Wikiversity enwikiversity https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Wikiversity:Main_Page MediaWiki 1.47.0-wmf.22 first-letter Media Special Talk User User talk Wikiversity Wikiversity talk File File talk MediaWiki MediaWiki talk Template Template talk Help Help talk Category Category talk School School talk Portal Portal talk Topic Topic talk Collection Collection talk Draft Draft talk TimedText TimedText talk Module Module talk Event Event talk 0 52 2835766 2780711 2026-10-04T08:06:02Z Michael Ten 654933 added ==Discussion questions, essay ideas, and learning related AI prompt ideas== 2835766 wikitext text/x-wiki This resource offers an introduction to the use of [[wiki]]s in [[education]]. The [[Wikiversity]] community keeps track of education-oriented [[wiki]]s, establishes [[Wikiversity outreach|constructive interactions]] with them, and [[/Research|researches]] their technology, activity, culture, processes, and impact. [[Educational Wikis/constructive interactions|Constructive interactions]] is a sub-page for exploring interactions between education-oriented wikis and other projects involved in the development of learning resources. {{TOCright}} ==Educational wikis== ===Ask Dr Wiki=== [http://www.askdrwiki.com Ask Dr Wiki] - A medical wiki with the goal of creating a collective online memory for physicians, fellows, residents, and medical students. ===CouchSurfing=== [http://wiki.couchsurfing.com/en/University CouchSurfing University] - social networking wiki that is trying to make use of Wikiversity resources. ===Curriki=== [http://www.curriki.org/xwiki/bin/view/Main/ Curriki] was started by [[w:Scott_McNealy|Scott McNealy]] the co-founder of Sun Microsystems. It is a non-profit organisation with the goal of building a complete course of instruction and assessment for K-12. ===Debatepedia=== *[http://wiki.idebate.org Debatepedia] - International Debate Education Association === Edutechwiki=== * http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/en/Main_Page - based in Switzerland; explains a lot of the technical stuff behind web education. === ELATEwiki === *[http://www.elatewiki.org] - E-Learning and Teaching Exchange wiki supports e-learning endeavors at the higher education level. ===Experimental Learning Processes=== Join or create a debate and/or summarize its salient features at [http://web.archive.org/web/20080527084604/http://wikireason.net/wiki/Forum_Entrance http://wikireason.net/wiki/Forum_Entrance]. Please note this is an external site with its own community, social norms, and legal requirements. Please be prudent and wise in paraphrasing, citing, and archival of results locally. Content license requirements may conflict occasionally. Alternatively, methods learned there may be useful within the context of some local learning process or free materials development. ===FLOSSCom Project & Ubuntu Education=== * [http://flosscom.net/index.php?option=com_mambowiki&Itemid=170 FLOSSCom.NET Wiki] - exploring free/open source software communities as learning communities * [http://wiki.ubuntu.com/flosscom Learning the Open Source Way] - a project aimed at developing a toolkit on "Learning the Open Source Way" ===One Laptop per Child=== [http://wiki.laptop.org/go/Main_Page One Laptop per Child wiki] - research initiative to develop a $100 laptop—a technology that could revolutionize how we educate the world's children. [http://wiki.laptop.org/go/Educators The Educators'] page describes OLPC learning projects. Licence: cc by + others. See also: [[One Laptop Per Teacher]]. ===OER Grapevine=== *[http://oergrapevine.org OER Grapevine] - mission is to promote discussion and cooperation among projects relating to open educational resources ===OpenWetWare=== * [http://openwetware.org OpenWetWare] promote the sharing of information, know-how, and wisdom among researchers and groups who are working in biology & biological engineering. ===Second Life Education Wiki=== [http://www.simteach.com/wiki/index.php?title=Second_Life_Education_Wiki Second Life Education Wiki] -"Second Life provides a unique and flexible environment for educators interested in distance learning" ===HandWiki=== * [https://handwiki.org/wiki HandWiki] is a wiki encyclopedia which is dedicated to scientific knowledge (formal, natural and social sciences). It covers about 30,000 categories on general sciences, commonly shared with Wikipedia. Edits are only allowed for registered users. ===WikiEducator=== [[WikiEducator]] - is a community project working collaboratively with the Free Culture Movement towards a free version of the education curriculum by 2015. WikiEducator has a strong focus on a learning for development agenda. Content is licensed under CC-BY-SA. WikiEducator has similar goals and methods to Wikiversity. ===Wikihow=== *[http://wikihow.com Wikihow] - Another wiki with how-to information, licenced under a creative commons By-NC-SA license. ===Wikihowto=== *[http://howto.wikia.com/ Wikihowto] - comprehensive, free, and open Howtos hosted by [http://www.wikia.com/wiki/Wikia Wikia]. Content licenced under CC-BY-SA. ===Wikiversity=== * [[Wikiversity]] is an educational wiki supported by the [[Wikimedia Foundation]]. Wikiversity is one of several [[sister projects]] on the WMF [[Mediawiki]] platform, including [[Wikipedia]], [[Wikibooks]], and [[Commons]]. ===Wiki auto-training project=== [http://wiki.cofares.net Empower yourself wiki] - after using many tools to place the courses materials and students works (tikiwiki, google sites, moodle, and others) this one still new started 20/8/2012 will use mediawiki it seem to me the nearest to my first goals "Freedom and empowerment" I will come back at the end of the fall semester to evalute this experience. ==Subpages== {{Special:Prefixindex/{{FULLPAGENAME}}/}} ==Discussion questions, essay ideas, and learning related AI prompt ideas== * How could AI agents collaborate with humans on educational wikis? * How can educational wikis serve as public knowledge graphs that are utilized to the mutual benefit of all interested parties involved? ==See also== *[[/Research/]] *[[Wikiversity:Outreach]] *[[Wikiversity:School and university projects]] *[[Wikis in scholarly communication]] ==External links== *[http://acawiki.org/ AcaWiki] AcaWiki is like "Wikipedia for academic research" *[http://www.shambles.net/pages/learning/ict/wikiedu/ Wikis and education] (Examples) *[http://springerlink.com/content/g509739lp56gk040/ A systemic and cognitive view on collaborative knowledge building with wikis] *[http://www.scholarpedia.org Scholarpedia] - peer-reviewed open-access encyclopedia written by scholars from all around the world *[http://www.votapedia.com VotApedia] - an audience-response system that uses mobile phones to poll responses to questions and collate them on a [[MediaWiki]] installation *[http://wikiscience.libresoft.es/wiki/index.php/Main_Page WikiScience] - for researching wiki projects, particularly Wikimedia Foundation projects *[http://edublogawards.com/2008/best-educational-wiki-2008/ Best educational wiki] (Edublogs, 2008) *[http://www.cme-internalmedicine.com/ Internal Medicine] Information Site (CME Org) [[Category:Educational wikis]] [[Category:Wikiversity development]] [[Category:Wikiversity publicity]] rv0ungzb16nbpjjzk98121w93c5b0vt 4 1558 2835783 2835521 2026-10-04T10:51:01Z ~2026-53280-46 3112101 2835783 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Please leave this line alone (sandbox heading)}} What <quiz> 1111111-000000=1111111 90+10=100 </quiz> final work <quiz> 10-2=8 212+8+220 scotland forever A A G AG A KAGA KG:AS LAG SGSA"ASG G GSA AGSA GS AG GA GS GSAG AS <nowiki><quiz></nowiki> 22-1=21 23+21(11)=354 <======= What does this mean??? i don't know you tell me 33koxoxxy07yqgga4eaexd6d9gu8ruc 0 50327 2835752 2410171 2026-10-04T05:24:41Z Michael Ten 654933 /* Discussion questions and essay ideas */ Does MediaWiki have an edit hash capability or any Git-like qualities with respect to tracking changes (and verifying changes) and so forth? 2835752 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:MediaWiki-2020-logo.svg|thumb|right|MediaWiki logo]] '''[[Wikipedia:MediaWiki|MediaWiki]]''' is wiki software, released under the [[w:GPL|GPL]], that is used by [[Wikimedia:|Wikimedia]] projects as well as [[meta:Sites using MediaWiki|other sites]]. It is an implementation of a '''[[w:Wiki|wiki]]''', a content pool that anyone can freely edit. It is developed using [[Wikipedia:Gerrit_(software)|Gerrit]]. __TOC__ == Subpages == {{Subpages/List}} == About == ===Miscellaneous=== * [[mw:Manual:MediaWiki feature list|MediaWiki features]] * [[mw:Manual:FAQ#Installation_and_configuration|Installation and configuration]] * [http://siteground.com/tutorials/mediawiki/index.htm MediaWiki Tutorial] with screenshots: how to install and configure Mediawiki, how to change skins; how to add extensions ===Technical=== * [[mw:Manual:MediaWiki architecture|MediaWiki architecture]] * [[meta:MediaWiki history|MediaWiki history]] * [[mw:MediaWiki roadmap|MediaWiki roadmap]] ==Installing== * [[mw:Manual:Installation]] * [[mw:Manual:Configuration settings]] ==Discussion questions and essay ideas== * Will MediaWiki ever become easier to upgrade and maintain for less technical users? * Does MediaWiki have an edit hash capability or any Git-like qualities with respect to tracking changes (and verifying changes) and so forth? ==See also== * [[Wikipedia: MediaWiki]] * [[Wikibooks: MediaWiki]] * [[mw:|MediaWiki]] * [[Phabricator:|Phabricator]] ==Not to be confused with== * [[Wikimedia]] - a host of hosts of sites running on MediaWiki with educational missions; to which Wikiversity belongs [[category:Wiki]] [[category:MediaWiki]] [[category:Software]] [[category:Internet]] [[category:Markup languages]] 24kdf0pxornxpxuqqsyxpzm476nowyo 0 50651 2835762 2117611 2026-10-04T07:56:58Z Rockey124 3112092 just for your information 2835762 wikitext text/x-wiki == [https://apkspeak.com/ X44 Game Download] un logon ke liye ek useful keyword hai jo apne mobile ya device par X44 Game install karna chahte hain. Download karne se pehle official source ko verify karna bohat zaroori hai, kyun ke unknown websites se files download karna device ke liye security risk paida kar sakta hai. Overview == The United States one hundred-dollar bill ($100) is a denomination of United States currency. U.S. statesman, inventor, and diplomat Benjamin Franklin is currently featured on the obverse of the bill, while Independence Hall is featured on the reverse. The bill is one of two current notes that does not feature a President of the United States; the other is the United States ten-dollar bill, featuring Alexander Hamilton. It is the largest denomination that has been in circulation since July 14, 1969, when the higher denominations of $500, $1,000, $5,000, $10,000 and $100,000 were retired. The Bureau of Engraving and Printing says the "average life" of a $100 bill in circulation is 60 months before it is replaced due to wear. Approximately 7% of all notes produced today are $100 bills. One hundred-dollar bills are delivered by Federal Reserve Banks in mustard-colored straps. The Numeral four on the clock face on the reverse of the banknote is incorrectly written as "IV" whereas the real Independence Hall (United States) clock face has "IIII". == History == === Large Size Note History === <small>''(≈ 7.4218 × 3.125 in ≅ 189 × 79 mm)''</small> * '''1861:''' Three-year 10 dollar Interest Bearing Notes were issued that paid 7.3% interest per year. These notes were not primarily designed to circulate, and were payable to the original purchaser of the dollar bill. The obverse of the note featured a portrait of General Winfield Scott. * '''1862:''' The first $100 United States Note was issued with a Bald Eagle on the left side of the obverse. Two different variations of this note were issued that resulted in slightly different wording (obligations) on the reverse; the note was issued again in series of 1863. * '''1863:''' Both one and two and one half year Interest Bearing Notes were issued that paid 5% interest. The one-year Interest Bearing Notes featured a vignette of George Washington in the center, and allegorical figures representing "The Guardian" to the right and "Justice" to the left . The two-year notes featured a vignette of the U.S. treasury building in the center, a farmer and mechanic to the left, and sailors firing a cannon to the right. * '''1863:''' The first $100 Gold Certificates were issued with a Bald Eagle to the left and large green 100 in the middle of the obverse. The reverse was distinctly printed in orange instead of green like all other U.S. federal government issued notes of the time. * '''1864:''' Compound Interest Treasury Notes were issued that were intended to circulate for three years and paid 6% interest compounded semi-annually. The obverse is similar to the 1863 one-year Interest Bearing Note. * '''1869:''' A new $100 United States Note was issued with a portrait of Abraham Lincoln on the left of the obverse and an allegorical figure representing architecture on the right. Although this note is technically a United States Note, TREASURY NOTE appeared on it instead of UNITED STATES NOTE. * '''1870:''' A new $100 Gold Certificate with a portrait of Thomas Hart Benton on the left side of the obverse was issued. The note was one-sided. * '''1870:''' One hundred dollar National Gold Bank Notes were issued specifically for payment in gold coin by participating national gold banks. The obverse featured vignettes of Perry leaving the USS St. Lawrence and an allegorical figure to the right; the reverse featured a vignette of U.S. gold coins. * '''1875:''' The reverse of the series of 1869 United States Note was redesigned. Also, TREASURY NOTE was changed to UNITED STATES NOTE on the obverse. This note was issued again in series of 1878 and 1880. * '''1878:''' The first $100 Silver Certificate was issued with a portrait of James Monroe on the left side of the obverse. The reverse was printed in black ink, unlike any other U.S. Federal Government issued dollar bill. * '''1882:''' A new and revised $100 Gold Certificate was issued. The obverse was partially the same as the series 1870 gold certificate; the border design, portrait of Thomas H. Benton, and large word GOLD, and gold-colored ink behind the serial numbers were all retained. The reverse featured a perched Bald Eagle and the Roman numeral for 100, C. * '''1890:''' One hundred dollar Treasury or "Coin Notes" were issued for government purchases of silver bullion from the silver mining industry. The note featured a portrait of Admiral David G. Farragut. The note was also nicknamed a "watermelon note" because of the watermelon-shaped 0's in the large numeral 100 on the reverse; the large numeral 100 was surrounded by an ornate design that occupied almost the entire note. * '''1891:''' The reverse of the series of 1890 Treasury Note was redesigned because the treasury felt that it was too "busy" which would make it too easy to counterfeit. More open space was incorporated into the new design. * '''1891:''' The obverse of the $100 Silver Certificate was slightly revised with some aspects of the design changed. The reverse was completely redesigned and also began to be printed in green ink. * '''1914:''' The first $100 Federal Reserve Note was issued with a portrait of Benjamin Franklin on the obverse and allegorical figures representing labor, plenty, America, peace, and commerce on the reverse. * '''1922:''' The series of 1880 Gold Certificate was re-issued with an obligation to the right of the bottom-left serial number on the obverse. === Small Size Note History === (6.14 × 2.61 in ≅ 156 × 66 mm) * '''1929:''' Under series of 1928, all U.S. currency was changed to its current size and began to carry a standardized design. All variations of the $100 bill would carry the same portrait of Benjamin Franklin, same border design on the obverse, and the same reverse with a vignette of Independence Hall. The $100 bill was issued as a Federal Reserve Note with a green seal and serial numbers and as a Gold Certificate with a golden seal and serial numbers. * '''1933:''' As an emergency response to the Great Depression, additional money was pumped into the American economy through Federal Reserve Bank Notes issued under series of 1929. This was the only small-sized $100 bill that had a slightly different border design on the obverse. The serial numbers and seal on it were brown. * '''1934:''' The redeemable in gold clause was removed from Federal Reserve Notes due to the U.S. withdrawing from the gold standard. * '''1934:''' Special $100 Gold Certificates were issued for non-public, Federal Reserve bank-to-bank transactions. These notes featured a reverse printed in orange instead of green like all other small-sized notes. The wording on the obverse was also changed to ONE HUNDRED DOLLARS IN GOLD PAYABLE TO THE BEARER ON DEMAND AS AUTHORIZED BY LAW. * '''1950:''' Many minor aspects on the obverse of the $100 Federal Reserve Note were changed. Most noticeably, the treasury seal, gray numeral 100, and the Federal Reserve Seal were made smaller; also, the Federal Reserve Seal had spikes added around it. * '''1963:''' Because dollar bills were no longer redeemable in silver, WILL PAY TO THE BEARER ON DEMAND was removed from the obverse of the series 1963 A $100 Federal Reserve Note. The obligation was also changed to its current wording,THIS NOTE IS LEGAL TENDER FOR ALL DEBTS PUBLIC AND PRIVATE. IN GOD WE TRUST was added to the reverse. * '''1966:''' The first and only small-sized $100 United States Note was issued with a red seal and serial numbers. It was the first of all United States currency to use the new U.S. treasury seal with wording in English instead of Latin. Like the