligible with respect to the total time of motion along the polygonal path. {{anchor|Einstein 1914a-VA}}In a letter from April 1914,<ref name=einstpetz /> Einstein showed that any ''finite'' acceleration at turnaround during the round-trip experiment can only influence the clock in a ''finite'' way, thus it can be neglected by minimizing the time of acceleration with respect to the time of uniform translation. So it ''must be concluded'' that the clock is retarded at reunion after traveling on a polygonal path. {{anchor|Einstein 1914b-VA}}During a conversation in May 1914,<ref name=rowe group=S /> Einstein is reported to have replied that the accelerations during the round-trip are "irrelevant for the amount of the time difference". (Compare with {{slink||Einstein 1914b-AC}}) {{anchor|Einstein 1918-VA}}In his famous "Dialog about Objections against the Theory of Relativity" from 1918,<ref name=einstein18 /> Einstein pointed out that any effect of velocity changes at turnaround must be limited, thus the traveling clock must be retarded at reunion due to time dilation if one makes the path AB and back along the round-trip long enough. (Compare with {{slink||Einstein 1918-AC}}) |- |[[w:Emil Wiechert|Wiechert]]<ref name=wiechert11 /> 1911 |{{Anchor|Wiechert 1911-VA}}[[File:WiechertTwin.svg|110px|right]] He demonstrated that differential aging along the round-trip cannot be caused during the passage from one velocity to another (i.e. acceleration) at turnaround, because the same result also follows when ''both'' A and B experience the ''same velocity changes'' with respect to another frame, only with the difference that B has relative velocities <math>+u</math> and <math>-u</math> for a long time, while A is brought after a short time from relative velocity <math>+u</math> to relative rest at which it remains a long time, and then it is brought to relative velocity <math>-u</math> for a short time. {{Lorentzbox|Text=He was probably the first to use an example in which both accelerate with same magnitude.}} |- |[[w:Max von Laue|Laue]]<ref name=laue3 /> 1913 |{{anchor|Laue 1913-VA}}He showed that the problem of the influence of acceleration at turnaround in the round-trip experiment, can be eliminated by ''arbitrarily'' enlarging the time in inertial motion. {{Lorentzbox|Text=This is the same argument as given in {{slink||Einstein 1911-VA}}. The Einstein-Laue argument was also used by others such as [[w:Hans Thirring|Thirring]] (1921)<ref name=thirring /> or [[w:Max Born|Born]] (1921).<ref name=born />}} |- |[[w:Hendrik Lorentz|Lorentz]]<ref name=lorentz1 /> 1913 |He pointed out that any effect of acceleration on the traveling clock at turnaround, can be separated from the time dilation effect since only the latter depends on the distance traversed along the round-trip. {{Lorentzbox|Text=Similarly, [[w:Wolfgang Pauli|Pauli]] (1921) stated that the arising infinitesimal accelerations at turnaround are certainly independent of the total travel time and ''therefore easy to eliminate''.<ref name=pauli />}} |} ==Relay (three brothers) experiment== {| class="wikitable" style="background-color:white;" |- ! Author !! Early examples |- |[[w:de:Fritz Grünbaum (Physiker)|Grünbaum]]<ref name=gbaum /> 1911 |He discussed a one-way time dilation experiment in which the first clock is set into motion from the origin and then moving to the second clock. He argued that one can avoid the problem of acceleration experienced by the first clock when set into motion, by replacing it with a ''third'' clock that is already in motion with constant velocity and is synchronized at the origin with the first clock. {{Lorentzbox|Text=While Grünbaum didn't discuss round-trip experiments, his introduction of a third clock in order to avoid acceleration is the basis of the three-brother experiment.}} |- |style="vertical-align:top"|[[w:Emil Wiechert|Wiechert]] 1920-1922 |In 1920 (published 1921),<ref name=wiechert20 /> Wiechert explained how to completely remove acceleration from the round-trip experiment: Bodies A, B, C move undisturbed and non-accelerated in different directions. A and B pass each other at time (1), B and C pass each other at a later time (2), and C and A finally pass each other at an even later time (3). So in this setup, the condition of C is the continuation of the condition of B. On any of the three bodies one can count the oscillations of light of a certain spectral-line, in which case relativity predicts that the ''combined sum of all oscillations'' on B+C is smaller than the number of oscillations on A alone. Wiechert also held that one can replace the light oscillations by the life functions of human-like beings which live on A, B and C. For instance, while the inhabitants of B+C only had time for one meal, there were arbitrarily many generations on A who follow after each other by death and birth. [[File:Wiechert1922a.png|180px|right]] In 1921 (published 1922),<ref name=wiechert21 /> Wiechert extended his previous acceleration-free round-trip experiment to an arbitrary number of non-accelerated bodies <math>B_{1}</math>, <math>B_{2}</math>, ..., which constitutes a "relay" (German: Stafette) starting from body A and back again. The first B passes A and moves away, and after some time the last B comes back to A. Since any B body continues the fate of the previous one, all bodies <math>B_{1}</math>, <math>B_{2}</math>, ..., combined have emitted fewer oscillations than A alone during the relay race. Wiechert pointed out that instead of light oscillations one can also choose the aging of life forms. {{Lorentzbox|Text=Such relay experiments were later independently rediscovered in English language papers<ref name=debs group=S /> such as by Lange (1927)<ref group=S name=lange /> in which the brothers synchronize their times when they pass each other (“three brother experiment”).}} |} ==Acceleration as asymmetry indicator== While it was known that any direct influence of [[w:proper acceleration]] on clocks can be neglected in the computation of the inertial frame of the stay-at-home twin (see previous section {{slink||Negligibility of proper acceleration}}), the very fact that only one of them is accelerating is still useful as an asymmetry argument in order to show that there is no contradiction to the relativity principle. {| class="wikitable" style="background-color:white;" |- ! Author !! Early examples |- |[[w:Paul Langevin|Langevin]]<ref name=langevin1 /> 1911 |{{Anchor|Langevin 1911-AC}}He derived differential aging in the round-trip experiment using the proper time integral along worldlines (see {{slink||Langevin 1911-PT}}) and used acceleration as an asymmetry indicator: The result of the round-trip experiment is "another example of the absolute character of acceleration" in which the "asymmetry occurred because only the traveler, in the middle of his journey, has undergone an acceleration that changes the direction of his velocity". |- |[[w:Arnold Sommerfeld|Sommerfeld]]<ref name=sommerfeld /> 1913 |After he showed (see {{slink||Sommerfeld 1913-PT}}) that retardation of time in the round-trip experiment derived from the proper time integral rests on the assumption that the clock's rate ''only depends on its momentary velocity'' (now called "clock hypothesis"), he used acceleration as an asymmetry indicator: There is no contradiction to the relativity principle since one of the clocks has to be accelerated in order to come back, thus the retardation in the round-trip experiment does not demonstrate "motion", but "accelerated motion". |- |[[w:Hendrik Lorentz|Lorentz]] 1913<ref name=lorentz1 /> |After he derived differential aging in the round-trip experiment from velocity time dilation and pointed out the negligibility of proper acceleration for the computation, he used acceleration as an asymmetry indicator: There is no contradiction to the relativity principle, since one of them changes velocity and accelerates; the relativity principle does not require symmetry between inertial and non-inertial observers. |- |style="vertical-align:top"|[[w:Albert Einstein|Einstein]] 1914-1920 |{{anchor|Einstein 1914b-AC}} During a conversation in 1914,<ref name=rowe group=S /> Einstein is reported to have said that moving clock B is retarded because it was accelerating in contrast to clock A; while those accelerations are ''irrelevant'' for the ''amount'' of the time difference, their ''presence'' nevertheless cause B to fall behind ("accelerated motions are absolute"). {{anchor|Einstein 1918-AC}}In his famous "Dialog about Objections against the Theory of Relativity" from 1918<ref name=einstein18 />, Einstein pointed out the negligibility of velocity changes from the viewpoint of an inertial frame (see {{slink||Einstein 1918-VA}}). Then he used ''acceleration as an asymmetry indicator'' in order to show, that there is no contradiction to the relativity principle, because relativity only predicts the equivalence of non-accelerated inertial frames: "only K is such a frame while K' is temporarily accelerated, thus the retardation of U2 with respect to U1 cannot be used to construe a contradiction against the theory." {{anchor|Einstein 1920-AC}}Einstein is reported to have said in an interview from 1920:<ref name=einstein20 /> {| ! style="width:50%" | German original ! English translation |- | style="padding: 0px 20px 0px 20px;" |Bei diesen Zwillingen, erklärte Einstein, haben wir zunächst eine ''Gefühls-Paradoxie'' vor uns. Eine ''Denk-Paradoxie'' würde indeß nur dann vorliegen, wenn sich für das Verhalten der beiden Geschöpfe kein zureichender Grund anführen ließe. Dieser Grund für das Jüngerbleiben des A ergibt sich vom Gesichtspunkt der speziellen Relativitätstheorie aus der Tatsache, daß das betreffende Geschöpf — und nur dieses — Beschleunigungen erlitten hat. | style="padding: 0px 20px 0px 20px;" |In the case of these two twins," Einstein declared, "we have merely a paradox of ''feeling''. It would be a paradox of ''thought'' only if no sufficient ground could be suggested for the behaviour of these two creatures . This ground, which counts for the comparative youth of A, is given, from the point of view of the special theory of relativity, by the fact that the creature in question, and only this creature, has been subject to accelerations." |} In a discussion from 1922,<ref name=morand /> Einstein is reported to have said that there is no contradiction in the round-trip experiment (in terms of a train leaving the station and returning later): The relativity principle is not applicable to this case, because the train is not in a Galilean system (i.e. inertial frame) any longer during the period of velocity change at turnaround, i.e. the ensemble of two frames having velocities in opposite direction is not an inertial frame. There is no reciprocity between a frame that changes direction and one that doesn't. |} ==Frame distribution as asymmetry indicator== Because any direct influence of proper acceleration on the traveling clock at turnaround can be neglected (see {{slink||Negligibility of proper acceleration}}), the importance of {{slink||Acceleration as asymmetry indicator}} is limited to the mere fact that it reveals that only the traveler was in a non-inertial frame as only he changed his inertial frames, thus instead of emphasizing the occurrence of proper acceleration at turnaround, it's possible to describe the asymmetry more geometrically by emphasizing the different distribution of inertial frames of the twins along their worldlines. {| class="wikitable" style="background-color:white;{{text default color}};" |- ! Author !! Early examples |- |style="vertical-align:top"|[[w:Max von Laue|Laue]] 1911-1913 |{{Anchor|Laue 1911/12-VA}} In 1911/12,<ref name=laue1 /> he pointed out that during the time of separation, that clock is most advanced which was at rest in an inertial frame all the time; namely there is ''always one, and only one inertial frame'', in which the locations of separation and re-encounter lie in the same geometric point. He clarified this fact by alluding to different paths in spacetime (compare with {{slink||Laue 1911/12-PT}}). In 1912/13,<ref name=laue2 /> he argued that in the round-trip experiment, we indeed can decide, which one of the clocks was steadily at rest in one and the same reference system, and which one was in the meantime at rest in two or more such systems. Among them there is of course a real physical difference. He clarified this fact by alluding to different paths in spacetime (compare with {{slink||Laue 1912/13-PT}}). In 1913<ref name=laue3 /> Laue pointed out: {| !style="width:50%" | German original ! English translation |- | style="padding: 0px 20px 0px 20px;" | Aber nach unseren Voraussetzungen ruht während der Zeit der Trennung die erste Uhr in ''einem'' berechtigten Bezugssystem, die zweite hingegen ruht zwar sowohl bei der Hin- wie bei der Rückbewegung in berechtigten Bezugssystemen, aber notwendig in ''zwei verschiedenen. Deshalb'' unterscheiden sich beider Schicksale physikalisch. Ließe man die zweite Uhr in der ihr anfangs erteilten Bewegung und schickte man ihr dafür die erste Uhr nach einiger Zeit mit größerer Geschwindigkeit nach, so würde beim Zusammentreffen die erste gegen die zweite zurückgeblieben sein; denn jetzt hat die erste während der Trennung in zwei verschiedenen Systemen geruht. (Footnote: Dem naheliegenden Einwand, daß wir über den Gang einer Uhr während eines Geschwindigkeits''wechsels'' nichts aussagen können, begegnet man am einfachsten mit dem Hinweis, daß man die Zeiten der gleichförmigen Bewegung ''beliebig'' groß gegen die der Beschleunigung machen kann.) | style="padding: 0px 20px 0px 20px;" | However, by our presuppositions, one clock is at rest in ''one'' valid reference system during the time of separation, while the second one is at rest in valid reference systems both during the forward- and the backward motion, but necessarily in ''two different ones. Therefore'' the two fates differ physically. If the second clock remains in the motion which was given to it at the start, and if after some time it is followed by the first clock with greater velocity, then the first one would be retarded with respect to the second one at the encounter; since now it was the first one that was at rest in two different systems during the separation. (Footnote: The objection which is near at hand, that we cannot say anything about the rate of a clock during a velocity ''change'', can be met most simply by the allusion, that we can render the times of uniform motion ''arbitrarily'' great with respect to acceleration..) |} |- |[[w:Werner Bloch|Bloch]]<ref name=bloch /> September 1918 |{{anchor|Bloch 1918-VA}} He represented the frames with three movable slots K, K' and K”, provided with hooks on which one can hang clocks at the origins of K and K'; while one clock always hangs on a hook of slot K, the other clock moved away with K' and after some time was transferred (neglecting any effect of acceleration) by a mechanical device to slot K” that moves in the other direction, by which it comes back; there is no contradiction to the relativity principle, as one clock rested in one inertial frame while the other one rested in two such frames. |} ==Perspective of the traveler== {| class="wikitable" style="background-color:white;" |- ! Author !! Early examples |- |[[w:Paul Langevin|Langevin]]<ref name=langevin1 /> 1911 |{{anchor|Langevin 1911-LI}}[[Image:rstd4.gif|170px|right]] After deriving differential aging from the proper time integral in {{slink||Langevin 1911-PT}} and using human beings in {{slink||Langevin 1911-HU}}, he described the perspectives of both observers using light signals and the Doppler effect. When they separate they see each other live 200 times slower, while at return they see each other live 200 times faster. So ''from the explorer's viewpoint'', in the first year he sees the Earth perform the actions of two days, while in the second year he sees the Earth perform the actions of two centuries. The asymmetry can be seen by noticing, that the observer on Earth in 200 years sees the explorer performs the actions of 1 year. Then the explorer turns around, after which the observer on Earth in 2 days sees the projectile perform the actions of another year. {{Lorentzbox|Text=Langevin used <math>v=c\left(1-\tfrac{1}{20000}\right)</math>, producing Lorentz factor <math>\gamma\approx100</math> and Doppler factor <math>\sqrt{\tfrac{c+v}{c-v}}\approx200</math>.}} |- |[[w:Hendrik Lorentz|Lorentz]] Lectures published in 1913<ref name=lorentz1 /> Similar treatment in 1914<ref name=lorentz3 /> |{{anchor|Lorentz 1913/14-LI}}Described the round-trip experiment in terms of inertial observer A (equipped with clock K) and traveling observer B (equipped with clock K'). In the frame of A, clock K' is retarded with respect to K at reunion due to time dilation. He then described the perspective of the traveling observer B by using two-way propagation of light from K' to K and back to K', leading to three periods defined by the moment of B's turnaround: In the first period the light signals return to K' before turnaround; in the second period the signals are emitted before turnaround and return after turnaround; in the third period emission and return of the signals are both happening after turnaround. Lorentz showed that K is time dilated by a factor of <math>\sqrt{1-v^{2}/c^{2}}</math> with respect to K' in the first and third period, but in the second period K is ticking ''faster'' than K' by a factor of <math>\sqrt{\tfrac{c+v}{c-v}}</math> which overcompensates the dilation in the other periods and explains, even from the perspective of B, why K' is retarded with respect to K at reunion. {{Lorentzbox|Text=In a review of the German translation of Lorentz's book, Einstein (1914) didn't directly mention Lorentz's treatment of the twin paradox, but he wrote that nobody who is seriously interested in relativity should neglect to read that book.<ref name=einstlor /> [[w:Wolfgang Pauli|Pauli]] (1921) refers to Lorentz's book as one of three papers that analyze the twin paradox more closely.<ref name=pauli />}} |- |style="vertical-align:top"| [[w:Albert Einstein|Einstein]] 1916-1920 |{{anchor|Einstein 1916-EP}}In a lecture from 1916,<ref name=einstein16 /> of which only an abstract was published, Einstein spoke about the "clock paradox of special relativity from the standpoint of [[w:general relativity]]." {{anchor|Einstein 1918a-EP}}In a letter from September 1918,<ref name=einadl /> Einstein showed that general relativity makes the inertial frame K and and the accelerated frame K' of the clocks in the round-trip experiment "equally justified", explaining the time difference in K' by combining the influence of velocity and gravitational potential on clocks. {{anchor|Einstein 1918-EP}}In his famous "Dialog about Objections against the Theory of Relativity" from November 1918,<ref name=einstein18 /> aimed at clarifying misconceptions of the clock paradox, he explained that there is no paradox in special relativity because there is no symmetry between clock U1 at rest in inertial frame K and clock U2 at rest in accelerated frame K' (see {{slink||Einstein 1918-AC}}). Yet [[w:general relativity]] and the [[w:equivalence principle]] allow the treatment of this problem also from the standpoint of frame K', where clock U2 remains at rest all of the time while U1 makes the following movements: (1) It is accelerated by a homogeneous gravitational field in the negative direction, (2) it moves with constant velocity <math>-v</math>, (3) it is accelerated in the positive direction until it turns around and comes by with constant velocity <math>+v</math>, (4) it moves with velocity <math>+v</math>, (5) it is accelerated in the negative direction until it stops. Clock U1 is retarded with respect to U2 in periods 2) and 4) due to velocity time dilation, but this retardation is overcompensated by the faster rate of U1 during period 3), because U1 is at a higher gravitational potential. He argued that the computation (which he didn't provide) shows that the advance of U1 in period 3) is double its retardation during periods 2) and 4). Einstein concluded that by this consideration "the paradox is completely resolved". Using [[w:Mach's principle]], he pointed out that the gravitational field in K' might be induced by the masses of the universe that are accelerated in this frame. {{anchor|Einstein 1918b-EP}}In a letter to Einstein from December 1918, [[w:Max Jakob|Jakob]] doubted the result that the advance in period 3) is double the retardation during periods 2) and 4). Einstein responded by letter,<ref name=einstein18b /> in which he used the gravitational time dilation factor <math>1+\Phi/c^{2}</math> in K' in order to show that U1 at distance <math>l</math> is advancing by <math>\Phi/c^{2}=2vl/c^{2}</math> in period 3), which is indeed the double of approximated delay <math>vl/c^{2}</math> caused by velocity time dilation during periods 2) and 4). {{anchor|Einstein 1921-EP}}Einstein is reported to have said in an interview from 1920,<ref name=einstein20 /> that while acceleration explains the age difference between the stationary twin B and the traveling twin A in terms of special relativity (see {{slink||Einstein 1920-AC}}), the "proper" description in terms of general relativity is as follows: {| ! style="width:50%" | German original ! English translation |- | style="padding: 0px 20px 0px 20px;" | Eine tiefere Erfassung des Grundes ist indeß nur auf dem Boden der „Allgemeinen Relativitätstheorie" zu erlangen, die uns erkennen läßt, daß von A aus beurteilt ein Zentrifugalfeld existiert, von B aus betrachtet aber nicht; und dieses Feld hat einen Einfluß auf den relativen Ablauf und die Raschheit der Lebensvorgänge. | style="padding: 0px 20px 0px 20px;" | A proper grasp of the reason is furnished only when we adopt the general theory of relativity, which tell us that, from the point of view of A, a centrifugal field exists, whereas it is absent from the point of view of B. This field exerts an influence on the relative rate of happening of the events of life." |} {{Lorentzbox|Text=a) Einstein's explanation was quickly adopted in the textbooks of [[w:Werner Bloch|Bloch]] (1920),<ref name=bloch2 /> [[w:Wolfgang Pauli|Pauli]] (1921),<ref name=pauli /> [[w:August Kopff|Kopff]] (1921),<ref name=kopff /> [[w:Karl Bollert|Bollert]] (1921),<ref name=bollert1 /> [[w:Max Born|Born]] (1921),<ref name=born /> expressing the view that general relativity is "necessary" to provide the "complete" solution of the twin paradox. b) From a modern standpoint, however, Einstein's explanation has nothing to do with general relativity, but is rather an application of accelerated frames and "pseudo"-gravitational fields to flat Minkowski space of ''special'' relativity.<ref name=weiss group=S />}} |- |[[w:Hans Thirring|Thirring]]<ref name=thirring /> April 1921 |{{anchor|Thirring 1921-DS}}[[Image:Twin Paradox Minkowski Diagram.svg|right|200px]] He described the round-trip experiment by using two platforms K (clock A) and K' (clock B) each equipped with rows of clocks. He first demonstrated the symmetry of time dilation and the mutual relativity of simultaneity on the platforms and its effect on clock synchronization. The K clocks that B passes are all advanced because of <math>t'=\gamma\left(t-vx/c^{2}\right)</math>, and the same is true after turnaround since only the direction of velocity has to be changed in the Lorentz transformation <math>t'-t'_{0}=\gamma\left(t+vx/c^{2}\right)</math> leading to the effect of clock desynchronization, where <math>t'_{0}</math> is a constant depending on which clock one uses as standard for the new synchronization. He graphically showed using Minkowski diagrams, that this simultaneity jump due to desynchronization amounts to double the velocity time dilation during the inertial phases, explaining why A is more advanced than B at reunion. {{Lorentzbox|Text=Using clock B as synchronization standard, Thirring's constant is given by <math>t'_{0}=2l\gamma v/c^{2}=2t\gamma v^{2}/c^{2}</math> with <math>l=vt</math> as position of turnaround. A similar explanation was subsequently given by Langevin (1922).<ref name=morand />}} |} ==Curved spacetime== While the previous examples are defined in flat Minkowski spacetime and therefore can be fully discussed in terms of special relativity, [[general relativity]] is required when [[:w:spacetime curvature]] in the presence of mass and energy cannot be neglected any more.<ref name=koks group=S /> {| class="wikitable" style="background-color:white;{{text default color}};" |- ! Author !! Early examples |- |[[w:Jean Becquerel|Becquerel]]<ref name=becqu1 /> 1922 |After defining gravitational time dilation <math>d\tau=\sqrt{1-\tfrac{2GM}{c^{2}r}}dt</math> in terms of the [[w:Schwarzschild metric]] around a material center, he discussed the following round-trip experiment: There are two identical clocks A and B placed next to each other, at a point very far from the material center, initially marking the same time <math>t</math>. Let us transport clock A to a point where the field is more intense, at a distance <math>r</math> from the center; this clock will measure time <math>\int d\tau</math> which is shorter than <math>\int dt</math>, thus it will run more slowly. If we bring clock A back to clock B, we will have to note that it is retarded with respect to B. |} ==Paradoxical?== {| class=wikitable style="background-color:white;{{text default color}};" ! style="width:50%" | German original of [[w:Max von Laue|Laue]] (1911/12):<ref name=laue1>Laue introduces the word "paradox", alludes to Berg and discusses Wiechert, in: {{citation |author=Laue, M. v. |title=Zwei Einwände gegen die Relativitätstheorie und ihre Widerlegung |journal=Physikalische Zeitschrift |volume=13 |issue=3|date=February 1912|orig-date=Submitted December 1911|pages=118–120|url=https://resolver.sub.uni-hamburg.de/kitodo/PPN891110208_0013/page/148}}; {{icon|wikisource}} See also English translation [[:s:Translation:Two Objections Against the Theory of Relativity and their Refutation|Two Objections Against the Theory of Relativity and their Refutation]] on Wikisource</ref> ! English translation |- |Unter all den paradox erscheinenden Folgerungen aus der Zeittransformation der Relativitätstheorie gibt es wohl keine, gegen welche sich der natürliche Menschenverstand bei jedem, der der Sache noch ungewohnt ist, so sehr sträubt, wie gegen die, daß die Zeitangabe einer Uhr von ihrem Bewegungszustand abhängen soll. Schon in seiner grundlegenden Arbeit hat Einstein diese Paradoxie auf die Spitze getrieben in einem Gedankenexperiment, welches neuerdings von Langevin in einem auch sonst sehr lesenswerten Vortrage besonders hübsch erläutert worden ist. |Of all apparently paradox consequences that stem from the time-transformation of the theory of relativity, there is probably none against which the common sense of anyone who is still unfamiliar with the matter is more reluctant, than the one according to which the time indication of a clock shall be dependent on its state of motion. Already in his fundamental paper, Einstein has driven this paradox to the extreme by a thought experiment, recently explained in a very nice way by Langevin in a lecture that is also very readable in other respects. |- |colspan=2|{{Lorentzbox|Text=Laue was probably the first to denote the round-trip experiment as paradoxical (even though he pointed out that there are no real contradictions). Subsequently, [[:w:Paul Gruner|Gruner]] (1912)<ref name=gruner /> and others including Einstein (1918)<ref name=einstein18 /> explicitly used the expression "clock paradox" (French: Paradoxe des horloges, German: Uhrenparadoxon), whereas [[w:Rudolf Seeliger|Seeliger]] (1913)<ref name=seel /> spoke of the "familiar Einstein-Langevinian paradox" (German: "bekannte Einstein-Langevinsche Paradoxon").}} |} ==Misunderstandings== {| class=wikitable style="background-color:white;{{text default color}};" ! style="width:50%" padding=10 | German original by [[w:Otto Berg (scientist)|Berg]] (1910):<ref name=berg /> ! English translation |- | style="padding: 0px 20px 0px 20px;" |Im Punkte <math>x = 0</math> des Systems S befinde sich eine Uhr, eine andere im Punkte <math>x'=0</math> von S'. Diese zweite bewege sich mit S' bis zum Punkte <math>x = a</math>, kehre dort um und bewege sich nun mit der Geschwindigkeit <math>v</math> zurück bis zum Punkte <math>x= 0</math>. Welche Zeit müssen beide Uhren in dem Moment angeben, wo sie sich wieder treffen? Wir beantworten diese Frage zunächst vom Standpunkt des Beobachters in S. Die Uhr in <math>x' = 0</math> hat sich mit der Geschwindigkeit <math>v</math> bis zum Punkte <math>x = a</math> bewegt; dazu brauchte sie die Zeit <math>\tau=\tfrac{a}{v}</math>. Zum Rückweg ist dieselbe Zeit nötig. Nach der Zeit <math>2\tau=2\tfrac{a}{v}</math> ist die Uhr also wieder im Punkte <math>x = 0</math> angelangt. Wir stellen uns nun auf den Standpunkt des Beobachters in S'. Für diesen führt nach dem Relativitätsprinzip das System S genau dieselben Bewegungen aus wie das System S' für den Beobachter in S, nur in entgegengesetzter Richtung. Die Zeit bis zum Zusammentreffen beider Uhren ist also im System S' ebenfalls gegeben durch <math>2\tau=2\tfrac{a}{v}</math>. Betrachtungen, die auf anschauliche Vorstellungen, wie Nachgehen von Uhren, gestützt sind, führen hier leicht zu Irrtümern, von denen auch die Fachlitteratur nicht frei ist. | style="padding: 0px 20px 0px 20px;" |There is a clock at point <math>x=0</math> of system S, and another one at point <math>x'=0</math> of S'. The second one moves together with S' until point <math>x=a</math>, turns around and now moves back with speed <math>v</math> to point <math>x=0</math>. Which time must both clocks indicate at the moment at which they encounter again? We answer this question at first from the standpoint of the observer in S. The clock at <math>x=0</math> has been moving with speed <math>v</math> until point <math>x=a</math>, for which it required time <math>\tau=\tfrac{a}{v}</math>. The same time is required for the way back. After time <math>2\tau=2\tfrac{a}{v}</math> the clock has thus arrived again at point <math>x=0</math>. Let's now take the standpoint of the observer in S'. In his view in accordance with the relativity principle, system S is conducting exactly the same motions as those of system S' with respect to the observer in S, only in opposite direction. Thus the time until the meeting of both clocks is given by <math>2\tau=2\tfrac{a}{v}</math> in system S' as well. Considerations based on illustrative notions, such as the retardation of clocks, easily lead to mistakes at this place, of which also the professional literature isn't free. |- |colspan=2|{{Lorentzbox|Text=a) Berg was probably the first to turn the relativity principle against asymmetric aging in the round-trip experiment, claiming that both clocks must indicate the same time at reunion. See [[w:Twin paradox]] as well as sections {{slink||Acceleration as asymmetry indicator|Frame distribution as asymmetry indicator|Perspective of the traveler}} for the solution of that problem. b) Berg's mistake also seems to be based on the fact, that in his paper he generally described time dilation and length contraction of special relativity as only being "apparent" as opposed to Lorentz's theory.}} |- ! style="width:50%" padding=10 | German original by [[w:Otto Lehmann (physicist)|Lehmann]] (1910/11):<ref name=lehm /> ! English translation |- | style="padding: 0px 20px 0px 20px;" | Hat man zwei genau gleich gehende Uhren nebeneinander und bewegt nun die eine auf einer beliebigen Kurve bis wieder zur anderen zurück, welche Bewegung <math>t</math> Sekunden gedauert haben möge, so geht sie gegen diese um <math>\left(1-\sqrt{1-\tfrac{v^{2}}{c^{2}}}\right)t</math> oder annähernd <math>\tfrac{1}{2}t(^{v}/_{c})^{2}</math> Sekunden zu spät, weil sie während der Bewegung auf langsameren Gang reguliert werden mußte, um mit der ruhenden Uhr in Übereinstimmung zu bleiben. | style="padding: 0px 20px 0px 20px;" | If there are two exactly identical clocks next to each other, and if one of them will be moved on an arbitrary curve until it comes back, which may have lasted <math>t</math> seconds, it [the moving clock] will lag behind the other one by <math>\left(1-\sqrt{1-\tfrac{v^{2}}{c^{2}}}\right)t</math> or approximately <math>\tfrac{1}{2}t(^{v}/_{c})^{2}</math> seconds, because it [the moving clock] had to be regulated to a slower rate during motion in order to remain synchronous with the resting clock. |- |colspan=2|{{Lorentzbox|Text=a) So Lehmann erroneously thinks that the time difference at reunion is only the result of "regulating" the moving clock. This implies that he (like Berg) believed that special relativity predicts ''equal'' clock times at reunion if the moving clock would have been left ''unregulated'' during the round-trip. b) Lehmann's mistake (similar to Berg) seems to based on the fact, that in his paper he generally described time dilation and length contraction of special relativity as only being "apparent" as opposed to Lorentz's theory.}} |- ! style="width:50%" | German original by [[w:Emil Wiechert|Wiechert]] (1911)<ref name=wiechert11 /> ! English translation |- |colspan=2| Even though he correctly derived differential clock aging in the round-trip experiment, he (like Berg and Lehmann) claimed that effects like time dilation are "apparent" if one admits Einstein's "unconditional" relativity principle in which there is no aether and all "strides" (i.e. non-accelerated motions) are physically equivalent, but they are "real" if one admits the existence of an aether in the framework of a "conditional" relativity principle in which all strides are physically non-equivalent or anisotropic. This led him to the following interpretation of the clock paradox: |- | style="padding: 0px 20px 0px 20px;" |[...] so muß am Schluß des Versuches B in seinem Fortschritt gegenüber A im Verhältnis <math>1:\sqrt{1-u^{2}/c^{2}}</math> zurückgeblieben sein. Und dieses Zurückbleiben ist unbedingt reell, denn die beiden Gebilde A und B können ja unter gleichen Umständen unmittelbar beieinander verglichen werden. Hier ist es ganz sicher ausgeschlossen, an einen Schein zu glauben, der durch unsere Auffassung der Zeit bewirkt wird. So ist denn also auch die Folgerung unabwendbar, daß für den Verlauf der Weltvorgänge die Schreitungen nicht gleichwertig sind, ''und damit sind wir von neuem zu einem Schluß gekommen, welcher der Unbedingtheit des Relativitätsprinzipes durchaus widerspricht.'' [...] Man kann den Versuch noch mannigfach variieren, z. B. so, daß A ebenso wie B zwei verschiedene Schreitungen, <math>+u</math> und <math>-u</math>, nacheinander inne hat. Wird dann zu A der Wert <math>u_{1}</math>, zu B der Wert <math>u_{2}</math>, zugeordnet, so muß der Vergleich von A und B am Schluß des Versuches ergeben, daß B oder A in seinem Fortschritt zurückgeblieben erscheint, je nachdem die Schreitungen <math>+u_{1}</math>, <math>-u_{1}</math>, oder <math>+u_{2}</math>, <math>-u_{2}</math> weiter auseinanderliegen. ''Vielleicht ist gerade diese Formulierung des Satzes besonders geeignet, um die Ungleichwertigkeit der verschiedenen Schreitungen klar und deutlich zu zeigen.'' | style="padding: 0px 20px 0px 20px;" | [...] thus B's progress must be retarded with respect to A's in the ratio <math>1:\sqrt{1-u^{2}/c^{2}}</math> at the end of the experiment. And this retardation is definitely real, since both bodies A and B indeed can be immediately compared side by side under the same conditions. Here it is certainly excluded to believe that this is an appearance due to our conception of time. Thus the consequence is unavoidable too, that the strides are not equivalent in the course of the world processes, ''and therefore we again came to a conclusion that completely contradicts the unconditionality of the relativity principle.'' [...] One can vary this experiment in many ways, for instance, so that A in the same way as B successively undergoes two different strides <math>+u</math> and <math>-u</math>. If we apply the value <math>u_{1}</math> to A and <math>u_{2}</math> to B, then the comparison of A and B at the end of the experiment must give the result, that B or A is retarded in its progress depending on whether the strides <math>+u_{2},-u_{2}</math> or <math>+u_{1},-u_{1}</math> are further apart. ''Probably it is precisely this formulation of the theorem that is particularly suitable to demonstrate the non-equivalence of the different strides clearly and explicitly.'' |- |colspan=2|{{Lorentzbox|Text=This interpretation was directly rebutted by Laue (1911/12) who demonstrated the geometrical meaning of differential aging in Minkowski space, see sections {{slink||Laue 1911/12-PT|Laue 1911/12-VA}}, showing that there is no need to assume non-equivalance or anisotropy of motions. Laue added, that as long as there is no experimental contradiction to the relativity principle, the question after the aether can be banned from physics and left to philosophy.<ref name=laue1 />}} |- ! style="width:50%" | German original by [[w:Norman Robert Campbell|Campbell]] (November 1911, published 1912)<ref name=camp /> ! English translation |- |colspan=2|After describing the round-trip experiment (as given by Wiechert) according to which the traveling clock B is retarded when it returns with respect to stationary clock A, he abandoned differential clock aging as follows: |- | style="padding: 0px 20px 0px 20px;" |Dieser Schluß ist nicht richtig. Die Beziehung zwischen <math>t</math>, der Ablesung an der Uhr auf A seitens des Beobachters auf A und <math>t'</math>, der Ablesung an der Uhr auf B seitens des Beobachters auf A, ist (unter der Annahme, daß zu Beginn des Versuchs <math>t=t'</math> ist) :<math>t'=\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-v^{2}/c^{2}}}\left(t-vz/c^{2}\right)</math>. Der Unterschied zwischen <math>t'</math> and <math>t</math> ist eine Funktion von <math>z</math> und <math>v</math> allein. Wenn man diesen Größen ihre früheren Werte wiedergibt, indem man die beiden Uhren wieder zur Koinzidenz bringt, während sie relativ zueinander ruhen, so geht der Unterschied zwischen <math>t'</math> and <math>t</math> wieder auf null zurück, gleichviel, welche Werte <math>z</math> und <math>v</math> während der Zwischenzeit gehabt haben mögen. Wenn an irgendeinem Punkte der Bahn die Geschwindigkeit von B relativ zu A eine endliche plötzliche Änderung erfährt, so erfährt auch der Wert von <math>v</math> eine endliche plötzliche Änderung. | style="padding: 0px 20px 0px 20px;" |This conclusion is not correct. The relationship between <math>t</math> as the reading on the clock on A by the observer on A, and <math>t'</math> as the reading on the clock on B by the observer on A, is given by (assuming that <math>t=t'</math> at the beginning of the experiment) :<math>t'=\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-v^{2}/c^{2}}}\left(t-vz/c^{2}\right)</math>. The difference between <math>t'</math> and <math>t</math> is a function of <math>z</math> and <math>v</math> alone. If these quantities are given their previous values by bringing the two clocks back to coincidence during which they are at rest relative to one another, the difference between <math>t'</math> and <math>t</math> goes back to zero, no matter what values <math>z</math> and <math>v</math> may have had in the meantime. If at any point on the path the speed of B experiences a finite sudden change relative to A, then the value of <math>t'</math> also undergoes a finite sudden change. |- |colspan=2|{{Lorentzbox|Text=a) So Campbell claims that any time difference during the outbound path is wiped out during the inbound path. His mistake is obvious: He is confusing coordinate differences stemming from the Lorentz transformation of ''events'' (which indeed depend on position and direction) with differences in ''clock aging'' derived from the proper time integral (which is ''accumulative'' and independent of position and direction.) b) As Campbell's paper was a reply to Wiechert, it's interesting to compare them: Campbell was correct in dismissing the aether but wrong in denying asymmetric aging, while Wiechert was correct in deriving asymmetric aging but wrong in requiring the aether. }} |- ! style="width:50%" | French original by [[w:Paul Gruner|Gruner]] (March 1912):<ref name=gruner /> ! English translation |- | style="padding: 0px 20px 0px 20px;" |[...] deux personnes du même âge, se séparant dans des systèmes de « marche » très différents et retournant après un laps de temps assez long, constateront une différence d'âge très sensible. [...] le principe de relativité exige toujours la ''réciprocité parfaite'' des phénomènes entre deux systèmes qui possèdent un mouvement relatif. Si, dans l'exemple cité, les deux personnes du même âge se séparent avec une vitesse relative pour se retrouver plus tard, la constatation d'une différence d'âge sera parfaitement mutuelle : A dira positivement que B est resté en arrière dans son développement, et B affirmera avec le même droit que c'est A qui ne s'est pas développé assez vite. Ainsi le principe absolu de la relativité montre ses conséquences les plus extrèmes et il est clair que l'introduction de l’éther n'est plus en état de résoudre cette contradiction irréductible et inconcevable. | style="padding: 0px 20px 0px 20px;" | [...] two people of same age, separating into very different systems of motion and returning after a quite long period of time, will notice a very significant age difference. [...] the principle of relativity always requires the ''perfect reciprocity'' of the phenomenons between two systems that possess relative motion. When, in the cited example, the two persons of same age are separated by some relative velocity only to meet again later, the finding of an age difference will be perfectly mutual: A will positively say that B stayed behind in its development, and B will assert with same right that it was A who has not developed fast enough. By that, the absolute relativity principle shows its most extreme consequences and it is clear, that the introduction of the aether is no longer able to resolve this irreducible and inconceivable contradiction. |- |colspan=2|{{Lorentzbox|Text=Gruner was probably the first to claim that combining the round-trip experiment with the symmetry of time dilation leads to the contradictory situation, that both must attribute younger age to one another at reunion. At the end of his paper, we also find the expression "clock paradox" (French: paradoxe des horloges). See [[w:Twin paradox]] as well as sections {{slink||Acceleration as asymmetry indicator|Frame distribution as asymmetry indicator|Perspective of the traveler}} for the solution of that problem.}} |} ==Einstein's contributions== 1905:<ref name=einstein05 /> Introduction of the "peculiar" (German: eigentümlich) round-trip experiment with clocks in terms of a polygonal path as well as a continuously curved path, and an experiment comparing a clock at the pole with one at the equator. January 1911 (published November):<ref name=einstein11a /> In a lecture from January, Einstein extended the "funny" (German: drollig) round-trip experiment to living organisms. According to [[w:Rudolf Lämmel]] in April 1911<ref name=lammel /> and [[w:Fritz Müller-Partenkirchen|Fritz Müller]] in October 1911,<ref name=muller /> Einstein spoke of human beings as well. January 1911 (published January 1912):<ref name=einstein3 /> During a discussion with Einstein directly after the previous lecture, [[w:Fritz Müller-Partenkirchen|Fritz Müller]] claimed that any time difference during the round-trip should vanish at reunion, in analogy to the fact that the Lorentz contraction of a moving rod vanishes when it is at rest again. Einstein showed that the analogy is incorrect: While the clock rates are indeed the same again when they are mutually at rest, the clocks do not indicate the same time at reunion because "clocks are carriers of the time differential"; he went on to show that any possible influence of acceleration during the turnaround can be made negligible by elongating the constant velocity periods. 1912:<ref name=einst12manu /> In an unpublished manuscript on special relativity, Einstein showed that if system <math>\Sigma'</math> makes a round-trip along a polygon, then its inner processes will be retarded with respect to resting system <math>\Sigma </math> at reunion. He pointed out that any influence of acceleration can be neglected if one makes the time of acceleration negligible with respect to the total time of motion along the polygon. April 1914:<ref name=einstpetz /> [[w:Joseph Petzoldt]] criticized asymmetric clock aging in the round-trip experiment as a "fallback into absolutist way of thinking", claiming that special relativity requires that any difference between the clocks vanishes when their relative velocity is zero again, even though he added that any treatment of the clock paradox in special relativity is unrealistic anyway, since the theory only concerns uniform motions and therefore cannot handle velocity changes, so one has to modify the theory. Einstein responded by letter in which he praised Petzoldt's philosophical take on relativity, yet he rejected Petzoldt's conclusions concerning the clock paradox by showing that any finite acceleration at turnaround during the round-trip can only influence the clock in a finite way and therefore can be neglected by minimizing the time of acceleration with respect to the time of uniform translation, so it "must be concluded" that the clock traveling on a polygonal path is retarded at reunion. May 1914:<ref name=rowe group=S /> During a conversation with [[w:Ernst Gehrcke]] who claimed that the clock paradox contradicts the relativity principle, Einstein replied that clock B is retarded because it was accelerating in contrast to clock A; while those accelerations are irrelevant for the amount of the time difference, their presence nevertheless cause B to fall behind ("accelerated motions are absolute in the theory of relativity"). 1916:<ref name=einstein16 /> In a lecture of which only an abstract was published, Einstein spoke about the "clock paradox of special relativity from the standpoint of general relativity." September 1918:<ref name=einadl /> In a letter to Einstein, [[w:Friedrich Adler (politician)|Friedrich Adler]] (while in prison for the [[w:Assassination of Karl von Stürgkh]]) claimed that the clock paradox which he described on a circular round-trip contradicts the special relativity principle, and also referred to the similar opinions of Berg and Petzoldt. Einstein responded by letter and explained that there is no contradiction as one of them accelerates; he then showed that general relativity makes both inertial frame K and accelerated frame K' equally justified, explaining the time difference in K' by combining the influence of velocity and gravitational potential, concluding that "Berg and Petzoldt were wrong". November 1918:<ref name=einstein18 /> In a fictitious dialogue between a relativity critic and a relativity apologist written by Einstein, the "critic" said that special relativity must predict differential clock aging in round-trip experiments, which was confirmed by the "relativist" who regretfully noted that even some pro-relativity authors tried to "circumvent this unavoidable result". Yet the critic claimed that this leads to a contradiction: From the viewpoint of K, clock U1 is at rest while the clock U2 was in motion and therefore returns being retarded with respect to U1, but from the viewpoint of K', clock U2 is at rest while clock U1 was in motion and therefore returns being retarded with respect to U2, which was rebutted by the relativist by pointing out the acceleration of U2. Then the critic claimed that this problem "rises again from the dead" in general relativity which allows to symmetrically treat both K and K', which was rebutted by the relativist using the equivalence principle: In K', the rate increase of U1 during turnaround period 3) is "the double" of its velocity time dilation in the inertial periods 2) and 4). December 1918:<ref name=einstein18b /> In a letter to Einstein, [[w:Max Jakob]] doubted the result from Einstein's dialogue, according to which the advance of U1 in period 3) is the double of its retardation during periods 2) and 4). Einstein responded by letter, in which he used the gravitational time dilation factor <math>1+\Phi/c^{2}</math> in K' in order to show that U1 at distance <math>l</math> is advancing by <math>\Phi/c^{2}=2vl/c^{2}</math> in period 3), which is indeed the double of approximated delay <math>vl/c^{2}</math> caused by velocity time dilation during periods 2) and 4). 1920:<ref name=einstein20 /> In conversations with [[w:Alexander Moszkowski]] between 1919 and 1920, Einstein argued that differential aging of the twins is rather a paradox of feeling, not a paradox of thought, because the latter would only arise if there were no reason for the asymmetric aging. The reason in special relativity lies in the fact that one of them suffered accelerations, while a deeper understanding of that question is obtained by using general relativity. Einstein argued that our "common sense" is located in the realm of feeling and analogy drawn from our ordinary experience; since there is no analogy to the example of the twins in our experience, it might appear paradoxical to the common sense, while it appears logical and necessary in light of intensified abstraction of the trained scientific mind. August 1920:<ref name=rowe group=S /> At an anti-relativity event organized by the right-wing agitator [[w:Paul Weyland]] during which [[w:antisemitic]] leaflets were distributed and [[w:swastika]]s offered at the entrance, a lecture was given by Gehrcke re-iterating his criticism of the twin paradox, claiming that the stationary first organism is old or even dead at reunion while the second organism was in motion and therefore stayed young, but from the standpoint of the second organism he himself is old or even dead while the first organism was in motion and stayed young, thus relativity is either contradictory or it leads to different realities and physical [[w:solipsism]]. Einstein who was present at that event, directly responded in a newspaper article;<ref name=einst20 /> after suspecting antisemitic motives of his critics, he specifically addressed Gehrcke's objections regarding the "well known example of the clocks (or twins)", remarking that the charge of solipsism will be "greeted by the experts as a joke", and characterized the claim that relativity requires mutual retardation of two co-located clocks as a "deliberate attempt to misinform the lay public". 