series 1963 $2 and $5 United States Notes, it lacked WILL PAY TO THE BEARER ON DEMAND on the obverse and featured the motto IN GOD WE TRUST on the reverse. The $100 United States Note was issued due to legislation that specified a certain dollar amount of United States Notes that were to remain in circulation. Because the $2 and $5 United States Notes were soon to be discontinued, the dollar amount of United States Notes would drop, thus warranting the issuing of this note. * '''1991:''' The first new-age anti-counterfeiting measures were introduced under series 1990 with microscopic printing around Franklin's portrait and a metallic security strip on the left side of the bill. * '''March 25, 1996:''' The first major design change in numerous years took place with the adoption of a contemporary style layout. The main intent of the new design was to deter counterfeiting. New security features included a watermark of Franklin to the right side of the bill, optically variable ink (known as O.V.I) that changed from green to black when viewed at different angles, a higher quality and enlarged portrait of Franklin, and hard-to-reproduce fine line printing around Franklin's portrait and Independence Hall. Older security features such as interwoven red and blue silk fibers, microprinting, and a plastic security thread (which now glows red under a black light) were kept. The individual Federal Reserve Bank Seal was changed to a unified Federal Reserve Seal along with an additional prefix letter being added to the serial number. * '''Late 2008:''' The redesigned $100 bill is expected to be released, receiving design changes analogous to the current $20 bill, $50 bill, and $10 bill. According to the Associated Press, the new $100 bills will be released after the re-designed $5 bill is released in spring 2008. Although the redesign has been publicized as routine, North Korean counterfeiting operations are a major concern. The new bills will contain a Crane & Co. security feature called Motion, containing up to 650,000 microlenses embedded in the printing which will allow for the image to shift when the bill is moved. This has been used for the first time ever on the Swedish 1,000-kronor note issued on March 15, 2006. [[Category:United States currency]] 0ts0n0b70phexgmxkp6nhj1vumhm3ru 2835780 2835762 2026-10-04T10:32:24Z MathXplore 2888076 Reverted edit by [[Special:Contributions/Rockey124|Rockey124]] ([[User_talk:Rockey124|talk]]) to last version by [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] using [[Wikiversity:Rollback|rollback]] 1152128 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Overview== The United States one hundred-dollar bill ($100) is a denomination of United States currency. U.S. statesman, inventor, and diplomat Benjamin Franklin is currently featured on the obverse of the bill, while Independence Hall is featured on the reverse. The bill is one of two current notes that does not feature a President of the United States; the other is the United States ten-dollar bill, featuring Alexander Hamilton. It is the largest denomination that has been in circulation since July 14, 1969, when the higher denominations of $500, $1,000, $5,000, $10,000 and $100,000 were retired. The Bureau of Engraving and Printing says the "average life" of a $100 bill in circulation is 60 months before it is replaced due to wear. Approximately 7% of all notes produced today are $100 bills. One hundred-dollar bills are delivered by Federal Reserve Banks in mustard-colored straps. The Numeral four on the clock face on the reverse of the banknote is incorrectly written as "IV" whereas the real Independence Hall (United States) clock face has "IIII". == History == === Large Size Note History === <small>''(≈ 7.4218 × 3.125 in ≅ 189 × 79 mm)''</small> * '''1861:''' Three-year 10 dollar Interest Bearing Notes were issued that paid 7.3% interest per year. These notes were not primarily designed to circulate, and were payable to the original purchaser of the dollar bill. The obverse of the note featured a portrait of General Winfield Scott. * '''1862:''' The first $100 United States Note was issued with a Bald Eagle on the left side of the obverse. Two different variations of this note were issued that resulted in slightly different wording (obligations) on the reverse; the note was issued again in series of 1863. * '''1863:''' Both one and two and one half year Interest Bearing Notes were issued that paid 5% interest. The one-year Interest Bearing Notes featured a vignette of George Washington in the center, and allegorical figures representing "The Guardian" to the right and "Justice" to the left . The two-year notes featured a vignette of the U.S. treasury building in the center, a farmer and mechanic to the left, and sailors firing a cannon to the right. * '''1863:''' The first $100 Gold Certificates were issued with a Bald Eagle to the left and large green 100 in the middle of the obverse. The reverse was distinctly printed in orange instead of green like all other U.S. federal government issued notes of the time. * '''1864:''' Compound Interest Treasury Notes were issued that were intended to circulate for three years and paid 6% interest compounded semi-annually. The obverse is similar to the 1863 one-year Interest Bearing Note. * '''1869:''' A new $100 United States Note was issued with a portrait of Abraham Lincoln on the left of the obverse and an allegorical figure representing architecture on the right. Although this note is technically a United States Note, TREASURY NOTE appeared on it instead of UNITED STATES NOTE. * '''1870:''' A new $100 Gold Certificate with a portrait of Thomas Hart Benton on the left side of the obverse was issued. The note was one-sided. * '''1870:''' One hundred dollar National Gold Bank Notes were issued specifically for payment in gold coin by participating national gold banks. The obverse featured vignettes of Perry leaving the USS St. Lawrence and an allegorical figure to the right; the reverse featured a vignette of U.S. gold coins. * '''1875:''' The reverse of the series of 1869 United States Note was redesigned. Also, TREASURY NOTE was changed to UNITED STATES NOTE on the obverse. This note was issued again in series of 1878 and 1880. * '''1878:''' The first $100 Silver Certificate was issued with a portrait of James Monroe on the left side of the obverse. The reverse was printed in black ink, unlike any other U.S. Federal Government issued dollar bill. * '''1882:''' A new and revised $100 Gold Certificate was issued. The obverse was partially the same as the series 1870 gold certificate; the border design, portrait of Thomas H. Benton, and large word GOLD, and gold-colored ink behind the serial numbers were all retained. The reverse featured a perched Bald Eagle and the Roman numeral for 100, C. * '''1890:''' One hundred dollar Treasury or "Coin Notes" were issued for government purchases of silver bullion from the silver mining industry. The note featured a portrait of Admiral David G. Farragut. The note was also nicknamed a "watermelon note" because of the watermelon-shaped 0's in the large numeral 100 on the reverse; the large numeral 100 was surrounded by an ornate design that occupied almost the entire note. * '''1891:''' The reverse of the series of 1890 Treasury Note was redesigned because the treasury felt that it was too "busy" which would make it too easy to counterfeit. More open space was incorporated into the new design. * '''1891:''' The obverse of the $100 Silver Certificate was slightly revised with some aspects of the design changed. The reverse was completely redesigned and also began to be printed in green ink. * '''1914:''' The first $100 Federal Reserve Note was issued with a portrait of Benjamin Franklin on the obverse and allegorical figures representing labor, plenty, America, peace, and commerce on the reverse. * '''1922:''' The series of 1880 Gold Certificate was re-issued with an obligation to the right of the bottom-left serial number on the obverse. === Small Size Note History === (6.14 × 2.61 in ≅ 156 × 66 mm) * '''1929:''' Under series of 1928, all U.S. currency was changed to its current size and began to carry a standardized design. All variations of the $100 bill would carry the same portrait of Benjamin Franklin, same border design on the obverse, and the same reverse with a vignette of Independence Hall. The $100 bill was issued as a Federal Reserve Note with a green seal and serial numbers and as a Gold Certificate with a golden seal and serial numbers. * '''1933:''' As an emergency response to the Great Depression, additional money was pumped into the American economy through Federal Reserve Bank Notes issued under series of 1929. This was the only small-sized $100 bill that had a slightly different border design on the obverse. The serial numbers and seal on it were brown. * '''1934:''' The redeemable in gold clause was removed from Federal Reserve Notes due to the U.S. withdrawing from the gold standard. * '''1934:''' Special $100 Gold Certificates were issued for non-public, Federal Reserve bank-to-bank transactions. These notes featured a reverse printed in orange instead of green like all other small-sized notes. The wording on the obverse was also changed to ONE HUNDRED DOLLARS IN GOLD PAYABLE TO THE BEARER ON DEMAND AS AUTHORIZED BY LAW. * '''1950:''' Many minor aspects on the obverse of the $100 Federal Reserve Note were changed. Most noticeably, the treasury seal, gray numeral 100, and the Federal Reserve Seal were made smaller; also, the Federal Reserve Seal had spikes added around it. * '''1963:''' Because dollar bills were no longer redeemable in silver, WILL PAY TO THE BEARER ON DEMAND was removed from the obverse of the series 1963 A $100 Federal Reserve Note. The obligation was also changed to its current wording,THIS NOTE IS LEGAL TENDER FOR ALL DEBTS PUBLIC AND PRIVATE. IN GOD WE TRUST was added to the reverse. * '''1966:''' The first and only small-sized $100 United States Note was issued with a red seal and serial numbers. It was the first of all United States currency to use the new U.S. treasury seal with wording in English instead of Latin. Like the series 1963 $2 and $5 United States Notes, it lacked WILL PAY TO THE BEARER ON DEMAND on the obverse and featured the motto IN GOD WE TRUST on the reverse. The $100 United States Note was issued due to legislation that specified a certain dollar amount of United States Notes that were to remain in circulation. Because the $2 and $5 United States Notes were soon to be discontinued, the dollar amount of United States Notes would drop, thus warranting the issuing of this note. * '''1991:''' The first new-age anti-counterfeiting measures were introduced under series 1990 with microscopic printing around Franklin's portrait and a metallic security strip on the left side of the bill. * '''March 25, 1996:''' The first major design change in numerous years took place with the adoption of a contemporary style layout. The main intent of the new design was to deter counterfeiting. New security features included a watermark of Franklin to the right side of the bill, optically variable ink (known as O.V.I) that changed from green to black when viewed at different angles, a higher quality and enlarged portrait of Franklin, and hard-to-reproduce fine line printing around Franklin's portrait and Independence Hall. Older security features such as interwoven red and blue silk fibers, microprinting, and a plastic security thread (which now glows red under a black light) were kept. The individual Federal Reserve Bank Seal was changed to a unified Federal Reserve Seal along with an additional prefix letter being added to the serial number. * '''Late 2008:''' The redesigned $100 bill is expected to be released, receiving design changes analogous to the current $20 bill, $50 bill, and $10 bill. According to the Associated Press, the new $100 bills will be released after the re-designed $5 bill is released in spring 2008. Although the redesign has been publicized as routine, North Korean counterfeiting operations are a major concern. The new bills will contain a Crane & Co. security feature called Motion, containing up to 650,000 microlenses embedded in the printing which will allow for the image to shift when the bill is moved. This has been used for the first time ever on the Swedish 1,000-kronor note issued on March 15, 2006. [[Category:United States currency]] aq3tl1pjh095a9ga4f5d365iwmd7be2 14 78763 2835710 2823847 2026-10-03T20:01:06Z Bsapgcollege 3112061 2835710 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|College in Mathura, India}} {{Use dmy dates|date=October 2026}} {{Use Indian English|date=October 2026}} {{Infobox university | name = B.S.A. College, Mathura | type = [[Government Aided Degree Colleges, India|Government]] | image = Bareillycollege.gif | image_size = 200 | caption = B.S.A. College, Mathura | motto = | established = {{start date and age|22 December 1956}} | principal = Prof. (Dr.) Lalit Mohan Sharma | city = [[Mathura]] | country = [[India]] | coordinates = {{coord|28|21|26.51|N|79|25|12.91|E|type:edu|display=inline,title}} | campus = [[Urban area|Urban]] | affiliations = [[Dr. Bhimrao Ambedkar University, (originally known as Agra University), Agra]] | website = {{URL|https://bsapgcollege.ac.in}} }} iqqkgi7028mnh79wz3nwgsahf9ayr7e 2835711 2835710 2026-10-03T20:01:32Z Pristome 3054107 Undid edits by [[Special:Contribs/Bsapgcollege|Bsapgcollege]] ([[User talk:Bsapgcollege|talk]]) to last version by Atcovi 2835711 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Main|Main Page}} [[Category:Wikiversity administration]] l3v254s0n9xxhozyr8m8zxqgl3ggyp4 2 93877 2835712 558527 2026-10-03T20:16:29Z ~2026-53238-40 3112062 /* Author */ 2835712 wikitext text/x-wiki = Problem 2: Rate of momentum change for optimal control problem = ==Given== Envisage the below figure as free body diagram of an aircraft: [[File:HW-6.2-1.jpg]]. likewise consider the shown axes and vectors, for <math>\displaystyle v+dv </math> at <math>\displaystyle t+dt </math>: [[File:HW-6.2.3.jpg]]. ==Find== Show that <math>\displaystyle dp_{\bar y}=mvd\gamma </math>. == Solution == According to the above figure, we can survey these two cases at <math>\displaystyle t </math> and <math>\displaystyle t+dt </math>, the velocity of the aircraft after <math>\displaystyle dt </math> will reach to <math>\displaystyle v+dv </math> and the angle between the aircraft and horizontal axis will reach to the <math>\displaystyle \gamma+d\gamma </math>. Thus, regarding <math>\displaystyle d\gamma </math> generated angle between two velocity vectors, we can write: :<math>\displaystyle d\gamma\approxeq sin(d\gamma)=\frac{dv_{\bar y}}{v+dv} </math> :<math>\displaystyle \Rightarrow dv_{\bar y}=v.d\gamma+dv.d\gamma </math> The amount of <math>\displaystyle dv.d\gamma </math> can be neglected in front of <math>\displaystyle v.d\gamma </math>. :<math>\displaystyle \Rightarrow dv_{\bar y}=v.d\gamma </math> On the other hand, momentum is defined as <math>\displaystyle p=mv </math>. So, we have: :<math> dp_{\bar y}=d(m.v_{\bar y})=v_{\bar y}.dm+m.dv_{\bar y} </math> Assuming the amount of <math>\displaystyle dm </math> to be negligible in front of changes in velocity; :<math> dp_{\bar y}=d(m.v_{\bar y})=m.dv_{\bar y} </math> Finally, we can summarize the answer as: :<math> dp_{\bar y}=m.dv_{\bar y}=m.v.d\gamma </math> :{| style="width:１０0%" border="0" align="left" |- | style="width:20%; padding:10px; border:2px solid #8888aa" | <math>\displaystyle dp_{\bar y}=m.v.d\gamma </math> | style= | |- |}. ==Author== Solved and typed by - [[User:Egm6341.s10.Team4.nimaa&amp;m|Egm6341.s10.Team4.nimaa&amp;m]] 03:08, 3 April 2010 (UTC) . <hr> <br> <br> = Problem 7: Expression for Hermitian interpolation at <math>\displaystyle t_{i+\frac{1}{2}} </math> = ==Given== Consider the Hermitian interpolation by the following equation (on slide [[Media:Egm6341.s10.mtg35.djvu|35-2]]): :{| style="width:100%" border="0" align="left" |- |<math>\displaystyle </math> |<math>\displaystyle z(s)=\sum_{i=0}^3 c_is^i </math> |- |} ==Find== Show the following expression can be obtained for <math>\displaystyle z'_{i+\frac{1}{2}} </math>: :<math>\displaystyle z_{i+\frac{1}{2}}=z(s=\frac{1}{2})=\frac{1}{2}(z_i+z_{i+1})+\frac{h}{8}(f_i-f_{i+1}) </math> == Solution == By differentiating from the equation for <math>\displaystyle z(s) </math>, we will attain: :<math>\displaystyle z'(s)=\sum_{i=1}^3 ic_is^{i-1} </math> Now, we can compute the followings: :<math>\displaystyle z_i=z(s=0)=\sum_{i=0}^3 c_i(0)^i=c_0+0+0+0=c_0 </math> :<math>\displaystyle z_{i+1}=z(s=1)=\sum_{i=0}^3 c_i(1)^i=c_0+c_1+c_2+c_3 </math> :<math>\displaystyle z'_i=z'(s=0)=\sum_{i=1}^3 ic_i(0)^{i-1}=c_1+0+0=c_1 </math> :<math>\displaystyle z'_{i+1}=z'(s=1)=\sum_{i=1}^3 ic_i(1)^{i-1}=c_1+2c_2+3c_3 </math> :<math>\displaystyle \dot{z}=\frac{dz}{dt}=\frac{dz}{ds}\times\frac{ds}{dt}=z'\times\frac{1}{h} </math> :<math>\displaystyle \Rightarrow h(f_i-f_{i+1})=h(\dot{z}_i-\dot{z}_{i+1})=(z'_i-z'_{i+1}) </math> :<math>\displaystyle \Rightarrow \frac{h}{8}(f_i-f_{i+1})=\frac{h}{8}(\dot{z}_i-\dot{z}_{i+1})=\frac{1}{8}(z'_i-z'_{i+1}) </math> :<math>\displaystyle \Rightarrow\begin{cases} z_i+z_{i+1}=2c_0+c_1+c_2+c_3 \\ f_i-f_{i+1}=-2c_2-3c_3 \end{cases} </math> :<math>\displaystyle \Rightarrow\begin{cases} \frac{1}{2}(z_i+z_{i+1})=c_0+\frac{1}{2}c_1+\frac{1}{2}c_2+\frac{1}{2}c_3 \\ \frac{h}{8}(f_i-f_{i+1})=-\frac{1}{4}c_2-\frac{3}{8}c_3 \end{cases} </math> :<math>\displaystyle \Rightarrow\frac{1}{2}(z_i+z_{i+1})+\frac{h}{8}(f_i-f_{i+1})=c_0+\frac{1}{2}c_1+\frac{1}{2}c_2+\frac{1}{2}c_3-\frac{1}{4}c_2-\frac{3}{8}c_3=c_0+\frac{1}{2}c_1+\frac{1}{4}c_2+\frac{1}{8}c_3 </math> The acquired foregoing equation is equal to RHS of the expression. Now, we can compute the LHS of it as: :<math>\displaystyle LHS=z_{i+\frac{1}{2}}=z(s=\frac{1}{2})=\sum_{i=0}^3 c_i(\frac{1}{2})^i=c_0\times 1+c_1\times\frac{1}{2}+c_2\times\frac{1}{4}+c_3\times\frac{1}{8}=c_0+\frac{1}{2}c_1+\frac{1}{4}c_2+\frac{1}{8}c_3 </math> :<math>\displaystyle \Rightarrow LHS=RHS </math> :{| style="width:１０0%" border="0" align="left" |- | style="width:20%; padding:10px; border:2px solid #8888aa" | <math>\displaystyle z_{i+\frac{1}{2}}=z(s=\frac{1}{2})=\frac{1}{2}(z_i+z_{i+1})+\frac{h}{8}(f_i-f_{i+1}) </math> | style= | |- |}. ==Author== Solved and typed by - [[User:Egm6341.s10.Team4.nimaa&amp;m|Egm6341.s10.Team4.nimaa&amp;m]] 04:15, 3 April 2010 (UTC) . <hr> <br> <br> = Problem 8: Expression for derivative of Hermitian interpolation at <math>\displaystyle t_{i+\frac{1}{2}} </math> = ==Given== Consider the Hermitian interpolation by the following equation (on slide [[Media:Egm6341.s10.mtg35.djvu|35-2]]): :{| style="width:100%" border="0" align="left" |- |<math>\displaystyle </math> |<math>\displaystyle z(s)=\sum_{i=0}^3 c_is^i </math> |- |} ==Find== Show the following expression can be obtained for <math>\displaystyle z'_{i+\frac{1}{2}} </math>: :<math>\displaystyle z'_{i+\frac{1}{2}}=z'(s=\frac{1}{2})=-\frac{3}{2}(z_i-z_{i+1})-\frac{1}{4}(z'_i+z'_{i+1}) </math> == Solution == By differentiating from the equation for <math>\displaystyle z(s) </math>, we will attain: :<math>\displaystyle z'(s)=\sum_{i=1}^3 ic_is^{i-1} </math> Now, we can compute the followings: :<math>\displaystyle z_i=z(s=0)=\sum_{i=0}^3 c_i(0)^i=c_0+0+0+0=c_0 </math> :<math>\displaystyle z_{i+1}=z(s=1)=\sum_{i=0}^3 c_i(1)^i=c_0+c_1+c_2+c_3 </math> :<math>\displaystyle z'_i=z'(s=0)=\sum_{i=1}^3 ic_i(0)^{i-1}=c_1+0+0=c_1 </math> :<math>\displaystyle z'_{i+1}=z'(s=1)=\sum_{i=1}^3 ic_i(1)^{i-1}=c_1+2c_2+3c_3 </math> :<math>\displaystyle \Rightarrow\begin{cases} z_i-z_{i+1}=c_0-(c_0+c_1+c_2+c_3)=-c_1-c_2-c_3 \\ z'_i+z'_{i+1}=2c_1+2c_2+3c_3 \end{cases} </math> :<math>\displaystyle \Rightarrow\begin{cases} -\frac{3}{2}(z_i-z_{i+1})=\frac{3}{2}c_1+\frac{3}{2}c_2+\frac{3}{2}c_3\\ -\frac{1}{4}(z'_i+z'_{i+1})=-\frac{1}{2}c_1-\frac{1}{2}c_2-\frac{3}{4}c_3 \end{cases} </math> :<math>\displaystyle \Rightarrow -\frac{3}{2}(z_i-z_{i+1})-\frac{1}{4}(z'_i+z'_{i+1})=(\frac{3}{2}-\frac{1}{2})c_1+(\frac{3}{2}-\frac{1}{2})c_2+(\frac{3}{2}-\frac{3}{4})c_3=c_1+c_2+\frac{3}{4}c_3 </math> The acquired foregoing equation is equal to RHS of the expression. Now, we can compute the LHS of it as: :<math>\displaystyle LHS=z'_{i+\frac{1}{2}}=z'(s=\frac{1}{2})=\sum_{i=1}^3 ic_i(\frac{1}{2})^{i-1}=1\times c_1\times (\frac{1}{2})^{1-1}+2\times c_2\times (\frac{1}{2})^{2-1}+3\times c_3\times (\frac{1}{2})^{3-1}=c_1+c_2+\frac {3}{4}c_3 </math> :<math>\displaystyle \Rightarrow LHS=RHS </math> :{| style="width:１０0%" border="0" align="left" |- | style="width:20%; padding:10px; border:2px solid #8888aa" | <math>\displaystyle z'_{i+\frac{1}{2}}=z'(s=\frac{1}{2})=-\frac{3}{2}(z_i-z_{i+1})-\frac{1}{4}(z'_i+z'_{i+1}) </math> | style= | |- |}. ==Author== Solved and typed byyy - [[User:Egm6341.s10.Team4.nimaa&amp;m|Egm6341.s10.Team4.nimaa&amp;vhfm]] 04:23, 3 April 2010 (UcbbdrTC) . <hr> <br> <br> t0ykhdeh6axd9kfz6g5kx00ahvgtn1w 0 215163 2835764 2799462 2026-10-04T08:01:40Z ~2026-53395-55 3112094 /* History */ Added a space 2835764 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Digital Media Concepts|Toby Fox}} {{Infobox |title = '''Toby Fox''' |image = [[File:TobyFox.png]] |headerstyle = background:#ccf;{{Text color default}}; |labelstyle = background:#ddf;{{Text color default}}; |label2 = Nationality |data2 = {{{item_one|American}}} |label3 = Born |data3 = {{{item_two|October 11, 1991}}} |label4 = Known For |data4 = {{{item_three| ''Undertale'' and ''Deltarune''}}} |label5 = Birth Place |data5 = {{{item_Four|Manchester, New Hampshire}}} }} Toby Fox (born October 11, 1991) is a video game developer, composer, and musician most known for developing and composing the soundtrack for the critically acclaimed roleplaying game ''Undertale and Deltarune''. == History == Fox was a fan of the game ''EarthBound'' and began as a forum member on its fansite, Starmen.net, under the username Radiation. He became a musician in 2008-2009 and made soundtracks for popular games like Pokemon Scarlet and Violet and Sword and Shield He would be an active member on the site and managed one of the site's forums up until 2011.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://forum.starmen.net/members/473|title= Starmen.net}}</ref> Before starting work on ''Undertale'', he had little experience in actual game development except for the incomplete games he often made with his three brothers using the proprietary game engine RPG Maker 2000.He has made 2 different games and helped by making music in 5 others. He is a self-taught musician and ghool game developer. He graduated from Northeastern University with a Bachelor’s Degree. He was deeply inspired by EarthBound, which influenced his approach to game design and storytelling from a young age. <ref>{{cite web |url=https://seagaia.wordpress.com/2013/05/25/toby-foxs-undertale-dev-2-dev-interview-1/|title= Seagaia}}</ref> For a while, Fox developed ''Undertale'' in the basement of webcomic artist Andrew Hussie, known for creating the popular comic ''Homestuck'', for which Fox also composed tracks for. He has won a NAVGTR Award for Original Role Playing Game, a Japan Game Awards: Award for Excellence, and the SXSW Gaming Matthew Crump Cultural Innovation Award, alongside numerous nominations and accolades from publications like The Escapist, Ars Technica, and Giant Bomb for his groundbreaking work in indie game development and music.He was also named to Forbes' 30 Under 30 list for his impact on gaming. He is known to support the LGBTQ+ community.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.kickstarter.com/projects/14293468/homestuck-adventure-game/posts/1453119|title= Homestuck Kickstarter}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gameinformer.com/themes/blogs/generic/post.aspx?WeblogApp=podcasts&y=2015&m=10&d=15&WeblogPostName=gi-show-_1320_-yoshis-woolly-world_2c00_-star-wars_3a00_-battlefront_2c00_-undertale-toby-fox&GroupKeys=|title= Game Informer}}</ref> == Games == === ''Undertale'' === ''Undertale'' was the first major game completely developed by Toby. He worked on the project independently, with only artwork and sprites being supplied by other creators, mainly freelance artist Temmie Chang.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.kickstarter.com/projects/1002143342/undertale/description|title= Undertale Kickstarter}}</ref> Fox began creating ''Undertale'' after already making a battle system using the engine GameMaker: Studio.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://existentialgamer.com/interview-toby-fox-undertale|title= Existential Gamer}}</ref> The original game was meant to be released in 2014 but production was delayed. ''Undertale'' was praised for its writing, for which Fox claims he was inspired by internet culture, comedy shows such as ''Mr. Bean'' and the game ''EarthBound''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gameinformer.com/themes/blogs/generic/post.aspx?WeblogApp=podcasts&y=2015&m=10&d=15&WeblogPostName=gi-show-_1320_-yoshis-woolly-world_2c00_-star-wars_3a00_-battlefront_2c00_-undertale-toby-fox&GroupKeys=|title= Game Informer}}</ref> When it came to developing the game itself Fox said he wanted to develop a role-playing game that was non-traditional, had "interesting characters", and that "utilizes the medium as a storytelling device ... instead of having the story and gameplay abstractions be completely separate".<ref>{{cite web |url=https://seagaia.wordpress.com/2013/05/25/toby-foxs-undertale-dev-2-dev-interview-1/|title= Seagaia}}</ref>''Undertale'' took 2.7 years to completely develop and was financed through a crowdfunding effort on Kickstarter.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gameinformer.com/themes/blogs/generic/post.aspx?WeblogApp=podcasts&y=2015&m=10&d=15&WeblogPostName=gi-show-_1320_-yoshis-woolly-world_2c00_-star-wars_3a00_-battlefront_2c00_-undertale-toby-fox&GroupKeys=|title= Game Informer}}</ref> The game was released on September 15, 2015 for Windows and OS X, and July 17, 2016 for Linux. === ''Deltarune'' === ''Deltarune'' is another of the major games released by Toby. Chapter 1 of the game was released October 31, 2018, Chapter 2 was released September 17, 2021, and Chapters 3 and 4 came out most recently and released June 4, 2025. ''Deltarune'' Chapters 1-4, by Toby Fox, build an immersive RPG world with familiar ''Undertale'' characters in an alternate universe, following silent protagonist Kris, the delinquent Susie, and the prince Ralsei on quests through "Dark Worlds" to seal fountains, battling foes with unique action RPG mechanics and dodge-bullets, all while weaving deeper mysteries, character depth (like Noelle in Chapter 2 and Tenna in Chapter 3), unique themes (cards, internet, TV), and a surprisingly dark, impactful story that subverts expectations and explores themes of identity, loneliness, and control, setting up a potential masterpiece even as an incomplete game. * '''The Fun Gang:''' You control Kris (silent protagonist), Susie (lizard-like delinquent), and Ralsei (gentle prince) in a party-based combat system. * '''Dodge-Bullet Battles:''' Combat mixes traditional RPG choices (Attack/Act/Spare) with bullet-hell dodging, requiring strategic party health management. * '''Dark Worlds:''' Each chapter introduces a fantastical "Dark World" based on a real-world location (closet, computer), sealed by sealing a "Dark Fountain". * '''Mystery & Control:''' Kris removes their soul at chapter ends, suggesting the player controls the soul, not Kris, raising questions about free will. ** '''Chapter 1: The Beginning (Cards)''': Introduces Kris and Susie, their first trip to the Dark World, and meeting Ralsei, establishing the core quest. ** '''Chapter 2: A Cyber's World (Internet)''': Adds Noelle to the party, introduces the memorable Spamton, and deepens lore with secrets like the "Weird Route". ** '''Chapter 3: An Entertaining Show (TV/Game Show)''': Shifts focus to a game show format with Tenna, adding rhythm, quizzes, and darker themes. ** '''Chapter 4: The Haunting (Church/Dark Sanctuary)''': A surprisingly mature chapter with religious themes, moral choices, a rescue mission, and a significant "Dark Sanctuary". *** '''Character Depth:''' Explores loneliness and self-worth for Kris, Susie, and Ralsei. *** '''Humor & Darkness:''' Balances quirky humor with surprisingly serious, adult themes and dark consequences. *** '''Meta-Narrative:''' The vessel creation and soul-removal mechanics hint at greater control and player choices. *** '''World Building:''' Expands ''Undertale''<nowiki/>'s universe with unique worlds (Cyber World, TV World, Dark Sanctuary). **** '''Incomplete Game:''' Chapters 1-4 are a substantial, free experience, but the full story requires future releases. **** '''Secrets:''' Features numerous secrets, missable items (like the TopCake), and alternate paths (like the Weird Route). **** '''Exceptional Quality:''' Praised for its music, unique gameplay, character writing, and ambition, building anticipation for the finale. ==Musical Contributions== Fox is a self-taught musician and has composed soundtracks for many games and comics including ''Midnight Crew: Drawing Dead'', ''Pokémon Sword/Pokémon Shield'', Animal Crossing: New Horizons, ''Alternia'' and ''Homestuck''. He composed all of the soundtrack for ''Undertale'' as well. When it comes to his influences for producing music, Fox states that he tries to be inspired by everything he listens to, especially tracks in video games.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.themarysue.com/interview-undertale-game-creator-toby-fox/|title= The Mary Sue}}</ref> ==Discography== {| class="wikitable collapsible collapsed" style="width:100%;" |- style="background:#ccc;{{Text color default}}; text-align:center;" ! colspan="2" style="background: LightSteelBlue;{{Text color default}};" | Discography |- style="background:#ccc;{{Text color default}}; text-align:center;" ! Album ! Tracks Composed |- | Midnight Crew: Drawing Dead (February 4, 2010) <ref name="MC: DD">{{cite web |url=https://homestuck.bandcamp.com/album/midnight-crew-drawing-dead-2 |title = Midnight Crew: Drawing Dead}}</ref> | "Liquid Negrocity", "The Ballad of Jack Noir" (Original Version) |- | Homestuck Vol. 4 (April 13, 2010) <ref name="Homestuck 4">{{cite web |url=https://homestuck.bandcamp.com/album/homestuck-vol-1-4| title= Homestuck Vol. 4}}</ref> | "John Sleeps / Skaian Magicant", "Carefree Victory", "Atomyk Ebonpyre", "Black" |- |Homestuck Vol. 5 (June 13, 2010) <ref name="Homestuck 5">{{cite web |url=https://homestuck.bandcamp.com/album/homestuck-vol-5| title= Homestuck Vol. 5}}</ref> | "Skaian Skirmish", "Savior of the Waking World", "Happy Cat Song!", "Hardchorale", "White", "Octoroon Rangoon", "Lotus Land Story", "Versus", "Dupliblaze COMAGMA", "Moonshatter", "Sunsetter", "Get Up", "Vertical Motion", "Amphibious Subterrain", "Snow Pollen", "Descend" |- | Alternia (July 18, 2010) <ref name="Alternia">{{cite web |url=https://homestuck.bandcamp.com/album/alternia| title= Alternia}}</ref> | "Crustacean", "Showdown", "mIrAcLeS", "The Lemonsnout Turnabout", "Phaze and Blood", "psych0ruins", "Walls Covered In Blood", "dESPERADO ROCKET CHAIRS,", "Death of the Lusii", "Virgin Orb", "The La2t Frontiier", "Skaian Summoning", "Spider's Claw (Bonus)", "Staring (Bonus)", "Keepers (Bonus)" |- | Squiddles! (August 26, 2010) <ref name="Squiddles">{{cite web |url=https://homestuck.bandcamp.com/album/squiddles| title = Squiddles!}}</ref> | "Squiddles the Movie Trailer - The Day the Unicorns Couldn't Play" |- | The Baby Is You (October 13, 2010) | "THROGUH SONG", "IM HAVING A BABY, AND THE BABY IS YOU", "bootes", "ROSE PRAGNET (feat. ????)", "the rose rap (feat. von fawn)", "uh oh", "vs. bros", "A BABY IS BORN (feat. artemis251 as luigi, chorus singer, kid, and hella jeff)" |- | The Felt (December 2, 2010) <ref name="The Felt">{{cite web |url=https://homestuck.bandcamp.com/album/the-felt| title= The Felt}}</ref> | "Humphrey's Lullaby", "English" |- | Homestuck for the Holidays (December 25, 2010) <ref name="Homestuck Holidays">{{cite web |url=https://homestuckgaiden.bandcamp.com/album/homestuck-for-the-holidays-unofficial-album| title = Homestuck for the Holidays }}</ref> | "Carefree Perigee" |- | Homestuck Vol. 6: Heir Transparent (January 5, 2011) <ref name="Homestuck 6">{{cite web |url=https://homestuck.bandcamp.com/album/homestuck-vol-6-heir-transparent| title = Homestuck Vol. 6: Heir Transparent}}</ref> | "Umbral Ultimatum", "MeGaLoVania", "Gaia Queen", "Wacky Antics", "Nic Cage Song", "A Tender Moment" |- | AlterniaBound (March 14, 2011) <ref name="AB">{{cite web |url=https://homestuck.bandcamp.com/album/alterniabound| title= AlterniaBound}}</ref> | "Karkat's Theme", "Terezi's Theme", "Vriska's Theme", "FIDUSPAWN, GO!", "Darling Kanaya", "Eridan's Theme", "Nautical Nightmare", "Nepeta's Theme", "Killed by BR8K Spider!!!!!!!!", "Catapult Capuchin", "Science Seahorse", "A Fairy Battle", "The Blind Prophet", "AlterniaBound", "You Won A Combat", "Rest A While" |- | Homestuck Vol. 7: At the Price of Oblivion (May 31, 2011) <ref name="Homestuck 7">{{cite web |url=https://homestuck.bandcamp.com/album/homestuck-vol-7-at-the-price-of-oblivion| title= Homestuck Vol. 7: At the Price of Oblivion}}</ref> | "Terezi Owns", "Rumble at the Rink", "Earthsea Borealis" |- | The Wanderers (July 14, 2011) <ref name="Wanderers">{{cite web |url=https://homestuck.bandcamp.com/album/the-wanderers| title= The Wanderers}}</ref> | "Mayor Maynot", "Riches to Ruins Movements I & II", "Tomahawk Head" |- | Homestuck Vol. 8 (October 25, 2011) <ref name="Homestuck 8">{{cite web |url=https://homestuck.bandcamp.com/album/homestuck-vol-8| title= Homestuck Vol. 8}}</ref> | "Love You (Feferi's Theme)", "Davesprite", "Frostbite", "The Lost Child", "Judgement Day", "Penumbra Phantasm" (featured in the third part of "Cascade") |- | Improvised Touhou Music with Annoying Commentary (November 29, 2011) <ref name="ITM">{{cite web |url=http://fwugradiation.tumblr.com/post/13528293577/improvised-touhou-music-with-annoying-commentary |title= Improvised Touhou Music with Annoying Commentary}}</ref> | "Girl's Pretty Dress Dress, Do Your Best Now", "Magical Hopalong Cassidy Station", "An Apple Disaster!" |- | I Miss You - EarthBound 2012 (January 1, 2012) <ref name="E 2012">{{cite web |url=https://sleepytimejesse.bandcamp.com/album/i-miss-you-earthbound-2012|title= I Miss You - EarthBound 2012}}</ref> | "Fallen Down", "A New Line", "Megalo Strike Back", "Checkerboard Memories" |- | coloUrs and mayhem: Universe A (April 2, 2012) <ref name="CAMA">{{cite web |url=https://homestuck.bandcamp.com/album/colours-and-mayhem-universe-a| title= coloUrs and mayhem: Universe A}}</ref> | "~~SIDE 1~~", "~~SIDE 2~~", "~~ADDITIONAL MAYHEM~~" |- | coloUrs and mayhem: Universe B (April 13, 2012) <ref name="CAMB">{{cite web |url=https://homestuck.bandcamp.com/album/colours-and-mayhem-universe-b| title= coloUrs and mayhem: Universe B}}</ref> | "~~SIDE 1~~", "~~SIDE 2~~", "~~ADDITIONAL MAYHEM~~" |- | Cherubim (March 14, 2013) <ref name="Cherubim">{{cite web |url=https://homestuck.bandcamp.com/album/cherubim|title= Cherubim}}</ref> | "The Lordling" |- | Undertale Demo OST (May 21, 2013) | "Once Upon a Time", "Menu", "Your Best Friend", "Fallen Down", "Ruins", "Anticipation", "Unnecessary Tension", "Enemy Approaching", "Ghost Fight", "Determination", "Home", "Heartache", "End", "Nyeh Heh Heh!", "Home (Music Box)", "Empty House" |- |UNDERTALE Soundtrack (September 15, 2015) | "Once Upon a Time", "Start Menu", 'Your Best Friend", "Fallen Down", "Ruins", "Uwa!! So Temperate♫", "Anticipation", "Unnecessary Tension", "Enemy Approaching", "Ghost Fight", "Determination", "Home", "Home (Music Box)", "Heartache", "sans.", "Nyeh Heh Heh!", "Snowy", "Uwa!! So Holiday♫", "Dogbass", "Mysterious Place", "Dogsong", "Snowdin Town", "Shop", "Bonetrousle", "Dating Start!", "Dating Tense!", "Dating Fight!", "Premonition", "Danger Mystery", "Undyne", "Waterfall", "Run!", "Quiet Water", "Memory", "Bird That Carries You Over A Disproportionately Small Gap", "Dummy!", "Pathetic House", "Spooktune", "Spookwave", "Ghouliday", "Chill", "Thundersnail", "Temmie Village", "Tem Shop", "NGAHHH!!", "Spear of Justice", "Ooo", "Alphys", "It's Showtime!", "Metal Crusher", "Another Medium", "Uwa!! So HEATS!!