1922:<ref name=morand /><ref name=nord /> [[w:Paul Painlevé]], Einstein and Langevin discussed the clock paradox at a meeting in Paris. Painlevé imagined a clock on a train that performs a round-trip with constant speed and returns being retarded with respect to the station clock, yet he claimed that the relativity principle also allows to say that the station clock performed the round-trip and returned being retarded with respect to the train clock, in contradiction to the previous result. Einstein replied that the relativity principle cannot be applied since the train is not in a Galilean system (i.e. inertial frame) any longer during the period of velocity change at turnaround, i.e. the ensemble of two systems having velocities in opposite direction is not an inertial frame; there is no reciprocity between a frame that changes direction and one that doesn't. Langevin consequently gave a detailed analysis in terms of the Lorentz transformation. 1954:<ref name=einstein54 /> In a letter, Einstein explained the "well known clock paradoxon" using two clocks <math>B_{1}</math> and <math>B_{2}</math>; clock <math>B_{2}</math> has to reverse its speed in order to come back, thus it was initially at rest in inertial frame <math>S_{2}</math> and then at rest in <math>S_{2}^{+}</math>, whereas <math>B_{1}</math> constantly remains at rest in <math>S_{1}</math>, which explains the asymmetry between them. ==Historical references== <references> <ref name=einstein05>See p. 904f in: {{Citation |author=Einstein, A. |date=1905 |title=Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Körper|journal=Annalen der Physik |volume=322 |issue=10 |pages=891–921 |doi=10.1002/andp.19053221004|quote=Reprinted in ''The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein'', Vol. 2, Document 23}}. See also: [https://www.fourmilab.ch/etexts/einstein/specrel/www/ English translation at fourmilab].</ref> <ref name=einstein11a>See p. 10. in: {{Citation |author=Einstein, A. |title=Die Relativitäts-Theorie|journal=Naturforschende Gesellschaft, Zürich, Vierteljahresschrift |volume=56 |issue=1-2|pages=1–14 |date=27 November 1911|orig-date=Lecture 16 January 1911|url=https://archive.org/details/naturforschendegesellschaftinzurich_vierteljahrsschriftdernaturforschendengesellschaftinzur_v56_1911/page/n11/mode/2up|quote=Reprinted in ''The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein'', Vol. 3, Document 17}}.<br /> The publication date 27 November 1911 can be seen on the [https://archive.org/details/naturforschendegesellschaftinzurich_vierteljahrsschriftdernaturforschendengesellschaftinzur_v56_1911/page/n5/mode/2up Title page and TOC of issue 1-2].</ref> <ref name=einstein3>Discussion between Einstien, Müller, Lämmel and others after the Zürich lecture: {{Citation |author=Einstein, A.; Müller, F., Lämmel, R.|title=Diskussion zu "Die Relativitäts-Theorie"|journal=Naturforschende Gesellschaft, Zürich, Vierteljahresschrift |volume=56 |pages=II-IX |date=January 1912|orig-date=Lecture on 16 January 1911|url=https://archive.org/details/naturforschendegesellschaftinzurich_vierteljahrsschriftdernaturforschendengesellschaftinzur_v56_1911/page/n587/mode/2up|quote=Reprinted in ''The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein'', Vol. 3, Document 18, and in the corresponding English translation volume}}<br /> While the discussion already happened on January 1911, the publication followed one year later in January 1912 in the session proceedings (Sitzungsberichte) of the third issue, see [https://www.ngzh.ch/publikationen/vjs/56/3 Full issue Nr. 3] with [http://www.ngzh.ch/archiv/1911_56/56_1-2/56_3.pdf Title page and TOC] and the [http://www.ngzh.ch/archiv/1911_56/56_3/56_30.pdf Sitzungsberichte including Einstein's discussion on pp. II-IX]. </ref> <ref name=einst12manu>See p. 46 in: {{Citation |author=Einstein, A. |date=1912 |chapter=Document 1: Einstein's manuscript on the special theory of relativity|title=The collected papers of Albert Einstein|volume=4|pages=3-108|trans-chapter=See also the English translation in the corresponding translation volume}}</ref> <ref name=einstlor>{{Citation|author=Einstein, A.|date=1914|title=Review of "Lorentz, H. A. – Das Relativitätsprinzip" |journal=Die Naturwissenschaften|volume=2|pages=1018|url=https://archive.org/details/CAT31421305002/page/1018/mode/2up|quote=Reprinted in ''The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein'', Vol. 6, Document 11}}</ref> <ref name=einstpetz>{{Citation |author=Einstein, A. |date=1914 |chapter=Document 5: Letter from Einstein to Petzoldt|title=The collected papers of Albert Einstein|volume=8a|pages=16-17|trans-chapter=See also the English translation in the corresponding translation volume}}</ref> <ref name=einstein16>See p. 423f in: {{Citation |author=Einstein, A. |date=1916 |title=Announcement of Einstein's lecture "Über einige anschauliche Überlegungen aus dem Gebiete der Relativitätstheorie"|journal=Berliner Sitzungsberichte|pages=423|volume=1916 (part 1)|url=https://archive.org/details/sitzungsberichte1916deutsch/page/423/mode/2up}}</ref> <ref name=einadl>Letter exchange between Einstein and Adler in which the critique on the clock paradox by Berg (1910) and Petzoldt (1914) was mentioned, together with the general relativity solution in terms of the gravitational potential, in: {{Citation |author=Einstein, A. |date=1918 |chapter=Adler's letter in Document 620 and Einstein's reply in Document 628|title=The collected papers of Albert Einstein|volume=8a|pages=16-17|trans-chapter=See also the English translation in the corresponding translation volume}}</ref> <ref name=einstein18>Einstein discussed in terms of inertial frames (special relativity) on pp. 697f; accelerated frames (general relativity) on pp. 698f.; distant masses (Mach's principle) on pp. 700f. in: {{citation |author=Einstein, A.|title=[[s:de:Dialog über Einwände gegen die Relativitätstheorie|Dialog über Einwände gegen die Relativitätstheorie]]|date=November 1918|volume=6|issue=48|journal=Die Naturwissenschaften|pages=697-702|quote=Reprinted in ''The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein'', Vol. 7, Document 13}}; See also English translation [[:s:Translation:Dialog about Objections against the Theory of Relativity|Dialog about Objections against the Theory of Relativity]] on Wikisource.</ref> <ref name=einstein18b>Letter exchange between Max Jakob and Einstein from December 1918, in: {{Citation |author=Einstein, A. |date=1918 |chapter=Jakob's letter in Document 661c and Einstein's reply in Document 663a|title=The collected papers of Albert Einstein|volume=10|pages=189-190}}</ref> <ref name=einstein20>Interview of Einstein by Moszkowski, see p. 204f. in: {{citation |author=Moszkowski, A.|title=Einstein. Einblicke in seine Gedankenwelt|orig-date=Copyright date 1920 |date=1921|place=Hamburg|url=https://www.archive.org/details/einsteineinblick00moszuoft}}; See also English translation by H. L. Brose (1921): [https://archive.org/details/einsteinsearch00moszrich Einstein, the searcher], p. 206</ref> <ref name=einst20>{{Citation|author=Einstein, A.|date=27 August 1920|journal=Berliner Tageblatt|title=Meine Antwort - Ueber die anti-relativitätstheoretische G. m. b. H.|issue=402|pages=1-2|url=https://www.deutsche-digitale-bibliothek.de/newspaper/item/YH65KFT53MOG4SMXDXK4IVUPTR3QRY7Q?issuepage=1|quote=Reprinted in "The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein", Vol. 7, Document 45}}</ref> <ref name=einstein54>Letter from Einstein to N. V. Pope from March 1954; [[w:Albert Einstein Archives]], Object number 27-88 ([https://ein-web.adlibhosting.com/aea/Details/archive/110021626 Online dataset]); Scanned version as [https://groups.google.com/group/npachat/attach/d3121322d37764f2/Einstein%20letter.doc?part=0.1 Word document on Usenet] published by [https://groups.google.com/g/npachat/c/Haoib97d6OA/m/8mR30yITEtMJ Pope himself])</ref> <ref name=morand>Discussion between Painlevé, Einstein, and Langevin on p. 316ff in: {{citation |author=Morand, M.|title=Einstein au collège de france|date=April 1922|journal=La Nature|volume=50|issue=2511|pages=315-320|url=http://cnum.cnam.fr/CGI/fpage.cgi?4KY28.102/319/100/620/5/613}}</ref> <ref name=lammel>{{Citation|author=Lämmel, R.|date=28 April 1911|title=Die Relativitäts-Lehre|journal=Neue Zürcher Zeitung|volume=117|pages=1|url=https://www.e-newspaperarchives.ch/?a=d&d=NZZ19110428-01.2.4.1}}; English translation of the part concering the twin pardox at [[:v:History of Topics in Special Relativity/Twin paradox#Lämmel 1911-Hum|Wikiversity:Early history of the twin paradox - Lämmel]]</ref> <ref name=lammel2>See p. 84ff in: {{Citation|author=Lämmel, R.|date=1921|orig-date=Preface December 1920|title=Die Grundlagen der Relativitätstheorie|place=Berlin|publisher=Springer|url=https://archive.org/details/diegrundlagende00lmgoog}}</ref> <ref name=langevin1>He derived differential aging from the proper time integral; pointed out that this demonstrates the "absolute nature of acceleration" with respect to an aether, see: {{citation |author=Langevin, P.|title=[[:s:fr:L’Évolution de l’espace et du temps|L’Évolution de l’espace et du temps]]|journal=Scientia |volume=X |pages=31–54 |date=July 1911|orig-date=Lecture 10 April 1911}}; English translation [[:s:en:Translation:The Evolution of Space and Time|The Evolution of Space and Time]] on Wikisource</ref> <ref name=langevin2>See p. 329 in: {{citation |author=Langevin, P. |title=Le temps, l'espace et la causalité dans la physique moderne |journal=Bulletin de la Société française de philosophie |volume=12 |orig-date=Lecture October 1911|date=1912|pages=1-28|url=http://ahp.li/1f7fc22d283fdf0deeca.pdf}}</ref> <ref name=wiechert11>See p. 745f. general description and proper time; 757f. space travel; in: {{Citation |author=Wiechert, E. |date=September 1911|orig-date=Lectures March-May 1911, submitted 26 July|title=[[:s:de:Relativitätsprinzip und Äther|Relativitätsprinzip und Äther]]|journal=Physikalische Zeitschrift |volume=12 |issue=17-18 |pages=[https://resolver.sub.uni-hamburg.de/kitodo/PPN891110208_0012/page/741 689-707] published September 1; [https://resolver.sub.uni-hamburg.de/kitodo/PPN891110208_0012/page/789 737–758] published September 15}}</ref> <ref name=wiechert15>See p. 46 (Einstein, Langevin, Wiechert) and pp. 51f (Laue versus Wiechert) in: {{citation |author=Wiechert, E.|contribution=Die Mechanik im Rahmen der allgemeinen Physik| title=Die Kultur der Gegenwart: Physik|volume=3.3.1|date=1915 |orig-date=Submitted July 1914|pages=1–78|contribution-url=https://www.archive.org/details/physikunterredak00warbuoft}}</ref> <ref name=wiechert20>See p. 46f in: {{citation |author=Wiechert, E.|title=Der Äther im Weltbild der Physik|orig-date=Presented December 1920|date=1921|journal=Nachrichten von der Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Göttingen, Mathematisch-Physikalische Klasse|pages=29-70|url=http://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/dms/resolveppn/?PPN=GDZPPN00250586X}}</ref> <ref name=wiechert21>See p. 25ff in: {{citation |author=Wiechert, E.|title=[[:s:de:Prinzipielles über Äther und Relativität|Prinzipielles über Äther und Relativität]]|date=1922|orig-date=Lecture September 1921|journal=Physikalische Zeitschrift|volume=23|pages=25-28}}</ref> <ref name=muller>See p. 9 in: {{Citation|author=Müller, F.|date=October 1911|journal=Berliner Tageblatt|title=[[:s:de:Das Zeitproblem (1911)|Das Zeitproblem]]|pages=[https://www.deutsche-digitale-bibliothek.de/newspaper/item/2QKOIOLGNVQILTCEZQOGQPLTRVLPM5PZ?query=zeit&issuepage=9 Part 1 published 16 October 1911] and [https://www.deutsche-digitale-bibliothek.de/newspaper/item/IO44I6QBC4SVV5YUKUDSGXYIPQUXXBN5?query=zeit&issuepage=11 Part 2 published 23 October 1911]}}</ref> <ref name=gruner>See p. 253f in: {{Citation |author=Gruner, P. |title=[[:s:fr:Rapport sur la dernière discussion concernant le principe de la relativité et l’éther|Rapport sur la dernière discussion concernant le principe de la relativité et l’éther]] |journal=Archives des sciences physiques et naturelles |volume=33|issue=4 |pages=252-254 |date=March 1912}}</ref> <ref name=laue3>See p. 113f in: {{citation |author=Laue, M. v. |title=Das Relativitätsprinzip |journal=Jahrbücher der Philosophie |volume=1 |date=1913 |pages=99–128}}; {{icon|wikisource}} See also English translation of [[:s:Translation:The Principle of Relativity (Laue, Philosophy)|The Principle of Relativity]] on Wikisource</ref> <ref name=weyl>See p. 147f. in: {{Citation |author=Weyl, H. |date=March 1918|title=Raum-Zeit-Materie (first edition)|publisher=Berlin: Springer|url=https://archive.org/details/RaumZeitMaterieVolIMeinerFrauGewidmet}}; English translation of the 4th edition by H. Brose (1921): [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/43006 Space—Time—Matter], pp. 278f.</ref> <ref name=gbaum>See footnote on p. 507 in: {{Citation|author=Grünbaum, F. |title=Über einige ideelle Versuche zum Relativitätsprinzip|journal=Physikalische Zeitschrift|volume=12|pages=500–509|date=1911|url=https://resolver.sub.uni-hamburg.de/kitodo/PPN891110208_0012/page/540}}</ref> <ref name=laue1>Laue introduces the word "paradox", alludes to Berg and discusses Wiechert, in: {{citation |author=Laue, M. v. |title=Zwei Einwände gegen die Relativitätstheorie und ihre Widerlegung |journal=Physikalische Zeitschrift |volume=13 |issue=3|date=February 1912|orig-date=Submitted December 1911|pages=118–120|url=https://resolver.sub.uni-hamburg.de/kitodo/PPN891110208_0013/page/148}}; {{icon|wikisource}} See also English translation [[:s:Translation:Two Objections Against the Theory of Relativity and their Refutation|Two Objections Against the Theory of Relativity and their Refutation]] on Wikisource</ref> <ref name=laue2>See p. 42f. for general description; p. 58f. in terms of proper time; in: {{Citation |author=Laue, M. v. |orig-date=Preface December 1912|date=1913 |title=Das Relativitätsprinzip (Second Edition) |publisher=Vieweg |place=Braunschweig|url=https://preserver.beic.it/delivery/DeliveryManagerServlet?dps_pid=IE4597082}}; See also English translation [[:s:Translation:The Principle of Relativity (Laue 1913)|The Principle of Relativity, Second edition, Part III]] on Wikisource</ref> <ref name=laue3>See p. 113f in: {{citation |author=Laue, M. v. |title=Das Relativitätsprinzip |journal=Jahrbücher der Philosophie |volume=1 |date=1913 |pages=99–128}}; {{icon|wikisource}} See also English translation of [[:s:Translation:The Principle of Relativity (Laue, Philosophy)|The Principle of Relativity]] on Wikisource</ref> <ref name=berg>See p. 369f in: {{Citation |author=Berg, O. |date=1910 |title=Das Relativitätsprinzip der Elektrodynamik |journal=Abhandlungen der Fries'schen Schule |volume=3 |issue=2|pages=333-382 |url=http://hdl.handle.net/2027/hvd.hnuynk?urlappend=%3Bseq=351}}</ref> <ref name=camp>See p. 123f in: {{Citation |author=Campbell, N. |title=Relativitätsprinzip und Äther: Eine Entgegnung an Herrn Wiechert |journal=Physikalische Zeitschrift |volume=13 |pages=120-128 |issue=3|orig-date=Submitted December 1911|date=February 1912|url=https://resolver.sub.uni-hamburg.de/kitodo/PPN891110208_0013/page/150}}. The is based on an English manuscript translated by Max Iklé, and Campbell's first name was Germanised as "Normann".</ref> <ref name=seel>{{Citation|author=Seeliger, R.|title=Review of "P. Gruner – Rapport sur la dernière discussion concernant le principe de la relativité et l'éther"|journal=Die Fortschritte der Physik|volume=68|issue=2|pages=336|date=1913|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fSJGAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA336}}</ref> <ref name=study>See footnote on p. 111 in: {{citation |author=Study, E. |title=Vorlesungen über ausgewählte Gegenstände der Geometrie |date=June 1911|url=https://archive.org/details/vorlesungenber00studuoft|publisher=B.G. Teubner|place=Leipzig}} </ref> <ref name=robb1>See pp. 356ff. in: {{Citation|author=Robb, A.|date=1914|title=A theory of time and space|place=Cambridge|publisher=University Press|url=https://archive.org/details/theoryoftimespac00robbrich}} </ref> <ref name=robb2>See §12 in: {{citation |author=Robb, A. A.|title=The Straight Path|date=1920 |journal=Nature|pages=599|volume=104|issue=2623|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_1920-02-05_104_2623/page/598/mode/2up}}</ref> <ref name=edding2>See p. 22 in: {{Citation |author=Eddington, A. S. |date=1922 |title=The theory of relativity, and its influence on scientific thought |publisher=Oxford Clarendon Press |url=https://archive.org/details/cu31924005748573}}</ref> <ref name=rogers>{{citation |author=Rogers, R. A. P.|title=The Time-Triangle and Time-Triad in Special Relativity|date=November 1922|journal=Nature|volume=110|issue=2769|pages=698–699|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_1922-11-25_110_2769/page/698/mode/2up}}</ref> <ref name=lorentz1>See pp. 37f, 55ff in: {{citation |author=Lorentz, H. A.|date=1913|title=Het relativiteitsbeginsel : drie voordrachten gehouden in Teyler's stichting|publisher=De Erven Loosjes |place=Haarlem|url=https://resolver.kb.nl/resolve?urn=MMKB24:063387000:00005}}; German translation on pp. 31f, 47f in: {{citation |author=Lorentz, H. A.|date=1914| title=Das Relativitätsprinzip. Drei Vorlesungen gehalten in Teylers Stiftung zu Haarlem|publisher=B.G. Teubner |place=Leipzig and Berlin|url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_89PPAAAAMAAJ}}; See also the transcription [[:s:de:Das Relativitätsprinzip (Lorentz)|Das Relativitätsprinzip]] on German Wikisource and the English translation [[:s:Translation:The Principle of Relativity (Lorentz)|The Principle of Relativity]] on English Wikisource</ref> <ref name=lorentz3>See §12 in: {{citation |author=Lorentz, H. A.|title=Considérations élémentaires sur le principe de relativité|date=1914 |journal=Revue générale des sciences pures et appliquées|pages=179-186|url=https://archive.org/details/revuegnraled25pari/page/178/mode/2up}}</ref> <ref name=bloch>See pp. 67 ff. in: {{Citation | author=Bloch, W.| date=September 1918|title=Einführung in die Relativitätstheorie| publisher=B. G. Teubner |url=https://hdl.handle.net/2027/njp.32101040276907}}</ref> <ref name=bloch2>See pp. 69ff. (special relativity) and 102ff. (general relativity) in: {{Citation | author=Bloch, W.| date=1920 |title=Einführung in die Relativitätstheorie (second edition)| publisher=B. G. Teubner |url=https://www.archive.org/details/einfhrungindier00blocgoog}}</ref> <ref name=bollert1>See p. 6 (special relativity), pp. 24-26 (EP) in: {{citation |author=Bollert, K.|title=Einstein’s Relativitätstheorie und ihre Stellung im System der Gesamterfahrung |date=April 1921|publisher=Steinkopff|url=https://archive.org/details/dbc.wroc.pl.001504}}</ref> <ref name=born>See pp. 190f. (special relativity), 250f (EP) in: {{Citation | author=Born, M.| date=1921 |title=Die Relativitätstheorie Einsteins und ihre physikalischen Grundlagen (Second edition)| publisher=Springer | place=Berlin|url=https://hdl.handle.net/2027/mdp.39015017387310}}; The [https://preserver.beic.it/delivery/DeliveryManagerServlet?dps_pid=IE5426498 first edition (1920)] of Born's book didn't include the twin paradox. English translation of the third edition by H. Brose (1924): [https://archive.org/details/einsteinstheoryo00born Einstein's theory of relativity]</ref> <ref name=pauli>See p. 558f (general description); p. 624f (proper time); p. 713f (accelerated frames); in: {{Citation |author=Pauli, W. |date=1921 |journal=Encyclopädie der Mathematischen Wissenschaften|title=Die Relativitätstheorie|pages=539–776|volume=5|issue=2 |url=http://resolver.sub.uni-goettingen.de/purl?PPN360709672}}; English translation by G. Field (1958): [https://books.google.com/books?id=rc3DAgAAQBAJ Theory of Relativity]</ref> <ref name=thirring>See p. 209ff in: {{citation |author=Thirring, H.|title=Über das Uhrenparadoxon in der Relativitätstheorie|date=April 1921|journal=Naturwissenschaften|volume=9|issue=18|pages=209-212|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_naturwissenschaften_1921-04-01_9_13/mode/2up}}</ref> <ref name=sommerfeld>See p. 71 in: {{citation |author=Sommerfeld, A. |date=May 1913|chapter=Remarks on Minkowski's "Space and Time"|title=Das Relativitätsprinzip|editor=Otto Blumenthal|pages=69-73|url=https://www.archive.org/details/dasrelativittsp00minkgoog}}</ref> <ref name=kopff>See pp. 45ff (special relativity and proper time); pp. 117ff (EP); pp. 189ff (Mach's principle), in: {{citation |author=Kopff, A.|title=Grundzüge der Einsteinschen Relativitätstheorie |date=February 1921|publisher=S. Hirzel|place=Leipzig|url=https://www.archive.org/details/grundzgedereins00kopfgoog}}; English translation by H. Levy (1923): [https://hdl.handle.net/2027/mdp.39015017188817 The mathematical theory of relativity].</ref> <ref name=becqu1>See p. 48ff (proper time), p. 240f (general relativity) in: {{citation |author=Becquerel, J.|title=[[:s:fr:Le Principe de relativité et la théorie de la gravitation|Le Principe de relativité et la théorie de la gravitation]] |date=1922 |publisher=Gauthier-Villars|place=Paris}}; See also p. 57ff (proper time), p. 177f (general relativity) in: {{citation |author=Becquerel, J.|title=[[:s:fr:Exposé élémentaire de la théorie d’Einstein et de sa généralisation|Exposé élémentaire de la théorie d’Einstein et de sa généralisation]]|date=1922 |publisher=Payot|place=Paris}}</ref> <ref name=nord>Discussion between Painlevé, Einstein, and Langevin on pp. 146ff in: {{citation |author=Nordmann, C.|title=[[s:fr:Einstein expose et discute sa théorie|Einstein expose et discute sa théorie]]|date=May 1922|journal=Revue des deux mondes|volume=IX|pages=129-166}}</ref> <ref name=lehm>{{Citation |author=Lehmann, Otto |orig-date=September 1910 |date=1911|title=Das Relativitätsprinzip der neue Fundamentalsatz der Physik |title-link=s:de:Das Relativitätsprinzip der neue Fundamentalsatz der Physik|journal=Verhandlungen des naturwissenschaften Vereins in Karlsruhe |volume=23 |pages=49-74}}</ref> </references> ==Secondary sources== <references group=S> <ref name=miller>{{Citation |author=Miller, A. I. |date=1981 |title=Albert Einstein's special theory of relativity. Emergence (1905) and early interpretation (1905–1911) |place=Reading |publisher=Addison–Wesley |isbn=978-0-201-04679-3}}; See section 7.4.13 (Langevin, Wiechert, Laue, Einstein), footnotes 29-34 of chapter 7 (Petzoldt, Sommerfeld, Bergson, Einstein)</ref> <ref name=lange>{{Citation|author=Lange, L.|date=1927|title=The clock paradox of the theory of relativity|journal=The American Mathematical Monthly|volume=34|issue=1|pages=22-30|jstor=2299914}}</ref> <ref name=pes>{{Citation |author=Pesic, P. |date=2003 |title=Einstein and the twin paradox |journal=European Journal of Physics |volume=24 |issue=6 |pages=585–590 |doi=10.1088/0143-0807/24/6/004}}</ref> <ref name=during>{{Citation |author=During, É. |date=2014 |title=Langevin ou le paradoxe introuvable |journal=Revue de métaphysique et de morale |volume=84 |pages=513-527 |doi=10.3917/rmm.144.0513|doi-access=free}}; See pp. 515f (Langevin), 520f. (Einstein, Laue, Weyl, Painlevé).</ref> <ref name=debs>{{Citation |author=Debs, T. A., & Redhead, M. L. |title=The twin paradox and the conventionality of simultaneity |date=1996 |journal=American Journal of Physics |volume=64|issue=1| pages=384-392 |doi=10.1119/1.18252}}</ref> <ref name=alizzi>{{Citation |author=Alizzi, A., Sen, A., & Silagadze, Z. K.|title=Do moving clocks slow down? |year=2022 |journal=European Journal of Physics |volume=43|issue=6|pages=065601 |doi=10.1088/1361-6404/ac93ca|arxiv=2209.12654}}; Appendix B with reference to Lange and Halsbury</ref> <ref name=beng>{{Citation |author=Benguigui, L. G. |date=2020 |title=A Tale Of Two Twins: The Langevin Experiment Of A Traveler To A Star |publisher=World Scientific|isbn=9789811219115}}; See early solutions (Einstein, Langevin, Lorentz, Born/Kopff) and the Bergson controversy. A shorter version appeared in {{arxiv|1212.4414}}.</ref> <ref name=rowe>{{Citation|author=Rowe, D. E.|date=2006|title=Einstein's allies and enemies: Debating relativity in Germany 1916–1920|journal=Interactions: Mathematics, Physics and Philosophy|pages=231-280|publisher=Springer|doi=10.1007/978-1-4020-5195-1_8}}; Covering the criticism of Gehrcke starting with 1912; discussion between Einstein and Gehrcke in 1914; Einstein's dialogue (1918) as response to antirelativists; the Weyland event in 1920 and Einstein's response.</ref> <ref name=weiss>Weiss, W. (Physics FAQ): [https://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/physics/Relativity/SR/TwinParadox/twin_gr.html The Twin Paradox: The Equivalence Principle Analysis]</ref> <ref name=cuvaj>{{Citation |author=Cuvaj, C. |date=1971 |title=Paul Langevin and the theory of relativity|journal=Japanese studies in the history of science|volume=10| pages=113-142|url=http://www.isc.meiji.ac.jp/~sano/hssj/pdf/Cuvaj_C-1972-Langevin_Relativity-JSHS-No_10-pp113-142.pdf}}</ref> <ref name=koks>Koks, D. (2018): [https://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/physics/Relativity/SR/sr-gr.html Physics FAQ: Where is the Boundary between Special and General Relativity?]</ref> </references> [[Category:History of special relativity]] [[Category:Paradoxes]] 2v7rd1spdlk1ieer5uurl9lbxopo96m 1 323752 2834351 2830656 2026-09-24T00:54:02Z U3260591 3104152 /* Feedback on theory application */ new section 2834351 wikitext text/x-wiki <!-- Official topic development feedback --> {{METF/2025 |1= <!-- Title --> # Title and sub-title correctly worded and use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] |2= <!-- Headings --> <!-- Heading structure --> # Excellent – Well developed 2-level heading structure. Meaningful headings clearly relate directly to the core topic. <!-- Alignment with focus questions --> # Excellent alignment between sub-title, focus questions, and heading structure <!-- GenAI ---> # Are the headings based on [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI content]]? If so, this needs to be acknowledged in the edit summaries, otherwise it violates academic integrity. |3= <!-- Overview--> # Excellent – Scenario, image, evocative description of the problem/topic, and focus questions <!-- Scenario --> # A scenario or case study is presented in a feature box with an image at the start of this section <!-- Description --> # A clear description of the problem/topic is planned or presented # Keep this section short, so consider simplifying/abbreviating <!-- Focus questions --> # Focus questions are aligned with sub-title and top-level headings |4= <!-- Key points--> <!-- Overall --> # Excellent – key points are well developed for each section <!-- Scope --> # It may be that all planned aspects cannot be reasonably covered within the final word count, so be selective and concentrate on key aspects that address the question in the sub-title <!-- Writing style --> # The writing style is clear and easy to follow <!-- Theory and research --> # Good balance of theory and research <!-- Citations --> # Very good use of citations # Citations with two authors should use ampersand (&) inside parentheses <!-- Other --> <!-- Conclusion --> # Conclusion is well developed # Concentrate on the take-aways answers to the focus questions |5= <!-- Figure --> # Relevant figure(s) are presented and captioned <!-- Caption --> # Figure caption(s) provide(s) a reasonably clear description that is connected with the main text <!-- Cite --> # Cite each figure at least once in the main text using APA style (e.g., see Figure 1) |6= <!-- Learning feature --> <!-- Interwiki links ---> # Excellent in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] for first mention of key terms to [[w:|Wikipedia]] and/or [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]] <!-- Scenarios/examples/case studies --> # Consider use of more scenarios/examples/case studies <!-- Quiz --> # Promising use of quiz question(s) # Place quiz each question in the most relevant section # Focus the quiz question(s) on the take-home messages <!-- Tables --> # Promising use of table(s) |7= <!-- References --> <!-- Overall --> # Excellent <!-- Systematic reviews --> # Well done on identifying relevant systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses <!-- APA style --> # Check and correct [https://apastyle.apa.org/instructional-aids/reference-guide.pdf APA referencing style]: ## page numbers should be separated by an en-dash (–) rather than a hyphen (-) |8= <!-- Resources --> <!-- See also --> # See also ## Excellent ## Be more selective <!-- External links --> # External links ## Excellent |9= <!-- User page --> # Excellent - used effectively <!-- Description about self --> # Excellent description about self provided <!-- Links to profile(s) --> # Link(s) provided to professional profile(s) <!-- Link to book chapter --> # A link to the book chapter is provided |10= <!-- Social contribution --> # Excellent – at least three different types of contributions with direct link(s) to evidence }} -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 08:56, 24 August 2025 (UTC) == Feedback on theory application == Hi! I really like how you've explained autonomy, competence and relatedness and linked them to social media. One thing that could be interesting is showing a bit more of how each need can be both supported and frustrated by social media. For example, social media could support relatedness by helping someone feel connected to others, but things like exclusion or negative social comparison could have the opposite effect. I think comparing both sides could make the link between BPNT and social media use even clearer. I also thought your opening scenario could be good to come back to later in the chapter. You could link responding to the friend with relatedness, and then the shift into mindless scrolling with a loss of autonomy. I think that would help connect the scenario back to the theory really well. Great work so far! It's looking really good [[User:U3260591|U3260591]] ([[User talk:U3260591|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3260591|contribs]]) 00:54, 24 September 2026 (UTC) l1v344xxh7ozzfjt2oqcvapn2o28nvd 828 331015 2834350 2834271 2026-09-24T00:48:50Z Helpme2222 3106525 2834350 Scribunto text/plain -- My function for teaching grammar local p = {}; local frame = mw.getCurrentFrame() local grammatical_moods = { "Jelen ido", "Mult ido", "Felszolito mod", "Felteteles mod" } local balls = { grammatical_moods } function p.infoboxWBB() -- Passing expressions of conditional value: https://www.lua.org/pil/3.3.html --[[ https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/LUAREF#mw.html:node Thankfully, these operations except passed nils as no-ops (I'm technically using false though. Somehow that works anyways?)]] local frame = mw.getCurrentFrame() local ballname = frame.args["Title"] or mw.title.getCurrentTitle() local Entities = require("Module:Entities") local featureCount = tonumber(frame.args["Feature count"]) or 1 local s_featureCount = tonumber(frame.args["SUPER Feature count"]) or featureCount local matchCount = { total = mw.site.stats.pagesInCategory( ballname.."'s Match History", "pages" ), standard = mw.site.stats.pagesInCategory( ballname.."'s Match History/Weapon Ball Battles/Standard", "pages" ), } local matchWinCount = { standard = mw.site.stats.pagesInCategory( ballname.."'s Match History/Weapon Ball Battles/Standard/Won", "pages" ), } local s_matchCount = { total = mw.site.stats.pagesInCategory( "Super " .. ballname.."'s Match History", "pages" ), standard = mw.site.stats.pagesInCategory( "Super " .. ballname.."'s Match History/Weapon Ball Battles/Standard", "pages" ), } local s_matchWinCount = { standard = mw.site.stats.pagesInCategory( "Super " .. ballname.."'s Match History/Weapon Ball Battles/Standard/Won", "pages" ), } local isSuper = -- do blank args count the same as nonexistent ones? check frame.args["SUPER Feature count"] or frame.args["SUPER Type"] or frame.args["SUPER Debuted"] or (s_matchCount.total > 0) -- TITLE local table = mw.html.create( 'table' ) :node( mw.html.create( 'tr' ) :node( mw.html.create( 'th' ) :attr({ colspan = "2", id = "mw-customcollapsible-Infobox" }) :addClass((isSuper) and "mw-collapsible") :node("<big>" .. frame.args["Title"] or pagename .. "</big>") ) ) :node((isSuper) and mw.html.create( 'tr' ) :node( mw.html.create( 'th' ) :attr({ colspan = "2", id = "mw-customcollapsible-Infobox" }) :addClass("mw-collapsible mw-collapsed") :node("<big>" .. frame.args["SUPER Title"] or ("Super" .. (frame.args["Title"] or pagename)) .. "</big>") ) ) -- SECTION: Identification -- Section Heading :node( mw.html.create( 'tr' ) :attr({ id = "mw-customcollapsible-Infobox" }) :addClass((frame.args["SUPER Type"]) and "mw-collapsible") :node( mw.html.create( 'th' ) :attr({ colspan = "2", }) :node((frame.args["SUPER Type"]) and "Base Identification" or "Basic Info") :node((frame.args["SUPER Type"]) and mw.html.create( 'span' ) :css({ float = "right", ["margin-right"] = "0", ["font-weight"] = "normal" }) :addClass("mw-customtoggle-Infobox") :node("[Click to toggle]") ) ) ) -- Type :node( mw.html.create( 'tr' ) :attr({ id = "mw-customcollapsible-Infobox" }) :addClass((frame.args["SUPER Type"]) and "mw-collapsible") -- not declared in this scope; fix that :node( mw.html.create( 'td' ) :css({ ["font-weight"] = "bold" }) :node("Type") ) :node( mw.html.create( 'td' ) :node(frame.args["Type"]) ) ) :node( (frame.args["SUPER Type"]) and (mw.html.create( 'tr' ) :attr({ id = "mw-customcollapsible-Infobox" }) :addClass("mw-collapsible mw-collapsed") -- not declared in this scope; fix that :node( mw.html.create( 'td' ) :css({ ["font-weight"] = "bold" }) :node("Type") ) :node( mw.html.create( 'td' ) :node(frame.args["SUPER Type"]) )) ) -- Color local color = frame.args["Color"] or Entities.getBallAttribute( "Entities/Weapon Ball Battles/Balls/Data", frame.args["Title"] or pagename, "color" ) if (color ~= "") then table:node( mw.html.create( 'tr' ) :node( mw.html.create( 'td' ) :css({ ["font-weight"] = "bold" }) :node("Color") ) :node( mw.html.create( 'td' ) :node(frame:expandTemplate{ title = "Color", args = {color} }) ) ) else table:node( mw.html.create( 'tr' ) :node( mw.html.create( 'td' ) :css({ ["font-weight"] = "bold" }) :node("Color") ) :node( mw.html.create( 'td' ) :node("[[Module:Entities/Weapon Ball Battles/Balls/Data|<i>Add color...</i>]]") ) ) end -- Emoji local emoji = frame.args["Emoji"] or Entities.getBallAttribute( "Entities/Weapon Ball Battles/Balls/Data", frame.args["Title"] or pagename, "emoji" ) if (emoji ~= "") then table:node( mw.html.create( 'tr' ) :node( mw.html.create( 'td' ) :css({ ["font-weight"] = "bold" }) :node("Emoji") ) :node( mw.html.create( 'td' ) :node(emoji .. " " .. p.emojiCodepoint(emoji)) ) ) else table:node( mw.html.create( 'tr' ) :node( mw.html.create( 'td' ) :css({ ["font-weight"] = "bold" }) :node("Emoji") ) :node( mw.html.create( 'td' ) :node("[[Module:Entities/Weapon Ball Battles/Balls/Data|<i>Add emoji...</i>]]") ) ) end local features = {} local starts = {} local scalings = {} if (featureCount > 1) then for i = 1, featureCount do table.insert(features, { frame.args["Feature "..i], " (" .. p.var(frame.args["Var "..i]) .. ")" }) table.insert(starts, { p.var( frame.args["Var0 "..i] or (frame.args["Var "..i].."₀") ) .. ": ", frame.args["Starting value "..i] }) table.insert(scalings, { p.var( "Δ"..(frame.args["Var "..i]) ) .. ": ", frame.args["Scaling "..i] }) end end local s_features local s_starts local s_scalings if (frame.args["SUPER Feature count"]) then local has_s_features = false; local has_s_starts = false; local has_s_scalings = false; if s_featureCount > 1 then -- Deep copy base characteristics, i.e. use them as default, overwrite what is explicitly specified as new super data s_features = mw.clone(features) s_starts = mw.clone(starts) s_scalings = mw.clone(scalings) -- If # of super features != # of base features, trim or expand the deep-copied tables accordingly. Avoid index errors. if s_featureCount > featureCount then for i = featureCount + 1, s_featureCount do table.insert( s_features, {0,0} ) table.insert( s_starts, {0,0} ) table.insert( s_scalings, {0,0} ) end elseif s_featureCount < featureCount then for i = s_featureCount + 1, featureCount do s_features[i] = nil s_starts[i] = nil s_scalings[i] = nil end end -- Parse super data, set the has_s_... flags if triggered for i = 1,s_featureCount do if frame.args["SUPER Feature "..i] then s_features[i][1] = frame.args["SUPER Feature "..i] if (not has_s_features) then has_s_features = true end end if frame.args["SUPER Starting value "..i] then s_starts[i][2] = frame.args["SUPER Starting value "..i] if (not has_s_starts) then has_s_starts = true end end if frame.args["SUPER Scaling "..i] then s_scalings[i][2] = frame.args["SUPER Scaling "..i] if (not has_s_scalings) then has_s_scalings = true end end if frame.args["SUPER Var "..i] then s_features[i][2] = " (" .. p.var(frame.args["SUPER Var "..i]) .. ")" s_starts[i][1] = p.var( frame.args["SUPER Var0 "..i] or (frame.args["SUPER Var "..i].."₀") ) .. ": " s_scalings[i][1] = p.var( "Δ"..(frame.args["SUPER Var "..i]) ) .. ": " if (not has_s_features) then has_s_features = true end if (not has_s_starts) then has_s_starts = true end if (not has_s_scalings) then has_s_scalings = true end end s_features[i] = s_features[i].concat() s_starts[i] = s_starts[i].concat() s_scalings[i] = s_scalings[i].concat() end s_features = s_features.concat() s_starts = s_starts.concat() s_scalings = s_scalings.concat() else -- # of super features = 1? Proceed to render single-feature section if frame.args["SUPER Var"] or frame.args["SUPER Feature"] then s_features = mw.html.create( 'tr' ) :attr({ id = "mw-customcollapsible-Infobox" }) :addClass("mw-collapsible mw-collapsed") :node( mw.html.create( 'td' ) :css({ ["font-weight"] = "bold" }) :node( "Feature" .. (frame.args["SUPER Var"]) and " (" .. p.var(frame.args["SUPER Var"]) .. ")" ) ) :node( mw.html.create( 'td' ) :node(frame.args["SUPER Feature"]) ) has_s_features = true end if frame.args["SUPER Var"] or frame.args["SUPER Var0"] or frame.args["SUPER Starting value"] then s_features = mw.html.create( 'tr' ) :attr({ id = "mw-customcollapsible-Infobox" }) :addClass("mw-collapsible mw-collapsed") :node( mw.html.create( 'td' ) :css({ ["font-weight"] = "bold" }) :node( "Starting Value" .. (frame.args["SUPER Var"] or frame.args["SUPER Var0"]) and " (" .. p.var( frame.args["SUPER Var0"] or (frame.args["SUPER Var"].."₀") ) .. ")" ) ) :node( mw.html.create( 'td' ) :node(frame.args["SUPER Starting value"]) ) has_s_starts = true; end if frame.args["SUPER Scaling"] then s_features = mw.html.create( 'tr' ) :attr({ id = "mw-customcollapsible-Infobox" }) :addClass("mw-collapsible mw-collapsed") :node( mw.html.create( 'td' ) :css({ ["font-weight"] = "bold" }) :node("Scaling") ) :node( mw.html.create( 'td' ) :node(frame.args["SUPER Scaling"]) ) has_s_scalings = true; end end end if (featureCount > 1) then end features = table.concat(features,"<br>") starts = table.concat(starts,"<br>") scalings = table.concat(scalings,"<br>") -- SECTION: Scaling Characteristics -- Section Heading table:node( mw.html.create( 'tr' ) :attr({ id = "mw-customcollapsible-Infobox" }) :addClass((frame.args["SUPER Feature count"]) and "mw-collapsible") :node( mw.html.create( 'th' ) :attr({ colspan = "2", }) :node((frame.args["SUPER Feature count"]) and "Base Scaling Characteristics" or "Scaling Characteristics") :node((frame.args["SUPER Feature count"]) and mw.html.create( 'span' ) :css({ float = "right", ["margin-right"] = "0", ["font-weight"] = "normal" }) :addClass("mw-customtoggle-Infobox") :node("[Click to toggle]") ) ) ) -- Features :node( mw.html.create( 'tr' ) :attr({ id = "mw-customcollapsible-Infobox" }) :addClass((has_s_features) and "mw-collapsible") -- not declared in this scope; fix that :node( mw.html.create( 'td' ) :css({ ["font-weight"] = "bold" }) :node( (featureCount > 1) and "Features" or ( (frame.args["Var"]) and ("Feature (" .. p.var(frame.args["Var"]) .. ")") ) ) ) :node( mw.html.create( 'td' ) :node(features) -- also, still ahven't figured out how to do this yet ) ) :node( (has_s_features) and (mw.html.create( 'tr' ) :attr({ id = "mw-customcollapsible-Infobox" }) :addClass("mw-collapsible mw-collapsed") -- not declared in this scope; fix that :node( mw.html.create( 'td' ) :css({ ["font-weight"] = "bold" }) :node( (s_featureCount > 1) and "Features" or ( (frame.args["SUPER Var"]) and ("Feature (" .. p.var(frame.args["SUPER Var"]) .. ")") ) ) ) :node( mw.html.create( 'td' ) :node(s_features) )) ) -- Starting values :node( mw.html.create( 'tr' ) :attr({ id = "mw-customcollapsible-Infobox" }) :addClass((has_s_starts) and "mw-collapsible") :node( mw.html.create( 'td' ) :css({ ["font-weight"] = "bold" }) :node( (featureCount > 1) and "Starting values" or ( (frame.args["Var"]) and ("Starting value (" .. p.var(frame.args["Var0"]) or (frame.args["Var"].."₀") .. ")") or "Starting value" ) ) ) :node( mw.html.create( 'td' ) :node(starts) ) ) :node( (has_s_starts) and (mw.html.create( 'tr' ) :attr({ id = "mw-customcollapsible-Infobox" }) :addClass("mw-collapsible mw-collapsed") -- not declared in this scope; fix that :node( mw.html.create( 'td' ) :css({ ["font-weight"] = "bold" }) :node( (s_featureCount > 1) and "Starting values" or ( (frame.args["SUPER Var"]) and ("Starting value (" .. p.var(frame.args["SUPER Var0"]) or (frame.args["SUPER Var"].."₀") .. ")") or "Starting value" ) ) ) :node( mw.html.create( 'td' ) :node(s_starts) )) ) -- Scaling :node( mw.html.create( 'tr' ) :attr({ id = "mw-customcollapsible-Infobox" }) :addClass((has_s_scalings) and "mw-collapsible") :node( mw.html.create( 'td' ) :css({ ["font-weight"] = "bold" }) :node("Scaling") ) :node( mw.html.create( 'td' ) :node(scalings) ) ) :node( (has_s_scalings) and (mw.html.create( 'tr' ) :attr({ id = "mw-customcollapsible-Infobox" }) :addClass("mw-collapsible mw-collapsed") -- not declared in this scope; fix that :node( mw.html.create( 'td' ) :css({ ["font-weight"] = "bold" }) :node("Scaling") ) :node( mw.html.create( 'td' ) :node(s_scalings) )) ) -- SECTION: Career -- Section Heading :node( mw.html.create( 'tr' ) :attr({ id = "mw-customcollapsible-Infobox" }) :addClass((isSuper) and "mw-collapsible") :node( mw.html.create( 'th' ) :attr({ colspan = "2", }) :node((isSuper) and "Base Career" or "Career") :node((isSuper) and mw.html.create( 'span' ) :css({ float = "right", ["margin-right"] = "0", ["font-weight"] = "normal" }) :addClass("mw-customtoggle-Infobox") :node("[Click to toggle]") ) ) ) -- Debuted :node( mw.html.create( 'tr' ) :attr({ id = "mw-customcollapsible-Infobox" }) :addClass((isSuper) and "mw-collapsible") -- not declared in this scope; fix that :node( mw.html.create( 'td' ) :css({ ["font-weight"] = "bold" }) :node("Debut") ) :node( mw.html.create( 'td' ) :node(frame.args["Debut"]) ) ) :node( (isSuper) and (mw.html.create( 'tr' ) :attr({ id = "mw-customcollapsible-Infobox" }) :addClass("mw-collapsible mw-collapsed") :node( mw.html.create( 'td' ) :css({ ["font-weight"] = "bold" }) :node("Debut") ) :node( mw.html.create( 'td' ) :node(frame.args["SUPER Debut"]) )) ) -- Games played :node( mw.html.create( 'tr' ) :attr({ id = "mw-customcollapsible-Infobox" }) :addClass((isSuper) and "mw-collapsible") -- not declared in this scope; fix that :node( mw.html.create( 'td' ) :css({ ["font-weight"] = "bold" }) :node("Games played") ) :node( mw.html.create( 'td' ) :node( matchCount.total .. " (total)<br>" .. matchCount.standard .. " (standard)" ) ) ) :node( (isSuper) and (mw.html.create( 'tr' ) :attr({ id = "mw-customcollapsible-Infobox" }) :addClass("mw-collapsible mw-collapsed") :node( mw.html.create( 'td' ) :css({ ["font-weight"] = "bold" }) :node("Games played") ) :node( mw.html.create( 'td' ) :node( s_matchCount.total .. " (total)<br>" .. s_matchCount.standard .. " (standard)" ) )) ) -- Winrate local winrate = { [1] = "" } table:node( mw.html.create( 'tr' ) :attr({ id = "mw-customcollapsible-Infobox" }) :addClass((isSuper) and "mw-collapsible") -- not declared in this scope; fix that :node( mw.html.create( 'td' ) :css({ ["font-weight"] = "bold" }) :node("Winrate") ) :node( mw.html.create( 'td' ) :node( (matchCount.standard > 0) (p.roundedPct(matchWinCount.standard,matchCount.standard) .. "% (standard)") ) ) ) :node( (isSuper) and (mw.html.create( 'tr' ) :attr({ id = "mw-customcollapsible-Infobox" }) :addClass("mw-collapsible mw-collapsed") :node( mw.html.create( 'td' ) :css({ ["font-weight"] = "bold" }) :node("Winrate") ) :node( mw.html.create( 'td' ) :node( p.roundedPct(s_matchWinCount.standard,s_matchCount.standard) .. "% (standard)" ) )) ) -- Emoji local emoji = frame.args["Emoji"] or Entities.getBallAttribute( "Entities/Weapon Ball Battles/Balls/Data", frame.args["Title"] or pagename, "emoji" ) if (emoji ~= "") then table:node( mw.html.create( 'tr' ) :node( mw.html.create( 'td' ) :css({ ["font-weight"] = "bold" }) :node("Emoji") ) :node( mw.html.create( 'td' ) :node(emoji .. " " .. p.emojiCodepoint(emoji)) ) ) else table:node( mw.html.create( 'tr' ) :node( mw.html.create( 'td' ) :css({ ["font-weight"] = "bold" }) :node("Emoji") ) :node( mw.html.create( 'td' ) :node("[[Module:Entities/Weapon Ball Battles/Balls/Data|<i>Add emoji...</i>]]") ) ) end return tostring(table) end function p.roundedPct(num, den) return (num/den % 0.01 < 0.005) and floor(num/den * 100) or ceil (num/den * 100) end function p.title() local grammatical_cases = { ablative = 1, inessive = { ANCOVA = "ANCOVA" } } local cases2 = "ba" local cases3 = "ba" -- if grammatical_cases.inessive[frame:getParent():getTitle()] then cases2 = "true" else cases2 = "false" end -- if "ANCOVA" == frame:getParent():getTitle() then cases3 = "true" else cases3 = "false" end local detected = false detected = detected or true return mw.title.getCurrentTitle() end function p.ifexist() return tonumber(frame:expandTemplate{ title = "User:Helpme2222/Sandbox", args = {frame.args[1]} }) end function p.performance() for i = 1,5000000 do p.tableMake() end return end function p.performance1() local var = "" for i = 1,100000000 do if var[1] then end end return end function p.performance2() local var = "" for i = 1,100000000 do if type(var) == "table" then end end return end p.counter = 0 function p.tableBake() p.counter = p.counter + 1 return p.counter end function p.tableMake() p.counter = 0 local var = { keyword = {p.tableBake()}, kljuczslovo = {p.tableBake()}, yaoshiwenzi = {p.tableBake()}, llavepalabra = {p.tableBake()}, } return var end function p.expand() return frame:expandTemplate{ title = "User:Helpme2222/Sandbox" } end function p.title3() return mw.title.getCurrentTitle().fullText end function p.getBallAttribute() local _, ballData = pcall( p.getBallAttributeInternal ) if _ then return ballData else return "" end end function p.getBallAttributeInternal() local ballData = mw.loadData(frame.args[1])[frame.args[2]][frame.args[3]] if ballData[1] then return ballData[tonumber(frame.args[4]) or p.listCountInternal(ballData)] end return ballData end function p.emojiCodepoint() local emoji = mw.text.trim( mw.getCurrentFrame().args[1] ) local i,v = mw.ustring.codepoint( emoji, 1, mw.ustring.len(emoji) ) if v then return "U+" .. string.format("%X", i ) .. " U+" .. string.format("%X", v ) else return "U+" .. string.format("%X", i ) end end function p.title2() local grammatical_cases = { ablative = 1, inessive = { ANCOVA = "ANCOVA", ["Module:Sandbox/22"] = "Module:Sandbox/22" } } local concepts = { grammatical_cases, } local PAGENAME = tostring(mw.title.getCurrentTitle()) local detected = false local out = {} local debugger = {} for i, group in ipairs(concepts) do if group.inessive[PAGENAME] then table.insert(debugger,"Okay, managed TRUE on "..i..":"..group.ablative) detected = detected or true local formattedGroup = {} for memberKey, memberRendervalue in pairs(group.inessive) do table.insert(formattedGroup, "<li>" .. memberRendervalue .. "</li>") end table.insert(out, "<h3>" .. group.ablative .. "</h3><ul>" .. table.concat( formattedGroup ) .. "</ul>" ) table.insert(out, "this sucks ass") return "this sucks ass" else table.insert(debugger,"Managed FALSE on "..i..":"..group.ablative..". Comparator: "..PAGENAME..", ") end end return debugger --[[ if detected then return tostring(detected) .. table.concat(out) end return --]] end function p.sanitizeChar(capture) -- If the set of likely illegal characters to appear in title expands, a rewrite of this as a table is merited if capture == "?" then return "" elseif capture == "#" then return "No. " end end function p.sanitizeTitle() local title = frame.args[1] return mw.ustring.gsub( title, "(?:\\?|\\#)", p.sanitizeChar) end function p.sanitizeTitletest2() return mw.ustring.gsub( "Ki vagy? (🌡️🌾⭐🗡️ VS 🪐 🪨 💣 🧿)", "(?:\\?|\\#)", p.sanitizeChar()) end function p.safetyTest() if string.len(frame.args[1]) < 500 then return frame.args[1] else return "" end end --[[ function array_iter(t) local i = 0 return function () i = i + 1 return t[i] end end --]] function p.listInline() --[[ This function is a godsend! https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Extension:Scribunto/Lua_reference_manual#mw.text.listToText --]] local spritedTable = {} for i,entry in ipairs(balls[tonumber(frame.args[1])]) do spritedTable[i] = "{{Sprite|named=1|linked=1|"..entry.."}}" end return mw.text.listToText( spritedTable , ", ", ", and " ) end function p.listNavbox() -- https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Extension:Scribunto/Lua_reference_manual#table.concat local spritedTable = {} for i,entry in ipairs(balls[tonumber(frame.args[1])]) do spritedTable[i] = "{{Sprite|named=1|linked=1|"..entry.."}}" end return table.concat( spritedTable , " • ") end function p.listCountInternal(table) local count = 0 for index,value in ipairs( table ) do count = count + 1 end return count end function p.listCount() return table.maxn(balls[tonumber(frame.args[1])]) end -- https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Extension:Scribunto/Lua_reference_manual#table.maxn function p.tableTest() return balls[1][1] end function p.todaysBall() --[[ https://www.lua.org/pil/3.6.html The use of explicit indexing here is not strictly semantic; it's just to emphasize the rotation order. ]] local unixDay = math.floor(os.time()/86400) local ballTotalCount = 0 local ballCounts = {} for whichTable,subtable in ipairs(balls) do ballCounts[whichTable] = #subtable ballTotalCount = ballTotalCount + ballCounts[whichTable] end local cycleDayIndex, cycleStartingBall = unixDay % ballTotalCount, math.floor(unixDay/ballTotalCount) % ballTotalCount local cycleTodaysBall if ballTotalCount % 7 ~= 0 then cycleTodaysBall = (cycleStartingBall + cycleDayIndex*7) % ballTotalCount elseif ballTotalCount % 11 ~= 0 then cycleTodaysBall = (cycleStartingBall + cycleDayIndex*11) % ballTotalCount elseif ballTotalCount % 13 ~= 0 then cycleTodaysBall = (cycleStartingBall + cycleDayIndex*13) % ballTotalCount else cycleTodaysBall = (cycleStartingBall + cycleDayIndex*(ballTotalCount - 1)) % ballTotalCount end --[[ debug return cycleTodaysBall .. " " .. ballTotalCount .. " " .. os.time() .. " " .. math.floor(os.time()/86400) .. " " .. cycleDayIndex .. " " .. cycleStartingBall ]] for whichTable = 1, #balls do if ballCounts[whichTable] > cycleTodaysBall then return balls[whichTable][cycleTodaysBall + 1] else cycleTodaysBall = cycleTodaysBall - ballCounts[whichTable] end end --]] end return p; jxq5njkemuspn4ozpemjwhgusgzpnap 0 331052 2834361 2829844 2026-09-24T01:29:38Z U3260591 3104152 Fixed a few grammatical errors for clarity 2834361 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Need to love and be loved:<br>How does the desire to give and receive love influence motivation?