♫", "Stronger Monsters", "Hotel", "Can You Really Call This A Hotel, I Didn't Receive A Mint On My Pillow Or Anything", "Confession", "Live Report", "Death Report", "Spider Dance", "Wrong Enemy !?", "Oh! One True Love", "Oh! Dungeon", "It's Raining Somewhere Else", "CORE Approach", "CORE (Soundtrack)", "Last Episode!", "Oh My...", "Death by Glamour", "For The Fans", "Long Elevator", "Undertale", "Song That Might Play When You Fight Sans", "The Choice", "Small Shock", "Barrier", "Bergentrückung", "ASGORE", "You Idiot", "Your Best Nightmare", "Finale", "An Ending", "She's Playing Piano", "Here We Are", "Amalgam", "Fallen Down (Reprise)", "Don't Give Up", "Hopes and Dreams", "Burn in Despair!", "SAVE the World", "His Theme", "Final Power", "Reunited", "Menu (Full)", "Respite", "Bring It In, Guys!", "Last Goodbye", "But the Earth Refused to Die", "Battle Against a True Hero", "Power of "NEO"", "MEGALOVANIA", "Good Night" |- | [S] Collide. (April 6, 2016) <ref name="S Collide">{{cite web |url=https://homestuck.bandcamp.com/album/s-collide|title= [S] Collide.}}</ref> | "Oppa Toby Style" |} ==Awards and Nominations== ===Reception=== ''Undertale'' was released to rave reviews by many magazines and publications. The game and Toby Fox was nominated for and won many awards such as Game of the Year, Best Debut, and Best Game Ever. As for Fox's reaction to the massive success of his own game he stated that it overwhelmed him and caused a lot of stress, as he did not want the game to be tiring or spoiled for anyone. He also stated that he is perfectly comfortable if he never makes a game as successful again.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://undertale.tumblr.com/post/150397346860/retrospective-on-undertales-popularity|title= Undertale Blog}}</ref> {| class="wikitable collapsible collapsed" style="width:100%;" ! List of awards and nominations for ''Undertale'' |- | style="padding:0; border:none;"| {| class="wikitable sortable plainrowheaders" style="border:none; margin:0; width:100%;" |- ! scope="col"| Date !! scope="col"| Award !! scope="col"| Category !! scope="col"| Recipient(s) and Nominee(s) !! scope="col"| Result !! scope="col" class="unsortable" | Ref. |- | align="center"| October 30, 2015 ! scope="row"| ''Rock, Paper, Shotgun'' Game of the Month: October | Game of the Month | ''Undertale'' | Won | align="center"| <ref name="RPS GOTM">{{cite web |url=https://www.rockpapershotgun.com/2015/10/13/undertale-game-of-the-month/ |title=Game of the Month: October – Undertale |website=[[Rock, Paper, Shotgun]] |date=October 30, 2015 |accessdate=January 21, 2016 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6egCag9iE |archivedate=January 20, 2016 }}</ref> |- | align="center"| November 27, 2015 ! scope="row"| Global Game Awards 2015 | Best Indie | ''Undertale'' | Runner-Up | align="center"| <ref name="Global Game Awards">{{cite web |url=http://www.game-debate.com/awards/2015 |title=Global Game Awards 2015 |website=Game-Debate |date=November 27, 2015 |accessdate=January 21, 2016 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6eaF8iirs |archivedate=January 16, 2016 }}</ref> |- | align="center"| December 1, 2015 ! scope="row"| ''Time's Top 10 Video Games'' | Best Game | ''Undertale'' | Ninth | align="center"| <ref name="Time">{{cite web |url=http://time.com/4106659/top-10-video-games/ |title=Top 10 Video Games |last=Peckham |first=Matt |website=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |publisher=[[Time Inc.]] |date=December 1, 2015 |accessdate=January 21, 2016 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6egtDVkOF |archivedate=December 20, 2016 }}</ref> |- | align="center"| December 3, 2015 ! scope="row"| The Game Awards 2015 | Best Independent Game | ''Undertale'' | Nominated | align="center"| <ref name="The Game Awards">{{cite web |url=https://www.vg247.com/2015/12/04/the-game-awards-2015-winners/ |title=The Game Awards 2015 – Game of the Year goes to The Witcher 3 |last=Nunneley |first=Stephany |website=[[VG247]] |publisher=[[Videogaming247]] |date=December 4, 2015 |accessdate=January 15, 2016 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6eYOBjjTo |archivedate=January 15, 2016}}</ref> |- | align="center"| December 3, 2015 ! scope="row"| The Game Awards 2015 | Games for Change | ''Undertale'' | Nominated | align="center"| <ref name="The Game Awards" /> |- | align="center"| December 3, 2015 ! scope="row"| The Game Awards 2015 | Best Role-Playing Game | ''Undertale'' | Nominated | align="center"| <ref name="The Game Awards" /> |- | align="center"| December 4, 2015 ! scope="row"| ''Vice's Best 20 Video Games of 2015'' | Best Game | ''Undertale'' | Eighth | align="center"| <ref name="Vice Best">{{cite web |url=http://www.vice.com/en_ca/read/the-top-20-video-games-of-2015-according-to-vice-999 |title=The Best 20 Video Games of 2015 |last=Diver |first=Mike |website=[[Vice (magazine)|Vice]] |publisher=[[Vice Media]] |date=December 4, 2015 |accessdate=January 21, 2016 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6eaDGw7q0 |archivedate=January 16, 2016 }}</ref> |- | align="center"| December 15, 2015 ! scope="row"| ''Rock, Paper, Shotgun's'' Best PC Games of 2015 | Funniest Game on PC | ''Undertale'' | Won | align="center"| <ref name="rps funniest">{{cite web |url=https://www.rockpapershotgun.com/2015/12/16/funniest-pc-game-2015/ |title=The RPS Advent Calendar, Dec 16th: Undertale |date=December 16, 2015 |website=[[Rock, Paper, Shotgun]] |accessdate=May 16, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151226135527/http://www.rockpapershotgun.com/2015/12/16/funniest-pc-game-2015/ |archivedate=December 26, 2015 }}</ref> |- | align="center"| December 15, 2015 ! scope="row"| ''Good Game'' Awards 2015 | Game of the Year | ''Undertale'' | Nominated | align="center"| <ref name="Good Game Awards">{{cite web |url=http://www.abc.net.au/tv/goodgame/stories/s4371946.htm |title=Game of the Year - Part 1 |last1=O'Donnell |first=Steven |authorlink1=Steven O'Donnell (Australian actor) |last2=Bendixsen |first2=Stephanie |authorlink2=Stephanie Bendixsen |website=[[Australian Broadcasting Corporation]] |date=December 15, 2015 |accessdate=January 17, 2016 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6ea5CWKoh |archivedate=January 16, 2016}}</ref> |- | align="center"| December 16, 2015 ! scope="row"| GameFAQs' Best Game Ever | Best Game Ever | ''Undertale'' | Won | align="center"| <ref name="GameFAQs">{{cite web |url=http://www.polygon.com/2015/12/16/10323192/undertale-gamefaqs-best-game-ever |title=Undertale wins GameFAQs' Best Game Ever contest |last=Frank |first=Allegra |website=[[Polygon (website)|Polygon]] |publisher=[[Vox Media]] |date=December 16, 2015 |accessdate=January 21, 2016 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6egsbSNsX |archivedate=January 20, 2016 }}</ref> |- | align="center"| December 18, 2015 ! scope="row"| GameSpot Game of the Year | Game of the Year | ''Undertale'' | Nineteenth | align="center"| <ref name="GameSpot GOTY">{{cite web |url=http://www.gamespot.com/articles/game-of-the-year-2015-countdown-20-16/1100-6432501/ |title=Game of the Year 2015 Countdown: #20 - #16 |website=[[GameSpot]] |publisher=[[CBS Interactive]] |date=December 18, 2015 |accessdate=January 21, 2016 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6egsAMSDq |archivedate=January 20, 2016 }}</ref> |- | align="center"| December 21, 2015 ! scope="row"| ''The Jimquisition'' Game of the Year Awards 2015 | Game of the Year | ''Undertale'' | Won | align="center"| <ref name="Jimquisition Awards">{{cite web |url=http://www.thejimquisition.com/2015/12/the-jimquisition-game-of-the-year-awards-2015/ |title=The Jimquisition Game of the Year Awards 2015 |last=Sterling |first=Jim |authorlink=Jim Sterling |website=[[The Jimquisition]] |date=December 21, 2015 |accessdate=January 21, 2016 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6egFRv1KT |archivedate=January 20, 2016 }}</ref> |- | align="center"| December 22, 2015 ! scope="row"| Destructoid Game of the Year | Best PC Game | ''Undertale'' | Won | align="center"| <ref name="Destructoid Award">{{cite web |url=http://www.destructoid.com/destructoid-s-award-for-best-pc-game-of-2015-goes-to--328410.phtml |title=Destructoid's award for Best PC Game of 2015 goes to... |last=Hansen |first=Steven |website=[[Destructoid]] |publisher=[[ModernMethod]] |date=December 22, 2015 |accessdate=January 21, 2016 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6egF81TT0 |archivedate=January 20, 2016 }}</ref> |- | align="center"| December 25, 2015 ! scope="row"| ''The Escapist's'' Best Games of 2015 | Best Game | ''Undertale'' | Nominated | align="center"| <ref name="Escapist Best Game">{{cite web |url=http://www.escapistmagazine.com/articles/view/video-games/features/15167-Best-Games-of-2015.3 |title=The Escapist's Best Games of 2015 |page=3 |website=[[The Escapist (magazine)|The Escapist]] |publisher=[[Defy Media]] |date=December 25, 2015 |accessdate=February 17, 2016 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6fMQCMr0P |archivedate=February 17, 2016 }}</ref> |- | align="center"| December 28, 2015 ! scope="row"| Ars Technica best video games of 2015 | Best Game | ''Undertale'' | Fifth | align="center"| <ref name="Ars Technica 2015">{{cite web |url=http://arstechnica.com/gaming/2015/12/the-best-video-games-of-2015-as-picked-by-the-ars-editors/4/ |title=The best video games of 2015, as picked by the Ars editor |page=4 |last=Orland |first=Kyle |website=[[Ars Technica]] |publisher=[[Condé Nast]] |date=December 28, 2015 |accessdate=January 21, 2016 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6egDgThLD |archivedate=January 20, 2016 }}</ref> |- | align="center"| December 28, 2015 ! scope="row"| Giant Bomb's 2015 Game of the Year Awards | Best Surprise | ''Undertale'' | Runner-Up | align="center"| <ref name="Giant Bomb 1">{{cite web |url=http://www.giantbomb.com/articles/giant-bombs-2015-game-of-the-year-awards-day-one-t/1100-5316/ |title=Giant Bomb's 2015 Game of the Year Awards: Day One Text Recap |website=[[Giant Bomb]] |publisher=[[CBS Interactive]] |date=December 28, 2015 |accessdate=January 21, 2016 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6egFb7Yri |archivedate=January 20, 2016 }}</ref> |- | align="center"| December 30, 2015 ! scope="row"| Giant Bomb's 2015 Game of the Year Awards | Best Debut | Toby Fox | Runner-Up | align="center"| <ref name="Giant Bomb 3">{{cite web |url=http://www.giantbomb.com/articles/giant-bombs-2015-game-of-the-year-awards-day-three/1100-5318/ |title=Giant Bomb's 2015 Game of the Year Awards: Day Three Text Recap |website=[[Giant Bomb]] |publisher=[[CBS Interactive]] |date=December 30, 2015 |accessdate=January 21, 2016 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6egFkFhrG |archivedate=January 20, 2016 }}</ref> |- | align="center"| January 1, 2016 ! scope="row"| Giant Bomb's 2015 Game of the Year Awards | Game of the Year | ''Undertale'' | Seventh | align="center"| <ref name="Giant Bomb 5">{{cite web |url=http://www.giantbomb.com/articles/giant-bombs-2015-game-of-the-year-awards-day-five-/1100-5320/ |title=Giant Bomb's 2015 Game of the Year Awards: Day Five Text Recap |website=[[Giant Bomb]] |publisher=[[CBS Interactive]] |date=January 1, 2016 |accessdate=January 21, 2016 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6egFsYZfi |archivedate=January 20, 2016 }}</ref> |- | align="center"| January 7, 2016 ! scope="row"| ''Zero Punctuation'' Top 5 Games of 2015 | Game of the Year | ''Undertale'' | Won | align="center"| <ref name="Zero Punctuation">{{cite web |url=http://www.escapistmagazine.com/videos/view/zero-punctuation/116617-Top-5-Best-and-Worst-Games-of-2015 |title=Top 5 Games of 2015 |website=[[The Escapist (magazine)|The Escapist]] |publisher=[[Defy Media]] |date=January 7, 2016 |accessdate=January 21, 2016 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6egG6ajZK |archivedate=January 20, 2016 }}</ref> |- | align="center"| January 12, 2016 ! scope="row"| IGN's Best of 2015 | PC Game of the Year | ''Undertale'' | Won | align="center"| <ref name="IGN PC">{{cite web |url=http://ign.com/wikis/best-of-2015/PC_Game_of_the_Year |title=PC Game of the Year |website=[[IGN]] |publisher=[[IGN Entertainment]] |date=January 12, 2016 |accessdate=January 21, 2016 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6egGeCTFF |archivedate=January 20, 2016 }}</ref> |- | align="center"| January 12, 2016 ! scope="row"| IGN's Best of 2015 | Best Story | ''Undertale'' | Won | align="center"| <ref name="IGN Story">{{cite web |url=http://au.ign.com/wikis/best-of-2015/Best_Story |title=Best Story |website=[[IGN]] |publisher=[[IGN Entertainment]] |date=January 12, 2016 |accessdate=February 17, 2016 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6fMKuWJ4e |archivedate=February 17, 2016 }}</ref> |- | align="center"| February 18, 2016 ! scope="row"| 19th Annual DICE Awards | Outstanding Achievement in Game Direction | ''Undertale'' | Nominated | align="center"| <ref name="DICE">{{cite web |url=http://www.polygon.com/2016/1/13/10760412/dice-awards-2016-nominees |title=DICE Awards finalists include Fallout 4, Witcher 3, Life is Strange and more |last=Frank |first=Allegra |website=[[Polygon (website)|Polygon]] |publisher=[[Vox Media]] |date=January 13, 2016 |accessdate=January 21, 2016 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6eaEctq4U |archivedate=January 16, 2016 }}</ref> |- | align="center"| February 18, 2016 ! scope="row"| 19th Annual DICE Awards | DICE Sprite Award | ''Undertale'' | Nominated | align="center"| <ref name="DICE" /> |- | align="center"| February 18, 2016 ! scope="row"| 19th Annual DICE Awards | Role-Playing/Massive Multiplayer Game of the Year | ''Undertale'' | Nominated | align="center"| <ref name="DICE" /> |- | align="center"| March 16, 2016 ! scope="row"| 2016 Game Developers Choice Awards | Innovation Award | ''Undertale'' | Nominated | align="center"| <ref name="GDC">{{cite web |url=http://www.vg247.com/2016/01/08/the-witcher-3-metal-gear-solid-5-lead-nominees-for-2016-game-developers-choice-awards/ |title=The Witcher 3, Metal Gear Solid 5 lead nominees for GDC 2016 Awards |last=Nunneley |first=Stephany |website=[[VG247]] |publisher=[[Videogaming247]] |date=January 8, 2016 |accessdate=January 21, 2016 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6eYOOuRrZ |archivedate=January 15, 2016 }}</ref> |- | align="center"| March 16, 2016 ! scope="row"| 2016 Game Developers Choice Awards | Best Debut | {{sort|Fox|Toby Fox}} | Nominated | align="center"| <ref name="GDC" /> |- | align="center"| March 16, 2016 ! scope="row"| 2016 Game Developers Choice Awards | Best Narrative | ''Undertale'' | Nominated | align="center"| <ref name="GDC" /> |- | align="center"| March 16, 2016 ! scope="row"| 2016 Independent Games Festival Awards | Seumas McNally Grand Prize | ''Undertale'' | Nominated | align="center"| <ref name="IGF">{{cite web |url=http://www.vg247.com/2016/01/06/her-story-2016-igf-awards/ |title=Her Story, Undertale, Darkest Dungeon receive multiple 2016 IGF Award nominations |last=Nunneley |first=Stephany |website=[[VG247]] |publisher=[[Videogaming247]] |date=January 6, 2016 |accessdate=January 21, 2016 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6eYOWqOA1 |archivedate=January 15, 2016 }}</ref> |- | align="center"| March 16, 2016 ! scope="row"| 2016 Independent Games Festival Awards | Excellence in Audio | ''Undertale'' | Nominated | align="center"| <ref name="IGF" /> |- | align="center"| March 16, 2016 ! scope="row"| 2016 Independent Games Festival Awards | Excellence in Narrative | ''Undertale'' | Nominated | align="center"| <ref name="IGF" /> |- | align="center"| March 16, 2016 ! scope="row"| 2016 Independent Games Festival Awards | Audience Award | ''Undertale'' | Won | align="center"| <ref name="IGFwinners">{{cite web |url=http://www.gamasutra.com/view/news/268277/Her_Story_takes_home_top_honors_at_the_18th_annual_IGF_Awards.php |title=Her Story takes home top honors at the 18th annual IGF Awards |website=[[Gamasutra]] |publisher=[[UBM TechWeb]] |date=March 16, 2016 |accessdate=March 16, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160411213833/http://www.gamasutra.com/view/news/268277/Her_Story_takes_home_top_honors_at_the_18th_annual_IGF_Awards.php |archive-date=April 11, 2016 }}</ref> |- | align="center"| March 19, 2016 ! scope="row"| South by Southwest Gaming Awards | Game of the Year | ''Undertale'' | Nominated | align="center"| <ref name="SXSW nom">{{cite web |url=http://www.polygon.com/2016/1/25/10830286/sxsw-gaming-award-nominees-2016 |title=Bloodborne, Metal Gear Solid 5 among SXSW Gaming Award nominees |last=Frank |first=Allegra |website=[[Polygon (website)|Polygon]] |publisher=[[Vox Media]] |date=January 25, 2016 |accessdate=February 17, 2016 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6eoMvq8Nt |archivedate=January 25, 2016 }}</ref> |- | align="center"| March 19, 2016 ! scope="row"| South by Southwest Gaming Awards | Excellence in Gameplay | ''Undertale'' | Nominated | align="center"| <ref name="SXSW nom" /> |- | align="center"| March 19, 2016 ! scope="row"| South by Southwest Gaming Awards | Most Fulfilling Crowdfunded Game | ''Undertale'' | Won | align="center"| <ref name="SXSW">{{cite web |url=http://www.polygon.com/2016/3/21/11277046/sxsw-gaming-awards-winners-2016 |title=The Witcher 3 takes top honors at yet another award show, the SXSW Gaming Awards |last=Sarkar |first=Samit |work=[[Polygon (website)|Polygon]] |publisher=[[Vox Media]] |date=March 21, 2016 |accessdate=June 5, 2016 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6gZ6BMatY |archivedate=April 6, 2016 }}</ref> |- | align="center"| March 19, 2016 ! scope="row"| South by Southwest Gaming Awards | Most Promising New Intellectual Property | ''Undertale'' | Nominated | align="center"| <ref name="SXSW nom" /> |- | align="center"| March 19, 2016 ! scope="row"| South by Southwest Gaming Awards | Matthew Crump Cultural Innovation Award | ''Undertale'' | Won | align="center"| <ref name="SXSW" /> |- | align="center"| April 7, 2016 ! scope="row"| British Academy Games Awards | Story | ''Undertale'' | Nominated | align="center"| <ref name="bafta noms">{{cite web | url = http://www.vg247.com/2016/03/10/rocket-league-the-witcher-3-fallout-4-others-up-for-bafta-best-game-award/ | title = Rocket League, The Witcher 3, Fallout 4, others up for BAFTA Best Game Award | website = [[VG247]] | first = Stephany | last = Nunnely | date = March 10, 2016 | accessdate = March 10, 2016 | publisher = [[Videogaming247]] |archive-url=http://www.webcitation.org/6hCnIWJHb |archive-date=May 2, 2016 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.gamesindustry.biz/articles/2016-04-07-fallout-4-wins-best-game-at-baftas |website = [[GamesIndustry.biz]] | first = Rachel | last = Weber | title = Fallout 4 wins best game at BAFTAs | date = April 7, 2016 | accessdate = April 7, 2016 | publisher = [[Gamer Network]] |archive-url=http://www.webcitation.org/6hCmxLahf |archive-date=May 2, 2016 }}</ref> |} |} == References == {{reflist}} [[Category:Digital art]] 778w9cjoap6eydotkxf0wezlmcgbe5l 2835765 2835764 2026-10-04T08:03:59Z ~2026-53395-55 3112094 /* History */ Space 2835765 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Digital Media Concepts|Toby Fox}} {{Infobox |title = '''Toby Fox''' |image = [[File:TobyFox.png]] |headerstyle = background:#ccf;{{Text color default}}; |labelstyle = background:#ddf;{{Text color default}}; |label2 = Nationality |data2 = {{{item_one|American}}} |label3 = Born |data3 = {{{item_two|October 11, 1991}}} |label4 = Known For |data4 = {{{item_three| ''Undertale'' and ''Deltarune''}}} |label5 = Birth Place |data5 = {{{item_Four|Manchester, New Hampshire}}} }} Toby Fox (born October 11, 1991) is a video game developer, composer, and musician most known for developing and composing the soundtrack for the critically acclaimed roleplaying game ''Undertale and Deltarune''. == History == Fox was a fan of the game ''EarthBound'' and began as a forum member on its fansite, Starmen.net, under the username Radiation. He became a musician in 2008-2009 and made soundtracks for popular games like Pokemon Scarlet and Violet and Sword and Shield He would be an active member on the site and managed one of the site's forums up until 2011.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://forum.starmen.net/members/473|title= Starmen.net}}</ref> Before starting work on ''Undertale'', he had little experience in actual game development except for the incomplete games he often made with his three brothers using the proprietary game engine RPG Maker 2000. He has made 2 different games and helped by making music in 5 others. He is a self-taught musician and ghool game developer. He graduated from Northeastern University with a Bachelor’s Degree. He was deeply inspired by EarthBound, which influenced his approach to game design and storytelling from a young age. <ref>{{cite web |url=https://seagaia.wordpress.com/2013/05/25/toby-foxs-undertale-dev-2-dev-interview-1/|title= Seagaia}}</ref> For a while, Fox developed ''Undertale'' in the basement of webcomic artist Andrew Hussie, known for creating the popular comic ''Homestuck'', for which Fox also composed tracks for. He has won a NAVGTR Award for Original Role Playing Game, a Japan Game Awards: Award for Excellence, and the SXSW Gaming Matthew Crump Cultural Innovation Award, alongside numerous nominations and accolades from publications like The Escapist, Ars Technica, and Giant Bomb for his groundbreaking work in indie game development and music. He was also named to Forbes' 30 Under 30 list for his impact on gaming. He is known to support the LGBTQ+ community.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.kickstarter.com/projects/14293468/homestuck-adventure-game/posts/1453119|title= Homestuck Kickstarter}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gameinformer.com/themes/blogs/generic/post.aspx?WeblogApp=podcasts&y=2015&m=10&d=15&WeblogPostName=gi-show-_1320_-yoshis-woolly-world_2c00_-star-wars_3a00_-battlefront_2c00_-undertale-toby-fox&GroupKeys=|title= Game Informer}}</ref> == Games == === ''Undertale'' === ''Undertale'' was the first major game completely developed by Toby. He worked on the project independently, with only artwork and sprites being supplied by other creators, mainly freelance artist Temmie Chang.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.kickstarter.com/projects/1002143342/undertale/description|title= Undertale Kickstarter}}</ref> Fox began creating ''Undertale'' after already making a battle system using the engine GameMaker: Studio.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://existentialgamer.com/interview-toby-fox-undertale|title= Existential Gamer}}</ref> The original game was meant to be released in 2014 but production was delayed. ''Undertale'' was praised for its writing, for which Fox claims he was inspired by internet culture, comedy shows such as ''Mr. Bean'' and the game ''EarthBound''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gameinformer.com/themes/blogs/generic/post.aspx?WeblogApp=podcasts&y=2015&m=10&d=15&WeblogPostName=gi-show-_1320_-yoshis-woolly-world_2c00_-star-wars_3a00_-battlefront_2c00_-undertale-toby-fox&GroupKeys=|title= Game Informer}}</ref> When it came to developing the game itself Fox said he wanted to develop a role-playing game that was non-traditional, had "interesting characters", and that "utilizes the medium as a storytelling device ... instead of having the story and gameplay abstractions be completely separate".<ref>{{cite web |url=https://seagaia.wordpress.com/2013/05/25/toby-foxs-undertale-dev-2-dev-interview-1/|title= Seagaia}}</ref>''Undertale'' took 2.7 years to completely develop and was financed through a crowdfunding effort on Kickstarter.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gameinformer.com/themes/blogs/generic/post.aspx?WeblogApp=podcasts&y=2015&m=10&d=15&WeblogPostName=gi-show-_1320_-yoshis-woolly-world_2c00_-star-wars_3a00_-battlefront_2c00_-undertale-toby-fox&GroupKeys=|title= Game Informer}}</ref> The game was released on September 15, 2015 for Windows and OS X, and July 17, 2016 for Linux. === ''Deltarune'' === ''Deltarune'' is another of the major games released by Toby. Chapter 1 of the game was released October 31, 2018, Chapter 2 was released September 17, 2021, and Chapters 3 and 4 came out most recently and released June 4, 2025. ''Deltarune'' Chapters 1-4, by Toby Fox, build an immersive RPG world with familiar ''Undertale'' characters in an alternate universe, following silent protagonist Kris, the delinquent Susie, and the prince Ralsei on quests through "Dark Worlds" to seal fountains, battling foes with unique action RPG mechanics and dodge-bullets, all while weaving deeper mysteries, character depth (like Noelle in Chapter 2 and Tenna in Chapter 3), unique themes (cards, internet, TV), and a surprisingly dark, impactful story that subverts expectations and explores themes of identity, loneliness, and control, setting up a potential masterpiece even as an incomplete game. * '''The Fun Gang:''' You control Kris (silent protagonist), Susie (lizard-like delinquent), and Ralsei (gentle prince) in a party-based combat system. * '''Dodge-Bullet Battles:''' Combat mixes traditional RPG choices (Attack/Act/Spare) with bullet-hell dodging, requiring strategic party health management. * '''Dark Worlds:''' Each chapter introduces a fantastical "Dark World" based on a real-world location (closet, computer), sealed by sealing a "Dark Fountain". * '''Mystery & Control:''' Kris removes their soul at chapter ends, suggesting the player controls the soul, not Kris, raising questions about free will. ** '''Chapter 1: The Beginning (Cards)''': Introduces Kris and Susie, their first trip to the Dark World, and meeting Ralsei, establishing the core quest. ** '''Chapter 2: A Cyber's World (Internet)''': Adds Noelle to the party, introduces the memorable Spamton, and deepens lore with secrets like the "Weird Route". ** '''Chapter 3: An Entertaining Show (TV/Game Show)''': Shifts focus to a game show format with Tenna, adding rhythm, quizzes, and darker themes. ** '''Chapter 4: The Haunting (Church/Dark Sanctuary)''': A surprisingly mature chapter with religious themes, moral choices, a rescue mission, and a significant "Dark Sanctuary". *** '''Character Depth:''' Explores loneliness and self-worth for Kris, Susie, and Ralsei. *** '''Humor & Darkness:''' Balances quirky humor with surprisingly serious, adult themes and dark consequences. *** '''Meta-Narrative:''' The vessel creation and soul-removal mechanics hint at greater control and player choices. *** '''World Building:''' Expands ''Undertale''<nowiki/>'s universe with unique worlds (Cyber World, TV World, Dark Sanctuary). **** '''Incomplete Game:''' Chapters 1-4 are a substantial, free experience, but the full story requires future releases. **** '''Secrets:''' Features numerous secrets, missable items (like the TopCake), and alternate paths (like the Weird Route). **** '''Exceptional Quality:''' Praised for its music, unique gameplay, character writing, and ambition, building anticipation for the finale. ==Musical Contributions== Fox is a self-taught musician and has composed soundtracks for many games and comics including ''Midnight Crew: Drawing Dead'', ''Pokémon Sword/Pokémon Shield'', Animal Crossing: New Horizons, ''Alternia'' and ''Homestuck''. He composed all of the soundtrack for ''Undertale'' as well. When it comes to his influences for producing music, Fox states that he tries to be inspired by everything he listens to, especially tracks in video games.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.themarysue.com/interview-undertale-game-creator-toby-fox/|title= The Mary Sue}}</ref> ==Discography== {| class="wikitable collapsible collapsed" style="width:100%;" |- style="background:#ccc;{{Text color default}}; text-align:center;" ! colspan="2" style="background: LightSteelBlue;{{Text color default}};" | Discography |- style="background:#ccc;{{Text color default}}; text-align:center;" ! Album ! Tracks Composed |- | Midnight Crew: Drawing Dead (February 4, 2010) <ref name="MC: DD">{{cite web |url=https://homestuck.bandcamp.com/album/midnight-crew-drawing-dead-2 |title = Midnight Crew: Drawing Dead}}</ref> | "Liquid Negrocity", "The Ballad of Jack Noir" (Original Version) |- | Homestuck Vol. 4 (April 13, 2010) <ref name="Homestuck 4">{{cite web |url=https://homestuck.bandcamp.com/album/homestuck-vol-1-4| title= Homestuck Vol. 4}}</ref> | "John Sleeps / Skaian Magicant", "Carefree Victory", "Atomyk Ebonpyre", "Black" |- |Homestuck Vol. 5 (June 13, 2010) <ref name="Homestuck 5">{{cite web |url=https://homestuck.bandcamp.com/album/homestuck-vol-5| title= Homestuck Vol. 5}}</ref> | "Skaian Skirmish", "Savior of the Waking World", "Happy Cat Song!", "Hardchorale", "White", "Octoroon Rangoon", "Lotus Land Story", "Versus", "Dupliblaze COMAGMA", "Moonshatter", "Sunsetter", "Get Up", "Vertical Motion", "Amphibious Subterrain", "Snow Pollen", "Descend" |- | Alternia (July 18, 2010) <ref name="Alternia">{{cite web |url=https://homestuck.bandcamp.com/album/alternia| title= Alternia}}</ref> | "Crustacean", "Showdown", "mIrAcLeS", "The Lemonsnout Turnabout", "Phaze and Blood", "psych0ruins", "Walls Covered In Blood", "dESPERADO ROCKET CHAIRS,", "Death of the Lusii", "Virgin Orb", "The La2t Frontiier", "Skaian Summoning", "Spider's Claw (Bonus)", "Staring (Bonus)", "Keepers (Bonus)" |- | Squiddles! (August 26, 2010) <ref name="Squiddles">{{cite web |url=https://homestuck.bandcamp.com/album/squiddles| title = Squiddles!}}</ref> | "Squiddles the Movie Trailer - The Day the Unicorns Couldn't Play" |- | The Baby Is You (October 13, 2010) | "THROGUH SONG", "IM HAVING A BABY, AND THE BABY IS YOU", "bootes", "ROSE PRAGNET (feat. ????)", "the rose rap (feat. von fawn)", "uh oh", "vs. bros", "A BABY IS BORN (feat. artemis251 as luigi, chorus singer, kid, and hella jeff)" |- | The Felt (December 2, 2010) <ref name="The Felt">{{cite web |url=https://homestuck.bandcamp.com/album/the-felt| title= The Felt}}</ref> | "Humphrey's Lullaby", "English" |- | Homestuck for the Holidays (December 25, 2010) <ref name="Homestuck Holidays">{{cite web |url=https://homestuckgaiden.bandcamp.com/album/homestuck-for-the-holidays-unofficial-album| title = Homestuck for the Holidays }}</ref> | "Carefree Perigee" |- | Homestuck Vol. 6: Heir Transparent (January 5, 2011) <ref name="Homestuck 6">{{cite web |url=https://homestuck.bandcamp.com/album/homestuck-vol-6-heir-transparent| title = Homestuck Vol. 6: Heir Transparent}}</ref> | "Umbral Ultimatum", "MeGaLoVania", "Gaia Queen", "Wacky Antics", "Nic Cage Song", "A Tender Moment" |- | AlterniaBound (March 14, 2011) <ref name="AB">{{cite web |url=https://homestuck.bandcamp.com/album/alterniabound| title= AlterniaBound}}</ref> | "Karkat's Theme", "Terezi's Theme", "Vriska's Theme", "FIDUSPAWN, GO!", "Darling Kanaya", "Eridan's Theme", "Nautical Nightmare", "Nepeta's Theme", "Killed by BR8K Spider!!!!!!!!", "Catapult Capuchin", "Science Seahorse", "A Fairy Battle", "The Blind Prophet", "AlterniaBound", "You Won A Combat", "Rest A While" |- | Homestuck Vol. 7: At the Price of Oblivion (May 31, 2011) <ref name="Homestuck 7">{{cite web |url=https://homestuck.bandcamp.com/album/homestuck-vol-7-at-the-price-of-oblivion| title= Homestuck Vol. 7: At the Price of Oblivion}}</ref> | "Terezi Owns", "Rumble at the Rink", "Earthsea Borealis" |- | The Wanderers (July 14, 2011) <ref name="Wanderers">{{cite web |url=https://homestuck.bandcamp.com/album/the-wanderers| title= The Wanderers}}</ref> | "Mayor Maynot", "Riches to Ruins Movements I & II", "Tomahawk Head" |- | Homestuck Vol. 8 (October 25, 2011) <ref name="Homestuck 8">{{cite web |url=https://homestuck.bandcamp.com/album/homestuck-vol-8| title= Homestuck Vol. 8}}</ref> | "Love You (Feferi's Theme)", "Davesprite", "Frostbite", "The Lost Child", "Judgement Day", "Penumbra Phantasm" (featured in the third part of "Cascade") |- | Improvised Touhou Music with Annoying Commentary (November 29, 2011) <ref name="ITM">{{cite web |url=http://fwugradiation.tumblr.com/post/13528293577/improvised-touhou-music-with-annoying-commentary |title= Improvised Touhou Music with Annoying Commentary}}</ref> | "Girl's Pretty Dress Dress, Do Your Best Now", "Magical Hopalong Cassidy Station", "An Apple Disaster!" |- | I Miss You - EarthBound 2012 (January 1, 2012) <ref name="E 2012">{{cite web |url=https://sleepytimejesse.bandcamp.com/album/i-miss-you-earthbound-2012|title= I Miss You - EarthBound 2012}}</ref> | "Fallen Down", "A New Line", "Megalo Strike Back", "Checkerboard Memories" |- | coloUrs and mayhem: Universe A (April 2, 2012) <ref name="CAMA">{{cite web |url=https://homestuck.bandcamp.com/album/colours-and-mayhem-universe-a| title= coloUrs and mayhem: Universe A}}</ref> | "~~SIDE 1~~", "~~SIDE 2~~", "~~ADDITIONAL MAYHEM~~" |- | coloUrs and mayhem: Universe B (April 13, 2012) <ref name="CAMB">{{cite web |url=https://homestuck.bandcamp.com/album/colours-and-mayhem-universe-b| title= coloUrs and mayhem: Universe B}}</ref> | "~~SIDE 1~~", "~~SIDE 2~~", "~~ADDITIONAL MAYHEM~~" |- | Cherubim (March 14, 2013) <ref name="Cherubim">{{cite web |url=https://homestuck.bandcamp.com/album/cherubim|title= Cherubim}}</ref> | "The Lordling" |- | Undertale Demo OST (May 21, 2013) | "Once Upon a Time", "Menu", "Your Best Friend", "Fallen Down", "Ruins", "Anticipation", "Unnecessary Tension", "Enemy Approaching", "Ghost Fight", "Determination", "Home", "Heartache", "End", "Nyeh Heh Heh!", "Home (Music Box)", "Empty House" |- |UNDERTALE Soundtrack (September 15, 2015) | "Once Upon a Time", "Start Menu", 'Your Best Friend", "Fallen Down", "Ruins", "Uwa!! So Temperate♫", "Anticipation", "Unnecessary Tension", "Enemy Approaching", "Ghost Fight", "Determination", "Home", "Home (Music Box)", "Heartache", "sans.", "Nyeh Heh Heh!", "Snowy", "Uwa!! So Holiday♫", "Dogbass", "Mysterious Place", "Dogsong", "Snowdin Town", "Shop", "Bonetrousle", "Dating Start!", "Dating Tense!", "Dating Fight!", "Premonition", "Danger Mystery", "Undyne", "Waterfall", "Run!", "Quiet Water", "Memory", "Bird That Carries You Over A Disproportionately Small Gap", "Dummy!", "Pathetic House", "Spooktune", "Spookwave", "Ghouliday", "Chill", "Thundersnail", "Temmie Village", "Tem Shop", "NGAHHH!!", "Spear of Justice", "Ooo", "Alphys", "It's Showtime!", "Metal Crusher", "Another Medium", "Uwa!! So HEATS!!