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=12}} [[File:Love heart.jpg|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Hands holding out a heart.]] '''Understanding love in pop culture''' ''Do you ever wonder how the media portrays love-driven behaviours?'' Filmmakers and game developers intentionally create love-driven character stories as it floods our brain with oxytocin (the "bonding and empathy" hormone). In turn, this hormone enhances our viewing experience, making films and video games much more memorable (Zak, 2015). In the 2026 psychological horror film the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backrooms_(film) Backrooms] {{ic|Use an internal link as shown in Tutorial 2}}, the deuteragonist, Mary, investigates the disappearance of her patient, Clark. She visits his workplace, ''Cap'n Clark's Ottoman Empire'', and unknowingly stumbles across the backrooms of the establishment. Mary's decision to search for Clark requires considerable risk and effort. Her behaviour raises the question of why a person might pursue another person's wellbeing, even when doing so conflicts with their own safety. A more positive example of giving and receiving love is portrayed in the popular 2013 video game [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Last_of_Us The Last of Us]. The game centres around a hardened smuggler named Joel who must escort a teenage girl named Ellie across a post-apocalyptic United States. As they spend more time together, their relationship develops into a close emotional bond resembling that of a parent and child. {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': (see above) ✅ # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topic''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help ✅ #* '''Motivation''': First, explain the importance of motivation and how it is a psychological process that influences direction, intensity, and the persistence of a behaviour. #* '''Love and Belonging''': Follow with introducing the concepts of love and belonging. Love and belonging is needs involving affection, acceptance, and connection. Love is not limited to romantic relationships (THIS WILL BE EMPHASISED). #* '''Interpersonal Connection''': This term can bridge the above concepts to the theories. The need for meaningful connection is considered in several psychological perspectives: Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs, Self-determination theory, and Attachment theory. #* '''Outline the aim of the chapter'''; (i.e. this chapter develops the readers{{g}} understanding of the desire to give and receive love, and how motivation plays an important role in influencing said behaviours. This chapter will draw on a breath of psychological research, including key concepts and terms, and draw upon different psychological theories related to understanding love. This is to provide the reader a comprehensive but applicable direction for knowledge. '''''DRAFT OVERVIEW:''''' Love is a complex interpersonal experience that can influence how people think, feel, and behave. In psychology, motivation refers to the processes that give behaviour direction, intensity, and persistence. The desire to love and be loved can therefore be understood as a source of motivation. Motivation can influence people to initiate and invest in meaningful relationships. Love and belonging involve the desire for affection and acceptance, while interpersonal connection refers to the emotional and social bonds people develop with others. Several psychological theories provide different perspectives for understanding this relationship between love and motivation. Maslow's hierarchy of needs conceptualises love and belonging as fundamental human needs, while basic psychological needs theory identifies relatedness, or feeling connected to and cared for by others, as a fundamental psychological need. Attachment theory provides another framework for understanding how close emotional bonds can influence behaviour. Particularly, caregiving and responses to separation or threat. Recommended length: 180-330 words. # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box (see below) ✅ {{RoundBoxTop|theme=12}}'''Focus questions''' {{ic|Use bullet points as shown in Tutorial 2}} 1. Why is the need to love and be loved considered an important source of human motivation? 2. How do psychological theories explain the motivation to form and maintain meaningful relationships? 3. How does the desire to give and receive love influence behaviours such as affiliation, caregiving, and prosocial behaviour? 4. When can the motivation to obtain love and belonging conflict with other psychological needs or become maladaptive? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==1. Love and Belonging as Human Motivation== {{expand}} ====== 1.1 The Need to Belong ====== [[File:Human–canine friendship - girl hugging her dog tightly at golden hour in Laos.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. A companionship that goes beyond.]] Love and interpersonal relationships can influence motivation by directing people towards social connection. In other words, forming and maintaining relationships. Humans do not simply interact with others because social interaction is available. Baumeister and Leary (1995)'s [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Mark-Leary-2/publication/15420847_The_Need_to_Belong_Desire_for_Interpersonal_Attachments_as_a_Fundamental_Human_Motivation/links/5b647053aca272e3b6af9211/The-Need-to-Belong-Desire-for-Interpersonal-Attachments-as-a-Fundamental-Human-Motivation.pdf Theory of Belonging] reviewed evidence supporting the belongingness hypothesis and concluded that people have a pervasive desire to form social attachments. People readily develop relationships with others, including under adverse circumstances, and tend to resist the loss or dissolution of existing social bonds even when maintaining them provides no obvious practical benefit. This suggests that interpersonal relationships can function as motivation goals in their own right rather than simply serving other purposes. The importance of belonging can be seen in the psychological consequences associated with social connection and disconnection. Rather than being simply a preference for social interaction, belongingness can influence emotional and cognitive processes. This explains why people may invest considerable time and effort into developing and maintaining relationships. The desire for connection can also become particularly influential when an individual's relationship is perceived as a threat or when dependence on another person becomes excessive. For example, Guan et al., (2015) examined 80 couples longitudinally and found that love addiction was positively associated with emotional dependence and negatively associated with attachment avoidance. Their findings suggest that the motivation to maintain close romantic relationships can interact with attachment patterns and interpersonal dependence. ====== 1.2 Love, Connection, And Relatedness ====== Belongingness refers to the human emotion to be accepted as a member of a group. Whether family, friends, co-workers, a religion, or something else. People have an inherent desire to belong. [[File:20110702-31-Ilana_tim_and_becca_hug_(5972579616).jpg|thumb|225x225px|'''Figure 3'''. Friends hugging.]] Love can therefore be one way through which the broader need for interpersonal connection is experienced and expressed. Qadir et al., (2026) explored occupational therapists' experiences of belongingness within interprofessional clinical environments and found colleagues and patients contributed to participants' sense of belonging. Conversely, organisational barriers, discrimination and difficulties establishing a professional identity could undermine this sense of connection. The study also illustrates how belongingness and motivation can reinforce one another. Participants identified achievement, professional development and appreciation from others as important sources of motivation, while supportive and welcoming interactions contributed to their sense of belonging. This suggests that interpersonal environments can both motivate individuals to participate and develop the social acceptance that contributes to belongingness. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=12}}'''Think About It: What's On Your Phone Lock Screen?''' [[File:IPhone 17e Soft Pink Model - 1.jpg|thumb|150px|'''Figure 4'''. Pink Apple iPhone.]] ''Imagine you could only have one person on your phone's lock screen for the next year. Who would you choose, and why them?'' A lock screen is a practical feature of a phone, yet the image we choose to display can carry considerable emotional meaning. People may choose photographs of partners, family members, friends, or other significant individuals, turning an everyday object into a reminder of an important relationship. Conroy and Fraley (2026) investigated whether photographs of romantic partners could function as everyday attachment-related cues. Their findings suggested that lock screens are embedded with psychological processes involved in close relationships. Simply put, people like having photos of their partners.{{RoundBoxBottom}} == 2. Theories Explaining Love == {{expand}} ====== 2.1 Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs ====== Maslow (1943) proposed that human motivation is influenced by a hierarchy of needs. Beginning with physiological needs and safety, then love and belonging, and finally esteem and self-actualisation. Within this framework, love and belonging involve the desire for affection and acceptance. When these needs are insufficiently satisfied, individuals may become motivated to seek relationships and social connection. ====== 2.2 Self-Determination Theory ====== People are centrally concerned with motivation, how to move themselves or others to act (Ryan & Deci, 2000). == 3. How Love Influences Motivated Behaviour == What does this motivation actually make people do? ==Conclusion== * Draw back to the Overview; discuss the terms, and how those concepts link to the theories discussed. * Love and interpersonal relationships can influence motivation by directing people towards social connections. * Belongingness can influence emotional and cognitive processes, explaining why individuals invest time and effort in maintaining their relationships despite interfering with other life goals. * Draw on the comparison between Maslow's theory, self-determination theory, and attachment theory. * Potentially answer the focus questions, or at least, reference them once more here. * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words ==See also== * [[wikipedia:Belongingness|Belongingness]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Love styles and relationship satisfaction|Love styles and relationship satisfaction]] (Book chapter, 2025) * [[wikipedia:Need_theory|Need theory]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Baumeister, R. F., & Leary, M. R. (1995). The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation. ''Psychological Bulletin, 117''(3), 497-529. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.117.3.497 Conroy, K. E., & Fraley, R. C. (2026). Security priming in everyday life: How do symbols of close others support attachment in adulthood? ''Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 130''(6), 1229-1247. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspp0000590 Guan, C., Wang, J., Zhang, L. et al. (2025). A longitudinal network of the relationship between love addiction, insecure attachment patterns, and interpersonal dependence. ''BMC Psychol'' 13, 330. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-025-02605-3 Maslow, A. H. (1943). A theory of human motivation. ''Psychological Review, 50''(4), 370-396. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0054346 Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. ''American Psychologist, 55''(1), 68-79. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.55.1.68 Qadir, N. A., & Sethi, A. (2026). Factors affecting belongingness of Occupational Therapists in an Interprofessional Clinical Environment. ''Pakistan Journal of Medical Sciences, 42''(5), 1100-1104. https://doi.org/10.12669/pjms.42.5.13539 Zak, P. J (2015). Why inspiring stories make us react: the neuroscience of narrative. ''Cerebrum: the Dana forum on brain science, 2015'', 2. }} ==External links== * [https://www.unitedfamilies.org/parents/child-development/love-the-greatest-motivation-to-change/ Love: The Greatest Motivation to Change] (unitiedfamilies.org) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4BvlBoZsV_I The Key to Writing Criminally Good Relationships | Video Essay] (YouTube) * [https://open.spotify.com/track/42WQZAqPJOlLvg2Jr6lv8K You're My Best Friend - Queen] (Spotify) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Love]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Needs/Rela]] 6cnopm1mgg9ih811e40x3lji811f7gi 0 331213 2834349 2834200 2026-09-24T00:29:58Z U3260591 3104152 /* External links */ 2834349 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Exercise gamification motivation:<br>How can gamification affect exercise motivation and behaviour?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}} [[File:WORKOUT.jpg|thumb|Man earning points for exercising (figure 1)]] '''Case study: Meet Alex''' Alex has recently started using a fitness app to become more physically active. The app awards points for completing workouts, gives badges for reaching milestones, displays weekly challenges, and allows users to compare their progress with friends (see figure 1). At first, Alex exercises mainly to improve their health, but soon becomes increasingly motivated by earning enough points to reach the next level. When Alex moves up the leaderboard, they feel a sense of achievement and become more motivated to exercise again. However, after falling behind other users, Alex begins to lose interest and considers stopping. Alex's experience raises an important question: why can the same gamification features that motivate exercise for some people have different effects on motivation and behaviour for others? {{RoundBoxBottom}} Regular physical activity provides important physical and psychological benefits, yet maintaining exercise behaviour can be difficult. Digital fitness technologies increasingly use gamification, such as points, rewards, challenges, feedback and social comparison, to encourage people to become more active. Gamification may make exercise more engaging and provide users with goals and feedback, but its effects on motivation and behaviour are not necessarily straightforward. Psychological science can help explain why gamification may influence exercise motivation and whether increased motivation translates into sustained exercise behaviour. Understanding motivation theories can also help identify when gamification is likely to support engagement and when it may instead reduce motivation or discourage participation. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' *What is exercise gamification and how is it used to influence motivation? *What psychological mechanisms explain how gamification can affect exercise motivation? *How does gamification influence actual exercise behaviour and adherence? *When might gamification support or undermine exercise motivation? *How can gamification be designed to encourage sustainable exercise behaviour? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Understanding exercise gamification == Digital technologies have changed how people monitor and engage in physical activity. Smartphones, fitness applications, and wearable devices can track behaviours such as daily steps, workout frequency, and exercise intensity while providing immediate feedback on progress. Additionally, these technologies also include features traditionally associated with games to make physical activity more engaging. This approach, known as gamification, is commonly used to encourage participation and maintain motivation for exercise. === What is exercise gamification? === Gamification refers to using game-design elements in non-game contexts. In exercise settings, this means adding game-like features to an activity that isn't necessarily a game. For example, a person may earn points for completing a workout, maintain a streak to reach a daily step goal, or compete against friends on a leaderboard. This differs from an exergame, where physical activity forms part of the gaming experience. Instead, gamification adds selected game elements to an existing activity to influence motivation and behaviour (Krath et al., 2021). === Common gamification features === Exercise gamification can take many forms, including points, badges, rewards, challenges, progress tracking, feedback and leaderboards. These features turn physical activity into measurable goals and achievements, allowing users to track performance and receive feedback on their progress. For example, Shameli et al. (2017) examined how app-based walking challenges could encourage users to increase their daily physical activity, demonstrating how a relatively simple game element can be applied to an everyday behaviour such as walking. A systematic review of 50 gamified physical activity interventions found that goal-setting was the most frequently used game element, appearing in 60% of studies, followed by progress bars (52%), rewards (50%), points (44%) and feedback (42%). Competition, collaboration, leaderboards, challenges and badges were also identified, showing that gamification can involve considerably more than simply earning points or rewards (Xu et al., 2022). Importantly, different game elements may not be equally effective. A recent systematic review and meta-analysis found that the effects of gamified physical activity interventions among children and adolescents varied by factors including the game elements used, theoretical approach, and intervention duration (Wang et al., 2025). Gamification should therefore not be considered a single behaviour-change strategy with a consistent effect. Instead, different features may influence exercise motivation and behaviour through different psychological processes. Understanding these processes requires examining the psychological theories that explain why gamification can motivate exercise in the first place. == Psychological mechanisms of gamification == Gamification can influence exercise motivation through several psychological processes, not just by making physical activity more entertaining. Understanding these processes helps explain why the same game feature may motivate one person while pressuring or discouraging another. === Self-determination theory === Self-determination theory (SDT) provides a useful framework for understanding why the same exercise goal can feel motivating in one situation but pressuring in another. SDT proposes that motivation is influenced by the satisfaction of three basic psychological needs: autonomy (the feeling of having choice and control over one's actions), competence (the feeling of being capable and effective) and relatedness (the feeling of connection and belonging with others) (Ryan & Deci, 2020). Environments that support these needs are more likely to encourage higher-quality motivation, whereas environments that frustrate them may undermine motivation. Importantly, SDT distinguishes between different qualities of motivation rather than simply asking how motivated someone is. Autonomous motivation occurs when a behaviour is enjoyable or personally valued (Yaban & Gaschler, 2025). For example, someone may exercise because running is enjoyable or because improving their health matters to them. In contrast, controlled motivation involves internal or external pressure, such as exercising to avoid guilt, gain approval or obtain a reward (Claes et al., 2026). At the far end of the spectrum, amotivation describes a lack of intention or meaningful motivation to act (Hardcastle et al., 2015). These distinctions matter because two people can complete the same workout for very different reasons. Research supports the relevance of these distinctions to exercise behaviour. A systematic review of 66 studies found that autonomous forms of motivation were consistently associated with exercise participation, with identified regulation appearing particularly relevant to initial exercise adoption and intrinsic motivation showing stronger links with long-term adherence (Teixeira et al., 2012). Similarly, a meta-analysis involving 15,984 children and adolescents found moderate positive associations between autonomous motivation and physical activity, whereas controlled forms of motivation showed weak negative associations (Owen et al., 2014). More recent evaluations of SDT research suggest that theory-informed interventions can improve physical activity. However, effects are generally small to moderate and appear to operate mainly through autonomous motivation and competence need satisfaction (Ntoumanis & Moller, 2025). SDT therefore offers more than an explanation of whether gamification can make exercise motivating. It raises a more important question: what type of motivation gamification creates. A progress indicator that helps someone recognise improvement may support competence, whereas a reward that makes exercise feel obligatory could create external pressure. Understanding whether game features support or frustrate psychological needs may therefore help explain why gamification can strengthen motivation in some circumstances but undermine it in others. === How gamification can support motivation === Gamification supports exercise motivation when game elements help satisfy the psychological needs described by self-determination theory. Rather than motivation arising simply because an activity includes points or rewards, it matters more to understand how participants experience these features. Gamification can provide clear goals, immediate feedback, visible progression and opportunities for social interaction, all of which can contribute to motivational experiences (Krath et al., 2021). Competence may be particularly relevant to exercise gamification. Features such as progress bars, performance feedback, levels and achievable challenges allow users to see evidence of improvement. For example, watching a weekly step goal gradually fill provides immediate feedback on progress toward an achievable target. Gamification can also adjust task difficulty to a user's abilities, potentially keeping challenges achievable while still requiring effort (Krath et al., 2021). These features may help users feel increasingly capable rather than viewing exercise as an activity in which they are unsuccessful. Gamification may also support autonomy when users are given meaningful choices over their goals and how they pursue them. Personalised goals, optional challenges and different progression paths can provide greater control than systems that impose the same targets on every user. Similarly, relatedness may be supported through social features that allow users to cooperate, share progress or work towards common goals. Social interaction may therefore provide encouragement and a sense of connection alongside the exercise itself. However, the presence of these features does not necessarily mean that psychological needs will be satisfied. Reviews of health gamification have noted that interventions often combine multiple game elements, making it difficult to determine which specific features produce motivational effects (Johnson et al., 2016). This distinction matters because a leaderboard that builds connection and friendly competition for one person could create pressure or discouragement for another. Therefore, the motivational value of gamification may depend less on whether game elements are present and more on how those elements are designed and experienced. Figure 2 illustrates how game elements may influence exercise behaviour through their effects on psychological experiences and motivation. [[File:Gamification features.png|thumb|Gamification exercise motivation pathway|center|550px|'''Figure 2.''' A simplified pathway through which gamification features may influence exercise motivation and behaviour.]] <quiz display=simple> Which feature is most likely to support autonomous exercise motivation? |type="()"} - Users lose points whenever they miss a workout. || Punishing missed workouts may create pressure to exercise, making motivation feel more controlled rather than self-directed. + Users choose their own exercise goals and receive feedback about their progress. || Providing choice can support autonomy, while progress feedback can support competence. Both are important psychological needs within self-determination theory. - Users are publicly ranked against other users. || Public rankings emphasise comparison and external performance. For some users, this may shift attention towards external outcomes rather than autonomous reasons for exercising. </quiz> === When gamification can undermine motivation === <div style="border: 2px solid #4a7ebb; background-color: #f2f7fc; padding: 15px; margin: 20px 0; border-radius: 8px;"> '''Case study: Same app, different motivation''' Jordan and Sam use the same fitness app, which awards points, tracks exercise streaks, and ranks users on a leaderboard. Jordan enjoys seeing their progress and feels encouraged to exercise regularly. Sam becomes anxious about losing their streak and discouraged when they fall behind other users. '''Reflection question''' Using self-determination theory, how could the different responses of Jordan and Sam be explained? ''Think about how the app may affect each person's autonomy, competence, and reasons for exercising.'' </div> Gamification does not always support autonomous exercise motivation. From an SDT perspective, rewards, competition and performance targets may become controlling when users feel pressured to exercise for an external outcome rather than because the activity is enjoyable or personally meaningful (Ryan & Deci, 2020). For example, maintaining an exercise streak may initially encourage consistency, but the desire to avoid losing it could shift motivation toward pressure and obligation. Competition can also produce different experiences across users. Leaderboards may provide enjoyable social comparison for some people but may discourage users who repeatedly see themselves performing below others. Research on gamification similarly suggests that individual responses to game elements can vary, meaning that features intended to motivate do not necessarily benefit every user in the same way (Krath et al., 2021). This distinction highlights a potential limitation of exercise gamification. Increasing engagement with a gamified system is not necessarily the same as developing sustainable motivation for exercise. A person may exercise to earn points, maintain a streak or outperform others without developing a personally meaningful reason to remain active. Whether this motivation persists when the game element disappears therefore becomes an important question. == Gamification and exercise behaviour == Increased motivation does not necessarily mean that a person will maintain exercise behaviour. Research must therefore distinguish between motivation, engagement with gamified features and actual changes in physical activity. === Effects on physical activity === Overall, research suggests that gamification can produce measurable increases in physical activity. A meta-analysis of gamified smartphone applications found a small-to-moderate positive effect on physical activity compared with non-gamified conditions, indicating that game elements can influence behaviour rather than simply increasing interest in an application (Yang et al., 2022). However, substantial variation between studies suggests that gamification does not produce consistent effects across all interventions. Differences in game elements, intervention design, and participant characteristics may partly explain these mixed outcomes. === Short-term motivation and long-term adherence === Evidence that gamification increases physical activity in the short term does not necessarily mean these changes will be maintained. Mazeas et al. (2022) found that gamified interventions produced a small-to-moderate positive effect on physical activity immediately after the intervention (''g'' = 0.42). However, at a longer-term follow-up, at approximately 14 weeks, the effect was considerably smaller (''g'' = 0.15), although it remained statistically significant. This suggests that gamification may be more effective at encouraging initial engagement than producing substantial long-term behaviour change.Importantly, continued app use or pursuit of rewards should not automatically be interpreted as sustained exercise motivation. Long-term effectiveness depends not only on whether gamification encourages activity while game elements are present, but whether exercise behaviour persists over time. === Do different gamification features work differently? === The effectiveness of gamification may depend on which game elements are used and how they are designed. A systematic review and meta-analysis of gamified smartphone applications found small-to-moderate improvements in physical activity, but considerable variation between interventions (Yang et al., 2022). This variation may partly reflect differences in features such as rewards, challenges, feedback and social comparison, as well as how these elements are combined. Research also suggests that individual game elements can create different psychological experiences rather than producing a consistent motivational effect (Krath et al., 2021). Therefore, successful gamification may depend less on including as many game elements as possible and more on selecting features that support the intended motivational and behavioural outcomes. == Designing effective and sustainable exercise gamification == Understanding why gamification influences motivation can help inform how exercise technologies are designed. Effective gamification should apply psychological and behaviour-change principles rather than simply adding game elements in the hope of increasing engagement. === Supporting meaningful motivation === Effective gamification should support meaningful reasons for exercising rather than focusing only on external rewards. Features such as personalised goals, progress feedback, and achievable challenges may support autonomy and competence by giving users greater control and making improvement visible (Krath et al., 2021). From an SDT perspective, this may encourage more autonomous motivation than systems that pressure users towards predetermined targets. Gamification design should therefore consider the psychological experience created by game elements, not simply the number of features included. === Balancing rewards, competition and pressure === Rewards and competitive features require careful design because they may motivate users in different ways. Leaderboards and challenges can provide achievement and social comparison, but they may also create pressure or discourage users who consistently perform below others (Krath et al., 2021). Similarly, rewards may encourage participation without necessarily developing autonomous motivation. Exercise gamification should therefore avoid making points, streaks or rankings the primary reason for being active and instead use these features to complement personally meaningful exercise goals. === Designing for sustained exercise === Sustainable gamification should ultimately encourage continued exercise rather than dependence on the gamified system. Evidence that gamification effects become smaller at longer-term follow-up suggests that initial increases in activity do not always translate into lasting behaviour change (Mazeas et al., 2022). Future studies should also investigate which combinations and implementations of game elements are most effective, as existing studies show mixed results and considerable variation in their design (Xu et al., 2022). Gamification should therefore support meaningful goals, feedback, and psychological needs while helping exercise become a personally valued and sustainable behaviour. <div style="border: 2px solid #4f8a5b; background-color: #eef8f0; padding: 15px; margin: 20px 0; border-radius: 8px;"> '''Key principles for sustainable exercise gamification''' ✓ '''Support meaningful goals''' — Connect gamification with personally valued reasons for exercising. ✓ '''Make progress visible''' — Provide useful feedback that supports feelings of competence. ✓ '''Provide meaningful choice''' — Allow personalisation rather than imposing identical goals on every user. ✓ '''Use rewards and competition carefully''' — Avoid creating excessive pressure or dependence on external rewards. ✓ '''Think beyond short-term engagement''' — Design gamification to support sustained exercise behaviour, not simply continued app use. </div> ==Conclusion== Gamification can influence exercise motivation and behaviour by using features such as goals, feedback, rewards, progress tracking and social interaction to make physical activity more engaging. However, simply adding game elements does not guarantee meaningful or lasting behaviour change. Self-determination theory helps explain this difference: gamification may strengthen motivation when it supports autonomy, competence, and relatedness, but may create pressure or controlled motivation when these psychological needs are frustrated. Research suggests that gamification can produce small-to-moderate increases in physical activity, although effects vary across interventions and tend to weaken over time. This highlights an important distinction between increasing short-term engagement and supporting long-term exercise adherence. Different users may experience the same game elements differently, so effective design should consider the psychological experience created rather than simply the number of features included. Sustainable exercise gamification should therefore support meaningful motivation through personalised goals, achievable challenges, useful progress feedback, meaningful choice and opportunities for social connection. Ultimately, gamification is most useful when game elements support continued physical activity rather than becoming the primary reason for exercising. ==See also== *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2017/Gamification and motivation|Gamification and motivation]] (Book chapter, 2017) *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Physical activity motivation|Physical activity motivation]] (Book chapter, 2021) *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2023/Physical activity tracking and exercise motivation|Physical activity tracking and exercise motivation]] (Book chapter, 2023) *[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-determination_theory Self-Determination Theory] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Claes, S., De Wit, S., Le Clercq, B. L., & Annemans, L. (2026). What moves you? The relation between exercise motivation and well-being using a person-centered approach. BMC Public Health, 26(1), 497. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-025-26028-2 Hardcastle, S. J., Hancox, J., Hattar, A., Maxwell-Smith, C., Thøgersen-Ntoumani, C., & Hagger, M. S. (2015). Motivating the unmotivated: how can health behavior be changed in those unwilling to change? Frontiers in Psychology, 6, 835. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00835 Johnson, D., Deterding, S., Kuhn, K., Staneva, A., Stoyanov, S., & Hides, L. (2016). Gamification for health and wellbeing: A systematic review of the literature. Internet Interventions, 6, 89–106. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.invent.2016.10.002 Krath, J., Schürmann, L., & Von Korflesch, H. F. (2021). Revealing the theoretical basis of gamification: A systematic review and analysis of theory in research on gamification, serious games and game-based learning. Computers in Human Behavior, 125, 106963. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2021.106963 Mazeas, A., Duclos, M., Pereira, B., & Chalabaev, A. (2022). Evaluating the effectiveness of gamification on physical activity: systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 24(1), e26779. https://doi.org/10.2196/26779 Ntoumanis, N., & Moller, A. C. (2025). Self-determination theory informed research for promoting physical activity: Contributions, debates, and future directions. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 80, 102879. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2025.102879 Owen, K. B., Smith, J., Lubans, D. R., Ng, J. Y., & Lonsdale, C. (2014). Self-determined motivation and physical activity in children and adolescents: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Preventive Medicine, 67, 270–279. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2014.07.033 Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2020). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation from a self-determination theory perspective: Definitions, theory, practices, and future directions. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 61, 101860. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101860 Shameli, A., Althoff, T., Saberi, A., & Leskovec, J. (2017). How Gamification Affects Physical Activity. Proc Int World Wide Web Conf, 2017, 455–463. https://doi.org/10.1145/3041021.3054172 Teixeira, P. J., Carraça, E. V., Markland, D., Silva, M. N., & Ryan, R. M. (2012). Exercise, physical activity, and self-determination theory: A systematic review. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 9(1), 78. https://doi.org/10.1186/1479-5868-9-78 Wang, M., Xu, J., Zhou, X., Li, X., & Zheng, Y. (2025). Effectiveness of Gamification Interventions to Improve Physical activity and Sedentary Behavior in Children and Adolescents: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. JMIR Serious Games, 13, e68151. https://doi.org/10.2196/68151 Xu, L., Shi, H., Shen, M., Ni, Y., Zhang, X., Pang, Y., Yu, T., Lian, X., Yu, T., Yang, X., & Li, F. (2022). The Effects of MHealth-Based Gamification Interventions on Participation in Physical Activity: Systematic review. JMIR Mhealth and Uhealth, 10(2), e27794. https://doi.org/10.2196/27794 Yaban, E. H., & Gaschler, R. (2025). Autonomous Motivation, Self-Efficacy, and developmental regulation processes in distance education across diverse age groups. American Journal of Distance Education, 40(3), 311–331. https://doi.org/10.1080/08923647.2025.2484047 Yang, Y., Hu, H., & Koenigstorfer, J. (2022). Effects of Gamified Smartphone Applications on Physical Activity: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 62(4), 602–613. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2021.10.005 }} ==External links== [https://www.health.gov.au/topics/physical-activity/24-hour-movement-guidelines-for-all-australians?language=en 24-hour movement guidelines for all Australians] (Australian government department of health, disability and ageing) [https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/physical-activity Physical activity] (World health organization) [https://selfdeterminationtheory.org/topics/application-sportsandexercise/ Self-determination theory: sports and exercise] (Center for self-determination theory) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Exercise]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Gamification]] 63339na64ymxeowdze99pjvgtx5kztj 2 331218 2834348 2834295 2026-09-23T23:25:54Z StretchBeyond 3105744 /* Social Contributions */ Discussion board post 2834348 wikitext text/x-wiki == About Me == I am a military veteran, working to complete a Bachelor of Science in Psychology as part of a lifelong approach to learning. After a military career working with people around the world on a spectrum of operations, I wanted to better understand the human dimension and the science behind what makes us all tick. Along the way, I want to give back to the community where I can. I have an interest in veterans' PTSD, advocacy and international affairs. == Book Chapter == [[File:PTSD.png|left|thumb|250x250px|'''Figure 1.''' PTSD can have a deep and lasting impact on our emotions.]] I am writing a book chapter titled [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment|Immersive Therapy for PTSD: How does it work and what are the effects?]] This chapter is an individual student contribution as part of a larger [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra] class effort in 2026 to write a book [[Motivation and emotion/Book]]. The 2026 book extends a Wikiversity book series started in 2010, with over 1,800 online book chapters on how psychological science can improve human lives. The book editor and University psychology unit convener is [[User:Jtneill|Dr. James Neill]] {{clear}} == Social Contributions == #'''18 Aug 26:''' Grammar and content editing improvements on 2025 chapter, Defence mechanisms and emotion regulation. Edits at https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FDefence_mechanisms_and_emotion_regulation&diff=2822629&oldid=2763661 # '''18 Aug 26:''' Grammar and content editing improvements on 2025 chapter, Neurodivergence and trauma. Edits at https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FNeurodivergence_and_trauma&diff=2822636&oldid=2812805 # '''19 Aug 26:''' Grammar and content editing improvements on 2025 chapter, Incentive theory of motivation. Edits at<nowiki/>https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FIncentive_theory_of_motivation&diff=2822844&oldid=2814898 # '''19 Aug 26:''' UC Canvas Discussion: Introduced the book chapter intent to the class and welcomed anyone with sim<nowiki/>ilar topics or interests to contribute. I offered the same. https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/456450 # '''20 Aug 26:''' Comment: Supported another Wiki user by providing some peer-reviewed ideas on starter references f<nowiki/>or a Chapter page. [[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Perfectionism and procrastination#Reference material]] # '''20 Aug 26:''' Comment: Supported another Wiki user by providing some peer-reviewed ideas on starter references f<nowiki/>or a Chapter page.[[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Irritability#Reference material]] # '''22 Aug 26:''' Grammar and content editing improvements on 2025 chapter, Mental health in astronauts. Edits at [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FMental_health_in_astronauts&diff=2824159&oldid=2804667 ht]<nowiki/>[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FMental_health_in_astronauts&diff=2824159&oldid=2804667 tps://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FMental_health_in_astronauts&diff=2824159&oldid=2804667] # '''25 Aug 26:''' Comment: Supported another Wiki user by providing some peer-reviewed ideas on starter references f<nowiki/>or a Chapter page.[[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Feedback literacy#Reference]] # '''25 Aug 26''': UC Canvas Discussion: Responded to student topic query.[https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/457190 https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/201]<nowiki/>[https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/457190 43/discussion_topics/457190] # '''26 Aug 26:''' Comment: Supported another Wiki user by providing some external link ideas for a Chapter page.[[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Dark empathy#Reference|Talk]]<nowiki/>[[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Dark empathy#Reference|:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Dark empathy#Reference]] # '''26 Aug 26:''' UC Canvas Discussion: Responded to student topic query with data from a Random Game of Dice scenar<nowiki/>io.https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/457412 # '''27 Aug 26:''' Wiki thanks and editing conversation: [[User talk:Jtneill#Punctuation change in book title]] # '''28 Aug 26:''' UC Canvas Discussion: Responded to student topic query<nowiki/> https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/457809 # '''4 Sep 26:''' Comment: Included creation of graphics for Wiki page.[[c:File:Avoidance_and_Processing_Cycles.png|ht]]<nowiki/>[[c:File:Avoidance_and_Processing_Cycles.png|tps://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Avoidance_and_Processing_Cycles.png]] # '''4 Sep 26:''' Comment: Assisted other Wiki user by adding a quiz temp<nowiki/>late to their chapter page https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FBuilding_therapeutic_alliance&diff=2831108&oldid=2830050 # '''8 Sep 26:''' Comment: Assisted other Wiki user by adding a quiz temp<nowiki/>late to their chapter page https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FSelf-concept_and_motivation&diff=2832141&oldid=2831622 # '''9 Sep 26:''' Comment: Assisted another Wiki user by adding a quiz te<nowiki/>mplate to their chapter page<nowiki/>https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FOutdoor_play_and_children%27s_emotional_well-being&diff=2832147&oldid=2828722 # '''9 Sep 26:''' UC Canvas Discussion: Responded to student topic query <nowiki/>https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/457888 # '''11 Sep 26:''' UC Canvas Discussion: Chapter word count question - in<nowiki/>cludes great response advice from other contributors on tools and techniques https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/461216 # '''14 Sep:''' Comment: Assisted another Wiki user by adding some advice<nowiki/> on prediction error references [[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Fear extinction#Prediction Error and Extinction]] # '''15 Sep 26:''' Correspondence: Email exchange between chapter author <nowiki/>and Professor Vermetten, who is credited with creating the 3MDR therapy and referenced in the chapter. "I have looked at the Wikiversity page and think you are on the right path. You have brought together the concepts of immersion, embodiment, motivation, and trauma-focused treatment in a thoughtful and relevant way." # '''16 Sep 26:''' Grammar and content editing improvements on 2025 chapt<nowiki/>er due to links with PTSD and prediction error ,https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FNeuroscience_of_unexpected_positive_outcomes&diff=2833368&oldid=2762078 # '''16 Sep 26:''' UC Canvas Discussion: Responded to student request for<nowiki/> chapter feedback on impulsivity and sensation seeking https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/461607 # '''16 Sep 26:''' UC Canvas Discussion: Responded to student request for<nowiki/> chapter feedback on brain implants for chronic pain<nowiki/>https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/457902 # '''17 Sep 26:''' UC Canvas Discussion: Chapter referencing question abo<nowiki/>ut integration of non-academic journal sources neede<nowiki/>d to source financial market analysis relating to immersive PTSD forecasts. https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/462166 # '''21 Sep 26:''' Comment: Assisted another Wiki user by making formatti<nowiki/>ng changes in chapter heading styles to create page <nowiki/>menu. https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FHypothalamus_and_homeostatic_motivation&diff=2834144&oldid=2833547 # '''21 Sep 26:''' UC Canvas discussion: Chapter feedback provided on UC <nowiki/>Canvas at the request of the author.[https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/457901 https://uclearn.]<nowiki/>[https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/457901 canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/457901] # '''21 Sep 26:''' UC Canvas discussion: Assisted user with search for li<nowiki/>terature. Provided a number of contemporary meta-ana<nowiki/>lyses and systetemic reviews from the library that may help their research. https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/459237 # '''23 Sep 26:''' UC Canvas discussion: From combat to cognition - a lay<nowiki/>person's insights into motivation [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/456345 https://uclearn.ca]<nowiki/>[https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/456345 nberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/456345] # '''24 Sep 26:''' UC Canvas discussion: What do you really want to learn<nowiki/> about - Body language and non-verbal communication[https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/455261 h]<nowiki/>[https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/455261 ttps://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/455261] 7voepkn3omvqqq7bsxwrx5hzhcrtgot 0 331234 2834339 2834338 2026-09-23T12:08:00Z Mymunu 3106327 /* How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being? */ 2834339 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being:<br>How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {| class="wikitable" |'''Case study: part 1''' '''Imagine this....'''[[File:School children happily playing in playground.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' ''Children engaged in outdoor play.'']]A child arrives at playground and joins a group of children who are already playing. The children are making their own game and deciding the rules as they play. At first, child enjoys choosing where and what to play and moving between the different activities. During the game, another child changes the rules of the game and argument breaks out. The child becomes frustrated and avoids the activity. After watching for short time, the child returns, suggests for new idea to continue game and re-joins the group. How might experiences like this during outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being? Emotional regulation theory provides one way of understanding on how children may respond to emotional situations during play (see figure 1) (Gross, 2015). |} Outdoor play can involve more than physical movements. It is more than simply being outside and engage in the activities across playgrounds, gardens, streets and natural spaces. Outdoor play involves exploration, social interaction, choice and challenge and engagement with surrounding environment (Dodd et al.,2026; Pereira et al.,2024). These experiences may create emotional situations in which children need to respond to frustration, disagreement, uncertainty or excitement. Gross (2015) [[emotional regulation]] theory provides a [[psychological]] explanation for how children may recognise and respond to these emotional situations. Outdoor play experiences are also shaped by the environment where play takes place. Experiences are shaped by the different opportunities provided by different physical and social environments, which means the same outdoor space may not provide the same experience for every child (Morgenthaler et al.,2024).This chapter examines how [[Emotional regulation|emotional,]] [[Cognitive psychology|cognitive]], social and environmental processes may help explain the relationship between outdoor play and children's emotional well-being. {| class="wikitable" | ;[[File:Bulb Idea Flat Icon GIF Animation.gif|alt=Focus questions|left|100x100px|thumb]] '''Focus questions''' * What are outdoor play and children's emotional well-being? * How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being? * How do social and environmental conditions shape children's outdoor play experiences? * How can families, communities and school support outdoor play opportunities that may benefit children's emotional well-being? |} == '''Understanding outdoor play and children's emotional well-being''' == [[File:Water-outdoor-people-girl-play-boy-938233.