♫", "Stronger Monsters", "Hotel", "Can You Really Call This A Hotel, I Didn't Receive A Mint On My Pillow Or Anything", "Confession", "Live Report", "Death Report", "Spider Dance", "Wrong Enemy !?", "Oh! One True Love", "Oh! Dungeon", "It's Raining Somewhere Else", "CORE Approach", "CORE (Soundtrack)", "Last Episode!", "Oh My...", "Death by Glamour", "For The Fans", "Long Elevator", "Undertale", "Song That Might Play When You Fight Sans", "The Choice", "Small Shock", "Barrier", "Bergentrückung", "ASGORE", "You Idiot", "Your Best Nightmare", "Finale", "An Ending", "She's Playing Piano", "Here We Are", "Amalgam", "Fallen Down (Reprise)", "Don't Give Up", "Hopes and Dreams", "Burn in Despair!", "SAVE the World", "His Theme", "Final Power", "Reunited", "Menu (Full)", "Respite", "Bring It In, Guys!", "Last Goodbye", "But the Earth Refused to Die", "Battle Against a True Hero", "Power of "NEO"", "MEGALOVANIA", "Good Night" |- | [S] Collide. (April 6, 2016) <ref name="S Collide">{{cite web |url=https://homestuck.bandcamp.com/album/s-collide|title= [S] Collide.}}</ref> | "Oppa Toby Style" |} ==Awards and Nominations== ===Reception=== ''Undertale'' was released to rave reviews by many magazines and publications. The game and Toby Fox was nominated for and won many awards such as Game of the Year, Best Debut, and Best Game Ever. As for Fox's reaction to the massive success of his own game he stated that it overwhelmed him and caused a lot of stress, as he did not want the game to be tiring or spoiled for anyone. He also stated that he is perfectly comfortable if he never makes a game as successful again.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://undertale.tumblr.com/post/150397346860/retrospective-on-undertales-popularity|title= Undertale Blog}}</ref> {| class="wikitable collapsible collapsed" style="width:100%;" ! List of awards and nominations for ''Undertale'' |- | style="padding:0; border:none;"| {| class="wikitable sortable plainrowheaders" style="border:none; margin:0; width:100%;" |- ! scope="col"| Date !! scope="col"| Award !! scope="col"| Category !! scope="col"| Recipient(s) and Nominee(s) !! scope="col"| Result !! scope="col" class="unsortable" | Ref. |- | align="center"| October 30, 2015 ! scope="row"| ''Rock, Paper, Shotgun'' Game of the Month: October | Game of the Month | ''Undertale'' | Won | align="center"| <ref name="RPS GOTM">{{cite web |url=https://www.rockpapershotgun.com/2015/10/13/undertale-game-of-the-month/ |title=Game of the Month: October – Undertale |website=[[Rock, Paper, Shotgun]] |date=October 30, 2015 |accessdate=January 21, 2016 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6egCag9iE |archivedate=January 20, 2016 }}</ref> |- | align="center"| November 27, 2015 ! scope="row"| Global Game Awards 2015 | Best Indie | ''Undertale'' | Runner-Up | align="center"| <ref name="Global Game Awards">{{cite web |url=http://www.game-debate.com/awards/2015 |title=Global Game Awards 2015 |website=Game-Debate |date=November 27, 2015 |accessdate=January 21, 2016 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6eaF8iirs |archivedate=January 16, 2016 }}</ref> |- | align="center"| December 1, 2015 ! scope="row"| ''Time's Top 10 Video Games'' | Best Game | ''Undertale'' | Ninth | align="center"| <ref name="Time">{{cite web |url=http://time.com/4106659/top-10-video-games/ |title=Top 10 Video Games |last=Peckham |first=Matt |website=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |publisher=[[Time Inc.]] |date=December 1, 2015 |accessdate=January 21, 2016 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6egtDVkOF |archivedate=December 20, 2016 }}</ref> |- | align="center"| December 3, 2015 ! scope="row"| The Game Awards 2015 | Best Independent Game | ''Undertale'' | Nominated | align="center"| <ref name="The Game Awards">{{cite web |url=https://www.vg247.com/2015/12/04/the-game-awards-2015-winners/ |title=The Game Awards 2015 – Game of the Year goes to The Witcher 3 |last=Nunneley |first=Stephany |website=[[VG247]] |publisher=[[Videogaming247]] |date=December 4, 2015 |accessdate=January 15, 2016 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6eYOBjjTo |archivedate=January 15, 2016}}</ref> |- | align="center"| December 3, 2015 ! scope="row"| The Game Awards 2015 | Games for Change | ''Undertale'' | Nominated | align="center"| <ref name="The Game Awards" /> |- | align="center"| December 3, 2015 ! scope="row"| The Game Awards 2015 | Best Role-Playing Game | ''Undertale'' | Nominated | align="center"| <ref name="The Game Awards" /> |- | align="center"| December 4, 2015 ! scope="row"| ''Vice's Best 20 Video Games of 2015'' | Best Game | ''Undertale'' | Eighth | align="center"| <ref name="Vice Best">{{cite web |url=http://www.vice.com/en_ca/read/the-top-20-video-games-of-2015-according-to-vice-999 |title=The Best 20 Video Games of 2015 |last=Diver |first=Mike |website=[[Vice (magazine)|Vice]] |publisher=[[Vice Media]] |date=December 4, 2015 |accessdate=January 21, 2016 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6eaDGw7q0 |archivedate=January 16, 2016 }}</ref> |- | align="center"| December 15, 2015 ! scope="row"| ''Rock, Paper, Shotgun's'' Best PC Games of 2015 | Funniest Game on PC | ''Undertale'' | Won | align="center"| <ref name="rps funniest">{{cite web |url=https://www.rockpapershotgun.com/2015/12/16/funniest-pc-game-2015/ |title=The RPS Advent Calendar, Dec 16th: Undertale |date=December 16, 2015 |website=[[Rock, Paper, Shotgun]] |accessdate=May 16, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151226135527/http://www.rockpapershotgun.com/2015/12/16/funniest-pc-game-2015/ |archivedate=December 26, 2015 }}</ref> |- | align="center"| December 15, 2015 ! scope="row"| ''Good Game'' Awards 2015 | Game of the Year | ''Undertale'' | Nominated | align="center"| <ref name="Good Game Awards">{{cite web |url=http://www.abc.net.au/tv/goodgame/stories/s4371946.htm |title=Game of the Year - Part 1 |last1=O'Donnell |first=Steven |authorlink1=Steven O'Donnell (Australian actor) |last2=Bendixsen |first2=Stephanie |authorlink2=Stephanie Bendixsen |website=[[Australian Broadcasting Corporation]] |date=December 15, 2015 |accessdate=January 17, 2016 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6ea5CWKoh |archivedate=January 16, 2016}}</ref> |- | align="center"| December 16, 2015 ! scope="row"| GameFAQs' Best Game Ever | Best Game Ever | ''Undertale'' | Won | align="center"| <ref name="GameFAQs">{{cite web |url=http://www.polygon.com/2015/12/16/10323192/undertale-gamefaqs-best-game-ever |title=Undertale wins GameFAQs' Best Game Ever contest |last=Frank |first=Allegra |website=[[Polygon (website)|Polygon]] |publisher=[[Vox Media]] |date=December 16, 2015 |accessdate=January 21, 2016 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6egsbSNsX |archivedate=January 20, 2016 }}</ref> |- | align="center"| December 18, 2015 ! scope="row"| GameSpot Game of the Year | Game of the Year | ''Undertale'' | Nineteenth | align="center"| <ref name="GameSpot GOTY">{{cite web |url=http://www.gamespot.com/articles/game-of-the-year-2015-countdown-20-16/1100-6432501/ |title=Game of the Year 2015 Countdown: #20 - #16 |website=[[GameSpot]] |publisher=[[CBS Interactive]] |date=December 18, 2015 |accessdate=January 21, 2016 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6egsAMSDq |archivedate=January 20, 2016 }}</ref> |- | align="center"| December 21, 2015 ! scope="row"| ''The Jimquisition'' Game of the Year Awards 2015 | Game of the Year | ''Undertale'' | Won | align="center"| <ref name="Jimquisition Awards">{{cite web |url=http://www.thejimquisition.com/2015/12/the-jimquisition-game-of-the-year-awards-2015/ |title=The Jimquisition Game of the Year Awards 2015 |last=Sterling |first=Jim |authorlink=Jim Sterling |website=[[The Jimquisition]] |date=December 21, 2015 |accessdate=January 21, 2016 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6egFRv1KT |archivedate=January 20, 2016 }}</ref> |- | align="center"| December 22, 2015 ! scope="row"| Destructoid Game of the Year | Best PC Game | ''Undertale'' | Won | align="center"| <ref name="Destructoid Award">{{cite web |url=http://www.destructoid.com/destructoid-s-award-for-best-pc-game-of-2015-goes-to--328410.phtml |title=Destructoid's award for Best PC Game of 2015 goes to... |last=Hansen |first=Steven |website=[[Destructoid]] |publisher=[[ModernMethod]] |date=December 22, 2015 |accessdate=January 21, 2016 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6egF81TT0 |archivedate=January 20, 2016 }}</ref> |- | align="center"| December 25, 2015 ! scope="row"| ''The Escapist's'' Best Games of 2015 | Best Game | ''Undertale'' | Nominated | align="center"| <ref name="Escapist Best Game">{{cite web |url=http://www.escapistmagazine.com/articles/view/video-games/features/15167-Best-Games-of-2015.3 |title=The Escapist's Best Games of 2015 |page=3 |website=[[The Escapist (magazine)|The Escapist]] |publisher=[[Defy Media]] |date=December 25, 2015 |accessdate=February 17, 2016 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6fMQCMr0P |archivedate=February 17, 2016 }}</ref> |- | align="center"| December 28, 2015 ! scope="row"| Ars Technica best video games of 2015 | Best Game | ''Undertale'' | Fifth | align="center"| <ref name="Ars Technica 2015">{{cite web |url=http://arstechnica.com/gaming/2015/12/the-best-video-games-of-2015-as-picked-by-the-ars-editors/4/ |title=The best video games of 2015, as picked by the Ars editor |page=4 |last=Orland |first=Kyle |website=[[Ars Technica]] |publisher=[[Condé Nast]] |date=December 28, 2015 |accessdate=January 21, 2016 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6egDgThLD |archivedate=January 20, 2016 }}</ref> |- | align="center"| December 28, 2015 ! scope="row"| Giant Bomb's 2015 Game of the Year Awards | Best Surprise | ''Undertale'' | Runner-Up | align="center"| <ref name="Giant Bomb 1">{{cite web |url=http://www.giantbomb.com/articles/giant-bombs-2015-game-of-the-year-awards-day-one-t/1100-5316/ |title=Giant Bomb's 2015 Game of the Year Awards: Day One Text Recap |website=[[Giant Bomb]] |publisher=[[CBS Interactive]] |date=December 28, 2015 |accessdate=January 21, 2016 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6egFb7Yri |archivedate=January 20, 2016 }}</ref> |- | align="center"| December 30, 2015 ! scope="row"| Giant Bomb's 2015 Game of the Year Awards | Best Debut | Toby Fox | Runner-Up | align="center"| <ref name="Giant Bomb 3">{{cite web |url=http://www.giantbomb.com/articles/giant-bombs-2015-game-of-the-year-awards-day-three/1100-5318/ |title=Giant Bomb's 2015 Game of the Year Awards: Day Three Text Recap |website=[[Giant Bomb]] |publisher=[[CBS Interactive]] |date=December 30, 2015 |accessdate=January 21, 2016 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6egFkFhrG |archivedate=January 20, 2016 }}</ref> |- | align="center"| January 1, 2016 ! scope="row"| Giant Bomb's 2015 Game of the Year Awards | Game of the Year | ''Undertale'' | Seventh | align="center"| <ref name="Giant Bomb 5">{{cite web |url=http://www.giantbomb.com/articles/giant-bombs-2015-game-of-the-year-awards-day-five-/1100-5320/ |title=Giant Bomb's 2015 Game of the Year Awards: Day Five Text Recap |website=[[Giant Bomb]] |publisher=[[CBS Interactive]] |date=January 1, 2016 |accessdate=January 21, 2016 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6egFsYZfi |archivedate=January 20, 2016 }}</ref> |- | align="center"| January 7, 2016 ! scope="row"| ''Zero Punctuation'' Top 5 Games of 2015 | Game of the Year | ''Undertale'' | Won | align="center"| <ref name="Zero Punctuation">{{cite web |url=http://www.escapistmagazine.com/videos/view/zero-punctuation/116617-Top-5-Best-and-Worst-Games-of-2015 |title=Top 5 Games of 2015 |website=[[The Escapist (magazine)|The Escapist]] |publisher=[[Defy Media]] |date=January 7, 2016 |accessdate=January 21, 2016 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6egG6ajZK |archivedate=January 20, 2016 }}</ref> |- | align="center"| January 12, 2016 ! scope="row"| IGN's Best of 2015 | PC Game of the Year | ''Undertale'' | Won | align="center"| <ref name="IGN PC">{{cite web |url=http://ign.com/wikis/best-of-2015/PC_Game_of_the_Year |title=PC Game of the Year |website=[[IGN]] |publisher=[[IGN Entertainment]] |date=January 12, 2016 |accessdate=January 21, 2016 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6egGeCTFF |archivedate=January 20, 2016 }}</ref> |- | align="center"| January 12, 2016 ! scope="row"| IGN's Best of 2015 | Best Story | ''Undertale'' | Won | align="center"| <ref name="IGN Story">{{cite web |url=http://au.ign.com/wikis/best-of-2015/Best_Story |title=Best Story |website=[[IGN]] |publisher=[[IGN Entertainment]] |date=January 12, 2016 |accessdate=February 17, 2016 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6fMKuWJ4e |archivedate=February 17, 2016 }}</ref> |- | align="center"| February 18, 2016 ! scope="row"| 19th Annual DICE Awards | Outstanding Achievement in Game Direction | ''Undertale'' | Nominated | align="center"| <ref name="DICE">{{cite web |url=http://www.polygon.com/2016/1/13/10760412/dice-awards-2016-nominees |title=DICE Awards finalists include Fallout 4, Witcher 3, Life is Strange and more |last=Frank |first=Allegra |website=[[Polygon (website)|Polygon]] |publisher=[[Vox Media]] |date=January 13, 2016 |accessdate=January 21, 2016 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6eaEctq4U |archivedate=January 16, 2016 }}</ref> |- | align="center"| February 18, 2016 ! scope="row"| 19th Annual DICE Awards | DICE Sprite Award | ''Undertale'' | Nominated | align="center"| <ref name="DICE" /> |- | align="center"| February 18, 2016 ! scope="row"| 19th Annual DICE Awards | Role-Playing/Massive Multiplayer Game of the Year | ''Undertale'' | Nominated | align="center"| <ref name="DICE" /> |- | align="center"| March 16, 2016 ! scope="row"| 2016 Game Developers Choice Awards | Innovation Award | ''Undertale'' | Nominated | align="center"| <ref name="GDC">{{cite web |url=http://www.vg247.com/2016/01/08/the-witcher-3-metal-gear-solid-5-lead-nominees-for-2016-game-developers-choice-awards/ |title=The Witcher 3, Metal Gear Solid 5 lead nominees for GDC 2016 Awards |last=Nunneley |first=Stephany |website=[[VG247]] |publisher=[[Videogaming247]] |date=January 8, 2016 |accessdate=January 21, 2016 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6eYOOuRrZ |archivedate=January 15, 2016 }}</ref> |- | align="center"| March 16, 2016 ! scope="row"| 2016 Game Developers Choice Awards | Best Debut | {{sort|Fox|Toby Fox}} | Nominated | align="center"| <ref name="GDC" /> |- | align="center"| March 16, 2016 ! scope="row"| 2016 Game Developers Choice Awards | Best Narrative | ''Undertale'' | Nominated | align="center"| <ref name="GDC" /> |- | align="center"| March 16, 2016 ! scope="row"| 2016 Independent Games Festival Awards | Seumas McNally Grand Prize | ''Undertale'' | Nominated | align="center"| <ref name="IGF">{{cite web |url=http://www.vg247.com/2016/01/06/her-story-2016-igf-awards/ |title=Her Story, Undertale, Darkest Dungeon receive multiple 2016 IGF Award nominations |last=Nunneley |first=Stephany |website=[[VG247]] |publisher=[[Videogaming247]] |date=January 6, 2016 |accessdate=January 21, 2016 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6eYOWqOA1 |archivedate=January 15, 2016 }}</ref> |- | align="center"| March 16, 2016 ! scope="row"| 2016 Independent Games Festival Awards | Excellence in Audio | ''Undertale'' | Nominated | align="center"| <ref name="IGF" /> |- | align="center"| March 16, 2016 ! scope="row"| 2016 Independent Games Festival Awards | Excellence in Narrative | ''Undertale'' | Nominated | align="center"| <ref name="IGF" /> |- | align="center"| March 16, 2016 ! scope="row"| 2016 Independent Games Festival Awards | Audience Award | ''Undertale'' | Won | align="center"| <ref name="IGFwinners">{{cite web |url=http://www.gamasutra.com/view/news/268277/Her_Story_takes_home_top_honors_at_the_18th_annual_IGF_Awards.php |title=Her Story takes home top honors at the 18th annual IGF Awards |website=[[Gamasutra]] |publisher=[[UBM TechWeb]] |date=March 16, 2016 |accessdate=March 16, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160411213833/http://www.gamasutra.com/view/news/268277/Her_Story_takes_home_top_honors_at_the_18th_annual_IGF_Awards.php |archive-date=April 11, 2016 }}</ref> |- | align="center"| March 19, 2016 ! scope="row"| South by Southwest Gaming Awards | Game of the Year | ''Undertale'' | Nominated | align="center"| <ref name="SXSW nom">{{cite web |url=http://www.polygon.com/2016/1/25/10830286/sxsw-gaming-award-nominees-2016 |title=Bloodborne, Metal Gear Solid 5 among SXSW Gaming Award nominees |last=Frank |first=Allegra |website=[[Polygon (website)|Polygon]] |publisher=[[Vox Media]] |date=January 25, 2016 |accessdate=February 17, 2016 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6eoMvq8Nt |archivedate=January 25, 2016 }}</ref> |- | align="center"| March 19, 2016 ! scope="row"| South by Southwest Gaming Awards | Excellence in Gameplay | ''Undertale'' | Nominated | align="center"| <ref name="SXSW nom" /> |- | align="center"| March 19, 2016 ! scope="row"| South by Southwest Gaming Awards | Most Fulfilling Crowdfunded Game | ''Undertale'' | Won | align="center"| <ref name="SXSW">{{cite web |url=http://www.polygon.com/2016/3/21/11277046/sxsw-gaming-awards-winners-2016 |title=The Witcher 3 takes top honors at yet another award show, the SXSW Gaming Awards |last=Sarkar |first=Samit |work=[[Polygon (website)|Polygon]] |publisher=[[Vox Media]] |date=March 21, 2016 |accessdate=June 5, 2016 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6gZ6BMatY |archivedate=April 6, 2016 }}</ref> |- | align="center"| March 19, 2016 ! scope="row"| South by Southwest Gaming Awards | Most Promising New Intellectual Property | ''Undertale'' | Nominated | align="center"| <ref name="SXSW nom" /> |- | align="center"| March 19, 2016 ! scope="row"| South by Southwest Gaming Awards | Matthew Crump Cultural Innovation Award | ''Undertale'' | Won | align="center"| <ref name="SXSW" /> |- | align="center"| April 7, 2016 ! scope="row"| British Academy Games Awards | Story | ''Undertale'' | Nominated | align="center"| <ref name="bafta noms">{{cite web | url = http://www.vg247.com/2016/03/10/rocket-league-the-witcher-3-fallout-4-others-up-for-bafta-best-game-award/ | title = Rocket League, The Witcher 3, Fallout 4, others up for BAFTA Best Game Award | website = [[VG247]] | first = Stephany | last = Nunnely | date = March 10, 2016 | accessdate = March 10, 2016 | publisher = [[Videogaming247]] |archive-url=http://www.webcitation.org/6hCnIWJHb |archive-date=May 2, 2016 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.gamesindustry.biz/articles/2016-04-07-fallout-4-wins-best-game-at-baftas |website = [[GamesIndustry.biz]] | first = Rachel | last = Weber | title = Fallout 4 wins best game at BAFTAs | date = April 7, 2016 | accessdate = April 7, 2016 | publisher = [[Gamer Network]] |archive-url=http://www.webcitation.org/6hCmxLahf |archive-date=May 2, 2016 }}</ref> |} |} == References == {{reflist}} [[Category:Digital art]] gr20jem96e9q8go7dsxsdtnvr0v0bz0 2835769 2835765 2026-10-04T08:08:38Z ~2026-53395-55 3112094 /* Deltarune */ Makes the chapter names accurate 2835769 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Digital Media Concepts|Toby Fox}} {{Infobox |title = '''Toby Fox''' |image = [[File:TobyFox.png]] |headerstyle = background:#ccf;{{Text color default}}; |labelstyle = background:#ddf;{{Text color default}}; |label2 = Nationality |data2 = {{{item_one|American}}} |label3 = Born |data3 = {{{item_two|October 11, 1991}}} |label4 = Known For |data4 = {{{item_three| ''Undertale'' and ''Deltarune''}}} |label5 = Birth Place |data5 = {{{item_Four|Manchester, New Hampshire}}} }} Toby Fox (born October 11, 1991) is a video game developer, composer, and musician most known for developing and composing the soundtrack for the critically acclaimed roleplaying game ''Undertale and Deltarune''. == History == Fox was a fan of the game ''EarthBound'' and began as a forum member on its fansite, Starmen.net, under the username Radiation. He became a musician in 2008-2009 and made soundtracks for popular games like Pokemon Scarlet and Violet and Sword and Shield He would be an active member on the site and managed one of the site's forums up until 2011.