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. ''Visualise outdoor play as providing children with opportunities to explore, make choices, interact with others and respond to changing situations through activities such as water play.''|347x347px]] Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being are not measured as single and consistent concepts across recent research. Outdoor play may be examined as voluntary and intrinsically motivated activity, self directed play, parent reported outdoor play, or device-measured outdoor play activity. It should also be distinguished from outdoor moderate to vigorous physical activity because these measures do not represent the same behaviour (Davenport et al., 2025). Children's emotional well-being is also examined through different outcomes, that includes [[emotional regulation]], social-emotional competence, positive and negative affect, and internalising or externalising symptoms. These differences are significant because outdoor play and emotional well-being are not measured as single, consistent constructs across research. === Outdoor play === Outdoor play is voluntary and and intrinsically motivated activity that occurs in outdoor environments like gardens, playgrounds, parks and natural spaces (Dodd et al., 2026). Free play can be also self-directed, which means children to freely interact with the environment and have autonomy to make choices about their activities (Biino et al., 2025). Outdoor play should not be treated as same as outdoor physical activity. Davenport et al., (2025) examined outdoor play separately from outdoor moderate- to- vigorous physical activity (MVPA). This distinction is significant because research on children's outdoor play is not necessarily measuring the same behaviour as research on the intensity of physical activity. === Children's emotional well-being === Children's emotional well-being is not represented by single common outcome across recent outdoor play research. Emotional dysregulation has been examined in relation to the amount and timing of outdoor play (Lee et al., 2025), while social-emotional competence includes difficulties and [[Prosocial behavior/Keywords/Definitions|prosocial behaviour]] (Ferguson et al., 2025). Other studies have examined positive and negative affect following recess (Poulos et al., 2026) and trajectories of internalising and externalising symptoms across childhood (Dodd et al., 2026). These outcomes represent different aspects and timeframes of emotional functioning, so they should not be treated as equivalent when findings are compared. '''Table 1''' ''Emotional outcomes examined in recent research on outdoor play and children's emotional well-being'' {| class="wikitable" |+ !Study !Outcome examined !What the outcome represent |- |Lee et al. (2025) |Emotional dysregulation |Difficulties in emotional regulation; examined in relation to the amount of timing and outdoor play |- |Ferguson et al. (2025) |Social-emotional competence |Social and emotional difficulties and prosocial behaviour |- |Poulos et al. (2026) |Positive and negative affect |Children's affect following recess in different settings |- |Dodd et al. (2026) |Internalising and externalising symptoms |Internalising: emotional symptoms and peer problems Externalising: conduct problems and hyperactivity- inattention |} As shown in Table 1, the studies do not measure the same aspect or time frame of children's emotional functioning. Affect immediately following recess should not be treated as equivalent to emotional dysregulation measured over time or trajectories of internalising and externalising symptoms across childhood. This difference need to be considered when examining whether outdoor play is associated with children's emotional well-being. '''Case study: part 2''' ''What is being measured?'' {| class="wikitable" | valign="top" |[[File:Children marbles.jpg|thumb|177x177px|'''Figure 3'''. ''Children may experience different emotional responses during social outdoor play'']]The child in the case study part 1 becomes frustrated when the rules of the game change. This immediate emotional response is different from a longer-term pattern of emotional dysregulation or internalising symptoms. When research findings are compared, it is important to consider which aspect of emotional well-being is measured. {{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}} <quiz display=simple> {A child's positive or negative affect immediately after recess represents the same emotional outcome as longer-term internalising or externalising symptoms. |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} |} == '''How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being?''' == * Lee et al. (2025) examined working memory as possible process between outdoor play and emotional regulation. Dodd et al.(2026) discussed cognitive, social and emotional skills development, social interaction, physical activity, connection with the nature, adventurous play as possible measures for association between outdoor play and mental health symptoms. * Lee et al. (2025) examined 325 preschool children and used meditation analysis to test whether the timing and amount of outdoor play were related to emotional dysregulation and working memory. * Dodd et al. (2026) found that more frequent outdoor play during the preschool years predicted healthier mental health trajectories into middle childhood. The study used nationally representative longitudinal cohort and suggest possible pathways that includes cognitive, social and emotional skills development, exposure and relation with the nature, physical activity, social interaction and adventurous play. * These pathways were proposed by Dodd et al.(2025) but not directly tested as mechanisms. The findings of the study do not shows outdoor play causes better emotional well-being. Many of the existing outdoor play research remains observational (De Lannoy et al., 2023). === '''Emotion regulation''' === * [[w:Emotional_self-regulation|Emotional self-regulation]] regulation provides an understanding of how children manage emotional situations. Gross (2015) describes emotional regulation as a process involving identification, selection and implementation. Identification concerns deciding whether to regulate an emotion, selection concerns selecting regulation strategy and implementation concerns applying chosen response into practice. * Gross (2015) describes {{ic|Use past tense here}} various forms of emotion regulation like situation selection, situation modification, attention deployment cognitive change and response modulation. During outdoor play a child may experience frustration, conflict, disagreement, uncertainty or changes to their activity. These process provide a psychological framework for understanding how people respond to emotional situations. This model can be applied to these outdoor play situations to consider how children might recognise emotional response, decide how to manage the situation, and act on that decision. * However, this is an application of Gross (2015) theoretical framework to outdoor play. This study did not examine whether outdoor play influence to children's emotion regulation. === '''Working memory and cognitive process''' === * Lee et al. (2025) examined [[w:Working_memory|working memory]] as a mediator between outdoor play and emotional dysregulation among 325 preschool children. Outdoor play was examined across three part of the day: wake-up to noon, noon to 6 pm and 6 pm to bedtime. * The timing of outdoor play was important. More outdoor play between noon and 6 pm was related to lower emotional dysregulation. In contrast, more outdoor play before noon and after 6 pm was related to higher emotional dysregulation (Lee et al. 2025). * Lee et al (2025) found that more outdoor play from noon to 6 pm was associated with better working memory (b=1.61, p<.05) and better working memory was associated with lower emotional dysregulation (b= -0.08, p< .01). This relation between noon to 6pm outdoor play and emotional dysregulation as no longer statistically significant when working memory was included in the analysis. As a result it is reported as full mediation. * The findings suggest that working memory can be one cognitive functioning process involved in the association between outdoor play and emotional regulation. However, statistical mediation in an observational study which does not prove that outdoor play caused better working memory or emotional regulation. Lee et al. (2025) called for further research examining both immediate and longer-term effects of outdoor play on working memory and emotion regulation. {{ic|Add an APA style table caption}} {| class="wikitable" |Key points * Lee et al. (2025) found that associations between outdoor play and emotional dysregulation differed according to time of day. * Working memory statistically mediated the association between afternoon outdoor play and lower emotional dysregulation in Lee et al. (2025). * Dodd et al. (2026) found that more frequent preschool outdoor play predicted lower odds of non-normative internalising and externalising symptom trajectories. |} == '''Social and environmental influences on outdoor play''' == * Outdoor play opportunities are shaped by more than the physical being outdoor space. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) interviewed 40 children aged 6 to 12, with and without disabilities about facilitators and barriers to inclusive outdoor play. The findings were identified personal factor, interacting factors and environmental factors. * Personal factors included experiencing [[w:Autonomy|autonomy]], and children's feelings of physical and social limitations. Interacting factors included making contact, growing up together, and adopting the ways of playing. Environmental factors included parents, outdoor play environments, communities, and time constrains (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). * Opportunities for outdoor play was not experienced in the same way by all children. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) found that children with disabilities experienced more barriers than children with no disability. The challenges were related to making contact with other children, adopting play and the physical play environment. * Ferguson et al. (2025) examined the association between outdoor play and children's social-emotional competence. In a cross sectional analysis of 2568 children, aged 7.1 to 12.6 years from multi-ethnic urban cohort found that outdoor play was associated with better social-emotional competence. However, the association was differed across ethnicity, and weekday or weekend outdoor play. * Ferguson et al. (2025) also examined area deprivation. The relation between outdoor play and social-emotional competence appeared stronger in less deprived area, although the statistical evidence for the differences by deprivation was significantly weak. === '''Social relationship and inclusion''' === * Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified making contact and growing up together as interacting factors in inclusive outdoor play. Some children described familiarity with other children as an easy way to approach, communication and play together. Making contact could also be a barrier when children approaching to another unfamiliar children or joining in play who were already playing. * Children also described the need to adopt games so that children with different abilities could participate. School and communities were identified settings where children with and without disabilities could become familiar with each other (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). * In the recent observational research by Beekhuizen et al. (2026) observed outdoor play among children with and without disability. The researchers found that getting to know each other, making contact and interaction while playing together as process of inclusive outdoor play. These observational findings showed that familiarity and making contact determine social and inclusive play because children chose to play with children they already knew. * Ferguson et al. (2025) also found that the association between outdoor play and social emotional competence was not the same across all ethnic and deprivation groups. In the cross sectional analysis of 2568 children aged 7.1 to 12.6 years from multi ethnic urban cohort, outdoor play was associated with better social-emotional competence. However, associations varies across same ethnic groups and according to weekday or weekend outdoor play. === '''Autonomy, parents and time''' === * Experiencing autonomy was identified as a personal factor in inclusive outdoor play. Children having some independence during outdoor play could promote their sense of independence over what they do and who they play with (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). * Experiencing autonomy also included opportunities to play without direct involvement of parents. Some children with disabilities described wanting to play outside independently, although parental support could make outdoor play possible (Beekhuizen et al., 2025) * Parents were identified as an environmental factors. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) found that parental involvement could support children's participation in outdoor play, specially when child needed help to access or participate in outdoor play. * Time constraints were considered as another environmental factor. Some children with disabilities were described as having limited outdoor play time due to parents work schedule, after-school arrangements or longer travel distance between home and school (Beekhuizen et al., 2025) === '''Outdoor environments and accessibility''' === * The outdoor play environment was identified as an environmental factor that could could support or restrict inclusive outdoor play. Children described both physical and social aspects of outdoor play environments. For example, children discussed the importance of physical and social safety, including traffic near playgrounds and disputes among children. Accessibility was particularly relevant to children with disabilities because opportunities for inclusive outdoor play could be affected by play environments and physical abilities (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). * Pereira et al. (2024) provided evidence about the physical features of outdoor play spaces. Their systematic review included 51 articles representing 45 primary studies aged between 5 to 12 and examined particular environmental features like fixed structures, natural elements, floor marking, loose parts or equipment and available play area. * Pereira et al. (2024) found positive association between outdoor play space features and children's behaviours. However, there was substantial variation between studies so the review could not establish clear conclusions about the effects of particular environmental features. {{ic|Add an APA style table caption}} {| class="wikitable" |+ |Key points * Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified personal, interacting and environmental factors that could facilitate or restrict inclusive outdoor play. * Social relationships and familiarity affected participation, with children with disabilities reporting more barriers to inclusive outdoor play (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). * Associations between outdoor play and social-emotional competence varied across some population groups and play contexts (Ferguson et al., 2025). |} == '''What does recent research show about outdoor play and children's emotional well-being?''' == * Recent research has examined various aspects of outdoor play and children's emotional well-being and provides mixed evidence. These include emotional dysregulation (Lee et al., 2025), social-emotional competence (Ferguson et al., 2025), positive and negative affect (Poulos et al., 2026), and internalising and externalising symptoms (Dodd et al., 2026). * Ferguson et al. (2025) found that more frequent outdoor play was associated with better social-emotional competence. However, the associations varied across some ethnic groups and according to whether outdoor play occurred on school days or weekends. * Dodd et al. (2026) provides longitudinal evidence from 4,151 children from the Growing Up in Scotland study. Children who played outdoors more frequently between approximately 2 and 4 years of age were more likely to follow a trajectory of low and stable internalising and externalising symptoms through to age 8. * Poulos et al. (2026) examined children's emotional state immediately after recess during hot weather. Among 317 children in years 4 and 5, the positive effect was higher after outdoor recess and gymnasium recess than after classroom recess. There were no significant differences in negative affect between the three recess settings. * Together, these studies show evidence of associations between outdoor play or outdoor recess and several aspects of emotional well-being. However, the studies did not show the common effect because the study differ in children's ages, research designs, measures of outdoor play, and emotional outcomes. === '''Consistency of recent research findings''' === * Recent findings do not show the same effect across all outcomes. Ferguson et al. (2025) found that more frequent outdoor play was associated with lower total difficulties and greater prosocial behaviour. In contrast, Davenport et al. (2024) found that most associations between outdoor play and the physical, cognitive and social-emotional developmental indicators examined were not statistically significant. Therefore, the recent studies have not found significant association across all developmental outcomes. * Findings can also differ according to the emotional outcome being measured. Poulos et al. (2026) found higher positive affect after outdoor and gymnasium recess than after classroom recess, but no significant differences in negative affect between the three recess settings. Lee et al. (2025) found that lower emotional dysregulation associated with greater afternoon outdoor play but higher emotional dysregulation is associated with greater outdoor play earlier and later in the day. * Dodd et al. (2026) provides longer-term evidence. More frequent outdoor play during the preschool years predicted lower odds of belonging to the increasing or decreasing internalising and externalising symptom trajectory groups, relative to the normative low and stable group. This shows an association between early outdoor play and mental-health symptom trajectories across childhood rather than an emotional outcome measured at one point in time. * Associations may also vary across children and outdoor play contexts. Ferguson et al. (2025) reported differences according to ethnicity and whether outdoor play occurred on school days or weekends. * Recent findings suggest that associations between outdoor play and emotional well-being are not the same across all outcomes, children and play contexts. The studies differ in children's age, research designs, measures of outdoor play, and emotional outcomes. Thus, findings should not be treated as evidence of one single effect. === '''Strengths and limitations of current research''' === * Longitudinal research strengthens the evidence concerning temporal relationship. Dodd et al. (2026) analysed 4,151 children from the Growing Up in Scotland study. Outdoor play was measured at approximately 2, 3 and 4 years of age, while internalising and externalising symptoms were measured at approximately 4, 5, 6 and 8 years. This allowed the researchers to examine whether early outdoor play predicted different mental-health symptom trajectories across childhood. * Although, longitudinal evidence does not establish cause and effect. Dodd et al. (2026) identified reliance on parent report measures as a key limitation, while Lee et al. (2025) also discussed about the possibility of reverse causation when interpreting associations between the timing of outdoor play and emotional dysregulation. * Measurement of outdoor play is another important consideration. Davenport et al. (2024) examined both parent reported and device measured outdoor play and also tested whether associations were independent of outdoor moderate to vigorous physical activity. This approach distinguishes outdoor play from outdoor physical activity rather than interchangeable measures. * Limitations are also present across the wider outdoor play literature. De Lannoy et al. (2023) identified 275 Canadian outdoor play publications and found that cross sectional study design was most common. Mental and emotional development had received less research attention in comparison to physical health and development. {| class="wikitable" |+Table 2. Comparison of recent research !Study !Research method !Research strength !Limitation |- | <small>Lee et al. (2025)</small> |Observational; 6 month follow-up |Examined the timing of outdoor play and tested working memory as a statistical mediator of the association with emotional dysregulation. |Observational mediation cannot establish causation; the authors also considered possible reverse causation when interpreting timing-related findings. |- |Ferguson et al. (2025) |Cross sectional; multi ethnic urban cohort (N=2,568) |Large sample allowed associations to be examined across population groups and school-day/weekend outdoor play. |Cross-sectional design cannot establish temporal direction; associations also differed across some groups and play contexts. |- |Davenport et al. (2024) |Observational; preschool sample (N=107) |Used both parent-reported and device-measured outdoor play and distinguished outdoor play from outdoor moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) |Small sample , and most tested associations with developmental outcomes were not statistically significant. |- |Dodd et al. (2026) |Longitudinal cohort (N = 4,151) |Outdoor play was measured in the preschool years before later internalising and externalising symptom trajectories. |Outdoor play and symptoms relied on parent reported measures, and the observational design does not establish conclusions. |- |Poulos et al. (2026) |Recess comparison study (N=317) |Compared children's positive and negative affect following outdoor, gymnasium and classroom recess rather than using outdoor recess without a comparison setting. |Examined immediate affect during an extreme-heat context; higher positive affect was also found after gymnasium recess, so the result was not specific to outdoor recess. |} As shown in table 2, the recent evidence has different methodological strengths and limitations. Longitudinal data provide stronger evidence about temporal ordering than cross-sectional studies, while the use of parent-reported and device-measured outdoor play addresses some measurement concerns. However, much of the evidence remains observational, several studies rely on parent-reported measures, and differences in emotional outcomes and play contexts limit the direct comparison between studies.   {| class="wikitable" |Key points * Recent studies report positive, mixed and non-significant findings across different emotional outcomes and measures of outdoor play (Davenport et al., 2024; Ferguson et al., 2025). * Lee et al. (2025) and Dodd et al. (2026) found associations across different emotional outcomes and time frames, from emotional dysregulation to later symptom trajectories. * Differences in study design, measurement, children's age and play context mean the findings should not be interpreted as one consistent effect of outdoor play on emotional well-being. |} == '''How do families, communities and schools support outdoor play opportunities?''' == * Opportunities for outdoor play are influenced by children's social and physical environments. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified parents, outdoor play environments, communities and time constraints as environmental factors that could act as facilitators or barriers to inclusive outdoor play. * Support for outdoor play also involves whether children can participate with other children. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified experiencing autonomy, growing up together, making contact and adapting ways of playing as factors involved in inclusive outdoor play. * The 2025 Position Statement on Active Outdoor Play recommends increasing opportunities for active outdoor play in settings where people live, learn, work and play. It also emphasises collaboration across sectors, settings and societies to support equitable access to active outdoor play (Lee et al., 2025). === '''Families''' === * Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified parents as an environmental factor in inclusive outdoor play. Children with disabilities described parents as important in encouraging participation and, for some children, helping to explain their disability to other children. * Experiencing autonomy was identified as an important personal factor. Some children with disabilities wanted their parents to allow them freedom during outdoor play. Some preferred their parents not to accompany them to the playground, while others were comfortable with parents remaining at a reasonable distance (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). * These findings indicate that parental support and children's autonomy can both be relevant to opportunities for outdoor play. For some children with disabilities, support could be necessary for participation while opportunities to play more independently were also valued (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). * Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified parental support as important for facilitating positive inclusive play experiences. The authors also recommended providing children and parents with knowledge about disabilities and possible adaptations that can support participation * Family level opportunities also need to be interpreted alongside the time constraints. Some children attending special education described long journeys between school and home that reduced the time available for outdoor play (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). This means that opportunities for outdoor play cannot be interpreted only in terms of children's or parents' preferences. === '''Communities''' === * Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified communities and the outdoor play environment as environmental factors in inclusive outdoor play. Children described physically and socially safe playgrounds as important. While barriers included structure of playgrounds that made participation difficult for some children with disabilities. * The social environment of a community was also important. Children with disabilities described smaller communities, such as villages and schools, the places where other children and parents could become more familiar with disability. This familiarity was associated with greater acceptance and stronger connections with other children (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). * Recent observational research also shows that physical access alone does not explain inclusive outdoor play. Beekhuizen et al. (2026) observed 63 children with and without disabilities during six inclusive outdoor play sessions and assessed both children's playfulness and environmental supportiveness. Children with disabilities showed significantly lower playfulness scores indicating that opportunities for inclusive play were not experienced equally. * The 2025 Position Statement on Active Outdoor Play recommends collaboration across sectors, settings and societies to preserve, promote and value equitable access to active outdoor play. This places responsibility for outdoor play opportunities across communities and wider systems rather than on children and families alone (Lee et al., 2025). === '''Schools''' === * Schools can provide opportunities for children with and without disabilities to become familiar with one another. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified growing up together and making contact as interacting factors in inclusive outdoor play. Children described familiarity with other children as making contact easier. * School circumstances can also affect the time and opportunities available for outdoor play. Some children attending special primary education described long travel times between school and home as reducing the time available to play outdoors. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified these experiences under time constraints. * Recess provides another school setting in which children's emotional experiences have been examined. Poulos et al. (2026) studied 317 Year 4 and 5 children during extreme heat weather and found significantly higher positive affect after outdoor and gymnasium recess than after classroom recess. There were no significant differences in negative affect between the three recess settings. * Poulos et al. (2026) identified implications for school health, policy and equity, including the need for heat adaptive infrastructure to support access to recess environments during extreme heat. However, the findings do not show that outdoor recess is always better than indoor recess because positive affect was also higher following gymnasium recess. Quiz {{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Quiz}} <quiz display=simple> {Children who have access to the same outdoor playground may still have different opportunities to participate in play. |type="()"} + True - False </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} {{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Quiz}} <quiz display=simple> {Outdoor play has the same relationship with children's emotional well-being regardless of how door play or emotional well being is measured. |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} {| class="wikitable" |1. Children who have access to the same outdoor playground may still have different opportunities to participate in play. True False 2. Outdoor play has the same relationship with children's emotional well-being regardless of how door play or emotional well being is measured. True False |} {| class="wikitable" |Scenario Two primary school aged children A and B enjoy playing outdoors. They both lived near the same playground. Child A was very familiar with the playground and knows several other children who play there and easily join the games. While child B has disability, uses mobility device and does not know other children at playground. Some parts of the playground are difficult to access and joining other children who are already playing can also be challenging. Child B's parents can provide support, although the child also prefers to play more independently. Consider both children can access the same playground, but do they have same level opportunities to take part in outdoor play? |} '''''<u>Note: Answers to the quiz is 1: True and 2 False</u>''''' == '''Conclusion''' == * Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being are measured in different ways across recent research. Outdoor play is not equivalent to outdoor physical activity, while emotional outcomes include emotional dysregulation, social-emotional competence, positive and negative affect, and internalising and externalising symptoms. These differences need to be considered when findings across studies are compared. * Research also provides mixed evidence about how outdoor play may be related to emotional well-being. Gross's (2015) emotion-regulation framework can be applied to emotional situations experienced during play, but it does not show that outdoor play improves emotion regulation. Lee et al. (2025) provides more direct evidence of a possible cognitive process, with working memory statistically mediating the association between afternoon outdoor play and lower emotional dysregulation. However, this observational finding does not establish causation. * Recent findings are not consistent across all outcomes or contexts. Ferguson et al. (2025) reported associations with better social-emotional competence, Dodd et al. (2026) found longitudinal associations with internalising and externalising symptom trajectories, and Poulos et al. (2026) found differences in positive but not negative affect following recess. In contrast, most associations examined by Davenport et al. (2024) were not statistically significant. * Recent findings are not consistent across all outcomes or contexts. Ferguson et al. (2025) reported associations with better social-emotional competence, Dodd et al. (2026) found longitudinal associations with internalising and externalising symptom trajectories, and Poulos et al. (2026) found differences in positive but not negative affect following recess. In contrast, most associations examined by Davenport et al. (2024) were not statistically significant. * Overall, current research supports an association between outdoor play and some aspects of children's emotional well-being but does not establish one consistent effect. Differences in measurement, research design, children and play contexts remain important when interpreting the evidence. ==See also== {{ic|Use bullet points as shown in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]}} https://www-taylorfrancis-com.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/books/mono/10.4324/9781003349655/right-child-play-naomi-lott Book Chapter, 2 {{ic|Move to References and cite}} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotional_dysregulation<nowiki/>- Wikipedia article {{ic|Use an internal links as shown in Tutorial 2}} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autonomy<nowiki/>- Wikipedia article {{ic|Use an internal links as shown in Tutorial 2}} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Longitudinal_study<nowiki/>-Wikipedia article {{ic|Use an internal links as shown in Tutorial 2}} [[Cognitive psychology|https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Cognitive_psychology]]-Wikipedia article https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affordance<nowiki/>-Wikipedia article {{ic|Use an internal links as shown in Tutorial 2}} ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Beekhuizen, R. Q., Bolster, E. A. M., Gorter, J. W., Henry, N. L., Visser, K., Wittink, H., Kotte, E. M. W., Sol, M. E., & Bloemen, M. A. T. (2025). Play Together? Unveiling Facilitators and Barriers to Inclusive Outdoor Play for Dutch Children With and Without Disabilities: A Qualitative Study. Child: Care, Health & Development, 51(6), Article e70154. https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.70154 Biino, V., Pesce, C., & Martins, C. (2025). Motor Skill Development at Preschool Age in Girls and Boys: The Role of Outdoor Free Play. Children, 12(5), Article 594. https://doi.org/10.3390/children12050594 Davenport, C., Kuzik, N., Larouche, R., & Carson, V. (2025). The Associations Between Parental-Reported and Device-Based Measured Outdoor Play and Health Indicators of Physical, Cognitive, and Social–Emotional Development in Preschool-Aged Children. Pediatric Exercise Science, 37(2), 102–111. https://doi.org/10.1123/pes.2023-0119 de Lannoy, L., Barbeau, K., Seguin, N., & Tremblay, M. S. (2023). Scoping review of children’s and youth’s outdoor play publications in Canada. Chronic Diseases in Canada, 43(1), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.24095/hpcdp.43.1.01 Dodd, H. F., Cordwell, K., Hesketh, K., Johnstone, A., de la Torre-Luque, A., & McCrorie, P. (2026). Early outdoor play predicts trajectories of child mental health in a population-based cohort. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.70175 Ferguson, M., Teyhan, A., Lovell, R., Dodd, H., Wheeler, B., & McEachan, R. (2025). The association between park visits, outdoor play and child social-emotional competency in a multi-ethnic, urban cohort. Wellbeing, Space and Society, 9, Article 100293. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wss.2025.100293 Gross, J. J. (2015). Emotion Regulation: Current Status and Future Prospects. Psychological Inquiry, 26(1), 1–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/1047840X.2014.940781 Lee, E.-Y., de Lannoy, L., Kim, Y.-B., Rathod, A., James, M. E., Lopes, O., Nasrallah, B., Thankarajah, A., Adjei-Boadi, D., de Barros, M. I. A., Duncan, S., Miller, R. M., Mygind, L., Vanderloo, L. M., Wang, P.-Y., & Tremblay, M. S. (2025). 2025 Position statement on active outdoor play. The International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 22(1), Article 117. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12966-025-01813-9 Lee, J. J., Flouri, E., & Jackson, Y. (2025). The Role of Timing and Amount of Outdoor Play in Emotional Dysregulation in Preschool Children. Child: Care, Health & Development, 51(1), Article e70020. https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.70020 Morgenthaler, T., Lynch, H., Loebach, J., Pentland, D., & Schulze, C. (2024). Using the Theory of Affordances to Understand Environment–Play Transactions: Environmental Taxonomy of Outdoor Play Space Features—A Scoping Review. The American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 78(4), Article 7804185120. https://doi.org/10.5014/ajot.2024.050606 Pereira, J. V., Vila-Nova, F., Veiga, G., Lopes, F., & Cordovil, R. (2024). Associations between outdoor play features and children’s behavior and health: A systematic review. Health & Place, 87, Article 103235. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healthplace.2024.103235 Poulos, A., Hassan, U. A., Wilson, K., Price, P. M., Vanos, J., & Quilla, J. (2026). Differences in Schoolchildren’s Emotional State After Indoor Versus Outdoor Recess in Extreme‐Heat Weather. The Journal of School Health, 96(4), Article e70135. https://doi.org/10.1111/josh.70135 }} ==External links== {{ic|Use bullet points as shown in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]}} https://www.child-encyclopedia.com/outdoor-play<nowiki/>-Encyclopedia in early childhood development https://www.outdoorplaycanada.ca/wp-content/uploads/2026/03/The-2025-AOP10-Position-Statement.pdf<nowiki/>-Position Statement https://www.who.int/news/item/24-04-2019-to-grow-up-healthy-children-need-to-sit-less-and-play-more<nowiki/>-World Health Organisation [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Children]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Nature]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Well-being]] 5fl9rrvz6u0odtikosmmwn560vxbdam 2834340 2834339 2026-09-23T12:52:03Z Mymunu 3106327 /* Understanding outdoor play and children's emotional well-being */ 2834340 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being:<br>How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {| class="wikitable" |'''Case study: part 1''' '''Imagine this....'''[[File:School children happily playing in playground.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' ''Children engaged in outdoor play.'']]A child arrives at playground and joins a group of children who are already playing. The children are making their own game and deciding the rules as they play. At first, child enjoys choosing where and what to play and moving between the different activities. During the game, another child changes the rules of the game and argument breaks out. The child becomes frustrated and avoids the activity. After watching for short time, the child returns, suggests for new idea to continue game and re-joins the group. How might experiences like this during outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being? Emotional regulation theory provides one way of understanding on how children may respond to emotional situations during play (see figure 1) (Gross, 2015). |} Outdoor play can involve more than physical movements. It is more than simply being outside and engage in the activities across playgrounds, gardens, streets and natural spaces. Outdoor play involves exploration, social interaction, choice and challenge and engagement with surrounding environment (Dodd et al.,2026; Pereira et al.,2024). These experiences may create emotional situations in which children need to respond to frustration, disagreement, uncertainty or excitement. Gross (2015) [[emotional regulation]] theory provides a [[psychological]] explanation for how children may recognise and respond to these emotional situations. Outdoor play experiences are also shaped by the environment where play takes place. Experiences are shaped by the different opportunities provided by different physical and social environments, which means the same outdoor space may not provide the same experience for every child (Morgenthaler et al.,2024).This chapter examines how [[Emotional regulation|emotional,]] [[Cognitive psychology|cognitive]], social and environmental processes may help explain the relationship between outdoor play and children's emotional well-being. {| class="wikitable" | ;[[File:Bulb Idea Flat Icon GIF Animation.gif|alt=Focus questions|left|100x100px|thumb]] '''Focus questions''' * What are outdoor play and children's emotional well-being? * How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being? * How do social and environmental conditions shape children's outdoor play experiences? * How can families, communities and school support outdoor play opportunities that may benefit children's emotional well-being? |} == '''Understanding outdoor play and children's emotional well-being''' == [[File:Water-outdoor-people-girl-play-boy-938233.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. ''Visualise outdoor play as providing children with opportunities to explore, make choices, interact with others and respond to changing situations through activities such as water play.''|265x265px]] Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being are not measured as single and consistent concepts across recent research. Outdoor play may be examined as voluntary and intrinsically motivated activity, self directed play, parent reported outdoor play, or device-measured outdoor play activity. It should also be distinguished from outdoor moderate to vigorous physical activity because these measures do not represent the same behaviour (Davenport et al., 2025). Children's emotional well-being is also examined through different outcomes, that includes [[emotional regulation]], social-emotional competence, positive and negative affect, and internalising or externalising symptoms. These differences are significant because outdoor play and emotional well-being are not measured as single, consistent constructs across research. === Outdoor play === Outdoor play is voluntary and and intrinsically motivated activity that occurs in outdoor environments like gardens, playgrounds, parks and natural spaces (Dodd et al., 2026). Free play can be also self-directed, which means children to freely interact with the environment and have autonomy to make choices about their activities (Biino et al., 2025). Outdoor play should not be treated as same as outdoor physical activity. Davenport et al., (2025) examined outdoor play separately from outdoor moderate- to- vigorous physical activity (MVPA). This distinction is significant because research on children's outdoor play is not necessarily measuring the same behaviour as research on the intensity of physical activity. === Children's emotional well-being === Children's emotional well-being is not represented by single common outcome across recent outdoor play research. Emotional dysregulation has been examined in relation to the amount and timing of outdoor play (Lee et al., 2025), while social-emotional competence includes difficulties and [[Prosocial behavior/Keywords/Definitions|prosocial behaviour]] (Ferguson et al., 2025). Other studies have examined positive and negative affect following recess (Poulos et al., 2026) and trajectories of internalising and externalising symptoms across childhood (Dodd et al., 2026). These outcomes represent different aspects and timeframes of emotional functioning, so they should not be treated as equivalent when findings are compared. '''Table 1''' ''Emotional outcomes examined in recent research on outdoor play and children's emotional well-being'' {| class="wikitable" |+ !Study !Outcome examined !What the outcome represent |- |Lee et al. (2025) |Emotional dysregulation |Difficulties in emotional regulation; examined in relation to the amount of timing and outdoor play |- |Ferguson et al. (2025) |Social-emotional competence |Social and emotional difficulties and prosocial behaviour |- |Poulos et al. (2026) |Positive and negative affect |Children's affect following recess in different settings |- |Dodd et al. (2026) |Internalising and externalising symptoms |Internalising: emotional symptoms and peer problems Externalising: conduct problems and hyperactivity- inattention |} As shown in Table 1, the studies do not measure the same aspect or time frame of children's emotional functioning. Affect immediately following recess should not be treated as equivalent to emotional dysregulation measured over time or trajectories of internalising and externalising symptoms across childhood. This difference need to be considered when examining whether outdoor play is associated with children's emotional well-being. '''Case study: part 2''' ''What is being measured?'' {| class="wikitable" | valign="top" |[[File:Children marbles.jpg|thumb|177x177px|'''Figure 3'''. ''Children may experience different emotional responses during social outdoor play'']]The child in the case study part 1 becomes frustrated when the rules of the game change. This immediate emotional response is different from a longer-term pattern of emotional dysregulation or internalising symptoms. When research findings are compared, it is important to consider which aspect of emotional well-being is measured. {{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}} <quiz display=simple> {A child's positive or negative affect immediately after recess represents the same emotional outcome as longer-term internalising or externalising symptoms. |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} |} == '''How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being?''' == Outdoor play may be related to children's emotional well-being through emotional, cognitive, and social processes. Possible pathways discussed in the recent research include [[Emotional regulation|emotion regulation]], working memory, social interaction, physical activity, connection with the nature and adventurous play. However, these pathways have not all been directly tested as mechanisms, and many of the outdoor play literatures remain observational (Dodd et al., 2026; de Lannoy et al.,2023). Psychological theory can help to explain how and why outdoor play experiences may influence children's emotional well-being. Although the evidence does not yet show that psychological processes cause the relationship between outdoor play and children's emotional well-being. === '''Emotion regulation''' === * [[w:Emotional_self-regulation|Emotional self-regulation]] regulation provides an understanding of how children manage emotional situations. Gross (2015) describes emotional regulation as a process involving identification, selection and implementation. Identification concerns deciding whether to regulate an emotion, selection concerns selecting regulation strategy and implementation concerns applying chosen response into practice. * Gross (2015) describes {{ic|Use past tense here}} various forms of emotion regulation like situation selection, situation modification, attention deployment cognitive change and response modulation. During outdoor play a child may experience frustration, conflict, disagreement, uncertainty or changes to their activity. These process provide a psychological framework for understanding how people respond to emotional situations. This model can be applied to these outdoor play situations to consider how children might recognise emotional response, decide how to manage the situation, and act on that decision. * However, this is an application of Gross (2015) theoretical framework to outdoor play. This study did not examine whether outdoor play influence to children's emotion regulation. === '''Working memory and cognitive process''' === * Lee et al. (2025) examined [[w:Working_memory|working memory]] as a mediator between outdoor play and emotional dysregulation among 325 preschool children. Outdoor play was examined across three part of the day: wake-up to noon, noon to 6 pm and 6 pm to bedtime. * The timing of outdoor play was important. More outdoor play between noon and 6 pm was related to lower emotional dysregulation. In contrast, more outdoor play before noon and after 6 pm was related to higher emotional dysregulation (Lee et al. 2025). * Lee et al (2025) found that more outdoor play from noon to 6 pm was associated with better working memory (b=1.61, p<.05) and better working memory was associated with lower emotional dysregulation (b= -0.08, p< .01). This relation between noon to 6pm outdoor play and emotional dysregulation as no longer statistically significant when working memory was included in the analysis. As a result it is reported as full mediation. * The findings suggest that working memory can be one cognitive functioning process involved in the association between outdoor play and emotional regulation. However, statistical mediation in an observational study which does not prove that outdoor play caused better working memory or emotional regulation. Lee et al. (2025) called for further research examining both immediate and longer-term effects of outdoor play on working memory and emotion regulation. {{ic|Add an APA style table caption}} {| class="wikitable" |Key points * Lee et al. (2025) found that associations between outdoor play and emotional dysregulation differed according to time of day. * Working memory statistically mediated the association between afternoon outdoor play and lower emotional dysregulation in Lee et al. (2025). * Dodd et al. (2026) found that more frequent preschool outdoor play predicted lower odds of non-normative internalising and externalising symptom trajectories. |} == '''Social and environmental influences on outdoor play''' == * Outdoor play opportunities are shaped by more than the physical being outdoor space. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) interviewed 40 children aged 6 to 12, with and without disabilities about facilitators and barriers to inclusive outdoor play. The findings were identified personal factor, interacting factors and environmental factors. * Personal factors included experiencing [[w:Autonomy|autonomy]], and children's feelings of physical and social limitations. Interacting factors included making contact, growing up together, and adopting the ways of playing. Environmental factors included parents, outdoor play environments, communities, and time constrains (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). * Opportunities for outdoor play was not experienced in the same way by all children. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) found that children with disabilities experienced more barriers than children with no disability. The challenges were related to making contact with other children, adopting play and the physical play environment. * Ferguson et al. (2025) examined the association between outdoor play and children's social-emotional competence. In a cross sectional analysis of 2568 children, aged 7.1 to 12.6 years from multi-ethnic urban cohort found that outdoor play was associated with better social-emotional competence. However, the association was differed across ethnicity, and weekday or weekend outdoor play. * Ferguson et al. (2025) also examined area deprivation. The relation between outdoor play and social-emotional competence appeared stronger in less deprived area, although the statistical evidence for the differences by deprivation was significantly weak. === '''Social relationship and inclusion''' === * Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified making contact and growing up together as interacting factors in inclusive outdoor play. Some children described familiarity with other children as an easy way to approach, communication and play together. Making contact could also be a barrier when children approaching to another unfamiliar children or joining in play who were already playing. * Children also described the need to adopt games so that children with different abilities could participate. School and communities were identified settings where children with and without disabilities could become familiar with each other (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). * In the recent observational research by Beekhuizen et al. (2026) observed outdoor play among children with and without disability. The researchers found that getting to know each other, making contact and interaction while playing together as process of inclusive outdoor play. These observational findings showed that familiarity and making contact determine social and inclusive play because children chose to play with children they already knew. * Ferguson et al. (2025) also found that the association between outdoor play and social emotional competence was not the same across all ethnic and deprivation groups. In the cross sectional analysis of 2568 children aged 7.1 to 12.6 years from multi ethnic urban cohort, outdoor play was associated with better social-emotional competence. However, associations varies across same ethnic groups and according to weekday or weekend outdoor play. === '''Autonomy, parents and time''' === * Experiencing autonomy was identified as a personal factor in inclusive outdoor play. Children having some independence during outdoor play could promote their sense of independence over what they do and who they play with (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). * Experiencing autonomy also included opportunities to play without direct involvement of parents. Some children with disabilities described wanting to play outside independently, although parental support could make outdoor play possible (Beekhuizen et al., 2025) * Parents were identified as an environmental factors. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) found that parental involvement could support children's participation in outdoor play, specially when child needed help to access or participate in outdoor play. * Time constraints were considered as another environmental factor. Some children with disabilities were described as having limited outdoor play time due to parents work schedule, after-school arrangements or longer travel distance between home and school (Beekhuizen et al., 2025) === '''Outdoor environments and accessibility''' === * The outdoor play environment was identified as an environmental factor that could could support or restrict inclusive outdoor play. Children described both physical and social aspects of outdoor play environments. For example, children discussed the importance of physical and social safety, including traffic near playgrounds and disputes among children. Accessibility was particularly relevant to children with disabilities because opportunities for inclusive outdoor play could be affected by play environments and physical abilities (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). * Pereira et al. (2024) provided evidence about the physical features of outdoor play spaces. Their systematic review included 51 articles representing 45 primary studies aged between 5 to 12 and examined particular environmental features like fixed structures, natural elements, floor marking, loose parts or equipment and available play area. * Pereira et al. (2024) found positive association between outdoor play space features and children's behaviours. However, there was substantial variation between studies so the review could not establish clear conclusions about the effects of particular environmental features. {{ic|Add an APA style table caption}} {| class="wikitable" |+ |Key points * Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified personal, interacting and environmental factors that could facilitate or restrict inclusive outdoor play. * Social relationships and familiarity affected participation, with children with disabilities reporting more barriers to inclusive outdoor play (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). * Associations between outdoor play and social-emotional competence varied across some population groups and play contexts (Ferguson et al., 2025). |} == '''What does recent research show about outdoor play and children's emotional well-being?''' == * Recent research has examined various aspects of outdoor play and children's emotional well-being and provides mixed evidence. These include emotional dysregulation (Lee et al., 2025), social-emotional competence (Ferguson et al., 2025), positive and negative affect (Poulos et al., 2026), and internalising and externalising symptoms (Dodd et al., 2026). * Ferguson et al. (2025) found that more frequent outdoor play was associated with better social-emotional competence. However, the associations varied across some ethnic groups and according to whether outdoor play occurred on school days or weekends. * Dodd et al. (2026) provides longitudinal evidence from 4,151 children from the Growing Up in Scotland study. Children who played outdoors more frequently between approximately 2 and 4 years of age were more likely to follow a trajectory of low and stable internalising and externalising symptoms through to age 8. * Poulos et al. (2026) examined children's emotional state immediately after recess during hot weather. Among 317 children in years 4 and 5, the positive effect was higher after outdoor recess and gymnasium recess than after classroom recess. There were no significant differences in negative affect between the three recess settings. * Together, these studies show evidence of associations between outdoor play or outdoor recess and several aspects of emotional well-being. However, the studies did not show the common effect because the study differ in children's ages, research designs, measures of outdoor play, and emotional outcomes. === '''Consistency of recent research findings''' === * Recent findings do not show the same effect across all outcomes. Ferguson et al. (2025) found that more frequent outdoor play was associated with lower total difficulties and greater prosocial behaviour. In contrast, Davenport et al. (2024) found that most associations between outdoor play and the physical, cognitive and social-emotional developmental indicators examined were not statistically significant. Therefore, the recent studies have not found significant association across all developmental outcomes. * Findings can also differ according to the emotional outcome being measured. Poulos et al. (2026) found higher positive affect after outdoor and gymnasium recess than after classroom recess, but no significant differences in negative affect between the three recess settings. Lee et al. (2025) found that lower emotional dysregulation associated with greater afternoon outdoor play but higher emotional dysregulation is associated with greater outdoor play earlier and later in the day. * Dodd et al. (2026) provides longer-term evidence. More frequent outdoor play during the preschool years predicted lower odds of belonging to the increasing or decreasing internalising and externalising symptom trajectory groups, relative to the normative low and stable group. This shows an association between early outdoor play and mental-health symptom trajectories across childhood rather than an emotional outcome measured at one point in time. * Associations may also vary across children and outdoor play contexts. Ferguson et al. (2025) reported differences according to ethnicity and whether outdoor play occurred on school days or weekends. * Recent findings suggest that associations between outdoor play and emotional well-being are not the same across all outcomes, children and play contexts. The studies differ in children's age, research designs, measures of outdoor play, and emotional outcomes. Thus, findings should not be treated as evidence of one single effect. === '''Strengths and limitations of current research''' === * Longitudinal research strengthens the evidence concerning temporal relationship. Dodd et al. (2026) analysed 4,151 children from the Growing Up in Scotland study. Outdoor play was measured at approximately 2, 3 and 4 years of age, while internalising and externalising symptoms were measured at approximately 4, 5, 6 and 8 years. This allowed the researchers to examine whether early outdoor play predicted different mental-health symptom trajectories across childhood. * Although, longitudinal evidence does not establish cause and effect. Dodd et al. (2026) identified reliance on parent report measures as a key limitation, while Lee et al. (2025) also discussed about the possibility of reverse causation when interpreting associations between the timing of outdoor play and emotional dysregulation. * Measurement of outdoor play is another important consideration. Davenport et al. (2024) examined both parent reported and device measured outdoor play and also tested whether associations were independent of outdoor moderate to vigorous physical activity. This approach distinguishes outdoor play from outdoor physical activity rather than interchangeable measures. * Limitations are also present across the wider outdoor play literature. De Lannoy et al. (2023) identified 275 Canadian outdoor play publications and found that cross sectional study design was most common. Mental and emotional development had received less research attention in comparison to physical health and development. {| class="wikitable" |+Table 2. Comparison of recent research !Study !Research method !Research strength !Limitation |- | <small>Lee et al. (2025)</small> |Observational; 6 month follow-up |Examined the timing of outdoor play and tested working memory as a statistical mediator of the association with emotional dysregulation. |Observational mediation cannot establish causation; the authors also considered possible reverse causation when interpreting timing-related findings. |- |Ferguson et al. (2025) |Cross sectional; multi ethnic urban cohort (N=2,568) |Large sample allowed associations to be examined across population groups and school-day/weekend outdoor play. |Cross-sectional design cannot establish temporal direction; associations also differed across some groups and play contexts. |- |Davenport et al. (2024) |Observational; preschool sample (N=107) |Used both parent-reported and device-measured outdoor play and distinguished outdoor play from outdoor moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) |Small sample , and most tested associations with developmental outcomes were not statistically significant. |- |Dodd et al. (2026) |Longitudinal cohort (N = 4,151) |Outdoor play was measured in the preschool years before later internalising and externalising symptom trajectories. |Outdoor play and symptoms relied on parent reported measures, and the observational design does not establish conclusions. |- |Poulos et al. (2026) |Recess comparison study (N=317) |Compared children's positive and negative affect following outdoor, gymnasium and classroom recess rather than using outdoor recess without a comparison setting. |Examined immediate affect during an extreme-heat context; higher positive affect was also found after gymnasium recess, so the result was not specific to outdoor recess. |} As shown in table 2, the recent evidence has different methodological strengths and limitations. Longitudinal data provide stronger evidence about temporal ordering than cross-sectional studies, while the use of parent-reported and device-measured outdoor play addresses some measurement concerns. However, much of the evidence remains observational, several studies rely on parent-reported measures, and differences in emotional outcomes and play contexts limit the direct comparison between studies.   {| class="wikitable" |Key points * Recent studies report positive, mixed and non-significant findings across different emotional outcomes and measures of outdoor play (Davenport et al., 2024; Ferguson et al., 2025). * Lee et al. (2025) and Dodd et al. (2026) found associations across different emotional outcomes and time frames, from emotional dysregulation to later symptom trajectories. * Differences in study design, measurement, children's age and play context mean the findings should not be interpreted as one consistent effect of outdoor play on emotional well-being. |} == '''How do families, communities and schools support outdoor play opportunities?''' == * Opportunities for outdoor play are influenced by children's social and physical environments. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified parents, outdoor play environments, communities and time constraints as environmental factors that could act as facilitators or barriers to inclusive outdoor play. * Support for outdoor play also involves whether children can participate with other children. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified experiencing autonomy, growing up together, making contact and adapting ways of playing as factors involved in inclusive outdoor play. * The 2025 Position Statement on Active Outdoor Play recommends increasing opportunities for active outdoor play in settings where people live, learn, work and play. It also emphasises collaboration across sectors, settings and societies to support equitable access to active outdoor play (Lee et al., 2025). === '''Families''' === * Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified parents as an environmental factor in inclusive outdoor play. Children with disabilities described parents as important in encouraging participation and, for some children, helping to explain their disability to other children. * Experiencing autonomy was identified as an important personal factor. Some children with disabilities wanted their parents to allow them freedom during outdoor play. Some preferred their parents not to accompany them to the playground, while others were comfortable with parents remaining at a reasonable distance (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). * These findings indicate that parental support and children's autonomy can both be relevant to opportunities for outdoor play. For some children with disabilities, support could be necessary for participation while opportunities to play more independently were also valued (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). * Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified parental support as important for facilitating positive inclusive play experiences. The authors also recommended providing children and parents with knowledge about disabilities and possible adaptations that can support participation * Family level opportunities also need to be interpreted alongside the time constraints. Some children attending special education described long journeys between school and home that reduced the time available for outdoor play (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). This means that opportunities for outdoor play cannot be interpreted only in terms of children's or parents' preferences. === '''Communities''' === * Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified communities and the outdoor play environment as environmental factors in inclusive outdoor play. Children described physically and socially safe playgrounds as important. While barriers included structure of playgrounds that made participation difficult for some children with disabilities. * The social environment of a community was also important. Children with disabilities described smaller communities, such as villages and schools, the places where other children and parents could become more familiar with disability. This familiarity was associated with greater acceptance and stronger connections with other children (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). * Recent observational research also shows that physical access alone does not explain inclusive outdoor play. Beekhuizen et al. (2026) observed 63 children with and without disabilities during six inclusive outdoor play sessions and assessed both children's playfulness and environmental supportiveness. Children with disabilities showed significantly lower playfulness scores indicating that opportunities for inclusive play were not experienced equally. * The 2025 Position Statement on Active Outdoor Play recommends collaboration across sectors, settings and societies to preserve, promote and value equitable access to active outdoor play. This places responsibility for outdoor play opportunities across communities and wider systems rather than on children and families alone (Lee et al., 2025). === '''Schools''' === * Schools can provide opportunities for children with and without disabilities to become familiar with one another. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified growing up together and making contact as interacting factors in inclusive outdoor play. Children described familiarity with other children as making contact easier. * School circumstances can also affect the time and opportunities available for outdoor play. Some children attending special primary education described long travel times between school and home as reducing the time available to play outdoors. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified these experiences under time constraints. * Recess provides another school setting in which children's emotional experiences have been examined. Poulos et al. (2026) studied 317 Year 4 and 5 children during extreme heat weather and found significantly higher positive affect after outdoor and gymnasium recess than after classroom recess. There were no significant differences in negative affect between the three recess settings. * Poulos et al. (2026) identified implications for school health, policy and equity, including the need for heat adaptive infrastructure to support access to recess environments during extreme heat. However, the findings do not show that outdoor recess is always better than indoor recess because positive affect was also higher following gymnasium recess. Quiz {{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Quiz}} <quiz display=simple> {Children who have access to the same outdoor playground may still have different opportunities to participate in play. |type="()"} + True - False </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} {{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Quiz}} <quiz display=simple> {Outdoor play has the same relationship with children's emotional well-being regardless of how door play or emotional well being is measured. |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} {| class="wikitable" |1. Children who have access to the same outdoor playground may still have different opportunities to participate in play. True False 2. Outdoor play has the same relationship with children's emotional well-being regardless of how door play or emotional well being is measured. True False |} {| class="wikitable" |Scenario Two primary school aged children A and B enjoy playing outdoors. They both lived near the same playground. Child A was very familiar with the playground and knows several other children who play there and easily join the games. While child B has disability, uses mobility device and does not know other children at playground. Some parts of the playground are difficult to access and joining other children who are already playing can also be challenging. Child B's parents can provide support, although the child also prefers to play more independently. Consider both children can access the same playground, but do they have same level opportunities to take part in outdoor play? |} '''''<u>Note: Answers to the quiz is 1: True and 2 False</u>''''' == '''Conclusion''' == * Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being are measured in different ways across recent research. Outdoor play is not equivalent to outdoor physical activity, while emotional outcomes include emotional dysregulation, social-emotional competence, positive and negative affect, and internalising and externalising symptoms. These differences need to be considered when findings across studies are compared. * Research also provides mixed evidence about how outdoor play may be related to emotional well-being. Gross's (2015) emotion-regulation framework can be applied to emotional situations experienced during play, but it does not show that outdoor play improves emotion regulation. Lee et al. (2025) provides more direct evidence of a possible cognitive process, with working memory statistically mediating the association between afternoon outdoor play and lower emotional dysregulation. However, this observational finding does not establish causation. * Recent findings are not consistent across all outcomes or contexts. Ferguson et al. (2025) reported associations with better social-emotional competence, Dodd et al. (2026) found longitudinal associations with internalising and externalising symptom trajectories, and Poulos et al. (2026) found differences in positive but not negative affect following recess. In contrast, most associations examined by Davenport et al. (2024) were not statistically significant. * Recent findings are not consistent across all outcomes or contexts. Ferguson et al. (2025) reported associations with better social-emotional competence, Dodd et al. (2026) found longitudinal associations with internalising and externalising symptom trajectories, and Poulos et al. (2026) found differences in positive but not negative affect following recess. In contrast, most associations examined by Davenport et al. (2024) were not statistically significant. * Overall, current research supports an association between outdoor play and some aspects of children's emotional well-being but does not establish one consistent effect. Differences in measurement, research design, children and play contexts remain important when interpreting the evidence. ==See also== {{ic|Use bullet points as shown in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]}} https://www-taylorfrancis-com.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/books/mono/10.4324/9781003349655/right-child-play-naomi-lott Book Chapter, 2 {{ic|Move to References and cite}} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotional_dysregulation<nowiki/>- Wikipedia article {{ic|Use an internal links as shown in Tutorial 2}} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autonomy<nowiki/>- Wikipedia article {{ic|Use an internal links as shown in Tutorial 2}} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Longitudinal_study<nowiki/>-Wikipedia article {{ic|Use an internal links as shown in Tutorial 2}} [[Cognitive psychology|https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Cognitive_psychology]]-Wikipedia article https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affordance<nowiki/>-Wikipedia article {{ic|Use an internal links as shown in Tutorial 2}} ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Beekhuizen, R. Q., Bolster, E. A. M., Gorter, J. W., Henry, N. L., Visser, K., Wittink, H., Kotte, E. M. W., Sol, M. E., & Bloemen, M. A. T. (2025). Play Together? Unveiling Facilitators and Barriers to Inclusive Outdoor Play for Dutch Children With and Without Disabilities: A Qualitative Study. Child: Care, Health & Development, 51(6), Article e70154. https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.70154 Biino, V., Pesce, C., & Martins, C. (2025). Motor Skill Development at Preschool Age in Girls and Boys: The Role of Outdoor Free Play. Children, 12(5), Article 594. https://doi.org/10.3390/children12050594 Davenport, C., Kuzik, N., Larouche, R., & Carson, V. (2025). The Associations Between Parental-Reported and Device-Based Measured Outdoor Play and Health Indicators of Physical, Cognitive, and Social–Emotional Development in Preschool-Aged Children. Pediatric Exercise Science, 37(2), 102–111. https://doi.org/10.1123/pes.2023-0119 de Lannoy, L., Barbeau, K., Seguin, N., & Tremblay, M. S. (2023). Scoping review of children’s and youth’s outdoor play publications in Canada. Chronic Diseases in Canada, 43(1), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.24095/hpcdp.43.1.01 Dodd, H. F., Cordwell, K., Hesketh, K., Johnstone, A., de la Torre-Luque, A., & McCrorie, P. (2026). Early outdoor play predicts trajectories of child mental health in a population-based cohort. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.70175 Ferguson, M., Teyhan, A., Lovell, R., Dodd, H., Wheeler, B., & McEachan, R. (2025). The association between park visits, outdoor play and child social-emotional competency in a multi-ethnic, urban cohort. Wellbeing, Space and Society, 9, Article 100293. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wss.2025.100293 Gross, J. J. (2015). Emotion Regulation: Current Status and Future Prospects. Psychological Inquiry, 26(1), 1–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/1047840X.2014.940781 Lee, E.-Y., de Lannoy, L., Kim, Y.-B., Rathod, A., James, M. E., Lopes, O., Nasrallah, B., Thankarajah, A., Adjei-Boadi, D., de Barros, M. I. A., Duncan, S., Miller, R. M., Mygind, L., Vanderloo, L. M., Wang, P.-Y., & Tremblay, M. S. (2025). 2025 Position statement on active outdoor play. The International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 22(1), Article 117. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12966-025-01813-9 Lee, J. J., Flouri, E., & Jackson, Y. (2025). The Role of Timing and Amount of Outdoor Play in Emotional Dysregulation in Preschool Children. Child: Care, Health & Development, 51(1), Article e70020. https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.70020 Morgenthaler, T., Lynch, H., Loebach, J., Pentland, D., & Schulze, C. (2024). Using the Theory of Affordances to Understand Environment–Play Transactions: Environmental Taxonomy of Outdoor Play Space Features—A Scoping Review. The American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 78(4), Article 7804185120. https://doi.org/10.5014/ajot.2024.050606 Pereira, J. V., Vila-Nova, F., Veiga, G., Lopes, F., & Cordovil, R. (2024). Associations between outdoor play features and children’s behavior and health: A systematic review. Health & Place, 87, Article 103235. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healthplace.2024.103235 Poulos, A., Hassan, U. A., Wilson, K., Price, P. M., Vanos, J., & Quilla, J. (2026). Differences in Schoolchildren’s Emotional State After Indoor Versus Outdoor Recess in Extreme‐Heat Weather. The Journal of School Health, 96(4), Article e70135. https://doi.org/10.1111/josh.70135 }} ==External links== {{ic|Use bullet points as shown in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]}} https://www.child-encyclopedia.com/outdoor-play<nowiki/>-Encyclopedia in early childhood development https://www.outdoorplaycanada.ca/wp-content/uploads/2026/03/The-2025-AOP10-Position-Statement.pdf<nowiki/>-Position Statement https://www.who.int/news/item/24-04-2019-to-grow-up-healthy-children-need-to-sit-less-and-play-more<nowiki/>-World Health Organisation [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Children]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Nature]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Well-being]] dl2s2wmirx1vth0d9ymz2izu63wtngg 2834366 2834340 2026-09-24T06:12:41Z Mymunu 3106327 /* Emotion regulation */ 2834366 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being:<br>How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {| class="wikitable" |'''Case study: part 1''' '''Imagine this....'''[[File:School children happily playing in playground.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' ''Children engaged in outdoor play.'']]A child arrives at playground and joins a group of children who are already playing. The children are making their own game and deciding the rules as they play. At first, child enjoys choosing where and what to play and moving between the different activities. During the game, another child changes the rules of the game and argument breaks out. The child becomes frustrated and avoids the activity. After watching for short time, the child returns, suggests for new idea to continue game and re-joins the group. How might experiences like this during outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being? Emotional regulation theory provides one way of understanding on how children may respond to emotional situations during play (see figure 1) (Gross, 2015). |} Outdoor play can involve more than physical movements. It is more than simply being outside and engage in the activities across playgrounds, gardens, streets and natural spaces. Outdoor play involves exploration, social interaction, choice and challenge and engagement with surrounding environment (Dodd et al.,2026; Pereira et al.,2024). These experiences may create emotional situations in which children need to respond to frustration, disagreement, uncertainty or excitement. Gross (2015) [[emotional regulation]] theory provides a [[psychological]] explanation for how children may recognise and respond to these emotional situations. Outdoor play experiences are also shaped by the environment where play takes place. Experiences are shaped by the different opportunities provided by different physical and social environments, which means the same outdoor space may not provide the same experience for every child (Morgenthaler et al.,2024).This chapter examines how [[Emotional regulation|emotional,]] [[Cognitive psychology|cognitive]], social and environmental processes may help explain the relationship between outdoor play and children's emotional well-being. {| class="wikitable" | ;[[File:Bulb Idea Flat Icon GIF Animation.gif|alt=Focus questions|left|100x100px|thumb]] '''Focus questions''' * What are outdoor play and children's emotional well-being? * How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being? * How do social and environmental conditions shape children's outdoor play experiences? * How can families, communities and school support outdoor play opportunities that may benefit children's emotional well-being? |} == '''Understanding outdoor play and children's emotional well-being''' == [[File:Water-outdoor-people-girl-play-boy-938233.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. ''Visualise outdoor play as providing children with opportunities to explore, make choices, interact with others and respond to changing situations through activities such as water play.''|265x265px]] Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being are not measured as single and consistent concepts across recent research. Outdoor play may be examined as voluntary and intrinsically motivated activity, self directed play, parent reported outdoor play, or device-measured outdoor play activity. It should also be distinguished from outdoor moderate to vigorous physical activity because these measures do not represent the same behaviour (Davenport et al., 2025). Children's emotional well-being is also examined through different outcomes, that includes [[emotional regulation]], social-emotional competence, positive and negative affect, and internalising or externalising symptoms. These differences are significant because outdoor play and emotional well-being are not measured as single, consistent constructs across research. === Outdoor play === Outdoor play is voluntary and and intrinsically motivated activity that occurs in outdoor environments like gardens, playgrounds, parks and natural spaces (Dodd et al., 2026). Free play can be also self-directed, which means children to freely interact with the environment and have autonomy to make choices about their activities (Biino et al., 2025). Outdoor play should not be treated as same as outdoor physical activity. Davenport et al., (2025) examined outdoor play separately from outdoor moderate- to- vigorous physical activity (MVPA). This distinction is significant because research on children's outdoor play is not necessarily measuring the same behaviour as research on the intensity of physical activity. === Children's emotional well-being === Children's emotional well-being is not represented by single common outcome across recent outdoor play research. Emotional dysregulation has been examined in relation to the amount and timing of outdoor play (Lee et al., 2025), while social-emotional competence includes difficulties and [[Prosocial behavior/Keywords/Definitions|prosocial behaviour]] (Ferguson et al., 2025). Other studies have examined positive and negative affect following recess (Poulos et al., 2026) and trajectories of internalising and externalising symptoms across childhood (Dodd et al., 2026). These outcomes represent different aspects and timeframes of emotional functioning, so they should not be treated as equivalent when findings are compared. '''Table 1''' ''Emotional outcomes examined in recent research on outdoor play and children's emotional well-being'' {| class="wikitable" |+ !Study !Outcome examined !What the outcome represent |- |Lee et al. (2025) |Emotional dysregulation |Difficulties in emotional regulation; examined in relation to the amount of timing and outdoor play |- |Ferguson et al. (2025) |Social-emotional competence |Social and emotional difficulties and prosocial behaviour |- |Poulos et al. (2026) |Positive and negative affect |Children's affect following recess in different settings |- |Dodd et al. (2026) |Internalising and externalising symptoms |Internalising: emotional symptoms and peer problems Externalising: conduct problems and hyperactivity- inattention |} As shown in Table 1, the studies do not measure the same aspect or time frame of children's emotional functioning. Affect immediately following recess should not be treated as equivalent to emotional dysregulation measured over time or trajectories of internalising and externalising symptoms across childhood. This difference need to be considered when examining whether outdoor play is associated with children's emotional well-being. '''Case study: part 2''' ''What is being measured?'' {| class="wikitable" | valign="top" |[[File:Children marbles.jpg|thumb|177x177px|'''Figure 3'''. ''Children may experience different emotional responses during social outdoor play'']]The child in the case study part 1 becomes frustrated when the rules of the game change. This immediate emotional response is different from a longer-term pattern of emotional dysregulation or internalising symptoms. When research findings are compared, it is important to consider which aspect of emotional well-being is measured. {{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}} <quiz display=simple> {A child's positive or negative affect immediately after recess represents the same emotional outcome as longer-term internalising or externalising symptoms. |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} |} == '''How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being?''' == Outdoor play may be related to children's emotional well-being through emotional, cognitive, and social processes. Possible pathways discussed in the recent research include [[Emotional regulation|emotion regulation]], working memory, social interaction, physical activity, connection with the nature and adventurous play. However, these pathways have not all been directly tested as mechanisms, and many of the outdoor play literatures remain observational (Dodd et al., 2026; de Lannoy et al.,2023). Psychological theory can help to explain how and why outdoor play experiences may influence children's emotional well-being. Although the evidence does not yet show that psychological processes cause the relationship between outdoor play and children's emotional well-being. === '''Emotion regulation''' === Emotion regulation provides a psychological framework for understanding how children may manage emotional situations during outdoor play. Gross (2025) described emotional regulation as a process involving identification, selection and implementation. Identification concerns deciding whether to regulate an emotion, selection concerns selecting regulation strategy and implementation concerns applying chosen response into practice. Gross (2015) also described situation selection, situation modification, attention deployment cognitive change and response modulation. During outdoor play, children may experience frustration, conflict, disagreement, uncertainty or changes to their activity. Gross framework can be applied to these situations to consider how a children recognise an emotional response, choose strategies to manage and act on chosen strategies. However, Gross (2015) did not examine outdoor play, so applying the framework does not show that outdoor play improves children's emotion regulation. {| class="wikitable" | valign="top" |'''Case study: Part 3'''[[File:14Y Ncdc july 5th-802.jpg|thumb|202x202px|'''Figure 4'''. ''Children can respond differently to situations that occur during outdoor play.'']]When the rule of game change, the child becomes frustrated and decided to step away. After a short time the child returns and suggests for different way to continue the game (see Figure 4). Suggesting a change to the game can be considered an example of situation modification. This shows how Gross's emotion regulation framework can be applied to an emotional situation during outdoor play. {{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}} <quiz display=simple> {What does Gross (2015) emotion regulation framework show when it is applied to the outdoor-play scenario?. |type="()"} -A. Outdoor play causes better emotion regulation. +B. Situation modification can help explain how the child responds to the situation. -C. Children regulate emotions better outdoors than indoors. -D. Stepping away from play always improves emotional well-being. </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} |} can be used to consider how a child decides whether to regulate process provide a psychological framework for understanding how people respond to emotional situations. This model can be applied to these outdoor play situations to consider how children might recognise emotional response, decide how to manage the situation, and act on that decision. * However, this is an application of Gross (2015) theoretical framework to outdoor play. This study did not examine whether outdoor play influence to children's emotion regulation. === '''Working memory and cognitive process''' === * Lee et al. (2025) examined [[w:Working_memory|working memory]] as a mediator between outdoor play and emotional dysregulation among 325 preschool children. Outdoor play was examined across three part of the day: wake-up to noon, noon to 6 pm and 6 pm to bedtime. * The timing of outdoor play was important. More outdoor play between noon and 6 pm was related to lower emotional dysregulation. In contrast, more outdoor play before noon and after 6 pm was related to higher emotional dysregulation (Lee et al. 2025). * Lee et al (2025) found that more outdoor play from noon to 6 pm was associated with better working memory (b=1.61, p<.05) and better working memory was associated with lower emotional dysregulation (b= -0.08, p< .01). This relation between noon to 6pm outdoor play and emotional dysregulation as no longer statistically significant when working memory was included in the analysis. As a result it is reported as full mediation. * The findings suggest that working memory can be one cognitive functioning process involved in the association between outdoor play and emotional regulation. However, statistical mediation in an observational study which does not prove that outdoor play caused better working memory or emotional regulation. Lee et al. (2025) called for further research examining both immediate and longer-term effects of outdoor play on working memory and emotion regulation. {{ic|Add an APA style table caption}} {| class="wikitable" |Key points * Lee et al. (2025) found that associations between outdoor play and emotional dysregulation differed according to time of day. * Working memory statistically mediated the association between afternoon outdoor play and lower emotional dysregulation in Lee et al. (2025). * Dodd et al. (2026) found that more frequent preschool outdoor play predicted lower odds of non-normative internalising and externalising symptom trajectories. |} == '''Social and environmental influences on outdoor play''' == * Outdoor play opportunities are shaped by more than the physical being outdoor space. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) interviewed 40 children aged 6 to 12, with and without disabilities about facilitators and barriers to inclusive outdoor play. The findings were identified personal factor, interacting factors and environmental factors. * Personal factors included experiencing [[w:Autonomy|autonomy]], and children's feelings of physical and social limitations. Interacting factors included making contact, growing up together, and adopting the ways of playing. Environmental factors included parents, outdoor play environments, communities, and time constrains (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). * Opportunities for outdoor play was not experienced in the same way by all children. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) found that children with disabilities experienced more barriers than children with no disability. The challenges were related to making contact with other children, adopting play and the physical play environment. * Ferguson et al. (2025) examined the association between outdoor play and children's social-emotional competence. In a cross sectional analysis of 2568 children, aged 7.1 to 12.6 years from multi-ethnic urban cohort found that outdoor play was associated with better social-emotional competence. However, the association was differed across ethnicity, and weekday or weekend outdoor play. * Ferguson et al. (2025) also examined area deprivation. The relation between outdoor play and social-emotional competence appeared stronger in less deprived area, although the statistical evidence for the differences by deprivation was significantly weak. === '''Social relationship and inclusion''' === * Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified making contact and growing up together as interacting factors in inclusive outdoor play. Some children described familiarity with other children as an easy way to approach, communication and play together. Making contact could also be a barrier when children approaching to another unfamiliar children or joining in play who were already playing. * Children also described the need to adopt games so that children with different abilities could participate. School and communities were identified settings where children with and without disabilities could become familiar with each other (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). * In the recent observational research by Beekhuizen et al. (2026) observed outdoor play among children with and without disability. The researchers found that getting to know each other, making contact and interaction while playing together as process of inclusive outdoor play. These observational findings showed that familiarity and making contact determine social and inclusive play because children chose to play with children they already knew. * Ferguson et al. (2025) also found that the association between outdoor play and social emotional competence was not the same across all ethnic and deprivation groups. In the cross sectional analysis of 2568 children aged 7.1 to 12.6 years from multi ethnic urban cohort, outdoor play was associated with better social-emotional competence. However, associations varies across same ethnic groups and according to weekday or weekend outdoor play. === '''Autonomy, parents and time''' === * Experiencing autonomy was identified as a personal factor in inclusive outdoor play. Children having some independence during outdoor play could promote their sense of independence over what they do and who they play with (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). * Experiencing autonomy also included opportunities to play without direct involvement of parents. Some children with disabilities described wanting to play outside independently, although parental support could make outdoor play possible (Beekhuizen et al., 2025) * Parents were identified as an environmental factors. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) found that parental involvement could support children's participation in outdoor play, specially when child needed help to access or participate in outdoor play. * Time constraints were considered as another environmental factor. Some children with disabilities were described as having limited outdoor play time due to parents work schedule, after-school arrangements or longer travel distance between home and school (Beekhuizen et al., 2025) === '''Outdoor environments and accessibility''' === * The outdoor play environment was identified as an environmental factor that could could support or restrict inclusive outdoor play. Children described both physical and social aspects of outdoor play environments. For example, children discussed the importance of physical and social safety, including traffic near playgrounds and disputes among children. Accessibility was particularly relevant to children with disabilities because opportunities for inclusive outdoor play could be affected by play environments and physical abilities (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). * Pereira et al. (2024) provided evidence about the physical features of outdoor play spaces. Their systematic review included 51 articles representing 45 primary studies aged between 5 to 12 and examined particular environmental features like fixed structures, natural elements, floor marking, loose parts or equipment and available play area. * Pereira et al. (2024) found positive association between outdoor play space features and children's behaviours. However, there was substantial variation between studies so the review could not establish clear conclusions about the effects of particular environmental features. {{ic|Add an APA style table caption}} {| class="wikitable" |+ |Key points * Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified personal, interacting and environmental factors that could facilitate or restrict inclusive outdoor play. * Social relationships and familiarity affected participation, with children with disabilities reporting more barriers to inclusive outdoor play (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). * Associations between outdoor play and social-emotional competence varied across some population groups and play contexts (Ferguson et al., 2025). |} == '''What does recent research show about outdoor play and children's emotional well-being?''' == * Recent research has examined various aspects of outdoor play and children's emotional well-being and provides mixed evidence. These include emotional dysregulation (Lee et al., 2025), social-emotional competence (Ferguson et al., 2025), positive and negative affect (Poulos et al., 2026), and internalising and externalising symptoms (Dodd et al., 2026). * Ferguson et al. (2025) found that more frequent outdoor play was associated with better social-emotional competence. However, the associations varied across some ethnic groups and according to whether outdoor play occurred on school days or weekends. * Dodd et al. (2026) provides longitudinal evidence from 4,151 children from the Growing Up in Scotland study. Children who played outdoors more frequently between approximately 2 and 4 years of age were more likely to follow a trajectory of low and stable internalising and externalising symptoms through to age 8. * Poulos et al. (2026) examined children's emotional state immediately after recess during hot weather. Among 317 children in years 4 and 5, the positive effect was higher after outdoor recess and gymnasium recess than after classroom recess. There were no significant differences in negative affect between the three recess settings. * Together, these studies show evidence of associations between outdoor play or outdoor recess and several aspects of emotional well-being. However, the studies did not show the common effect because the study differ in children's ages, research designs, measures of outdoor play, and emotional outcomes. === '''Consistency of recent research findings''' === * Recent findings do not show the same effect across all outcomes. Ferguson et al. (2025) found that more frequent outdoor play was associated with lower total difficulties and greater prosocial behaviour. In contrast, Davenport et al. (2024) found that most associations between outdoor play and the physical, cognitive and social-emotional developmental indicators examined were not statistically significant. Therefore, the recent studies have not found significant association across all developmental outcomes. * Findings can also differ according to the emotional outcome being measured. Poulos et al. (2026) found higher positive affect after outdoor and gymnasium recess than after classroom recess, but no significant differences in negative affect between the three recess settings. Lee et al. (2025) found that lower emotional dysregulation associated with greater afternoon outdoor play but higher emotional dysregulation is associated with greater outdoor play earlier and later in the day. * Dodd et al. (2026) provides longer-term evidence. More frequent outdoor play during the preschool years predicted lower odds of belonging to the increasing or decreasing internalising and externalising symptom trajectory groups, relative to the normative low and stable group. This shows an association between early outdoor play and mental-health symptom trajectories across childhood rather than an emotional outcome measured at one point in time. * Associations may also vary across children and outdoor play contexts. Ferguson et al. (2025) reported differences according to ethnicity and whether outdoor play occurred on school days or weekends. * Recent findings suggest that associations between outdoor play and emotional well-being are not the same across all outcomes, children and play contexts. The studies differ in children's age, research designs, measures of outdoor play, and emotional outcomes. Thus, findings should not be treated as evidence of one single effect. === '''Strengths and limitations of current research''' === * Longitudinal research strengthens the evidence concerning temporal relationship. Dodd et al. (2026) analysed 4,151 children from the Growing Up in Scotland study. Outdoor play was measured at approximately 2, 3 and 4 years of age, while internalising and externalising symptoms were measured at approximately 4, 5, 6 and 8 years. This allowed the researchers to examine whether early outdoor play predicted different mental-health symptom trajectories across childhood. * Although, longitudinal evidence does not establish cause and effect. Dodd et al. (2026) identified reliance on parent report measures as a key limitation, while Lee et al. (2025) also discussed about the possibility of reverse causation when interpreting associations between the timing of outdoor play and emotional dysregulation. * Measurement of outdoor play is another important consideration. Davenport et al. (2024) examined both parent reported and device measured outdoor play and also tested whether associations were independent of outdoor moderate to vigorous physical activity. This approach distinguishes outdoor play from outdoor physical activity rather than interchangeable measures. * Limitations are also present across the wider outdoor play literature. De Lannoy et al. (2023) identified 275 Canadian outdoor play publications and found that cross sectional study design was most common. Mental and emotional development had received less research attention in comparison to physical health and development. {| class="wikitable" |+Table 2. Comparison of recent research !Study !Research method !Research strength !Limitation |- | <small>Lee et al. (2025)</small> |Observational; 6 month follow-up |Examined the timing of outdoor play and tested working memory as a statistical mediator of the association with emotional dysregulation. |Observational mediation cannot establish causation; the authors also considered possible reverse causation when interpreting timing-related findings. |- |Ferguson et al. (2025) |Cross sectional; multi ethnic urban cohort (N=2,568) |Large sample allowed associations to be examined across population groups and school-day/weekend outdoor play. |Cross-sectional design cannot establish temporal direction; associations also differed across some groups and play contexts. |- |Davenport et al. (2024) |Observational; preschool sample (N=107) |Used both parent-reported and device-measured outdoor play and distinguished outdoor play from outdoor moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) |Small sample , and most tested associations with developmental outcomes were not statistically significant. |- |Dodd et al. (2026) |Longitudinal cohort (N = 4,151) |Outdoor play was measured in the preschool years before later internalising and externalising symptom trajectories. |Outdoor play and symptoms relied on parent reported measures, and the observational design does not establish conclusions. |- |Poulos et al. (2026) |Recess comparison study (N=317) |Compared children's positive and negative affect following outdoor, gymnasium and classroom recess rather than using outdoor recess without a comparison setting. |Examined immediate affect during an extreme-heat context; higher positive affect was also found after gymnasium recess, so the result was not specific to outdoor recess. |} As shown in table 2, the recent evidence has different methodological strengths and limitations. Longitudinal data provide stronger evidence about temporal ordering than cross-sectional studies, while the use of parent-reported and device-measured outdoor play addresses some measurement concerns. However, much of the evidence remains observational, several studies rely on parent-reported measures, and differences in emotional outcomes and play contexts limit the direct comparison between studies.   {| class="wikitable" |Key points * Recent studies report positive, mixed and non-significant findings across different emotional outcomes and measures of outdoor play (Davenport et al., 2024; Ferguson et al., 2025). * Lee et al. (2025) and Dodd et al. (2026) found associations across different emotional outcomes and time frames, from emotional dysregulation to later symptom trajectories. * Differences in study design, measurement, children's age and play context mean the findings should not be interpreted as one consistent effect of outdoor play on emotional well-being. |} == '''How do families, communities and schools support outdoor play opportunities?''' == * Opportunities for outdoor play are influenced by children's social and physical environments. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified parents, outdoor play environments, communities and time constraints as environmental factors that could act as facilitators or barriers to inclusive outdoor play. * Support for outdoor play also involves whether children can participate with other children. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified experiencing autonomy, growing up together, making contact and adapting ways of playing as factors involved in inclusive outdoor play. * The 2025 Position Statement on Active Outdoor Play recommends increasing opportunities for active outdoor play in settings where people live, learn, work and play. It also emphasises collaboration across sectors, settings and societies to support equitable access to active outdoor play (Lee et al., 2025). === '''Families''' === * Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified parents as an environmental factor in inclusive outdoor play. Children with disabilities described parents as important in encouraging participation and, for some children, helping to explain their disability to other children. * Experiencing autonomy was identified as an important personal factor. Some children with disabilities wanted their parents to allow them freedom during outdoor play. Some preferred their parents not to accompany them to the playground, while others were comfortable with parents remaining at a reasonable distance (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). * These findings indicate that parental support and children's autonomy can both be relevant to opportunities for outdoor play. For some children with disabilities, support could be necessary for participation while opportunities to play more independently were also valued (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). * Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified parental support as important for facilitating positive inclusive play experiences. The authors also recommended providing children and parents with knowledge about disabilities and possible adaptations that can support participation * Family level opportunities also need to be interpreted alongside the time constraints. Some children attending special education described long journeys between school and home that reduced the time available for outdoor play (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). This means that opportunities for outdoor play cannot be interpreted only in terms of children's or parents' preferences. === '''Communities''' === * Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified communities and the outdoor play environment as environmental factors in inclusive outdoor play. Children described physically and socially safe playgrounds as important. While barriers included structure of playgrounds that made participation difficult for some children with disabilities. * The social environment of a community was also important. Children with disabilities described smaller communities, such as villages and schools, the places where other children and parents could become more familiar with disability. This familiarity was associated with greater acceptance and stronger connections with other children (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). * Recent observational research also shows that physical access alone does not explain inclusive outdoor play. Beekhuizen et al. (2026) observed 63 children with and without disabilities during six inclusive outdoor play sessions and assessed both children's playfulness and environmental supportiveness. Children with disabilities showed significantly lower playfulness scores indicating that opportunities for inclusive play were not experienced equally. * The 2025 Position Statement on Active Outdoor Play recommends collaboration across sectors, settings and societies to preserve, promote and value equitable access to active outdoor play. This places responsibility for outdoor play opportunities across communities and wider systems rather than on children and families alone (Lee et al., 2025). === '''Schools''' === * Schools can provide opportunities for children with and without disabilities to become familiar with one another. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified growing up together and making contact as interacting factors in inclusive outdoor play. Children described familiarity with other children as making contact easier. * School circumstances can also affect the time and opportunities available for outdoor play. Some children attending special primary education described long travel times between school and home as reducing the time available to play outdoors. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified these experiences under time constraints. * Recess provides another school setting in which children's emotional experiences have been examined. Poulos et al. (2026) studied 317 Year 4 and 5 children during extreme heat weather and found significantly higher positive affect after outdoor and gymnasium recess than after classroom recess. There were no significant differences in negative affect between the three recess settings. * Poulos et al. (2026) identified implications for school health, policy and equity, including the need for heat adaptive infrastructure to support access to recess environments during extreme heat. However, the findings do not show that outdoor recess is always better than indoor recess because positive affect was also higher following gymnasium recess. Quiz {{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Quiz}} <quiz display=simple> {Children who have access to the same outdoor playground may still have different opportunities to participate in play. |type="()"} + True - False </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} {{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Quiz}} <quiz display=simple> {Outdoor play has the same relationship with children's emotional well-being regardless of how door play or emotional well being is measured. |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} {| class="wikitable" |1. Children who have access to the same outdoor playground may still have different opportunities to participate in play. True False 2. Outdoor play has the same relationship with children's emotional well-being regardless of how door play or emotional well being is measured. True False |} {| class="wikitable" |Scenario Two primary school aged children A and B enjoy playing outdoors. They both lived near the same playground. Child A was very familiar with the playground and knows several other children who play there and easily join the games. While child B has disability, uses mobility device and does not know other children at playground. Some parts of the playground are difficult to access and joining other children who are already playing can also be challenging. Child B's parents can provide support, although the child also prefers to play more independently. Consider both children can access the same playground, but do they have same level opportunities to take part in outdoor play? |} '''''<u>Note: Answers to the quiz is 1: True and 2 False</u>''''' == '''Conclusion''' == * Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being are measured in different ways across recent research. Outdoor play is not equivalent to outdoor physical activity, while emotional outcomes include emotional dysregulation, social-emotional competence, positive and negative affect, and internalising and externalising symptoms. These differences need to be considered when findings across studies are compared. * Research also provides mixed evidence about how outdoor play may be related to emotional well-being. Gross's (2015) emotion-regulation framework can be applied to emotional situations experienced during play, but it does not show that outdoor play improves emotion regulation. Lee et al. (2025) provides more direct evidence of a possible cognitive process, with working memory statistically mediating the association between afternoon outdoor play and lower emotional dysregulation. However, this observational finding does not establish causation. * Recent findings are not consistent across all outcomes or contexts. Ferguson et al. (2025) reported associations with better social-emotional competence, Dodd et al. (2026) found longitudinal associations with internalising and externalising symptom trajectories, and Poulos et al. (2026) found differences in positive but not negative affect following recess. In contrast, most associations examined by Davenport et al. (2024) were not statistically significant. * Recent findings are not consistent across all outcomes or contexts. Ferguson et al. (2025) reported associations with better social-emotional competence, Dodd et al. (2026) found longitudinal associations with internalising and externalising symptom trajectories, and Poulos et al. (2026) found differences in positive but not negative affect following recess. In contrast, most associations examined by Davenport et al. (2024) were not statistically significant. * Overall, current research supports an association between outdoor play and some aspects of children's emotional well-being but does not establish one consistent effect. Differences in measurement, research design, children and play contexts remain important when interpreting the evidence. ==See also== {{ic|Use bullet points as shown in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]}} https://www-taylorfrancis-com.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/books/mono/10.4324/9781003349655/right-child-play-naomi-lott Book Chapter, 2 {{ic|Move to References and cite}} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotional_dysregulation<nowiki/>- Wikipedia article {{ic|Use an internal links as shown in Tutorial 2}} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autonomy<nowiki/>- Wikipedia article {{ic|Use an internal links as shown in Tutorial 2}} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Longitudinal_study<nowiki/>-Wikipedia article {{ic|Use an internal links as shown in Tutorial 2}} [[Cognitive psychology|https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Cognitive_psychology]]-Wikipedia article https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affordance<nowiki/>-Wikipedia article {{ic|Use an internal links as shown in Tutorial 2}} ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Beekhuizen, R. Q., Bolster, E. A. M., Gorter, J. W., Henry, N. L., Visser, K., Wittink, H., Kotte, E. M. W., Sol, M. E., & Bloemen, M. A. T. (2025). Play Together? Unveiling Facilitators and Barriers to Inclusive Outdoor Play for Dutch Children With and Without Disabilities: A Qualitative Study. Child: Care, Health & Development, 51(6), Article e70154. https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.70154 Biino, V., Pesce, C., & Martins, C. (2025). Motor Skill Development at Preschool Age in Girls and Boys: The Role of Outdoor Free Play. Children, 12(5), Article 594. https://doi.org/10.3390/children12050594 Davenport, C., Kuzik, N., Larouche, R., & Carson, V. (2025). The Associations Between Parental-Reported and Device-Based Measured Outdoor Play and Health Indicators of Physical, Cognitive, and Social–Emotional Development in Preschool-Aged Children. Pediatric Exercise Science, 37(2), 102–111. https://doi.org/10.1123/pes.2023-0119 de Lannoy, L., Barbeau, K., Seguin, N., & Tremblay, M. S. (2023). Scoping review of children’s and youth’s outdoor play publications in Canada. Chronic Diseases in Canada, 43(1), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.24095/hpcdp.43.1.01 Dodd, H. F., Cordwell, K., Hesketh, K., Johnstone, A., de la Torre-Luque, A., & McCrorie, P. (2026). Early outdoor play predicts trajectories of child mental health in a population-based cohort. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.70175 Ferguson, M., Teyhan, A., Lovell, R., Dodd, H., Wheeler, B., & McEachan, R. (2025). The association between park visits, outdoor play and child social-emotional competency in a multi-ethnic, urban cohort. Wellbeing, Space and Society, 9, Article 100293. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wss.2025.100293 Gross, J. J. (2015). Emotion Regulation: Current Status and Future Prospects. Psychological Inquiry, 26(1), 1–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/1047840X.2014.940781 Lee, E.-Y., de Lannoy, L., Kim, Y.-B., Rathod, A., James, M. E., Lopes, O., Nasrallah, B., Thankarajah, A., Adjei-Boadi, D., de Barros, M. I. A., Duncan, S., Miller, R. M., Mygind, L., Vanderloo, L. M., Wang, P.-Y., & Tremblay, M. S. (2025). 2025 Position statement on active outdoor play. The International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 22(1), Article 117. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12966-025-01813-9 Lee, J. J., Flouri, E., & Jackson, Y. (2025). The Role of Timing and Amount of Outdoor Play in Emotional Dysregulation in Preschool Children. Child: Care, Health & Development, 51(1), Article e70020. https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.70020 Morgenthaler, T., Lynch, H., Loebach, J., Pentland, D., & Schulze, C. (2024). Using the Theory of Affordances to Understand Environment–Play Transactions: Environmental Taxonomy of Outdoor Play Space Features—A Scoping Review. The American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 78(4), Article 7804185120. https://doi.org/10.5014/ajot.2024.050606 Pereira, J. V., Vila-Nova, F., Veiga, G., Lopes, F., & Cordovil, R. (2024). Associations between outdoor play features and children’s behavior and health: A systematic review. Health & Place, 87, Article 103235. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healthplace.2024.103235 Poulos, A., Hassan, U. A., Wilson, K., Price, P. M., Vanos, J., & Quilla, J. (2026). Differences in Schoolchildren’s Emotional State After Indoor Versus Outdoor Recess in Extreme‐Heat Weather. The Journal of School Health, 96(4), Article e70135. https://doi.org/10.1111/josh.70135 }} ==External links== {{ic|Use bullet points as shown in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]}} https://www.child-encyclopedia.com/outdoor-play<nowiki/>-Encyclopedia in early childhood development https://www.outdoorplaycanada.ca/wp-content/uploads/2026/03/The-2025-AOP10-Position-Statement.pdf<nowiki/>-Position Statement https://www.who.int/news/item/24-04-2019-to-grow-up-healthy-children-need-to-sit-less-and-play-more<nowiki/>-World Health Organisation [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Children]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Nature]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Well-being]] rq75hom425j3i60oo73c9cqg5clyw6t 2834372 2834366 2026-09-24T07:04:56Z Mymunu 3106327 /* Working memory and cognitive process */ 2834372 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being:<br>How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {| class="wikitable" |'''Case study: part 1''' '''Imagine this....'''[[File:School children happily playing in playground.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' ''Children engaged in outdoor play.'']]A child arrives at playground and joins a group of children who are already playing. The children are making their own game and deciding the rules as they play. At first, child enjoys choosing where and what to play and moving between the different activities. During the game, another child changes the rules of the game and argument breaks out. The child becomes frustrated and avoids the activity. After watching for short time, the child returns, suggests for new idea to continue game and re-joins the group. How might experiences like this during outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being? Emotional regulation theory provides one way of understanding on how children may respond to emotional situations during play (see figure 1) (Gross, 2015). |} Outdoor play can involve more than physical movements. It is more than simply being outside and engage in the activities across playgrounds, gardens, streets and natural spaces. Outdoor play involves exploration, social interaction, choice and challenge and engagement with surrounding environment (Dodd et al.,2026; Pereira et al.,2024). These experiences may create emotional situations in which children need to respond to frustration, disagreement, uncertainty or excitement. Gross (2015) [[emotional regulation]] theory provides a [[psychological]] explanation for how children may recognise and respond to these emotional situations. Outdoor play experiences are also shaped by the environment where play takes place. Experiences are shaped by the different opportunities provided by different physical and social environments, which means the same outdoor space may not provide the same experience for every child (Morgenthaler et al.,2024).This chapter examines how [[Emotional regulation|emotional,]] [[Cognitive psychology|cognitive]], social and environmental processes may help explain the relationship between outdoor play and children's emotional well-being. {| class="wikitable" | ;[[File:Bulb Idea Flat Icon GIF Animation.gif|alt=Focus questions|left|100x100px|thumb]] '''Focus questions''' * What are outdoor play and children's emotional well-being? * How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being? * How do social and environmental conditions shape children's outdoor play experiences? * How can families, communities and school support outdoor play opportunities that may benefit children's emotional well-being? |} == '''Understanding outdoor play and children's emotional well-being''' == [[File:Water-outdoor-people-girl-play-boy-938233.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. ''Visualise outdoor play as providing children with opportunities to explore, make choices, interact with others and respond to changing situations through activities such as water play.''|265x265px]] Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being are not measured as single and consistent concepts across recent research. Outdoor play may be examined as voluntary and intrinsically motivated activity, self directed play, parent reported outdoor play, or device-measured outdoor play activity. It should also be distinguished from outdoor moderate to vigorous physical activity because these measures do not represent the same behaviour (Davenport et al., 2025). Children's emotional well-being is also examined through different outcomes, that includes [[emotional regulation]], social-emotional competence, positive and negative affect, and internalising or externalising symptoms. These differences are significant because outdoor play and emotional well-being are not measured as single, consistent constructs across research. === Outdoor play === Outdoor play is voluntary and and intrinsically motivated activity that occurs in outdoor environments like gardens, playgrounds, parks and natural spaces (Dodd et al., 2026). Free play can be also self-directed, which means children to freely interact with the environment and have autonomy to make choices about their activities (Biino et al., 2025). Outdoor play should not be treated as same as outdoor physical activity. Davenport et al., (2025) examined outdoor play separately from outdoor moderate- to- vigorous physical activity (MVPA). This distinction is significant because research on children's outdoor play is not necessarily measuring the same behaviour as research on the intensity of physical activity. === Children's emotional well-being === Children's emotional well-being is not represented by single common outcome across recent outdoor play research. Emotional dysregulation has been examined in relation to the amount and timing of outdoor play (Lee et al., 2025), while social-emotional competence includes difficulties and [[Prosocial behavior/Keywords/Definitions|prosocial behaviour]] (Ferguson et al., 2025). Other studies have examined positive and negative affect following recess (Poulos et al., 2026) and trajectories of internalising and externalising symptoms across childhood (Dodd et al., 2026). These outcomes represent different aspects and timeframes of emotional functioning, so they should not be treated as equivalent when findings are compared. '''Table 1''' ''Emotional outcomes examined in recent research on outdoor play and children's emotional well-being'' {| class="wikitable" |+ !Study !Outcome examined !What the outcome represent |- |Lee et al. (2025) |Emotional dysregulation |Difficulties in emotional regulation; examined in relation to the amount of timing and outdoor play |- |Ferguson et al. (2025) |Social-emotional competence |Social and emotional difficulties and prosocial behaviour |- |Poulos et al. (2026) |Positive and negative affect |Children's affect following recess in different settings |- |Dodd et al. (2026) |Internalising and externalising symptoms |Internalising: emotional symptoms and peer problems Externalising: conduct problems and hyperactivity- inattention |} As shown in Table 1, the studies do not measure the same aspect or time frame of children's emotional functioning. Affect immediately following recess should not be treated as equivalent to emotional dysregulation measured over time or trajectories of internalising and externalising symptoms across childhood. This difference need to be considered when examining whether outdoor play is associated with children's emotional well-being. '''Case study: part 2''' ''What is being measured?'' {| class="wikitable" | valign="top" |[[File:Children marbles.jpg|thumb|177x177px|'''Figure 3'''. ''Children may experience different emotional responses during social outdoor play'']]The child in the case study part 1 becomes frustrated when the rules of the game change. This immediate emotional response is different from a longer-term pattern of emotional dysregulation or internalising symptoms. When research findings are compared, it is important to consider which aspect of emotional well-being is measured. {{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}} <quiz display=simple> {A child's positive or negative affect immediately after recess represents the same emotional outcome as longer-term internalising or externalising symptoms. |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} |} == '''How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being?''' == Outdoor play may be related to children's emotional well-being through emotional, cognitive, and social processes. Possible pathways discussed in the recent research include [[Emotional regulation|emotion regulation]], working memory, social interaction, physical activity, connection with the nature and adventurous play. However, these pathways have not all been directly tested as mechanisms, and many of the outdoor play literatures remain observational (Dodd et al., 2026; de Lannoy et al.,2023). Psychological theory can help to explain how and why outdoor play experiences may influence children's emotional well-being. Although the evidence does not yet show that psychological processes cause the relationship between outdoor play and children's emotional well-being. === '''Emotion regulation''' === Emotion regulation provides a psychological framework for understanding how children may manage emotional situations during outdoor play. Gross (2025) described emotional regulation as a process involving identification, selection and implementation. Identification concerns deciding whether to regulate an emotion, selection concerns selecting regulation strategy and implementation concerns applying chosen response into practice. Gross (2015) also described situation selection, situation modification, attention deployment cognitive change and response modulation. During outdoor play, children may experience frustration, conflict, disagreement, uncertainty or changes to their activity. Gross framework can be applied to these situations to consider how a children recognise an emotional response, choose strategies to manage and act on chosen strategies. However, Gross (2015) did not examine outdoor play, so applying the framework does not show that outdoor play improves children's emotion regulation. {| class="wikitable" | valign="top" |'''Case study: Part 3'''[[File:14Y Ncdc july 5th-802.jpg|thumb|202x202px|'''Figure 4'''. ''Children can respond differently to situations that occur during outdoor play.'']]When the rule of game change, the child becomes frustrated and decided to step away. After a short time the child returns and suggests for different way to continue the game (see Figure 4). Suggesting a change to the game can be considered an example of situation modification. This shows how Gross's emotion regulation framework can be applied to an emotional situation during outdoor play. {{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}} <quiz display=simple> {What does Gross (2015) emotion regulation framework show when it is applied to the outdoor-play scenario?. |type="()"} -A. Outdoor play causes better emotion regulation. +B. Situation modification can help explain how the child responds to the situation. -C. Children regulate emotions better outdoors than indoors. -D. Stepping away from play always improves emotional well-being. </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} |} === '''Working memory and cognitive process''' === Working memory can be one cognitive process involved in the association between outdoor play and emotional dysregulation. Lee et al., (2025) examined 325 preschool children and tested working memory as a statistical mediator. Outdoor play was examined across three periods of the day; wake up to noon, noon to 6 pm, and 6 pm to bedtime. The findings differed according to the timing of outdoor play. More outdoor play between noon and 6 pm was associated with lower emotional dysregulation. In contrast, more outdoor play before noon and 6 pm was associated with higher emotional dysfunction. Afternoon outdoor play was also associated with better working memory, and better working memory was associated with lower emotional dysregulation. When working memory was included in the analysis, the association between afternoon outdoor play and emotional dysregulation was no longer statistically significant. Lee et al., (2025) reported this as full mediation. This suggests working memory may be involved in the association between afternoon play and lower emotional dysregulation. However, the study was observational, so the mediation analysis does not show that outdoor play caused better working memory or lower emotional dysregulation. == '''Social and environmental influences on outdoor play''' == * Outdoor play opportunities are shaped by more than the physical being outdoor space. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) interviewed 40 children aged 6 to 12, with and without disabilities about facilitators and barriers to inclusive outdoor play. The findings were identified personal factor, interacting factors and environmental factors. * Personal factors included experiencing [[w:Autonomy|autonomy]], and children's feelings of physical and social limitations. Interacting factors included making contact, growing up together, and adopting the ways of playing. Environmental factors included parents, outdoor play environments, communities, and time constrains (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). * Opportunities for outdoor play was not experienced in the same way by all children. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) found that children with disabilities experienced more barriers than children with no disability. The challenges were related to making contact with other children, adopting play and the physical play environment. * Ferguson et al. (2025) examined the association between outdoor play and children's social-emotional competence. In a cross sectional analysis of 2568 children, aged 7.1 to 12.6 years from multi-ethnic urban cohort found that outdoor play was associated with better social-emotional competence. However, the association was differed across ethnicity, and weekday or weekend outdoor play. * Ferguson et al. (2025) also examined area deprivation. The relation between outdoor play and social-emotional competence appeared stronger in less deprived area, although the statistical evidence for the differences by deprivation was significantly weak. === '''Social relationship and inclusion''' === * Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified making contact and growing up together as interacting factors in inclusive outdoor play. Some children described familiarity with other children as an easy way to approach, communication and play together. Making contact could also be a barrier when children approaching to another unfamiliar children or joining in play who were already playing. * Children also described the need to adopt games so that children with different abilities could participate. School and communities were identified settings where children with and without disabilities could become familiar with each other (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). * In the recent observational research by Beekhuizen et al. (2026) observed outdoor play among children with and without disability. The researchers found that getting to know each other, making contact and interaction while playing together as process of inclusive outdoor play. These observational findings showed that familiarity and making contact determine social and inclusive play because children chose to play with children they already knew. * Ferguson et al. (2025) also found that the association between outdoor play and social emotional competence was not the same across all ethnic and deprivation groups. In the cross sectional analysis of 2568 children aged 7.1 to 12.6 years from multi ethnic urban cohort, outdoor play was associated with better social-emotional competence. However, associations varies across same ethnic groups and according to weekday or weekend outdoor play. === '''Autonomy, parents and time''' === * Experiencing autonomy was identified as a personal factor in inclusive outdoor play. Children having some independence during outdoor play could promote their sense of independence over what they do and who they play with (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). * Experiencing autonomy also included opportunities to play without direct involvement of parents. Some children with disabilities described wanting to play outside independently, although parental support could make outdoor play possible (Beekhuizen et al., 2025) * Parents were identified as an environmental factors. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) found that parental involvement could support children's participation in outdoor play, specially when child needed help to access or participate in outdoor play. * Time constraints were considered as another environmental factor. Some children with disabilities were described as having limited outdoor play time due to parents work schedule, after-school arrangements or longer travel distance between home and school (Beekhuizen et al., 2025) === '''Outdoor environments and accessibility''' === * The outdoor play environment was identified as an environmental factor that could could support or restrict inclusive outdoor play. Children described both physical and social aspects of outdoor play environments. For example, children discussed the importance of physical and social safety, including traffic near playgrounds and disputes among children. Accessibility was particularly relevant to children with disabilities because opportunities for inclusive outdoor play could be affected by play environments and physical abilities (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). * Pereira et al. (2024) provided evidence about the physical features of outdoor play spaces. Their systematic review included 51 articles representing 45 primary studies aged between 5 to 12 and examined particular environmental features like fixed structures, natural elements, floor marking, loose parts or equipment and available play area. * Pereira et al. (2024) found positive association between outdoor play space features and children's behaviours. However, there was substantial variation between studies so the review could not establish clear conclusions about the effects of particular environmental features. {{ic|Add an APA style table caption}} {| class="wikitable" |+ |Key points * Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified personal, interacting and environmental factors that could facilitate or restrict inclusive outdoor play. * Social relationships and familiarity affected participation, with children with disabilities reporting more barriers to inclusive outdoor play (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). * Associations between outdoor play and social-emotional competence varied across some population groups and play contexts (Ferguson et al., 2025). |} == '''What does recent research show about outdoor play and children's emotional well-being?''' == * Recent research has examined various aspects of outdoor play and children's emotional well-being and provides mixed evidence. These include emotional dysregulation (Lee et al., 2025), social-emotional competence (Ferguson et al., 2025), positive and negative affect (Poulos et al., 2026), and internalising and externalising symptoms (Dodd et al., 2026). * Ferguson et al. (2025) found that more frequent outdoor play was associated with better social-emotional competence. However, the associations varied across some ethnic groups and according to whether outdoor play occurred on school days or weekends. * Dodd et al. (2026) provides longitudinal evidence from 4,151 children from the Growing Up in Scotland study. Children who played outdoors more frequently between approximately 2 and 4 years of age were more likely to follow a trajectory of low and stable internalising and externalising symptoms through to age 8. * Poulos et al. (2026) examined children's emotional state immediately after recess during hot weather. Among 317 children in years 4 and 5, the positive effect was higher after outdoor recess and gymnasium recess than after classroom recess. There were no significant differences in negative affect between the three recess settings. * Together, these studies show evidence of associations between outdoor play or outdoor recess and several aspects of emotional well-being. However, the studies did not show the common effect because the study differ in children's ages, research designs, measures of outdoor play, and emotional outcomes. === '''Consistency of recent research findings''' === * Recent findings do not show the same effect across all outcomes. Ferguson et al. (2025) found that more frequent outdoor play was associated with lower total difficulties and greater prosocial behaviour. In contrast, Davenport et al. (2024) found that most associations between outdoor play and the physical, cognitive and social-emotional developmental indicators examined were not statistically significant. Therefore, the recent studies have not found significant association across all developmental outcomes. * Findings can also differ according to the emotional outcome being measured. Poulos et al. (2026) found higher positive affect after outdoor and gymnasium recess than after classroom recess, but no significant differences in negative affect between the three recess settings. Lee et al. (2025) found that lower emotional dysregulation associated with greater afternoon outdoor play but higher emotional dysregulation is associated with greater outdoor play earlier and later in the day. * Dodd et al. (2026) provides longer-term evidence. More frequent outdoor play during the preschool years predicted lower odds of belonging to the increasing or decreasing internalising and externalising symptom trajectory groups, relative to the normative low and stable group. This shows an association between early outdoor play and mental-health symptom trajectories across childhood rather than an emotional outcome measured at one point in time. * Associations may also vary across children and outdoor play contexts. Ferguson et al. (2025) reported differences according to ethnicity and whether outdoor play occurred on school days or weekends. * Recent findings suggest that associations between outdoor play and emotional well-being are not the same across all outcomes, children and play contexts. The studies differ in children's age, research designs, measures of outdoor play, and emotional outcomes. Thus, findings should not be treated as evidence of one single effect. === '''Strengths and limitations of current research''' === * Longitudinal research strengthens the evidence concerning temporal relationship. Dodd et al. (2026) analysed 4,151 children from the Growing Up in Scotland study. Outdoor play was measured at approximately 2, 3 and 4 years of age, while internalising and externalising symptoms were measured at approximately 4, 5, 6 and 8 years. This allowed the researchers to examine whether early outdoor play predicted different mental-health symptom trajectories across childhood. * Although, longitudinal evidence does not establish cause and effect. Dodd et al. (2026) identified reliance on parent report measures as a key limitation, while Lee et al. (2025) also discussed about the possibility of reverse causation when interpreting associations between the timing of outdoor play and emotional dysregulation. * Measurement of outdoor play is another important consideration. Davenport et al. (2024) examined both parent reported and device measured outdoor play and also tested whether associations were independent of outdoor moderate to vigorous physical activity. This approach distinguishes outdoor play from outdoor physical activity rather than interchangeable measures. * Limitations are also present across the wider outdoor play literature. De Lannoy et al. (2023) identified 275 Canadian outdoor play publications and found that cross sectional study design was most common. Mental and emotional development had received less research attention in comparison to physical health and development. {| class="wikitable" |+Table 2. Comparison of recent research !Study !Research method !Research strength !Limitation |- | <small>Lee et al. (2025)</small> |Observational; 6 month follow-up |Examined the timing of outdoor play and tested working memory as a statistical mediator of the association with emotional dysregulation. |Observational mediation cannot establish causation; the authors also considered possible reverse causation when interpreting timing-related findings. |- |Ferguson et al. (2025) |Cross sectional; multi ethnic urban cohort (N=2,568) |Large sample allowed associations to be examined across population groups and school-day/weekend outdoor play. |Cross-sectional design cannot establish temporal direction; associations also differed across some groups and play contexts. |- |Davenport et al. (2024) |Observational; preschool sample (N=107) |Used both parent-reported and device-measured outdoor play and distinguished outdoor play from outdoor moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) |Small sample , and most tested associations with developmental outcomes were not statistically significant. |- |Dodd et al. (2026) |Longitudinal cohort (N = 4,151) |Outdoor play was measured in the preschool years before later internalising and externalising symptom trajectories. |Outdoor play and symptoms relied on parent reported measures, and the observational design does not establish conclusions. |- |Poulos et al. (2026) |Recess comparison study (N=317) |Compared children's positive and negative affect following outdoor, gymnasium and classroom recess rather than using outdoor recess without a comparison setting. |Examined immediate affect during an extreme-heat context; higher positive affect was also found after gymnasium recess, so the result was not specific to outdoor recess. |} As shown in table 2, the recent evidence has different methodological strengths and limitations. Longitudinal data provide stronger evidence about temporal ordering than cross-sectional studies, while the use of parent-reported and device-measured outdoor play addresses some measurement concerns. However, much of the evidence remains observational, several studies rely on parent-reported measures, and differences in emotional outcomes and play contexts limit the direct comparison between studies.   {| class="wikitable" |Key points * Recent studies report positive, mixed and non-significant findings across different emotional outcomes and measures of outdoor play (Davenport et al., 2024; Ferguson et al., 2025). * Lee et al. (2025) and Dodd et al. (2026) found associations across different emotional outcomes and time frames, from emotional dysregulation to later symptom trajectories. * Differences in study design, measurement, children's age and play context mean the findings should not be interpreted as one consistent effect of outdoor play on emotional well-being. |} == '''How do families, communities and schools support outdoor play opportunities?''' == * Opportunities for outdoor play are influenced by children's social and physical environments. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified parents, outdoor play environments, communities and time constraints as environmental factors that could act as facilitators or barriers to inclusive outdoor play. * Support for outdoor play also involves whether children can participate with other children. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified experiencing autonomy, growing up together, making contact and adapting ways of playing as factors involved in inclusive outdoor play. * The 2025 Position Statement on Active Outdoor Play recommends increasing opportunities for active outdoor play in settings where people live, learn, work and play. It also emphasises collaboration across sectors, settings and societies to support equitable access to active outdoor play (Lee et al., 2025). === '''Families''' === * Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified parents as an environmental factor in inclusive outdoor play. Children with disabilities described parents as important in encouraging participation and, for some children, helping to explain their disability to other children. * Experiencing autonomy was identified as an important personal factor. Some children with disabilities wanted their parents to allow them freedom during outdoor play. Some preferred their parents not to accompany them to the playground, while others were comfortable with parents remaining at a reasonable distance (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). * These findings indicate that parental support and children's autonomy can both be relevant to opportunities for outdoor play. For some children with disabilities, support could be necessary for participation while opportunities to play more independently were also valued (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). * Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified parental support as important for facilitating positive inclusive play experiences. The authors also recommended providing children and parents with knowledge about disabilities and possible adaptations that can support participation * Family level opportunities also need to be interpreted alongside the time constraints. Some children attending special education described long journeys between school and home that reduced the time available for outdoor play (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). This means that opportunities for outdoor play cannot be interpreted only in terms of children's or parents' preferences. === '''Communities''' === * Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified communities and the outdoor play environment as environmental factors in inclusive outdoor play. Children described physically and socially safe playgrounds as important. While barriers included structure of playgrounds that made participation difficult for some children with disabilities. * The social environment of a community was also important. Children with disabilities described smaller communities, such as villages and schools, the places where other children and parents could become more familiar with disability. This familiarity was associated with greater acceptance and stronger connections with other children (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). * Recent observational research also shows that physical access alone does not explain inclusive outdoor play. Beekhuizen et al. (2026) observed 63 children with and without disabilities during six inclusive outdoor play sessions and assessed both children's playfulness and environmental supportiveness. Children with disabilities showed significantly lower playfulness scores indicating that opportunities for inclusive play were not experienced equally. * The 2025 Position Statement on Active Outdoor Play recommends collaboration across sectors, settings and societies to preserve, promote and value equitable access to active outdoor play. This places responsibility for outdoor play opportunities across communities and wider systems rather than on children and families alone (Lee et al., 2025). === '''Schools''' === * Schools can provide opportunities for children with and without disabilities to become familiar with one another. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified growing up together and making contact as interacting factors in inclusive outdoor play. Children described familiarity with other children as making contact easier. * School circumstances can also affect the time and opportunities available for outdoor play. Some children attending special primary education described long travel times between school and home as reducing the time available to play outdoors. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified these experiences under time constraints. * Recess provides another school setting in which children's emotional experiences have been examined. Poulos et al. (2026) studied 317 Year 4 and 5 children during extreme heat weather and found significantly higher positive affect after outdoor and gymnasium recess than after classroom recess. There were no significant differences in negative affect between the three recess settings. * Poulos et al. (2026) identified implications for school health, policy and equity, including the need for heat adaptive infrastructure to support access to recess environments during extreme heat. However, the findings do not show that outdoor recess is always better than indoor recess because positive affect was also higher following gymnasium recess. Quiz {{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Quiz}} <quiz display=simple> {Children who have access to the same outdoor playground may still have different opportunities to participate in play. |type="()"} + True - False </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} {{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Quiz}} <quiz display=simple> {Outdoor play has the same relationship with children's emotional well-being regardless of how door play or emotional well being is measured. |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} {| class="wikitable" |1. Children who have access to the same outdoor playground may still have different opportunities to participate in play. True False 2. Outdoor play has the same relationship with children's emotional well-being regardless of how door play or emotional well being is measured. True False |} {| class="wikitable" |Scenario Two primary school aged children A and B enjoy playing outdoors. They both lived near the same playground. Child A was very familiar with the playground and knows several other children who play there and easily join the games. While child B has disability, uses mobility device and does not know other children at playground. Some parts of the playground are difficult to access and joining other children who are already playing can also be challenging. Child B's parents can provide support, although the child also prefers to play more independently. Consider both children can access the same playground, but do they have same level opportunities to take part in outdoor play? |} '''''<u>Note: Answers to the quiz is 1: True and 2 False</u>''''' == '''Conclusion''' == * Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being are measured in different ways across recent research. Outdoor play is not equivalent to outdoor physical activity, while emotional outcomes include emotional dysregulation, social-emotional competence, positive and negative affect, and internalising and externalising symptoms. These differences need to be considered when findings across studies are compared. * Research also provides mixed evidence about how outdoor play may be related to emotional well-being. Gross's (2015) emotion-regulation framework can be applied to emotional situations experienced during play, but it does not show that outdoor play improves emotion regulation. Lee et al. (2025) provides more direct evidence of a possible cognitive process, with working memory statistically mediating the association between afternoon outdoor play and lower emotional dysregulation. However, this observational finding does not establish causation. * Recent findings are not consistent across all outcomes or contexts. Ferguson et al. (2025) reported associations with better social-emotional competence, Dodd et al. (2026) found longitudinal associations with internalising and externalising symptom trajectories, and Poulos et al. (2026) found differences in positive but not negative affect following recess. In contrast, most associations examined by Davenport et al. (2024) were not statistically significant. * Recent findings are not consistent across all outcomes or contexts. Ferguson et al. (2025) reported associations with better social-emotional competence, Dodd et al. (2026) found longitudinal associations with internalising and externalising symptom trajectories, and Poulos et al. (2026) found differences in positive but not negative affect following recess. In contrast, most associations examined by Davenport et al. (2024) were not statistically significant. * Overall, current research supports an association between outdoor play and some aspects of children's emotional well-being but does not establish one consistent effect. Differences in measurement, research design, children and play contexts remain important when interpreting the evidence. ==See also== {{ic|Use bullet points as shown in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]}} https://www-taylorfrancis-com.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/books/mono/10.4324/9781003349655/right-child-play-naomi-lott Book Chapter, 2 {{ic|Move to References and cite}} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotional_dysregulation<nowiki/>- Wikipedia article {{ic|Use an internal links as shown in Tutorial 2}} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autonomy<nowiki/>- Wikipedia article {{ic|Use an internal links as shown in Tutorial 2}} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Longitudinal_study<nowiki/>-Wikipedia article {{ic|Use an internal links as shown in Tutorial 2}} [[Cognitive psychology|https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Cognitive_psychology]]-Wikipedia article https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affordance<nowiki/>-Wikipedia article {{ic|Use an internal links as shown in Tutorial 2}} ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Beekhuizen, R. Q., Bolster, E. A. M., Gorter, J. W., Henry, N. L., Visser, K., Wittink, H., Kotte, E. M. W., Sol, M. E., & Bloemen, M. A. T. (2025). Play Together? Unveiling Facilitators and Barriers to Inclusive Outdoor Play for Dutch Children With and Without Disabilities: A Qualitative Study. Child: Care, Health & Development, 51(6), Article e70154. https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.70154 Biino, V., Pesce, C., & Martins, C. (2025). Motor Skill Development at Preschool Age in Girls and Boys: The Role of Outdoor Free Play. Children, 12(5), Article 594. https://doi.org/10.3390/children12050594 Davenport, C., Kuzik, N., Larouche, R., & Carson, V. (2025). The Associations Between Parental-Reported and Device-Based Measured Outdoor Play and Health Indicators of Physical, Cognitive, and Social–Emotional Development in Preschool-Aged Children. Pediatric Exercise Science, 37(2), 102–111. https://doi.org/10.1123/pes.2023-0119 de Lannoy, L., Barbeau, K., Seguin, N., & Tremblay, M. S. (2023). Scoping review of children’s and youth’s outdoor play publications in Canada. Chronic Diseases in Canada, 43(1), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.24095/hpcdp.43.1.01 Dodd, H. F., Cordwell, K., Hesketh, K., Johnstone, A., de la Torre-Luque, A., & McCrorie, P. (2026). Early outdoor play predicts trajectories of child mental health in a population-based cohort. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.70175 Ferguson, M., Teyhan, A., Lovell, R., Dodd, H., Wheeler, B., & McEachan, R. (2025). The association between park visits, outdoor play and child social-emotional competency in a multi-ethnic, urban cohort. Wellbeing, Space and Society, 9, Article 100293. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wss.2025.100293 Gross, J. J. (2015). Emotion Regulation: Current Status and Future Prospects. Psychological Inquiry, 26(1), 1–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/1047840X.2014.940781 Lee, E.-Y., de Lannoy, L., Kim, Y.-B., Rathod, A., James, M. E., Lopes, O., Nasrallah, B., Thankarajah, A., Adjei-Boadi, D., de Barros, M. I. A., Duncan, S., Miller, R. M., Mygind, L., Vanderloo, L. M., Wang, P.-Y., & Tremblay, M. S. (2025). 2025 Position statement on active outdoor play. The International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 22(1), Article 117. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12966-025-01813-9 Lee, J. J., Flouri, E., & Jackson, Y. (2025). The Role of Timing and Amount of Outdoor Play in Emotional Dysregulation in Preschool Children. Child: Care, Health & Development, 51(1), Article e70020. https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.70020 Morgenthaler, T., Lynch, H., Loebach, J., Pentland, D., & Schulze, C. (2024). Using the Theory of Affordances to Understand Environment–Play Transactions: Environmental Taxonomy of Outdoor Play Space Features—A Scoping Review. The American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 78(4), Article 7804185120. https://doi.org/10.5014/ajot.2024.050606 Pereira, J. V., Vila-Nova, F., Veiga, G., Lopes, F., & Cordovil, R. (2024). Associations between outdoor play features and children’s behavior and health: A systematic review. Health & Place, 87, Article 103235. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healthplace.2024.103235 Poulos, A., Hassan, U. A., Wilson, K., Price, P. M., Vanos, J., & Quilla, J. (2026). Differences in Schoolchildren’s Emotional State After Indoor Versus Outdoor Recess in Extreme‐Heat Weather. The Journal of School Health, 96(4), Article e70135. https://doi.org/10.1111/josh.70135 }} ==External links== {{ic|Use bullet points as shown in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]}} https://www.child-encyclopedia.com/outdoor-play<nowiki/>-Encyclopedia in early childhood development https://www.outdoorplaycanada.ca/wp-content/uploads/2026/03/The-2025-AOP10-Position-Statement.pdf<nowiki/>-Position Statement https://www.who.int/news/item/24-04-2019-to-grow-up-healthy-children-need-to-sit-less-and-play-more<nowiki/>-World Health Organisation [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Children]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Nature]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Well-being]] 9kfqdkv0b2xbfl4ft3dbb9w6w0hf7qu 2834380 2834372 2026-09-24T10:14:34Z Jtneill 10242 Tidy Overview layout 2834380 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being:<br>How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {| class="wikitable" [[File:School children happily playing in playground.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. Children engaged in outdoor play.]] |'''Case study: Part 1''' A child arrives at playground and joins a group of children who are already playing. The children are making their own game and deciding the rules as they play. At first, child enjoys choosing where and what to play and moving between the different activities. During the game, another child changes the rules of the game and argument breaks out. The child becomes frustrated and avoids the activity. After watching for short time, the child returns, suggests for new idea to continue game and re-joins the group. How might experiences like this during outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being? Emotional regulation theory provides one way of understanding on how children may respond to emotional situations during play (see figure 1) (Gross, 2015). |} Outdoor play can involve more than physical movements. It is more than simply being outside and engage in the activities across playgrounds, gardens, streets and natural spaces. Outdoor play involves exploration, social interaction, choice and challenge and engagement with surrounding environment (Dodd et al.,2026; Pereira et al.,2024). These experiences may create emotional situations in which children need to respond to frustration, disagreement, uncertainty or excitement. Gross (2015) [[emotional regulation]] theory provides a [[psychological]] explanation for how children may recognise and respond to these emotional situations. Outdoor play experiences are also shaped by the environment where play takes place. Experiences are shaped by the different opportunities provided by different physical and social environments, which means the same outdoor space may not provide the same experience for every child (Morgenthaler et al.,2024).This chapter examines how [[Emotional regulation|emotional,]] [[Cognitive psychology|cognitive]], social and environmental processes may help explain the relationship between outdoor play and children's emotional well-being. {| class="wikitable" | ;[[File:Bulb Idea Flat Icon GIF Animation.gif|alt=Focus questions|left|100x100px|thumb]] '''Focus questions''' * What are outdoor play and children's emotional well-being? * How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being? * How do social and environmental conditions shape children's outdoor play experiences? * How can families, communities and school support outdoor play opportunities that may benefit children's emotional well-being? |} == '''Understanding outdoor play and children's emotional well-being''' == [[File:Water-outdoor-people-girl-play-boy-938233.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. ''Visualise outdoor play as providing children with opportunities to explore, make choices, interact with others and respond to changing situations through activities such as water play.''|265x265px]] Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being are not measured as single and consistent concepts across recent research. Outdoor play may be examined as voluntary and intrinsically motivated activity, self directed play, parent reported outdoor play, or device-measured outdoor play activity. It should also be distinguished from outdoor moderate to vigorous physical activity because these measures do not represent the same behaviour (Davenport et al., 2025). Children's emotional well-being is also examined through different outcomes, that includes [[emotional regulation]], social-emotional competence, positive and negative affect, and internalising or externalising symptoms. These differences are significant because outdoor play and emotional well-being are not measured as single, consistent constructs across research. === Outdoor play === Outdoor play is voluntary and and intrinsically motivated activity that occurs in outdoor environments like gardens, playgrounds, parks and natural spaces (Dodd et al., 2026). Free play can be also self-directed, which means children to freely interact with the environment and have autonomy to make choices about their activities (Biino et al., 2025). Outdoor play should not be treated as same as outdoor physical activity. Davenport et al., (2025) examined outdoor play separately from outdoor moderate- to- vigorous physical activity (MVPA). This distinction is significant because research on children's outdoor play is not necessarily measuring the same behaviour as research on the intensity of physical activity. === Children's emotional well-being === Children's emotional well-being is not represented by single common outcome across recent outdoor play research. Emotional dysregulation has been examined in relation to the amount and timing of outdoor play (Lee et al., 2025), while social-emotional competence includes difficulties and [[Prosocial behavior/Keywords/Definitions|prosocial behaviour]] (Ferguson et al., 2025). Other studies have examined positive and negative affect following recess (Poulos et al., 2026) and trajectories of internalising and externalising symptoms across childhood (Dodd et al., 2026). These outcomes represent different aspects and timeframes of emotional functioning, so they should not be treated as equivalent when findings are compared. '''Table 1''' ''Emotional outcomes examined in recent research on outdoor play and children's emotional well-being'' {| class="wikitable" |+ !Study !Outcome examined !What the outcome represent |- |Lee et al. (2025) |Emotional dysregulation |Difficulties in emotional regulation; examined in relation to the amount of timing and outdoor play |- |Ferguson et al. (2025) |Social-emotional competence |Social and emotional difficulties and prosocial behaviour |- |Poulos et al. (2026) |Positive and negative affect |Children's affect following recess in different settings |- |Dodd et al. (2026) |Internalising and externalising symptoms |Internalising: emotional symptoms and peer problems Externalising: conduct problems and hyperactivity- inattention |} As shown in Table 1, the studies do not measure the same aspect or time frame of children's emotional functioning. Affect immediately following recess should not be treated as equivalent to emotional dysregulation measured over time or trajectories of internalising and externalising symptoms across childhood. This difference need to be considered when examining whether outdoor play is associated with children's emotional well-being. '''Case study: part 2''' ''What is being measured?'' {| class="wikitable" | valign="top" |[[File:Children marbles.jpg|thumb|177x177px|'''Figure 3'''. ''Children may experience different emotional responses during social outdoor play'']]The child in the case study part 1 becomes frustrated when the rules of the game change. This immediate emotional response is different from a longer-term pattern of emotional dysregulation or internalising symptoms. When research findings are compared, it is important to consider which aspect of emotional well-being is measured. {{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}} <quiz display=simple> {A child's positive or negative affect immediately after recess represents the same emotional outcome as longer-term internalising or externalising symptoms. |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} |} == '''How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being?''' == Outdoor play may be related to children's emotional well-being through emotional, cognitive, and social processes. Possible pathways discussed in the recent research include [[Emotional regulation|emotion regulation]], working memory, social interaction, physical activity, connection with the nature and adventurous play. However, these pathways have not all been directly tested as mechanisms, and many of the outdoor play literatures remain observational (Dodd et al., 2026; de Lannoy et al.,2023). Psychological theory can help to explain how and why outdoor play experiences may influence children's emotional well-being. Although the evidence does not yet show that psychological processes cause the relationship between outdoor play and children's emotional well-being. === '''Emotion regulation''' === Emotion regulation provides a psychological framework for understanding how children may manage emotional situations during outdoor play. Gross (2025) described emotional regulation as a process involving identification, selection and implementation. Identification concerns deciding whether to regulate an emotion, selection concerns selecting regulation strategy and implementation concerns applying chosen response into practice. Gross (2015) also described situation selection, situation modification, attention deployment cognitive change and response modulation. During outdoor play, children may experience frustration, conflict, disagreement, uncertainty or changes to their activity. Gross framework can be applied to these situations to consider how a children recognise an emotional response, choose strategies to manage and act on chosen strategies. However, Gross (2015) did not examine outdoor play, so applying the framework does not show that outdoor play improves children's emotion regulation. {| class="wikitable" | valign="top" |'''Case study: Part 3'''[[File:14Y Ncdc july 5th-802.jpg|thumb|202x202px|'''Figure 4'''. ''Children can respond differently to situations that occur during outdoor play.'']]When the rule of game change, the child becomes frustrated and decided to step away. After a short time the child returns and suggests for different way to continue the game (see Figure 4). Suggesting a change to the game can be considered an example of situation modification. This shows how Gross's emotion regulation framework can be applied to an emotional situation during outdoor play. {{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}} <quiz display=simple> {What does Gross (2015) emotion regulation framework show when it is applied to the outdoor-play scenario?. |type="()"} -A. Outdoor play causes better emotion regulation. +B. Situation modification can help explain how the child responds to the situation. -C. Children regulate emotions better outdoors than indoors. -D. Stepping away from play always improves emotional well-being. </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} |} === '''Working memory and cognitive process''' === Working memory can be one cognitive process involved in the association between outdoor play and emotional dysregulation. Lee et al., (2025) examined 325 preschool children and tested working memory as a statistical mediator. Outdoor play was examined across three periods of the day; wake up to noon, noon to 6 pm, and 6 pm to bedtime. The findings differed according to the timing of outdoor play. More outdoor play between noon and 6 pm was associated with lower emotional dysregulation. In contrast, more outdoor play before noon and 6 pm was associated with higher emotional dysfunction. Afternoon outdoor play was also associated with better working memory, and better working memory was associated with lower emotional dysregulation. When working memory was included in the analysis, the association between afternoon outdoor play and emotional dysregulation was no longer statistically significant. Lee et al., (2025) reported this as full mediation. This suggests working memory may be involved in the association between afternoon play and lower emotional dysregulation. However, the study was observational, so the mediation analysis does not show that outdoor play caused better working memory or lower emotional dysregulation. == '''Social and environmental influences on outdoor play''' == * Outdoor play opportunities are shaped by more than the physical being outdoor space. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) interviewed 40 children aged 6 to 12, with and without disabilities about facilitators and barriers to inclusive outdoor play. The findings were identified personal factor, interacting factors and environmental factors. * Personal factors included experiencing [[w:Autonomy|autonomy]], and children's feelings of physical and social limitations. Interacting factors included making contact, growing up together, and adopting the ways of playing. Environmental factors included parents, outdoor play environments, communities, and time constrains (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). * Opportunities for outdoor play was not experienced in the same way by all children. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) found that children with disabilities experienced more barriers than children with no disability. The challenges were related to making contact with other children, adopting play and the physical play environment. * Ferguson et al. (2025) examined the association between outdoor play and children's social-emotional competence. In a cross sectional analysis of 2568 children, aged 7.1 to 12.6 years from multi-ethnic urban cohort found that outdoor play was associated with better social-emotional competence. However, the association was differed across ethnicity, and weekday or weekend outdoor play. * Ferguson et al. (2025) also examined area deprivation. The relation between outdoor play and social-emotional competence appeared stronger in less deprived area, although the statistical evidence for the differences by deprivation was significantly weak. === '''Social relationship and inclusion''' === * Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified making contact and growing up together as interacting factors in inclusive outdoor play. Some children described familiarity with other children as an easy way to approach, communication and play together. Making contact could also be a barrier when children approaching to another unfamiliar children or joining in play who were already playing. * Children also described the need to adopt games so that children with different abilities could participate. School and communities were identified settings where children with and without disabilities could become familiar with each other (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). * In the recent observational research by Beekhuizen et al. (2026) observed outdoor play among children with and without disability. The researchers found that getting to know each other, making contact and interaction while playing together as process of inclusive outdoor play. These observational findings showed that familiarity and making contact determine social and inclusive play because children chose to play with children they already knew. * Ferguson et al. (2025) also found that the association between outdoor play and social emotional competence was not the same across all ethnic and deprivation groups. In the cross sectional analysis of 2568 children aged 7.1 to 12.6 years from multi ethnic urban cohort, outdoor play was associated with better social-emotional competence. However, associations varies across same ethnic groups and according to weekday or weekend outdoor play. === '''Autonomy, parents and time''' === * Experiencing autonomy was identified as a personal factor in inclusive outdoor play. Children having some independence during outdoor play could promote their sense of independence over what they do and who they play with (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). * Experiencing autonomy also included opportunities to play without direct involvement of parents. Some children with disabilities described wanting to play outside independently, although parental support could make outdoor play possible (Beekhuizen et al., 2025) * Parents were identified as an environmental factors. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) found that parental involvement could support children's participation in outdoor play, specially when child needed help to access or participate in outdoor play. * Time constraints were considered as another environmental factor. Some children with disabilities were described as having limited outdoor play time due to parents work schedule, after-school arrangements or longer travel distance between home and school (Beekhuizen et al., 2025) === '''Outdoor environments and accessibility''' === * The outdoor play environment was identified as an environmental factor that could could support or restrict inclusive outdoor play. Children described both physical and social aspects of outdoor play environments. For example, children discussed the importance of physical and social safety, including traffic near playgrounds and disputes among children. Accessibility was particularly relevant to children with disabilities because opportunities for inclusive outdoor play could be affected by play environments and physical abilities (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). * Pereira et al. (2024) provided evidence about the physical features of outdoor play spaces. Their systematic review included 51 articles representing 45 primary studies aged between 5 to 12 and examined particular environmental features like fixed structures, natural elements, floor marking, loose parts or equipment and available play area. * Pereira et al. (2024) found positive association between outdoor play space features and children's behaviours. However, there was substantial variation between studies so the review could not establish clear conclusions about the effects of particular environmental features. {{ic|Add an APA style table caption}} {| class="wikitable" |+ |Key points * Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified personal, interacting and environmental factors that could facilitate or restrict inclusive outdoor play. * Social relationships and familiarity affected participation, with children with disabilities reporting more barriers to inclusive outdoor play (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). * Associations between outdoor play and social-emotional competence varied across some population groups and play contexts (Ferguson et al., 2025). |} == '''What does recent research show about outdoor play and children's emotional well-being?''' == * Recent research has examined various aspects of outdoor play and children's emotional well-being and provides mixed evidence. These include emotional dysregulation (Lee et al., 2025), social-emotional competence (Ferguson et al., 2025), positive and negative affect (Poulos et al., 2026), and internalising and externalising symptoms (Dodd et al., 2026). * Ferguson et al. (2025) found that more frequent outdoor play was associated with better social-emotional competence. However, the associations varied across some ethnic groups and according to whether outdoor play occurred on school days or weekends. * Dodd et al. (2026) provides longitudinal evidence from 4,151 children from the Growing Up in Scotland study. Children who played outdoors more frequently between approximately 2 and 4 years of age were more likely to follow a trajectory of low and stable internalising and externalising symptoms through to age 8. * Poulos et al. (2026) examined children's emotional state immediately after recess during hot weather. Among 317 children in years 4 and 5, the positive effect was higher after outdoor recess and gymnasium recess than after classroom recess. There were no significant differences in negative affect between the three recess settings. * Together, these studies show evidence of associations between outdoor play or outdoor recess and several aspects of emotional well-being. However, the studies did not show the common effect because the study differ in children's ages, research designs, measures of outdoor play, and emotional outcomes. === '''Consistency of recent research findings''' === * Recent findings do not show the same effect across all outcomes. Ferguson et al. (2025) found that more frequent outdoor play was associated with lower total difficulties and greater prosocial behaviour. In contrast, Davenport et al. (2024) found that most associations between outdoor play and the physical, cognitive and social-emotional developmental indicators examined were not statistically significant. Therefore, the recent studies have not found significant association across all developmental outcomes. * Findings can also differ according to the emotional outcome being measured. Poulos et al. (2026) found higher positive affect after outdoor and gymnasium recess than after classroom recess, but no significant differences in negative affect between the three recess settings. Lee et al. (2025) found that lower emotional dysregulation associated with greater afternoon outdoor play but higher emotional dysregulation is associated with greater outdoor play earlier and later in the day. * Dodd et al. (2026) provides longer-term evidence. More frequent outdoor play during the preschool years predicted lower odds of belonging to the increasing or decreasing internalising and externalising symptom trajectory groups, relative to the normative low and stable group. This shows an association between early outdoor play and mental-health symptom trajectories across childhood rather than an emotional outcome measured at one point in time. * Associations may also vary across children and outdoor play contexts. Ferguson et al. (2025) reported differences according to ethnicity and whether outdoor play occurred on school days or weekends. * Recent findings suggest that associations between outdoor play and emotional well-being are not the same across all outcomes, children and play contexts. The studies differ in children's age, research designs, measures of outdoor play, and emotional outcomes. Thus, findings should not be treated as evidence of one single effect. === '''Strengths and limitations of current research''' === * Longitudinal research strengthens the evidence concerning temporal relationship. Dodd et al. (2026) analysed 4,151 children from the Growing Up in Scotland study. Outdoor play was measured at approximately 2, 3 and 4 years of age, while internalising and externalising symptoms were measured at approximately 4, 5, 6 and 8 years. This allowed the researchers to examine whether early outdoor play predicted different mental-health symptom trajectories across childhood. * Although, longitudinal evidence does not establish cause and effect. Dodd et al. (2026) identified reliance on parent report measures as a key limitation, while Lee et al. (2025) also discussed about the possibility of reverse causation when interpreting associations between the timing of outdoor play and emotional dysregulation. * Measurement of outdoor play is another important consideration. Davenport et al. (2024) examined both parent reported and device measured outdoor play and also tested whether associations were independent of outdoor moderate to vigorous physical activity. This approach distinguishes outdoor play from outdoor physical activity rather than interchangeable measures. * Limitations are also present across the wider outdoor play literature. De Lannoy et al. (2023) identified 275 Canadian outdoor play publications and found that cross sectional study design was most common. Mental and emotional development had received less research attention in comparison to physical health and development. {| class="wikitable" |+Table 2. Comparison of recent research !Study !Research method !Research strength !Limitation |- | <small>Lee et al. (2025)</small> |Observational; 6 month follow-up |Examined the timing of outdoor play and tested working memory as a statistical mediator of the association with emotional dysregulation. |Observational mediation cannot establish causation; the authors also considered possible reverse causation when interpreting timing-related findings. |- |Ferguson et al. (2025) |Cross sectional; multi ethnic urban cohort (N=2,568) |Large sample allowed associations to be examined across population groups and school-day/weekend outdoor play. |Cross-sectional design cannot establish temporal direction; associations also differed across some groups and play contexts. |- |Davenport et al. (2024) |Observational; preschool sample (N=107) |Used both parent-reported and device-measured outdoor play and distinguished outdoor play from outdoor moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) |Small sample , and most tested associations with developmental outcomes were not statistically significant. |- |Dodd et al. (2026) |Longitudinal cohort (N = 4,151) |Outdoor play was measured in the preschool years before later internalising and externalising symptom trajectories. |Outdoor play and symptoms relied on parent reported measures, and the observational design does not establish conclusions. |- |Poulos et al. (2026) |Recess comparison study (N=317) |Compared children's positive and negative affect following outdoor, gymnasium and classroom recess rather than using outdoor recess without a comparison setting. |Examined immediate affect during an extreme-heat context; higher positive affect was also found after gymnasium recess, so the result was not specific to outdoor recess. |} As shown in table 2, the recent evidence has different methodological strengths and limitations. Longitudinal data provide stronger evidence about temporal ordering than cross-sectional studies, while the use of parent-reported and device-measured outdoor play addresses some measurement concerns. However, much of the evidence remains observational, several studies rely on parent-reported measures, and differences in emotional outcomes and play contexts limit the direct comparison between studies.   {| class="wikitable" |Key points * Recent studies report positive, mixed and non-significant findings across different emotional outcomes and measures of outdoor play (Davenport et al., 2024; Ferguson et al., 2025). * Lee et al. (2025) and Dodd et al. (2026) found associations across different emotional outcomes and time frames, from emotional dysregulation to later symptom trajectories. * Differences in study design, measurement, children's age and play context mean the findings should not be interpreted as one consistent effect of outdoor play on emotional well-being. |} == '''How do families, communities and schools support outdoor play opportunities?''' == * Opportunities for outdoor play are influenced by children's social and physical environments. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified parents, outdoor play environments, communities and time constraints as environmental factors that could act as facilitators or barriers to inclusive outdoor play. * Support for outdoor play also involves whether children can participate with other children. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified experiencing autonomy, growing up together, making contact and adapting ways of playing as factors involved in inclusive outdoor play. * The 2025 Position Statement on Active Outdoor Play recommends increasing opportunities for active outdoor play in settings where people live, learn, work and play. It also emphasises collaboration across sectors, settings and societies to support equitable access to active outdoor play (Lee et al., 2025). === '''Families''' === * Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified parents as an environmental factor in inclusive outdoor play. Children with disabilities described parents as important in encouraging participation and, for some children, helping to explain their disability to other children. * Experiencing autonomy was identified as an important personal factor. Some children with disabilities wanted their parents to allow them freedom during outdoor play. Some preferred their parents not to accompany them to the playground, while others were comfortable with parents remaining at a reasonable distance (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). * These findings indicate that parental support and children's autonomy can both be relevant to opportunities for outdoor play. For some children with disabilities, support could be necessary for participation while opportunities to play more independently were also valued (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). * Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified parental support as important for facilitating positive inclusive play experiences. The authors also recommended providing children and parents with knowledge about disabilities and possible adaptations that can support participation * Family level opportunities also need to be interpreted alongside the time constraints. Some children attending special education described long journeys between school and home that reduced the time available for outdoor play (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). This means that opportunities for outdoor play cannot be interpreted only in terms of children's or parents' preferences. === '''Communities''' === * Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified communities and the outdoor play environment as environmental factors in inclusive outdoor play. Children described physically and socially safe playgrounds as important. While barriers included structure of playgrounds that made participation difficult for some children with disabilities. * The social environment of a community was also important. Children with disabilities described smaller communities, such as villages and schools, the places where other children and parents could become more familiar with disability. This familiarity was associated with greater acceptance and stronger connections with other children (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). * Recent observational research also shows that physical access alone does not explain inclusive outdoor play. Beekhuizen et al. (2026) observed 63 children with and without disabilities during six inclusive outdoor play sessions and assessed both children's playfulness and environmental supportiveness. Children with disabilities showed significantly lower playfulness scores indicating that opportunities for inclusive play were not experienced equally. * The 2025 Position Statement on Active Outdoor Play recommends collaboration across sectors, settings and societies to preserve, promote and value equitable access to active outdoor play. This places responsibility for outdoor play opportunities across communities and wider systems rather than on children and families alone (Lee et al., 2025). === '''Schools''' === * Schools can provide opportunities for children with and without disabilities to become familiar with one another. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified growing up together and making contact as interacting factors in inclusive outdoor play. Children described familiarity with other children as making contact easier. * School circumstances can also affect the time and opportunities available for outdoor play. Some children attending special primary education described long travel times between school and home as reducing the time available to play outdoors. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified these experiences under time constraints. * Recess provides another school setting in which children's emotional experiences have been examined. Poulos et al. (2026) studied 317 Year 4 and 5 children during extreme heat weather and found significantly higher positive affect after outdoor and gymnasium recess than after classroom recess. There were no significant differences in negative affect between the three recess settings. * Poulos et al. (2026) identified implications for school health, policy and equity, including the need for heat adaptive infrastructure to support access to recess environments during extreme heat. However, the findings do not show that outdoor recess is always better than indoor recess because positive affect was also higher following gymnasium recess. Quiz {{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Quiz}} <quiz display=simple> {Children who have access to the same outdoor playground may still have different opportunities to participate in play. |type="()"} + True - False </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} {{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Quiz}} <quiz display=simple> {Outdoor play has the same relationship with children's emotional well-being regardless of how door play or emotional well being is measured. |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} {| class="wikitable" |1. Children who have access to the same outdoor playground may still have different opportunities to participate in play. True False 2. Outdoor play has the same relationship with children's emotional well-being regardless of how door play or emotional well being is measured. True False |} {| class="wikitable" |Scenario Two primary school aged children A and B enjoy playing outdoors. They both lived near the same playground. Child A was very familiar with the playground and knows several other children who play there and easily join the games. While child B has disability, uses mobility device and does not know other children at playground. Some parts of the playground are difficult to access and joining other children who are already playing can also be challenging. Child B's parents can provide support, although the child also prefers to play more independently. Consider both children can access the same playground, but do they have same level opportunities to take part in outdoor play? |} '''''<u>Note: Answers to the quiz is 1: True and 2 False</u>''''' == '''Conclusion''' == * Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being are measured in different ways across recent research. Outdoor play is not equivalent to outdoor physical activity, while emotional outcomes include emotional dysregulation, social-emotional competence, positive and negative affect, and internalising and externalising symptoms. These differences need to be considered when findings across studies are compared. * Research also provides mixed evidence about how outdoor play may be related to emotional well-being. Gross's (2015) emotion-regulation framework can be applied to emotional situations experienced during play, but it does not show that outdoor play improves emotion regulation. Lee et al. (2025) provides more direct evidence of a possible cognitive process, with working memory statistically mediating the association between afternoon outdoor play and lower emotional dysregulation. However, this observational finding does not establish causation. * Recent findings are not consistent across all outcomes or contexts. Ferguson et al. (2025) reported associations with better social-emotional competence, Dodd et al. (2026) found longitudinal associations with internalising and externalising symptom trajectories, and Poulos et al. (2026) found differences in positive but not negative affect following recess. In contrast, most associations examined by Davenport et al. (2024) were not statistically significant. * Recent findings are not consistent across all outcomes or contexts. Ferguson et al. (2025) reported associations with better social-emotional competence, Dodd et al. (2026) found longitudinal associations with internalising and externalising symptom trajectories, and Poulos et al. (2026) found differences in positive but not negative affect following recess. In contrast, most associations examined by Davenport et al. (2024) were not statistically significant. * Overall, current research supports an association between outdoor play and some aspects of children's emotional well-being but does not establish one consistent effect. Differences in measurement, research design, children and play contexts remain important when interpreting the evidence. ==See also== {{ic|Use bullet points as shown in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]}} https://www-taylorfrancis-com.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/books/mono/10.4324/9781003349655/right-child-play-naomi-lott Book Chapter, 2 {{ic|Move to References and cite}} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotional_dysregulation<nowiki/>- Wikipedia article {{ic|Use an internal links as shown in Tutorial 2}} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autonomy<nowiki/>- Wikipedia article {{ic|Use an internal links as shown in Tutorial 2}} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Longitudinal_study<nowiki/>-Wikipedia article {{ic|Use an internal links as shown in Tutorial 2}} [[Cognitive psychology|https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Cognitive_psychology]]-Wikipedia article https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affordance<nowiki/>-Wikipedia article {{ic|Use an internal links as shown in Tutorial 2}} ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Beekhuizen, R. Q., Bolster, E. A. M., Gorter, J. W., Henry, N. L., Visser, K., Wittink, H., Kotte, E. M. W., Sol, M. E., & Bloemen, M. A. T. (2025). Play Together? Unveiling Facilitators and Barriers to Inclusive Outdoor Play for Dutch Children With and Without Disabilities: A Qualitative Study. Child: Care, Health & Development, 51(6), Article e70154. https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.70154 Biino, V., Pesce, C., & Martins, C. (2025). Motor Skill Development at Preschool Age in Girls and Boys: The Role of Outdoor Free Play. Children, 12(5), Article 594. https://doi.org/10.3390/children12050594 Davenport, C., Kuzik, N., Larouche, R., & Carson, V. (2025). The Associations Between Parental-Reported and Device-Based Measured Outdoor Play and Health Indicators of Physical, Cognitive, and Social–Emotional Development in Preschool-Aged Children. Pediatric Exercise Science, 37(2), 102–111. https://doi.org/10.1123/pes.2023-0119 de Lannoy, L., Barbeau, K., Seguin, N., & Tremblay, M. S. (2023). Scoping review of children’s and youth’s outdoor play publications in Canada. Chronic Diseases in Canada, 43(1), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.24095/hpcdp.43.1.01 Dodd, H. F., Cordwell, K., Hesketh, K., Johnstone, A., de la Torre-Luque, A., & McCrorie, P. (2026). Early outdoor play predicts trajectories of child mental health in a population-based cohort. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.70175 Ferguson, M., Teyhan, A., Lovell, R., Dodd, H., Wheeler, B., & McEachan, R. (2025). The association between park visits, outdoor play and child social-emotional competency in a multi-ethnic, urban cohort. Wellbeing, Space and Society, 9, Article 100293. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wss.2025.100293 Gross, J. J. (2015). Emotion Regulation: Current Status and Future Prospects. Psychological Inquiry, 26(1), 1–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/1047840X.2014.940781 Lee, E.-Y., de Lannoy, L., Kim, Y.-B., Rathod, A., James, M. E., Lopes, O., Nasrallah, B., Thankarajah, A., Adjei-Boadi, D., de Barros, M. I. A., Duncan, S., Miller, R. M., Mygind, L., Vanderloo, L. M., Wang, P.-Y., & Tremblay, M. S. (2025). 2025 Position statement on active outdoor play. The International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 22(1), Article 117. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12966-025-01813-9 Lee, J. J., Flouri, E., & Jackson, Y. (2025). The Role of Timing and Amount of Outdoor Play in Emotional Dysregulation in Preschool Children. Child: Care, Health & Development, 51(1), Article e70020. https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.70020 Morgenthaler, T., Lynch, H., Loebach, J., Pentland, D., & Schulze, C. (2024). Using the Theory of Affordances to Understand Environment–Play Transactions: Environmental Taxonomy of Outdoor Play Space Features—A Scoping Review. The American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 78(4), Article 7804185120. https://doi.org/10.5014/ajot.2024.050606 Pereira, J. V., Vila-Nova, F., Veiga, G., Lopes, F., & Cordovil, R. (2024). Associations between outdoor play features and children’s behavior and health: A systematic review. Health & Place, 87, Article 103235. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healthplace.2024.103235 Poulos, A., Hassan, U. A., Wilson, K., Price, P. M., Vanos, J., & Quilla, J. (2026). Differences in Schoolchildren’s Emotional State After Indoor Versus Outdoor Recess in Extreme‐Heat Weather. The Journal of School Health, 96(4), Article e70135. https://doi.org/10.1111/josh.70135 }} ==External links== {{ic|Use bullet points as shown in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]}} https://www.child-encyclopedia.com/outdoor-play<nowiki/>-Encyclopedia in early childhood development https://www.outdoorplaycanada.ca/wp-content/uploads/2026/03/The-2025-AOP10-Position-Statement.pdf<nowiki/>-Position Statement https://www.who.int/news/item/24-04-2019-to-grow-up-healthy-children-need-to-sit-less-and-play-more<nowiki/>-World Health Organisation [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Children]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Nature]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Well-being]] be6ok6ebe5alm8j0bn2djhydgalogsw 1 331415 2834378 2824592 2026-09-24T10:08:45Z Jtneill 10242 Topic development feedback 2834378 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Comment== Hey, I am excited to see how this chapter turns out. With the use of social media, homeschooling (and something called unschooling) are becoming more popularised. Here are three sources about homeschooling and unschooling: [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Gina-Riley-2/publication/305720522%20The%20Challenges%20and%20Benefits%20of%20Unschooling%20According%20to%20232%20Families%20Who%20Have%20Chosen%20that%20Route/links/579b8a8d08ae5d5e1e138042/The-Challenges-and-Benefits-of-Unschooling-According-to-] DOI:10.1080/2331186X.2016.1163651 https://doi.org/10.1080/02732173.2014.895640 -Kayla H --[[User:U3279062|U3279062]] ([[User talk:U3279062|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3279062|contribs]]) 08:32, 23 August 2026 (UTC) <!-- Official topic development feedback --> {{METF/2026 |1= <!-- Title --> # Title and subtitle are correctly worded and use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] |2= <!-- Headings --> <!-- Heading structure --> <!-- 2-level --> # Promising [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project/Structure|2-level heading structure]] – could benefit from further development and/or refinement <!-- Conceptual --> # "Understanding ... " is somewhat vague; consider using a more precise heading # It is unclear from the heading structure what main theories you've identified as useful for this question <!-- Other ---> # Use default heading formatting (i.e., avoid additional formatting such as bold, italics, underline, changing the size etc.) <!-- Alignment with focus questions --> # Insufficient alignment between sub-title, focus questions, and top-level headings <!-- GenAI ---> # Are the headings based on [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI content]]? If so, this needs to be acknowledged in the edit summaries, otherwise it violates academic integrity. |3= <!-- Overview--> # Basic <!-- GenAI ---> # Does this section include [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI content]]? If so, it needs to be acknowledged as such in the edit summaries, otherwise it violates academic integrity. <!-- Scenario --> # Promising scenario; would benefit from further development to make it more compelling and illustrative # Consider revising the scenario from second person perspective into third person perspective # Add an image to the scenario to help attract reader interest <!-- Description -->. # Add a brief, evocative description of the problem/topic <!-- Focus questions --> <!-- Alignment and quality --> # Promising focus questions which could benefit from further development # Develop closer alignment between the sub-title, focus questions, and top-level headings # The focus questions are quite specific, which is usually a good thing, but in this case, may be overly specific |4= <!-- Key points--> <!-- Overall --> # Promising development: Many parental motivations are suggested, with citations, and organised into categories/themes # It is unclear, however, what the main motivations are, or what the main theories are; strive to critically synthesise the theoretical and empriical literature # Provide more detailed edit summaries <!-- Scope --> # The scope is about right, but it may be that all planned aspects cannot be reasonably covered within the book chapter word count; in that case, be selective and concentrate on key aspects that address the question in the sub-title <!-- GenAI ---> # Do these key points include [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI content]]? If so, this needs to be acknowledged in the edit summaries, otherwise it violates academic integrity. <!-- Conclusion --> # Conclusion is well underway # What are the practical, take-home messages? (address the focus questions) |5= <!-- Figure --> # Excellent - Relevant figure(s) presented, captioned, and cited <!-- Caption --> # Figure caption(s) provide(s) a clear, appropriately detailed description that is meaningfully connected with the main text <!-- Cite --> # Figure(s) are cited at least once in the main text # Note that there are two Figure 1s |6= <!-- Learning feature --> <!-- Interwiki links ---> # Add in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] for first mention of key terms to [[w:|Wikipedia]] and/or [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]] (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) <!-- Scenarios/examples/case studies --> # Consider incorporating additional scenarios, examples, or case studies to illustrate key concepts. These could build on the Overview scenario or introduce new real-world situations in the main body of the chapter to demonstrate how the concepts apply in practice. <!-- Quiz --> # Consider including quiz question(s) about the take-home messages <!-- Tables --> # Also consider using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|table(s)]] to summarise key information |7= <!-- References --> <!-- Overall --> # Excellent # Very good # Good # Basic # Insufficient # To be developed <!-- Systematic reviews --> # At least one relevant systematic review and/or meta-analysis has been identified <!-- Move --> # Move non-academic / non-peer reviewed sources to the "External links" section <!-- Citations --> # Only include references which have been accessed and read <!-- APA style --> # Check and correct [https://apastyle.apa.org/instructional-aids/reference-guide.pdf APA referencing style]: ## remove bullet points ## capitalisation ## [[Help:Wikitext quick reference|italicisation]] ## include hyperlinked dois ## many details are missing ## do not use "Retrieved from" |8= <!-- Resources --> <!-- See also --> # See also ## To be developed (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) ## Link to the most relevant Wikiversity book chapters and Wikipedia resources about this topic <!-- External links --> # External links ## Excellent ## To be developed (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) ## Link to the most relevant external resources about this topic |9= <!-- User page --> # Basic # Not created – see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] <!-- Description about self --> # Brief description about self – consider expanding <!-- Links to profile(s) --> # Consider linking to your [https://portfolio.canberra.edu.au/ eportfolio] page and/or any other professional online profile or resume such as [https://www.linkedin.com/ LinkedIn]. This is not required, but it can be useful to interlink your professional networks. <!-- Link to book chapter --> # Add link to book chapter |10= <!-- Social contribution --> # None summarised on user page with direct link(s) to evidence (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing#Social contributions|Tutorial 2]]). Looking ahead to the book chapter, see [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Socialcontribution|social contributions]]. }} su8t28a1pr9ltsi30xz3uimlkupyp03 2 331570 2834352 2829790 2026-09-24T01:08:24Z U3260591 3104152 2834352 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == Hi, I am a University of Canberra student currently studying Motivation and Emotion. I am interested in learning more about the psychological factors that influence motivation and behaviour, particularly in relation to exercise and physical activity. This is because one day, I wish to make my own business involving both motivation and physical activity. == Book chapter I'm working on == I am currently developing a book chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Exercise gamification motivation|Exercise gamification motivation]], which explores how gamification can affect exercise motivation and behaviour. == Social contributions == {{ic|Use a numbered list}} [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FMotivations_for_using_sex_work_services&diff=2827161&oldid=2827036 Corrected "has" to "have" to improve readability] [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/457809 Posted about my book chapter in UCLearn Discussion Forum] [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2026/Motivations_for_using_sex_work_services&action=edit&section=3 Added a comment to 'Motivations for using sex work services' to guide 'Stress and Trauma' section] [[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Basic psychological needs and social media use|'''Provided feedback on the “Basic psychological needs and social media use” book chapter:''']] Suggested strengthening the application of BPNT by showing how psychological needs can be both supported and frustrated through social media use. I also suggested linking the opening scenario back to autonomy and relatedness to strengthen the connection between the scenario and theory. etwnkr1p5s0u8uoquc1g91nkcja7s24 2834353 2834352 2026-09-24T01:10:23Z U3260591 3104152 /* Social contributions */ 2834353 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == Hi, I am a University of Canberra student currently studying Motivation and Emotion. I am interested in learning more about the psychological factors that influence motivation and behaviour, particularly in relation to exercise and physical activity. This is because one day, I wish to make my own business involving both motivation and physical activity. == Book chapter I'm working on == I am currently developing a book chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Exercise gamification motivation|Exercise gamification motivation]], which explores how gamification can affect exercise motivation and behaviour. == Social contributions == {{ic|Use a numbered list}} [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FMotivations_for_using_sex_work_services&diff=2827161&oldid=2827036 Corrected "has" to "have" to improve readability] [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/457809 Posted about my book chapter in UCLearn Discussion Forum] [[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Motivations for using sex work services|Added a comment to 'Motivations for using sex work services' to guide 'Stress and Trauma' section]] [[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Basic psychological needs and social media use|'''Provided feedback on the “Basic psychological needs and social media use” book chapter:''']] Suggested strengthening the application of BPNT by showing how psychological needs can be both supported and frustrated through social media use. I also suggested linking the opening scenario back to autonomy and relatedness to strengthen the connection between the scenario and theory. k748v64kpryyjngi3f5ljm1xgz42k3f 2834362 2834353 2026-09-24T01:32:25Z U3260591 3104152 /* Social contributions */ 2834362 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == Hi, I am a University of Canberra student currently studying Motivation and Emotion. I am interested in learning more about the psychological factors that influence motivation and behaviour, particularly in relation to exercise and physical activity. This is because one day, I wish to make my own business involving both motivation and physical activity. == Book chapter I'm working on == I am currently developing a book chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Exercise gamification motivation|Exercise gamification motivation]], which explores how gamification can affect exercise motivation and behaviour. == Social contributions == 1. [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FMotivations_for_using_sex_work_services&diff=2827161&oldid=2827036 Corrected "has" to "have" to improve readability] 2. [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/457809 Posted about my book chapter in UCLearn Discussion Forum] 3. [[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Motivations for using sex work services|Added a comment to 'Motivations for using sex work services' to guide 'Stress and Trauma' section]] 4. [[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Basic psychological needs and social media use|'''Provided feedback on the “Basic psychological needs and social media use” book chapter:''']] Suggested strengthening the application of BPNT by showing how psychological needs can be both supported and frustrated through social media use. I also suggested linking the opening scenario back to autonomy and relatedness to strengthen the connection between the scenario and theory. 5. [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2026/Need_to_love_and_be_loved&diff=prev&oldid=2834361 '''Edited the “Need to love and be loved” book chapter:'''] Corrected a few grammatical errors in the chapter's scenarios and overview to improve clarity and readability. 3na6z58bjvar6qqrjpd74w32vcdep3b 0 332040 2834383 2833180 2026-09-24T11:30:18Z Solstag 64708 new projects 2834383 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Cortext_logo.svg|center|frameless|350x350px]] <div style="margin: 2em;"> <inputbox> type=fulltext placeholder=Search the Cortext pages on Wikiversity searchbuttonlabel=🔍 break=no searchfilter=subpageof:"Cortext" </inputbox> </div> '''Cortext''' is a research infrastructure specializing in computational methods for the humanities and social sciences. Its goal is to provide researchers with computational analysis tools that are conceptually appropriate and user-friendly, typically to support qualitative research, document analysis, or field surveys, and in particular for processing corpora derived from their projects or related databases. * [https://www.cortext.net/ Website] == Projects on Wikiversity == * [[/Refactoring/Network Mapping|Refactoring Network Mapping]] * [[Cortext/Projects/Computational reproducibility|Computational reproducibility]] * [[Cortext/Projects/Distributed computing|Distributed computing]] gxmmlu83t3rglqm76b61giuav0dl98p 2834384 2834383 2026-09-24T11:31:25Z Solstag 64708 /* Projects on Wikiversity */ skip redirection 2834384 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Cortext_logo.svg|center|frameless|350x350px]] <div style="margin: 2em;"> <inputbox> type=fulltext placeholder=Search the Cortext pages on Wikiversity searchbuttonlabel=🔍 break=no searchfilter=subpageof:"Cortext" </inputbox> </div> '''Cortext''' is a research infrastructure specializing in computational methods for the humanities and social sciences. Its goal is to provide researchers with computational analysis tools that are conceptually appropriate and user-friendly, typically to support qualitative research, document analysis, or field surveys, and in particular for processing corpora derived from their projects or related databases. * [https://www.cortext.net/ Website] == Projects on Wikiversity == * [[Cortext/Projects/Refactor Network Mapping|Refactoring Network Mapping]] * [[Cortext/Projects/Computational reproducibility|Computational reproducibility]] * [[Cortext/Projects/Distributed computing|Distributed computing]] 8i7pdc7fhjfdy7aesis80pl4kcunlw6 0 332041 2834381 2833185 2026-09-24T11:29:45Z Solstag 64708 Solstag moved page [[Cortext/Refactoring/Network Mapping]] to [[Cortext/Projects/Refactor Network Mapping]]: Move to sub-page: standardize organisation 2833185 wikitext text/x-wiki Repositories: [https://gitlab.com/cortext/cortext-methods/network-mapping current code], [https://gitlab.com/cortext/cortext-methods/cortext-methods full history] Previous efforts: containerization ([https://gitlab.com/cortext/cortext-methods/network-mapping current code]), multi (see pad) Production state: [https://gitlab.com/cortext/cortext-methods/cortext-methods legacy code] Method documentation: [https://docs.cortext.net/analysis-mapping-heterogeneous-networks/ at docs.cortext.net] == Journal == === September 14th === Discussed the [https://gitlab.com/cortext/cortext-methods/network-mapping/-/tree/test/init_tests tests implemented by Pierre]. Not all parameter combinations make sense. Good idea of his to generate many tests and keep those that run correctly. Another take away from Pierre's work: must refactor uses of <code>random</code> to mock during testing before converting to <code>python3</code>. Started this journal! What parts of the code not to refactor: get <code>parasite_axes</code> from [https://matplotlib.org/ matplotlib], <code>infomap</code> from [https://mapequation.org/ infomap], leave <code>sankey</code> as is, <code>library</code> is possibly dead code. a8d1gym442s7k5ezz9pxi2ywdjdwkkv 0 332203 2834379 2834236 2026-09-24T10:09:01Z Jtneill 10242 Copyediting 2834379 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Parental motivations for homeschooling:<br>What motivates parents to homeschool their children?}} == '''Overview:''' == <div style="border:1px solid #668cff; border-radius:6px; padding:10px; margin:8px 4px 25px 4px;"> '''“Choosing homeschooling or Traditional Schooling?”''' Think of it this way: You're one of the parents of 2 Children who attend a local school. Over time, you become worried/concerned that your children's education doesn't reflect the type of learning environment you want for them. After the school days your children express that they are being bullied and are feeling quite a bit of academic pressure. Your partner expresses that your children would learn better with greater flexibility and more individual attention. You sit down together to assess what you both think would be best for your children, and after considering their options, you decide to begin homeschooling. But what is actually motivating their decision? </div> {{expand}} <div style="border:1px solid #a2a9b1; padding:12px 16px; margin:8px 0 20px 0;"> ;Focus questions {{ic|Use bullet points as shown in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]}} # What are the primary push (avoidance) and pull (approach) factors that prompt parents to choose homeschooling over conventional education? # How do internal value alignments and pedagogical beliefs shape parents' long-term educational goals for their children? # In what ways do negative school environment experiences (e.g., bullying, unaddressed learning needs) act as acute psychological drivers for school withdrawal? # How do parental self-efficacy and perceived capability influence whether motivational intentions successfully translate into home education? # How do initial reactive motivations evolve over time into proactive, sustaining educational practices as families adapt? </div> == '''Understanding homeschooling and parental motivation''' == * Parental motivation to homeschool represents a dynamic, goal-directed psychological process that governs how families initiate and sustain home-based education (Green & Hoover-Dempsey, 2007). === '''Multiple motivations and values''' === * Parents rarely choose homeschooling for a single reason; decisions typically reflect a complex combination of academic, social, and emotional factors (Collom, 2005). * Home education allows parents to integrate their personal, moral, and cultural values directly into their children's daily learning environment (Morton, 2010). * Increased parent-child interaction acts as a primary motivator, fostering stronger attachment and active participation in developmental milestones (Guterman & Neuman, 2017). <div style="float:right; width:210px; margin:5px 0 12px 20px; border:1px solid #c8ccd1; padding:4px; background:#fff;">[[File:RAF Mildenhall Airman maintains resilience amid COVID 19 (6194977).jpg|center|200x200px|A young girl focuses on her laptop from a table, during remote lockdown learning.]]<div style="font-size:90%; line-height:1.3;"> '''Figure 1.''' A young girl focuses on her laptop from a table, during remote lockdown learning. </div></div> === '''External push factors and tailored education''' === * Acute negative experiences in conventional settings, such as peer victimization and persistent bullying, push parents to seek protective alternatives (Green & Hoover-Dempsey, 2007). * Parents are driven by the desire to provide specific pedagogical approaches that conventional schools may fail to deliver (Thomas, 2016). * Economic factors, such as balancing private school tuition costs against the financial trade-offs of single-income home education, influence decision feasibility (Collom, 2005). * Disruptions during pandemic lockdowns exposed widespread gaps in institutional remote instruction, driving many families to transition from temporary crisis schooling to permanent, intentional home education (Ray, 2021; see Figure 1). === '''Parental role construction and self-efficacy''' === * Decision-making begins when parents reconstruct their parental identity to include primary responsibility for formal academic instruction (Ice & Hoover-Dempsey, 2011). * Grounded in Bandura's (1997) self-efficacy theory, a parent's belief in their ability to teach strongly dictates whether motivational intentions turn into actual behavior. * As parents gain instructional experience, perceived self-efficacy increases, bolstering long-term commitment to home education (Green & Hoover-Dempsey, 2007). == '''Parents' values and educational goals''' == * Value-driven motivations represent approach-oriented goals where parents proactively seek to align education with their core philosophical ideals (Morton, 2010). === '''Educational beliefs and goals''' === * '''Pedagogical philosophy:''' Parents hold distinct beliefs about how children learn best, often favoring constructivist or child-led learning over rigid institutional curricula (Thomas, 2016). * Motivation is driven by fostering deep curiosity and lifelong learning rather than preparing for standardized testing (Ames, 1992). * Educational goals prioritize emotional resilience, character building, and social-emotional maturity alongside academic achievement (Guterman & Neuman, 2017). === '''Individualized education''' === * Homeschooling allows parents to adapt instructional speed to match their child's unique cognitive strengths and weaknesses (Thomas, 2016). * Parents retain freedom to select specialized learning materials that cater to specific talents, neurodivergent needs, or personal interests (Jackson, 2017). * Eliminating classroom distractions enables more efficient, targeted daily study sessions (Neuman & Aviram, 2003). <div style="width:150px; margin:20px auto; border:1px solid #c8ccd1; padding:4px; background:#fff;">[[File:Homework 03.jpg|center|Parent guiding children through individualized home learning activities]]<div style="font-size:90%; line-height:1.3;"> Parent guiding children through individualized home learning activities '''''Figure 1.'' Parental involvement in home education reflects both approach motives (desire for custom pedagogy) and high instructional self-efficacy.''' </div></div> === '''Perceived benefits''' === * Spending extended time together strengthens sibling relationships and parent-child relational bonds (Morton, 2010). * Families gain time sovereignty, allowing them to structure schedule routines around family needs rather than rigid school calendars. * Parents perceive home environments as safer spaces for children to build self-esteem free from peer pressure and social comparison (Guterman & Neuman, 2017). == '''Concerns about conventional schooling''' == * Avoidance-oriented motivations stem from perceived mismatches between institutional school environments and a child's developmental well-being (Green & Hoover-Dempsey, 2007). === '''School-related structural concerns''' === * '''Classroom overcrowding''' - High student-to-teacher ratios reduce individualized attention and slow down academic progression for both gifted and struggling students (Thomas, 2016). * '''Academic pressure''' - Oversaturation of high-stakes assessments is perceived by parents as damaging to intrinsic motivation and creative inquiry (Ames, 1992). * Inflexible school schedules and rigid administrative policies can create systemic friction for families seeking adaptability. === '''Child well-being and experiences''' === * Chronic bullying and playground exclusion serve as major emotional catalysts for removing children from school (Green & Hoover-Dempsey, 2007). * Parents report withdrawing children due to school-induced stress, school refusal behaviors, and burnout (Jackson, 2017). * Conventional settings often lack resources to support children with ADHD, Autism, or learning differences, leading parents to intervene (Jackson, 2017). === '''Perception versus objective circumstances''' === * Parental choices are guided by their subjective perception of school climate quality, regardless of objective national standards (Collom, 2005). * Declining trust in school administration leads parents to rely on their own evaluation of what is best for their child (Ice & Hoover-Dempsey, 2011). * Specific negative incidents often act as the tipping point that transforms ongoing background dissatisfaction into definitive action (Neuman & Aviram, 2003). == '''Autonomy, control, and family circumstances''' == * Translating motivational desires into sustainable home education requires a combination of personal agency, perceived capability, and structural feasibility (Bandura, 1997). === '''Parental autonomy and responsibility''' === * Parents seek full sovereignty over curriculum content, moral exposure, and daily instructional methods (Bartholet, 2020). * Motivation involves stepping into full accountability for the academic and developmental outcomes of the child (Ice & Hoover-Dempsey, 2011). * Self-Determination Theory suggests that exercising educational autonomy fulfills a core psychological need for parents (Deci & Ryan, 2000). === '''Self-efficacy and competence''' === * Parents must feel cognitively and pedagogically capable of facilitating grade-appropriate learning (Bandura, 1997). * Early worries about teaching ability are offset by accessing educational resources and supportive peer networks (Green & Hoover-Dempsey, 2007). * High self-efficacy enables parents to view teaching challenges as opportunities to learn alongside their children (Ice & Hoover-Dempsey, 2011). === '''Family circumstances and practicalities''' === * Household budgeting and single-income dynamics significantly shape whether motivational intentions can be realistically sustained (Collom, 2005). * Remote work options and adaptable work schedules enhance a family's logistical capacity to homeschool. * Access to local homeschooling co-ops and online communities provides essential emotional and practical scaffolding for parents (Medlin, 2013). == '''How parental motivations shape homeschooling decisions''' == * Parental motivation is an evolving psychological process that adapts as family circumstances, child development, and instructional experience mature (Guterman & Neuman, 2017). === '''Approach and avoidance motivational interactions''' === * Initial decisions are frequently triggered by avoidance (push) factors (See Table 1), while long-term maintenance relies on approach (pull) factors (Collom, 2005). * Parents who harbor both strong protective drives and positive educational goals demonstrate the highest commitment levels (Neuman & Aviram, 2003). * Positive pull factors help buffer against the daily logistical stressors associated with reactive push motivations. === '''Motivation, perceived ability, and change over time''' === * Over time, initial crisis-driven motivations (e.g., escaping bullying) transition into value-driven practices (e.g., customized interest-based learning) (Neuman & Aviram, 2003). * As children reach adolescence, parental motives shift toward university preparation, vocational skills, and encouraging autonomous study (Jackson, 2017). * Increased instructional competence reinforces ongoing motivation, creating a positive self-sustaining cycle (Bandura, 1997). === '''Overall psychological explanation''' === * Homeschooling decision-making is ultimately explained by the ongoing pursuit of basic psychological need fulfillment—autonomy, competence, and relatedness—for both parent and child (Deci & Ryan, 2000). * '''Protection vs. flourishing''' - Parental motivation balances protective instincts (avoiding psychological harm) with developmental flourishing (maximizing growth potential) (Guterman & Neuman, 2017). * Understanding homeschooling requires viewing parents not just as managers of schooling, but as active drivers of a integrated psychological ecosystem (Green & Hoover-Dempsey, 2007). == '''Summary of parental motivations for homeschooling''' == '''Table 1''' '''''Psychological Frameworks, Key Drivers, and Behavioral Manifestations of Parental Motivations for Homeschooling''''' {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; border-collapse:collapse;" ! style="width:20%;" |Motivation Category ! style="width:20%;" |Psychological Framework ! style="width:20%;" |Primary Drivers / Triggers ! style="width:20%;" |Key Citations ! style="width:20%;" |Educational & Behavioral Impact |- |'''Avoidance / Push Motivations''' |Threat protection & stress reduction models |Bullying, school anxiety, unaddressed neurodivergent needs, standardized testing pressure |Collom (2005); Green & Hoover-Dempsey (2007); Jackson (2017) |Serves as the acute catalyst for removing a child from traditional schooling to restore emotional safety and well-being. |- |'''Approach / Pull Motivations''' |Self-Determination Theory (Intrinsic Motivation) |Custom pedagogical pacing, child-centered inquiry, religious/moral alignment, family bonding |Deci & Ryan (2000); Morton (2010); Thomas (2016) |Fosters high autonomous motivation, deep mastery goal orientation, and sustained long-term commitment to home education. |- |'''Self-Efficacy & Role Beliefs''' |Social Cognitive Theory (Bandura) |Active parental role construction, instructional confidence, adaptability, resource availability |Bandura (1997); Ice & Hoover-Dempsey (2011) |Dictates whether motivational desires successfully translate into real-world teaching behaviors and persistent instructional effort. |- |'''Sustaining / Evolving Motivations''' |Longitudinal motivational recalibration |Shift from crisis management to interest-based learning, tertiary prep, child autonomy |Guterman & Neuman (2017); Neuman & Aviram (2003) |Prevents parental burnout by transitioning reactive push factors into proactive pull factors as the family adapts over time. |} ''Note. Synthesized from empirical literature on parental educational choice and psychological need fulfillment.'' == '''Conclusion''' == * Parental motivation to homeschool is not a static decision, but a dynamic psychological process governed by the continuous interplay of push (avoidance) and pull (approach) factors (Collom, 2005; Green & Hoover-Dempsey, 2007). * Framed through Self-Determination Theory (Deci & Ryan, 2000), home education serves as a vehicle for parents to fulfill fundamental needs for autonomy, instructional competence, and familial relatedness. * Grounded in Bandura's (1997) social cognitive framework, high parental self-efficacy and active role construction are essential for translating motivational desires into effective, sustained educational practices (Ice & Hoover-Dempsey, 2011). * While acute environmental stressors (such as bullying, academic anxiety, or neurodivergent mismatches) often act as initial reactive catalysts, long-term commitment relies on proactive, value-driven motivators like tailored pedagogy and family cohesion (Guterman & Neuman, 2017; Neuman & Aviram, 2003). * Understanding the multifaceted drivers of parental choice provides crucial insights for developmental psychologists, educators, and policymakers seeking to better support family well-being and diverse learning pathways across childhood development (Jackson, 2017; Ray, 2017). == See also == {{expand}} == '''References''' == {{Hanging indent|1= * Abuzandah, S. (2017). Guterman, O., & Neuman, A. (2017b). schools and emotional and behavioral problems a comparison of school-going and homeschooled children. ''The Journal of Educational Research, 110'', 425-432. - references - scientific research publishing. Retrieved August 28, 2026, from Scirp.org website. * Ames, C. (1992). APA PsycNet. Retrieved August 27, 2026, from psycnet.apa.org website. * Bandura, A. (1997). ''Self-efficacy: The exercise of control.'' Retrieved August 28, 2026, from APA PsycNET website. * Bartholet, E. (2019, June 17). ''Homeschooling: Parent rights absolutism vs. child rights to Education & Protection.'' * Deci, E., & Ryan, R. (2000). APA PsycNet. Retrieved August 28, 2026, from psycnet.apa.org website. * Dobosz, D., Gierczyk, M., & Hornby, G. (2022). Parental perspectives of home-schooling of children with special educational needs and disabilities during the COVID-19 pandemic: A review. ''Journal of Research in Special Educational Needs.'' * Green, C. L., & Hoover-Dempsey, K. V. (2007). Why do parents homeschool? A systematic examination of parental involvement. ''Education and Urban Society, 39''(2), 264–285. * Grolnick, W. S., & Slowiaczek, M. L. (1994). Parents' involvement in children's schooling: A multidimensional conceptualization and motivational model. ''Child Development, 65''(1), 237–252. * Ice, C. L., & Hoover-Dempsey, K. V. (2010). Linking parental motivations for involvement and student proximal achievement outcomes in homeschooling and public schooling settings. ''Education and Urban Society, 43''(3), 339–369. * Isaac, E. P. (2005). The future of adult education in the urban African American church. ''Education and Urban Society, 37''(3), 276–291. * Morton, R. (2010). ''Home education: Constructions of choice.'' * Neuman, A., & Guterman, O. (2017). Homeschooling is not just about education: Focuses of meaning. ''Journal of School Choice, 11''(1), 148–167. * Ray, B. (2021). Should educators promote homeschooling? Worldwide growth and learner outcomes. ''Journal of Pedagogy, 12''(1), 55–76. * Ray, B. D. (2017). A systematic review of the empirical research on selected aspects of homeschooling as a school choice. ''Journal of School Choice, 11''(4), 604–621. * Thomas, A., & Pattison, H. (2012). Informal home education: Philosophical aspirations put into practice. ''Studies in Philosophy and Education, 32''(2), 141–154. }} ==External links== {{expand}} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Education]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Parenting]] tqh9n7jhnjxno8uqp55swwtttcke3bq 103 332212 2834341 2026-09-23T14:11:57Z Leone Tlhage 3111496 /* Mathematic */ new section 2834341 wikitext text/x-wiki == Mathematic == About how we measure angles [[User:Leone Tlhage|Leone Tlhage]] ([[User talk:Leone Tlhage|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Leone Tlhage|contribs]]) 14:11, 23 September 2026 (UTC) oc6577vgpnoytr4qsh0qs0h7mhtzgel 2834342 2834341 2026-09-23T14:12:37Z Leone Tlhage 3111496 /* Mathematic */ Reply 2834342 wikitext text/x-wiki == Mathematic == About how we measure angles [[User:Leone Tlhage|Leone Tlhage]] ([[User talk:Leone Tlhage|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Leone Tlhage|contribs]]) 14:11, 23 September 2026 (UTC) :Yes? [[User:Leone Tlhage|Leone Tlhage]] ([[User talk:Leone Tlhage|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Leone Tlhage|contribs]]) 14:12, 23 September 2026 (UTC) 9sopxscu6mu59wk5c7xhomeik6gp8up 2 332213 2834373 2026-09-24T07:37:52Z Jpascher 430943 User page created 2834373 wikitext text/x-wiki Johann Pascher, Linz (Upper Austria). Retired teacher of electronics and communications engineering (HTL Leonding), accordion maker, independent theoretical physicist. Active on the German Wikipedia since 2002 as [[w:de:Benutzer:Jpascher|Jpascher]], mainly on accordions, instrument making and music theory. * Research project: [[User:Jpascher/FFGFT|Fundamental Fractal Geometric Field Theory (FFGFT)]] * German version: [[v:de:Benutzer:Jpascher/FFGFT|de.wikiversity]] * ORCID: [https://orcid.org/0009-0000-6518-4064 0009-0000-6518-4064] * GitHub: [https://github.com/jpascher jpascher] * Wikidata: [[d:Q141546860|Q141546860]] m7fqgdpzsq4wxtvi3sk7jm8iy1qpv2c 2 332214 2834374 2026-09-24T07:37:53Z Jpascher 430943 Research project FFGFT created 2834374 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Original research}} This is the author's own research project. The content has not been peer-reviewed and is presented here openly for discussion. '''Fundamental Fractal Geometric Field Theory''' (FFGFT), formerly "T0 Time-Mass Duality", is a theoretical framework by Johann Pascher. == Core idea == * A single dimensionless parameter: ξ = 4/30000. * Compact geometry: T⁴/ℤ₃ (four-dimensional torus with a ℤ₃ orbifold, nine fixed points). * Fundamental relation: T̃·m = 1 (time-mass duality). * Aim: to derive Standard Model constants from ξ and the geometry. SI and Standard Model quantities (e.g. m_e) serve only for unit conversion and comparison, not as input. == Method: status markers == Every statement in the corpus carries a status: * [K] – computed from ξ * [B] – algebraically proven * [S] – sketched, open * [SETZUNG] – deliberate foundational assumption * [Q] – taken from the literature and cited * [X] – checked and rejected Corrections to earlier documents are recorded in a running correction register (Doc. 190). The documents come with Python verification scripts for recomputing the results. == Where to start == * Doc. 365 – ''The foundation of FFGFT in four layers'' * Doc. 377 – overview of interfaces to other frameworks * Doc. 190 – correction register and open bridges == Sources and publications == * Repository (LaTeX, PDF, verification scripts): https://github.com/jpascher/T0-Time-Mass-Duality * Zenodo: https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.22247575 (release v1.3.6) * Conference contribution: J. Pascher, ''FFGFT: Deriving Standard Model Constants from a Single Geometric Parameter''. In: M. M. Vopson et al. (eds.): ''Abstract Proceedings of the International Conference on Information Physics (ICIP 2026)''. IPI Letters, 2026, pp. N1–N22, [https://doi.org/10.59973/ipil.378 doi:10.59973/ipil.378] * ORCID: https://orcid.org/0009-0000-6518-4064 * Wikidata: [[d:Q141546860|Q141546860]] * Books (self-published, English/German): ''Beyond the Matrix''; ''Bits, Hyperbits and Landauer''; ''Dark Matter – an Illusion'' * German version of this page: [[v:de:Benutzer:Jpascher/FFGFT|de.wikiversity]] == Discussion == Questions and objections are welcome on the talk page. 1h7n4fldhw7mcirebq5qrxpar0mvpan 2834375 2834374 2026-09-24T07:38:47Z Jpascher 430943 Figure added 2834375 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Original research}} This is the author's own research project. The content has not been peer-reviewed and is presented here openly for discussion. '''Fundamental Fractal Geometric Field Theory''' (FFGFT), formerly "T0 Time-Mass Duality", is a theoretical framework by Johann Pascher. == Core idea == * A single dimensionless parameter: ξ = 4/30000. * Compact geometry: T⁴/ℤ₃ (four-dimensional torus with a ℤ₃ orbifold, nine fixed points). * Fundamental relation: T̃·m = 1 (time-mass duality). * Aim: to derive Standard Model constants from ξ and the geometry. SI and Standard Model quantities (e.g. m_e) serve only for unit conversion and comparison, not as input. [[File:FFGFT Ableitungsketten.svg|thumb|600px|Derivation chains: from ξ to lepton masses, α, G, v and G_F, with status markers (labels in German)]] == Method: status markers == Every statement in the corpus carries a status: * [K] – computed from ξ * [B] – algebraically proven * [S] – sketched, open * [SETZUNG] – deliberate foundational assumption * [Q] – taken from the literature and cited * [X] – checked and rejected Corrections to earlier documents are recorded in a running correction register (Doc. 190). The documents come with Python verification scripts for recomputing the results. == Where to start == * Doc. 365 – ''The foundation of FFGFT in four layers'' * Doc. 377 – overview of interfaces to other frameworks * Doc. 190 – correction register and open bridges == Sources and publications == * Repository (LaTeX, PDF, verification scripts): https://github.com/jpascher/T0-Time-Mass-Duality * Zenodo: https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.22247575 (release v1.3.6) * Conference contribution: J. Pascher, ''FFGFT: Deriving Standard Model Constants from a Single Geometric Parameter''. In: M. M. Vopson et al. (eds.): ''Abstract Proceedings of the International Conference on Information Physics (ICIP 2026)''. IPI Letters, 2026, pp. N1–N22, [https://doi.org/10.59973/ipil.378 doi:10.59973/ipil.378] * ORCID: https://orcid.org/0009-0000-6518-4064 * Wikidata: [[d:Q141546860|Q141546860]] * Books (self-published, English/German): ''Beyond the Matrix''; ''Bits, Hyperbits and Landauer''; ''Dark Matter – an Illusion'' * German version of this page: [[v:de:Benutzer:Jpascher/FFGFT|de.wikiversity]] == Discussion == Questions and objections are welcome on the talk page. izgal1nxsho6q19ws5m41mwjr8wy4bg 2834376 2834375 2026-09-24T07:39:02Z Jpascher 430943 Figure centered 2834376 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Original research}} This is the author's own research project. The content has not been peer-reviewed and is presented here openly for discussion. '''Fundamental Fractal Geometric Field Theory''' (FFGFT), formerly "T0 Time-Mass Duality", is a theoretical framework by Johann Pascher. == Core idea == * A single dimensionless parameter: ξ = 4/30000. * Compact geometry: T⁴/ℤ₃ (four-dimensional torus with a ℤ₃ orbifold, nine fixed points). * Fundamental relation: T̃·m = 1 (time-mass duality). * Aim: to derive Standard Model constants from ξ and the geometry. SI and Standard Model quantities (e.g. m_e) serve only for unit conversion and comparison, not as input. [[File:FFGFT Ableitungsketten.svg|thumb|center|600px|Derivation chains: from ξ to lepton masses, α, G, v and G_F, with status markers (labels in German)]] == Method: status markers == Every statement in the corpus carries a status: * [K] – computed from ξ * [B] – algebraically proven * [S] – sketched, open * [SETZUNG] – deliberate foundational assumption * [Q] – taken from the literature and cited * [X] – checked and rejected Corrections to earlier documents are recorded in a running correction register (Doc. 190). The documents come with Python verification scripts for recomputing the results. == Where to start == * Doc. 365 – ''The foundation of FFGFT in four layers'' * Doc. 377 – overview of interfaces to other frameworks * Doc. 190 – correction register and open bridges == Sources and publications == * Repository (LaTeX, PDF, verification scripts): https://github.com/jpascher/T0-Time-Mass-Duality * Zenodo: https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.22247575 (release v1.3.6) * Conference contribution: J. Pascher, ''FFGFT: Deriving Standard Model Constants from a Single Geometric Parameter''. In: M. M. Vopson et al. (eds.): ''Abstract Proceedings of the International Conference on Information Physics (ICIP 2026)''. IPI Letters, 2026, pp. N1–N22, [https://doi.org/10.59973/ipil.378 doi:10.59973/ipil.378] * ORCID: https://orcid.org/0009-0000-6518-4064 * Wikidata: [[d:Q141546860|Q141546860]] * Books (self-published, English/German): ''Beyond the Matrix''; ''Bits, Hyperbits and Landauer''; ''Dark Matter – an Illusion'' * German version of this page: [[v:de:Benutzer:Jpascher/FFGFT|de.wikiversity]] == Discussion == Questions and objections are welcome on the talk page. djtctsq0mpyslf96hrtdnsyq28ajr9y 2834377 2834376 2026-09-24T08:27:14Z Jpascher 430943 Section: deterministic reading (qubits, measurement, Bell, quantum computers) 2834377 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Original research}} This is the author's own research project. The content has not been peer-reviewed and is presented here openly for discussion. '''Fundamental Fractal Geometric Field Theory''' (FFGFT), formerly "T0 Time-Mass Duality", is a theoretical framework by Johann Pascher. == Core idea == * A single dimensionless parameter: ξ = 4/30000. * Compact geometry: T⁴/ℤ₃ (four-dimensional torus with a ℤ₃ orbifold, nine fixed points). * Fundamental relation: T̃·m = 1 (time-mass duality). * Aim: to derive Standard Model constants from ξ and the geometry. SI and Standard Model quantities (e.g. m_e) serve only for unit conversion and comparison, not as input. [[File:FFGFT Ableitungsketten.svg|thumb|center|600px|Derivation chains: from ξ to lepton masses, α, G, v and G_F, with status markers (labels in German)]] == Method: status markers == Every statement in the corpus carries a status: * [K] – computed from ξ * [B] – algebraically proven * [S] – sketched, open * [SETZUNG] – deliberate foundational assumption * [Q] – taken from the literature and cited * [X] – checked and rejected Corrections to earlier documents are recorded in a running correction register (Doc. 190). The documents come with Python verification scripts for recomputing the results. == Deterministic reading: qubits, measurement, Bell correlations == FFGFT translates the qubit formalism completely into a deterministic geometry (Doc. 230). Operationally both descriptions agree up to ξ corrections; they differ in interpretation. === State === In FFGFT a qubit is a point <math>(z, r, \theta)</math> on a cylinder or torus with <math>z \in [-1,1]</math>, <math>r \in [0,1]</math>, <math>\theta \in [0, 2\pi)</math> and <math>z^2 + r^2 = 1</math>. The bridge to Hilbert space is bijective: :<math>\alpha = \sqrt{\tfrac{1+z}{2}}\, e^{i\theta/2}, \qquad \beta = \sqrt{\tfrac{1-z}{2}}\, e^{-i\theta/2}</math> :<math>z = |\alpha|^2 - |\beta|^2, \qquad r = 2|\alpha\beta|, \qquad \theta = \arg\alpha - \arg\beta</math> In quantum mechanics <math>|\alpha|^2</math> is a probability; in FFGFT <math>r^2 = 1 - z^2</math> is the energy density of the radial configuration. === Measurement === Measurement is not a probabilistic collapse but a geometric interaction that drives the point <math>(z, r, \theta)</math> deterministically to the nearest pole <math>z = \pm 1</math>. Because the phase <math>\theta</math> is unknown and initial conditions vary minutely, this is statistically indistinguishable from the Born rule: :<math>P_\text{FFGFT}(z = +1) = \tfrac{1+z}{2} = |\alpha|^2 = P_\text{QM}(0)</math> Randomness thus arises at the measuring apparatus, not in the natural process itself. === Time evolution === Time evolution is the deterministic motion of the modes on the torus; in the low-energy limit <math>E \ll E_\xi</math> the mode equation reduces to the Schrödinger equation. Because of <math>\tilde T \cdot m = 1</math>, each mode has its own time scale (Doc. 334). === Entanglement and Bell correlations === A Bell state is a topologically connected cylinder configuration in which the individual <math>(z_i, r_i, \theta_i)</math> are not independent. The correlation is read not as action at a distance in <math>\mathbb{R}^3</math> but as a property of the closed <math>T^4</math> geometry. The experimental predictions match those of quantum mechanics; as an open prediction the corpus gives a small geometric deviation from the Tsirelson bound, <math>\Delta\text{CHSH} \approx 10^{-5}</math> per measurement, below today's measurement precision (Docs. 230, 175, 023). === Quantum computers === The circuit model of Shor's algorithm is digital. The corpus classifies the physical device as an analogue computer with quantum-mechanical precision: error correction averages over many syndrome measurements, and it is open whether this averaging scales with size. On this reading the question is decided not in theory but on the factoring curve, which for honestly executed runs of Shor's algorithm has stood at N = 21 since 2012 (Doc. 343 §G′, Doc. 075). === Documents === * [https://github.com/jpascher/T0-Time-Mass-Duality/blob/main/2/pdf/230_Hilbertraum_Uebersetzung_En.pdf Doc. 230 – Hilbert-space translation] * [https://github.com/jpascher/T0-Time-Mass-Duality/blob/main/2/pdf/334_Superposition_ohne_Zeit_En.pdf Doc. 334 – Superposition without time] * [https://github.com/jpascher/T0-Time-Mass-Duality/blob/main/2/pdf/343_Zeta_Galois_FFGFT_En.pdf Doc. 343 – Zeta function of the T⁴/ℤ₃ torus, §G′ quantum computers] * [https://github.com/jpascher/T0-Time-Mass-Duality/blob/main/2/pdf/075_RSA_En.pdf Doc. 075 – RSA] == Where to start == * Doc. 365 – ''The foundation of FFGFT in four layers'' * Doc. 377 – overview of interfaces to other frameworks * Doc. 190 – correction register and open bridges == Sources and publications == * Repository (LaTeX, PDF, verification scripts): https://github.com/jpascher/T0-Time-Mass-Duality * Zenodo: https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.22247575 (release v1.3.6) * Conference contribution: J. Pascher, ''FFGFT: Deriving Standard Model Constants from a Single Geometric Parameter''. In: M. M. Vopson et al. (eds.): ''Abstract Proceedings of the International Conference on Information Physics (ICIP 2026)''. IPI Letters, 2026, pp. N1–N22, [https://doi.org/10.59973/ipil.378 doi:10.59973/ipil.378] * ORCID: https://orcid.org/0009-0000-6518-4064 * Wikidata: [[d:Q141546860|Q141546860]] * Books (self-published, English/German): ''Beyond the Matrix''; ''Bits, Hyperbits and Landauer''; ''Dark Matter – an Illusion'' * German version of this page: [[v:de:Benutzer:Jpascher/FFGFT|de.wikiversity]] == Discussion == Questions and objections are welcome on the talk page. j4ka8ugmp887y26bb25lz0r3um61f2b 0 332215 2834382 2026-09-24T11:29:45Z Solstag 64708 Solstag moved page [[Cortext/Refactoring/Network Mapping]] to [[Cortext/Projects/Refactor Network Mapping]]: Move to sub-page: standardize organisation 2834382 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Cortext/Projects/Refactor Network Mapping]] puehdjp8r5m41297ld1cr74at9idrm3