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://forum.starmen.net/members/473|title= Starmen.net}}</ref> Before starting work on ''Undertale'', he had little experience in actual game development except for the incomplete games he often made with his three brothers using the proprietary game engine RPG Maker 2000. He has made 2 different games and helped by making music in 5 others. He is a self-taught musician and ghool game developer. He graduated from Northeastern University with a Bachelor’s Degree. He was deeply inspired by EarthBound, which influenced his approach to game design and storytelling from a young age. <ref>{{cite web |url=https://seagaia.wordpress.com/2013/05/25/toby-foxs-undertale-dev-2-dev-interview-1/|title= Seagaia}}</ref> For a while, Fox developed ''Undertale'' in the basement of webcomic artist Andrew Hussie, known for creating the popular comic ''Homestuck'', for which Fox also composed tracks for. He has won a NAVGTR Award for Original Role Playing Game, a Japan Game Awards: Award for Excellence, and the SXSW Gaming Matthew Crump Cultural Innovation Award, alongside numerous nominations and accolades from publications like The Escapist, Ars Technica, and Giant Bomb for his groundbreaking work in indie game development and music. He was also named to Forbes' 30 Under 30 list for his impact on gaming. He is known to support the LGBTQ+ community.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.kickstarter.com/projects/14293468/homestuck-adventure-game/posts/1453119|title= Homestuck Kickstarter}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gameinformer.com/themes/blogs/generic/post.aspx?WeblogApp=podcasts&y=2015&m=10&d=15&WeblogPostName=gi-show-_1320_-yoshis-woolly-world_2c00_-star-wars_3a00_-battlefront_2c00_-undertale-toby-fox&GroupKeys=|title= Game Informer}}</ref> == Games == === ''Undertale'' === ''Undertale'' was the first major game completely developed by Toby. He worked on the project independently, with only artwork and sprites being supplied by other creators, mainly freelance artist Temmie Chang.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.kickstarter.com/projects/1002143342/undertale/description|title= Undertale Kickstarter}}</ref> Fox began creating ''Undertale'' after already making a battle system using the engine GameMaker: Studio.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://existentialgamer.com/interview-toby-fox-undertale|title= Existential Gamer}}</ref> The original game was meant to be released in 2014 but production was delayed. ''Undertale'' was praised for its writing, for which Fox claims he was inspired by internet culture, comedy shows such as ''Mr. Bean'' and the game ''EarthBound''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gameinformer.com/themes/blogs/generic/post.aspx?WeblogApp=podcasts&y=2015&m=10&d=15&WeblogPostName=gi-show-_1320_-yoshis-woolly-world_2c00_-star-wars_3a00_-battlefront_2c00_-undertale-toby-fox&GroupKeys=|title= Game Informer}}</ref> When it came to developing the game itself Fox said he wanted to develop a role-playing game that was non-traditional, had "interesting characters", and that "utilizes the medium as a storytelling device ... instead of having the story and gameplay abstractions be completely separate".<ref>{{cite web |url=https://seagaia.wordpress.com/2013/05/25/toby-foxs-undertale-dev-2-dev-interview-1/|title= Seagaia}}</ref>''Undertale'' took 2.7 years to completely develop and was financed through a crowdfunding effort on Kickstarter.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gameinformer.com/themes/blogs/generic/post.aspx?WeblogApp=podcasts&y=2015&m=10&d=15&WeblogPostName=gi-show-_1320_-yoshis-woolly-world_2c00_-star-wars_3a00_-battlefront_2c00_-undertale-toby-fox&GroupKeys=|title= Game Informer}}</ref> The game was released on September 15, 2015 for Windows and OS X, and July 17, 2016 for Linux. === ''Deltarune'' === ''Deltarune'' is another of the major games released by Toby. Chapter 1 of the game was released October 31, 2018, Chapter 2 was released September 17, 2021, and Chapters 3 and 4 came out most recently and released June 4, 2025. ''Deltarune'' Chapters 1-4, by Toby Fox, build an immersive RPG world with familiar ''Undertale'' characters in an alternate universe, following silent protagonist Kris, the delinquent Susie, and the prince Ralsei on quests through "Dark Worlds" to seal fountains, battling foes with unique action RPG mechanics and dodge-bullets, all while weaving deeper mysteries, character depth (like Noelle in Chapter 2 and Tenna in Chapter 3), unique themes (cards, internet, TV), and a surprisingly dark, impactful story that subverts expectations and explores themes of identity, loneliness, and control, setting up a potential masterpiece even as an incomplete game. * '''The Fun Gang:''' You control Kris (silent protagonist), Susie (lizard-like delinquent), and Ralsei (gentle prince) in a party-based combat system. * '''Dodge-Bullet Battles:''' Combat mixes traditional RPG choices (Attack/Act/Spare) with bullet-hell dodging, requiring strategic party health management. * '''Dark Worlds:''' Each chapter introduces a fantastical "Dark World" based on a real-world location (closet, computer), sealed by sealing a "Dark Fountain". * '''Mystery & Control:''' Kris removes their soul at chapter ends, suggesting the player controls the soul, not Kris, raising questions about free will. ** '''Chapter 1: The Beginning (Cards)''': Introduces Kris and Susie, their first trip to the Dark World, and meeting Ralsei, establishing the core quest. ** '''Chapter 2: A Cyber's World (Internet)''': Adds Noelle to the party, introduces the memorable Spamton, and deepens lore with secrets like the "Weird Route". ** '''Chapter 3: Late Night (TV/Game Show)''': Shifts focus to a game show format with Tenna, adding rhythm, quizzes, and darker themes. ** '''Chapter 4: Prophecy (Church/Dark Sanctuary)''': A surprisingly mature chapter with religious themes, moral choices, a rescue mission, and a significant "Dark Sanctuary". *** '''Character Depth:''' Explores loneliness and self-worth for Kris, Susie, and Ralsei. *** '''Humor & Darkness:''' Balances quirky humor with surprisingly serious, adult themes and dark consequences. *** '''Meta-Narrative:''' The vessel creation and soul-removal mechanics hint at greater control and player choices. *** '''World Building:''' Expands ''Undertale''<nowiki/>'s universe with unique worlds (Cyber World, TV World, Dark Sanctuary). **** '''Incomplete Game:''' Chapters 1-4 are a substantial, free experience, but the full story requires future releases. **** '''Secrets:''' Features numerous secrets, missable items (like the TopCake), and alternate paths (like the Weird Route). **** '''Exceptional Quality:''' Praised for its music, unique gameplay, character writing, and ambition, building anticipation for the finale. ==Musical Contributions== Fox is a self-taught musician and has composed soundtracks for many games and comics including ''Midnight Crew: Drawing Dead'', ''Pokémon Sword/Pokémon Shield'', Animal Crossing: New Horizons, ''Alternia'' and ''Homestuck''. He composed all of the soundtrack for ''Undertale'' as well. When it comes to his influences for producing music, Fox states that he tries to be inspired by everything he listens to, especially tracks in video games.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.themarysue.com/interview-undertale-game-creator-toby-fox/|title= The Mary Sue}}</ref> ==Discography== {| class="wikitable collapsible collapsed" style="width:100%;" |- style="background:#ccc;{{Text color default}}; text-align:center;" ! colspan="2" style="background: LightSteelBlue;{{Text color default}};" | Discography |- style="background:#ccc;{{Text color default}}; text-align:center;" ! Album ! Tracks Composed |- | Midnight Crew: Drawing Dead (February 4, 2010) <ref name="MC: DD">{{cite web |url=https://homestuck.bandcamp.com/album/midnight-crew-drawing-dead-2 |title = Midnight Crew: Drawing Dead}}</ref> | "Liquid Negrocity", "The Ballad of Jack Noir" (Original Version) |- | Homestuck Vol. 4 (April 13, 2010) <ref name="Homestuck 4">{{cite web |url=https://homestuck.bandcamp.com/album/homestuck-vol-1-4| title= Homestuck Vol. 4}}</ref> | "John Sleeps / Skaian Magicant", "Carefree Victory", "Atomyk Ebonpyre", "Black" |- |Homestuck Vol. 5 (June 13, 2010) <ref name="Homestuck 5">{{cite web |url=https://homestuck.bandcamp.com/album/homestuck-vol-5| title= Homestuck Vol. 5}}</ref> | "Skaian Skirmish", "Savior of the Waking World", "Happy Cat Song!", "Hardchorale", "White", "Octoroon Rangoon", "Lotus Land Story", "Versus", "Dupliblaze COMAGMA", "Moonshatter", "Sunsetter", "Get Up", "Vertical Motion", "Amphibious Subterrain", "Snow Pollen", "Descend" |- | Alternia (July 18, 2010) <ref name="Alternia">{{cite web |url=https://homestuck.bandcamp.com/album/alternia| title= Alternia}}</ref> | "Crustacean", "Showdown", "mIrAcLeS", "The Lemonsnout Turnabout", "Phaze and Blood", "psych0ruins", "Walls Covered In Blood", "dESPERADO ROCKET CHAIRS,", "Death of the Lusii", "Virgin Orb", "The La2t Frontiier", "Skaian Summoning", "Spider's Claw (Bonus)", "Staring (Bonus)", "Keepers (Bonus)" |- | Squiddles! (August 26, 2010) <ref name="Squiddles">{{cite web |url=https://homestuck.bandcamp.com/album/squiddles| title = Squiddles!}}</ref> | "Squiddles the Movie Trailer - The Day the Unicorns Couldn't Play" |- | The Baby Is You (October 13, 2010) | "THROGUH SONG", "IM HAVING A BABY, AND THE BABY IS YOU", "bootes", "ROSE PRAGNET (feat. ????)", "the rose rap (feat. von fawn)", "uh oh", "vs. bros", "A BABY IS BORN (feat. artemis251 as luigi, chorus singer, kid, and hella jeff)" |- | The Felt (December 2, 2010) <ref name="The Felt">{{cite web |url=https://homestuck.bandcamp.com/album/the-felt| title= The Felt}}</ref> | "Humphrey's Lullaby", "English" |- | Homestuck for the Holidays (December 25, 2010) <ref name="Homestuck Holidays">{{cite web |url=https://homestuckgaiden.bandcamp.com/album/homestuck-for-the-holidays-unofficial-album| title = Homestuck for the Holidays }}</ref> | "Carefree Perigee" |- | Homestuck Vol. 6: Heir Transparent (January 5, 2011) <ref name="Homestuck 6">{{cite web |url=https://homestuck.bandcamp.com/album/homestuck-vol-6-heir-transparent| title = Homestuck Vol. 6: Heir Transparent}}</ref> | "Umbral Ultimatum", "MeGaLoVania", "Gaia Queen", "Wacky Antics", "Nic Cage Song", "A Tender Moment" |- | AlterniaBound (March 14, 2011) <ref name="AB">{{cite web |url=https://homestuck.bandcamp.com/album/alterniabound| title= AlterniaBound}}</ref> | "Karkat's Theme", "Terezi's Theme", "Vriska's Theme", "FIDUSPAWN, GO!", "Darling Kanaya", "Eridan's Theme", "Nautical Nightmare", "Nepeta's Theme", "Killed by BR8K Spider!!!!!!!!", "Catapult Capuchin", "Science Seahorse", "A Fairy Battle", "The Blind Prophet", "AlterniaBound", "You Won A Combat", "Rest A While" |- | Homestuck Vol. 7: At the Price of Oblivion (May 31, 2011) <ref name="Homestuck 7">{{cite web |url=https://homestuck.bandcamp.com/album/homestuck-vol-7-at-the-price-of-oblivion| title= Homestuck Vol. 7: At the Price of Oblivion}}</ref> | "Terezi Owns", "Rumble at the Rink", "Earthsea Borealis" |- | The Wanderers (July 14, 2011) <ref name="Wanderers">{{cite web |url=https://homestuck.bandcamp.com/album/the-wanderers| title= The Wanderers}}</ref> | "Mayor Maynot", "Riches to Ruins Movements I & II", "Tomahawk Head" |- | Homestuck Vol. 8 (October 25, 2011) <ref name="Homestuck 8">{{cite web |url=https://homestuck.bandcamp.com/album/homestuck-vol-8| title= Homestuck Vol. 8}}</ref> | "Love You (Feferi's Theme)", "Davesprite", "Frostbite", "The Lost Child", "Judgement Day", "Penumbra Phantasm" (featured in the third part of "Cascade") |- | Improvised Touhou Music with Annoying Commentary (November 29, 2011) <ref name="ITM">{{cite web |url=http://fwugradiation.tumblr.com/post/13528293577/improvised-touhou-music-with-annoying-commentary |title= Improvised Touhou Music with Annoying Commentary}}</ref> | "Girl's Pretty Dress Dress, Do Your Best Now", "Magical Hopalong Cassidy Station", "An Apple Disaster!" |- | I Miss You - EarthBound 2012 (January 1, 2012) <ref name="E 2012">{{cite web |url=https://sleepytimejesse.bandcamp.com/album/i-miss-you-earthbound-2012|title= I Miss You - EarthBound 2012}}</ref> | "Fallen Down", "A New Line", "Megalo Strike Back", "Checkerboard Memories" |- | coloUrs and mayhem: Universe A (April 2, 2012) <ref name="CAMA">{{cite web |url=https://homestuck.bandcamp.com/album/colours-and-mayhem-universe-a| title= coloUrs and mayhem: Universe A}}</ref> | "~~SIDE 1~~", "~~SIDE 2~~", "~~ADDITIONAL MAYHEM~~" |- | coloUrs and mayhem: Universe B (April 13, 2012) <ref name="CAMB">{{cite web |url=https://homestuck.bandcamp.com/album/colours-and-mayhem-universe-b| title= coloUrs and mayhem: Universe B}}</ref> | "~~SIDE 1~~", "~~SIDE 2~~", "~~ADDITIONAL MAYHEM~~" |- | Cherubim (March 14, 2013) <ref name="Cherubim">{{cite web |url=https://homestuck.bandcamp.com/album/cherubim|title= Cherubim}}</ref> | "The Lordling" |- | Undertale Demo OST (May 21, 2013) | "Once Upon a Time", "Menu", "Your Best Friend", "Fallen Down", "Ruins", "Anticipation", "Unnecessary Tension", "Enemy Approaching", "Ghost Fight", "Determination", "Home", "Heartache", "End", "Nyeh Heh Heh!", "Home (Music Box)", "Empty House" |- |UNDERTALE Soundtrack (September 15, 2015) | "Once Upon a Time", "Start Menu", 'Your Best Friend", "Fallen Down", "Ruins", "Uwa!! So Temperate♫", "Anticipation", "Unnecessary Tension", "Enemy Approaching", "Ghost Fight", "Determination", "Home", "Home (Music Box)", "Heartache", "sans.", "Nyeh Heh Heh!", "Snowy", "Uwa!! So Holiday♫", "Dogbass", "Mysterious Place", "Dogsong", "Snowdin Town", "Shop", "Bonetrousle", "Dating Start!", "Dating Tense!", "Dating Fight!", "Premonition", "Danger Mystery", "Undyne", "Waterfall", "Run!", "Quiet Water", "Memory", "Bird That Carries You Over A Disproportionately Small Gap", "Dummy!", "Pathetic House", "Spooktune", "Spookwave", "Ghouliday", "Chill", "Thundersnail", "Temmie Village", "Tem Shop", "NGAHHH!!", "Spear of Justice", "Ooo", "Alphys", "It's Showtime!", "Metal Crusher", "Another Medium", "Uwa!! So HEATS!!♫", "Stronger Monsters", "Hotel", "Can You Really Call This A Hotel, I Didn't Receive A Mint On My Pillow Or Anything", "Confession", "Live Report", "Death Report", "Spider Dance", "Wrong Enemy !?", "Oh! One True Love", "Oh! Dungeon", "It's Raining Somewhere Else", "CORE Approach", "CORE (Soundtrack)", "Last Episode!", "Oh My...", "Death by Glamour", "For The Fans", "Long Elevator", "Undertale", "Song That Might Play When You Fight Sans", "The Choice", "Small Shock", "Barrier", "Bergentrückung", "ASGORE", "You Idiot", "Your Best Nightmare", "Finale", "An Ending", "She's Playing Piano", "Here We Are", "Amalgam", "Fallen Down (Reprise)", "Don't Give Up", "Hopes and Dreams", "Burn in Despair!", "SAVE the World", "His Theme", "Final Power", "Reunited", "Menu (Full)", "Respite", "Bring It In, Guys!", "Last Goodbye", "But the Earth Refused to Die", "Battle Against a True Hero", "Power of "NEO"", "MEGALOVANIA", "Good Night" |- | [S] Collide. (April 6, 2016) <ref name="S Collide">{{cite web |url=https://homestuck.bandcamp.com/album/s-collide|title= [S] Collide.}}</ref> | "Oppa Toby Style" |} ==Awards and Nominations== ===Reception=== ''Undertale'' was released to rave reviews by many magazines and publications. The game and Toby Fox was nominated for and won many awards such as Game of the Year, Best Debut, and Best Game Ever. As for Fox's reaction to the massive success of his own game he stated that it overwhelmed him and caused a lot of stress, as he did not want the game to be tiring or spoiled for anyone. He also stated that he is perfectly comfortable if he never makes a game as successful again.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://undertale.tumblr.com/post/150397346860/retrospective-on-undertales-popularity|title= Undertale Blog}}</ref> {| class="wikitable collapsible collapsed" style="width:100%;" ! List of awards and nominations for ''Undertale'' |- | style="padding:0; border:none;"| {| class="wikitable sortable plainrowheaders" style="border:none; margin:0; width:100%;" |- ! scope="col"| Date !! scope="col"| Award !! scope="col"| Category !! scope="col"| Recipient(s) and Nominee(s) !! scope="col"| Result !! scope="col" class="unsortable" | Ref. |- | align="center"| October 30, 2015 ! scope="row"| ''Rock, Paper, Shotgun'' Game of the Month: October | Game of the Month | ''Undertale'' | Won | align="center"| <ref name="RPS GOTM">{{cite web |url=https://www.rockpapershotgun.com/2015/10/13/undertale-game-of-the-month/ |title=Game of the Month: October – Undertale |website=[[Rock, Paper, Shotgun]] |date=October 30, 2015 |accessdate=January 21, 2016 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6egCag9iE |archivedate=January 20, 2016 }}</ref> |- | align="center"| November 27, 2015 ! scope="row"| Global Game Awards 2015 | Best Indie | ''Undertale'' | Runner-Up | align="center"| <ref name="Global Game Awards">{{cite web |url=http://www.game-debate.com/awards/2015 |title=Global Game Awards 2015 |website=Game-Debate |date=November 27, 2015 |accessdate=January 21, 2016 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6eaF8iirs |archivedate=January 16, 2016 }}</ref> |- | align="center"| December 1, 2015 ! scope="row"| ''Time's Top 10 Video Games'' | Best Game | ''Undertale'' | Ninth | align="center"| <ref name="Time">{{cite web |url=http://time.com/4106659/top-10-video-games/ |title=Top 10 Video Games |last=Peckham |first=Matt |website=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |publisher=[[Time Inc.]] |date=December 1, 2015 |accessdate=January 21, 2016 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6egtDVkOF |archivedate=December 20, 2016 }}</ref> |- | align="center"| December 3, 2015 ! scope="row"| The Game Awards 2015 | Best Independent Game | ''Undertale'' | Nominated | align="center"| <ref name="The Game Awards">{{cite web |url=https://www.vg247.com/2015/12/04/the-game-awards-2015-winners/ |title=The Game Awards 2015 – Game of the Year goes to The Witcher 3 |last=Nunneley |first=Stephany |website=[[VG247]] |publisher=[[Videogaming247]] |date=December 4, 2015 |accessdate=January 15, 2016 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6eYOBjjTo |archivedate=January 15, 2016}}</ref> |- | align="center"| December 3, 2015 ! scope="row"| The Game Awards 2015 | Games for Change | ''Undertale'' | Nominated | align="center"| <ref name="The Game Awards" /> |- | align="center"| December 3, 2015 ! scope="row"| The Game Awards 2015 | Best Role-Playing Game | ''Undertale'' | Nominated | align="center"| <ref name="The Game Awards" /> |- | align="center"| December 4, 2015 ! scope="row"| ''Vice's Best 20 Video Games of 2015'' | Best Game | ''Undertale'' | Eighth | align="center"| <ref name="Vice Best">{{cite web |url=http://www.vice.com/en_ca/read/the-top-20-video-games-of-2015-according-to-vice-999 |title=The Best 20 Video Games of 2015 |last=Diver |first=Mike |website=[[Vice (magazine)|Vice]] |publisher=[[Vice Media]] |date=December 4, 2015 |accessdate=January 21, 2016 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6eaDGw7q0 |archivedate=January 16, 2016 }}</ref> |- | align="center"| December 15, 2015 ! scope="row"| ''Rock, Paper, Shotgun's'' Best PC Games of 2015 | Funniest Game on PC | ''Undertale'' | Won | align="center"| <ref name="rps funniest">{{cite web |url=https://www.rockpapershotgun.com/2015/12/16/funniest-pc-game-2015/ |title=The RPS Advent Calendar, Dec 16th: Undertale |date=December 16, 2015 |website=[[Rock, Paper, Shotgun]] |accessdate=May 16, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151226135527/http://www.rockpapershotgun.com/2015/12/16/funniest-pc-game-2015/ |archivedate=December 26, 2015 }}</ref> |- | align="center"| December 15, 2015 ! scope="row"| ''Good Game'' Awards 2015 | Game of the Year | ''Undertale'' | Nominated | align="center"| <ref name="Good Game Awards">{{cite web |url=http://www.abc.net.au/tv/goodgame/stories/s4371946.htm |title=Game of the Year - Part 1 |last1=O'Donnell |first=Steven |authorlink1=Steven O'Donnell (Australian actor) |last2=Bendixsen |first2=Stephanie |authorlink2=Stephanie Bendixsen |website=[[Australian Broadcasting Corporation]] |date=December 15, 2015 |accessdate=January 17, 2016 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6ea5CWKoh |archivedate=January 16, 2016}}</ref> |- | align="center"| December 16, 2015 ! scope="row"| GameFAQs' Best Game Ever | Best Game Ever | ''Undertale'' | Won | align="center"| <ref name="GameFAQs">{{cite web |url=http://www.polygon.com/2015/12/16/10323192/undertale-gamefaqs-best-game-ever |title=Undertale wins GameFAQs' Best Game Ever contest |last=Frank |first=Allegra |website=[[Polygon (website)|Polygon]] |publisher=[[Vox Media]] |date=December 16, 2015 |accessdate=January 21, 2016 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6egsbSNsX |archivedate=January 20, 2016 }}</ref> |- | align="center"| December 18, 2015 ! scope="row"| GameSpot Game of the Year | Game of the Year | ''Undertale'' | Nineteenth | align="center"| <ref name="GameSpot GOTY">{{cite web |url=http://www.gamespot.com/articles/game-of-the-year-2015-countdown-20-16/1100-6432501/ |title=Game of the Year 2015 Countdown: #20 - #16 |website=[[GameSpot]] |publisher=[[CBS Interactive]] |date=December 18, 2015 |accessdate=January 21, 2016 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6egsAMSDq |archivedate=January 20, 2016 }}</ref> |- | align="center"| December 21, 2015 ! scope="row"| ''The Jimquisition'' Game of the Year Awards 2015 | Game of the Year | ''Undertale'' | Won | align="center"| <ref name="Jimquisition Awards">{{cite web |url=http://www.thejimquisition.com/2015/12/the-jimquisition-game-of-the-year-awards-2015/ |title=The Jimquisition Game of the Year Awards 2015 |last=Sterling |first=Jim |authorlink=Jim Sterling |website=[[The Jimquisition]] |date=December 21, 2015 |accessdate=January 21, 2016 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6egFRv1KT |archivedate=January 20, 2016 }}</ref> |- | align="center"| December 22, 2015 ! scope="row"| Destructoid Game of the Year | Best PC Game | ''Undertale'' | Won | align="center"| <ref name="Destructoid Award">{{cite web |url=http://www.destructoid.com/destructoid-s-award-for-best-pc-game-of-2015-goes-to--328410.phtml |title=Destructoid's award for Best PC Game of 2015 goes to... |last=Hansen |first=Steven |website=[[Destructoid]] |publisher=[[ModernMethod]] |date=December 22, 2015 |accessdate=January 21, 2016 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6egF81TT0 |archivedate=January 20, 2016 }}</ref> |- | align="center"| December 25, 2015 ! scope="row"| ''The Escapist's'' Best Games of 2015 | Best Game | ''Undertale'' | Nominated | align="center"| <ref name="Escapist Best Game">{{cite web |url=http://www.escapistmagazine.com/articles/view/video-games/features/15167-Best-Games-of-2015.3 |title=The Escapist's Best Games of 2015 |page=3 |website=[[The Escapist (magazine)|The Escapist]] |publisher=[[Defy Media]] |date=December 25, 2015 |accessdate=February 17, 2016 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6fMQCMr0P |archivedate=February 17, 2016 }}</ref> |- | align="center"| December 28, 2015 ! scope="row"| Ars Technica best video games of 2015 | Best Game | ''Undertale'' | Fifth | align="center"| <ref name="Ars Technica 2015">{{cite web |url=http://arstechnica.com/gaming/2015/12/the-best-video-games-of-2015-as-picked-by-the-ars-editors/4/ |title=The best video games of 2015, as picked by the Ars editor |page=4 |last=Orland |first=Kyle |website=[[Ars Technica]] |publisher=[[Condé Nast]] |date=December 28, 2015 |accessdate=January 21, 2016 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6egDgThLD |archivedate=January 20, 2016 }}</ref> |- | align="center"| December 28, 2015 ! scope="row"| Giant Bomb's 2015 Game of the Year Awards | Best Surprise | ''Undertale'' | Runner-Up | align="center"| <ref name="Giant Bomb 1">{{cite web |url=http://www.giantbomb.com/articles/giant-bombs-2015-game-of-the-year-awards-day-one-t/1100-5316/ |title=Giant Bomb's 2015 Game of the Year Awards: Day One Text Recap |website=[[Giant Bomb]] |publisher=[[CBS Interactive]] |date=December 28, 2015 |accessdate=January 21, 2016 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6egFb7Yri |archivedate=January 20, 2016 }}</ref> |- | align="center"| December 30, 2015 ! scope="row"| Giant Bomb's 2015 Game of the Year Awards | Best Debut | Toby Fox | Runner-Up | align="center"| <ref name="Giant Bomb 3">{{cite web |url=http://www.giantbomb.com/articles/giant-bombs-2015-game-of-the-year-awards-day-three/1100-5318/ |title=Giant Bomb's 2015 Game of the Year Awards: Day Three Text Recap |website=[[Giant Bomb]] |publisher=[[CBS Interactive]] |date=December 30, 2015 |accessdate=January 21, 2016 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6egFkFhrG |archivedate=January 20, 2016 }}</ref> |- | align="center"| January 1, 2016 ! scope="row"| Giant Bomb's 2015 Game of the Year Awards | Game of the Year | ''Undertale'' | Seventh | align="center"| <ref name="Giant Bomb 5">{{cite web |url=http://www.giantbomb.com/articles/giant-bombs-2015-game-of-the-year-awards-day-five-/1100-5320/ |title=Giant Bomb's 2015 Game of the Year Awards: Day Five Text Recap |website=[[Giant Bomb]] |publisher=[[CBS Interactive]] |date=January 1, 2016 |accessdate=January 21, 2016 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6egFsYZfi |archivedate=January 20, 2016 }}</ref> |- | align="center"| January 7, 2016 ! scope="row"| ''Zero Punctuation'' Top 5 Games of 2015 | Game of the Year | ''Undertale'' | Won | align="center"| <ref name="Zero Punctuation">{{cite web |url=http://www.escapistmagazine.com/videos/view/zero-punctuation/116617-Top-5-Best-and-Worst-Games-of-2015 |title=Top 5 Games of 2015 |website=[[The Escapist (magazine)|The Escapist]] |publisher=[[Defy Media]] |date=January 7, 2016 |accessdate=January 21, 2016 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6egG6ajZK |archivedate=January 20, 2016 }}</ref> |- | align="center"| January 12, 2016 ! scope="row"| IGN's Best of 2015 | PC Game of the Year | ''Undertale'' | Won | align="center"| <ref name="IGN PC">{{cite web |url=http://ign.com/wikis/best-of-2015/PC_Game_of_the_Year |title=PC Game of the Year |website=[[IGN]] |publisher=[[IGN Entertainment]] |date=January 12, 2016 |accessdate=January 21, 2016 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6egGeCTFF |archivedate=January 20, 2016 }}</ref> |- | align="center"| January 12, 2016 ! scope="row"| IGN's Best of 2015 | Best Story | ''Undertale'' | Won | align="center"| <ref name="IGN Story">{{cite web |url=http://au.ign.com/wikis/best-of-2015/Best_Story |title=Best Story |website=[[IGN]] |publisher=[[IGN Entertainment]] |date=January 12, 2016 |accessdate=February 17, 2016 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6fMKuWJ4e |archivedate=February 17, 2016 }}</ref> |- | align="center"| February 18, 2016 ! scope="row"| 19th Annual DICE Awards | Outstanding Achievement in Game Direction | ''Undertale'' | Nominated | align="center"| <ref name="DICE">{{cite web |url=http://www.polygon.com/2016/1/13/10760412/dice-awards-2016-nominees |title=DICE Awards finalists include Fallout 4, Witcher 3, Life is Strange and more |last=Frank |first=Allegra |website=[[Polygon (website)|Polygon]] |publisher=[[Vox Media]] |date=January 13, 2016 |accessdate=January 21, 2016 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6eaEctq4U |archivedate=January 16, 2016 }}</ref> |- | align="center"| February 18, 2016 ! scope="row"| 19th Annual DICE Awards | DICE Sprite Award | ''Undertale'' | Nominated | align="center"| <ref name="DICE" /> |- | align="center"| February 18, 2016 ! scope="row"| 19th Annual DICE Awards | Role-Playing/Massive Multiplayer Game of the Year | ''Undertale'' | Nominated | align="center"| <ref name="DICE" /> |- | align="center"| March 16, 2016 ! scope="row"| 2016 Game Developers Choice Awards | Innovation Award | ''Undertale'' | Nominated | align="center"| <ref name="GDC">{{cite web |url=http://www.vg247.com/2016/01/08/the-witcher-3-metal-gear-solid-5-lead-nominees-for-2016-game-developers-choice-awards/ |title=The Witcher 3, Metal Gear Solid 5 lead nominees for GDC 2016 Awards |last=Nunneley |first=Stephany |website=[[VG247]] |publisher=[[Videogaming247]] |date=January 8, 2016 |accessdate=January 21, 2016 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6eYOOuRrZ |archivedate=January 15, 2016 }}</ref> |- | align="center"| March 16, 2016 ! scope="row"| 2016 Game Developers Choice Awards | Best Debut | {{sort|Fox|Toby Fox}} | Nominated | align="center"| <ref name="GDC" /> |- | align="center"| March 16, 2016 ! scope="row"| 2016 Game Developers Choice Awards | Best Narrative | ''Undertale'' | Nominated | align="center"| <ref name="GDC" /> |- | align="center"| March 16, 2016 ! scope="row"| 2016 Independent Games Festival Awards | Seumas McNally Grand Prize | ''Undertale'' | Nominated | align="center"| <ref name="IGF">{{cite web |url=http://www.vg247.com/2016/01/06/her-story-2016-igf-awards/ |title=Her Story, Undertale, Darkest Dungeon receive multiple 2016 IGF Award nominations |last=Nunneley |first=Stephany |website=[[VG247]] |publisher=[[Videogaming247]] |date=January 6, 2016 |accessdate=January 21, 2016 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6eYOWqOA1 |archivedate=January 15, 2016 }}</ref> |- | align="center"| March 16, 2016 ! scope="row"| 2016 Independent Games Festival Awards | Excellence in Audio | ''Undertale'' | Nominated | align="center"| <ref name="IGF" /> |- | align="center"| March 16, 2016 ! scope="row"| 2016 Independent Games Festival Awards | Excellence in Narrative | ''Undertale'' | Nominated | align="center"| <ref name="IGF" /> |- | align="center"| March 16, 2016 ! scope="row"| 2016 Independent Games Festival Awards | Audience Award | ''Undertale'' | Won | align="center"| <ref name="IGFwinners">{{cite web |url=http://www.gamasutra.com/view/news/268277/Her_Story_takes_home_top_honors_at_the_18th_annual_IGF_Awards.php |title=Her Story takes home top honors at the 18th annual IGF Awards |website=[[Gamasutra]] |publisher=[[UBM TechWeb]] |date=March 16, 2016 |accessdate=March 16, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160411213833/http://www.gamasutra.com/view/news/268277/Her_Story_takes_home_top_honors_at_the_18th_annual_IGF_Awards.php |archive-date=April 11, 2016 }}</ref> |- | align="center"| March 19, 2016 ! scope="row"| South by Southwest Gaming Awards | Game of the Year | ''Undertale'' | Nominated | align="center"| <ref name="SXSW nom">{{cite web |url=http://www.polygon.com/2016/1/25/10830286/sxsw-gaming-award-nominees-2016 |title=Bloodborne, Metal Gear Solid 5 among SXSW Gaming Award nominees |last=Frank |first=Allegra |website=[[Polygon (website)|Polygon]] |publisher=[[Vox Media]] |date=January 25, 2016 |accessdate=February 17, 2016 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6eoMvq8Nt |archivedate=January 25, 2016 }}</ref> |- | align="center"| March 19, 2016 ! scope="row"| South by Southwest Gaming Awards | Excellence in Gameplay | ''Undertale'' | Nominated | align="center"| <ref name="SXSW nom" /> |- | align="center"| March 19, 2016 ! scope="row"| South by Southwest Gaming Awards | Most Fulfilling Crowdfunded Game | ''Undertale'' | Won | align="center"| <ref name="SXSW">{{cite web |url=http://www.polygon.com/2016/3/21/11277046/sxsw-gaming-awards-winners-2016 |title=The Witcher 3 takes top honors at yet another award show, the SXSW Gaming Awards |last=Sarkar |first=Samit |work=[[Polygon (website)|Polygon]] |publisher=[[Vox Media]] |date=March 21, 2016 |accessdate=June 5, 2016 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6gZ6BMatY |archivedate=April 6, 2016 }}</ref> |- | align="center"| March 19, 2016 ! scope="row"| South by Southwest Gaming Awards | Most Promising New Intellectual Property | ''Undertale'' | Nominated | align="center"| <ref name="SXSW nom" /> |- | align="center"| March 19, 2016 ! scope="row"| South by Southwest Gaming Awards | Matthew Crump Cultural Innovation Award | ''Undertale'' | Won | align="center"| <ref name="SXSW" /> |- | align="center"| April 7, 2016 ! scope="row"| British Academy Games Awards | Story | ''Undertale'' | Nominated | align="center"| <ref name="bafta noms">{{cite web | url = http://www.vg247.com/2016/03/10/rocket-league-the-witcher-3-fallout-4-others-up-for-bafta-best-game-award/ | title = Rocket League, The Witcher 3, Fallout 4, others up for BAFTA Best Game Award | website = [[VG247]] | first = Stephany | last = Nunnely | date = March 10, 2016 | accessdate = March 10, 2016 | publisher = [[Videogaming247]] |archive-url=http://www.webcitation.org/6hCnIWJHb |archive-date=May 2, 2016 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.gamesindustry.biz/articles/2016-04-07-fallout-4-wins-best-game-at-baftas |website = [[GamesIndustry.biz]] | first = Rachel | last = Weber | title = Fallout 4 wins best game at BAFTAs | date = April 7, 2016 | accessdate = April 7, 2016 | publisher = [[Gamer Network]] |archive-url=http://www.webcitation.org/6hCmxLahf |archive-date=May 2, 2016 }}</ref> |} |} == References == {{reflist}} [[Category:Digital art]] 13wbmqmx1t3jw13798ozzfttqmkqenc 0 224707 2835697 2141686 2026-10-03T15:32:48Z ~2026-53195-53 3112050 /* */ 2835697 wikitext text/x-wiki {{:{{BASEPAGENAME}}/Sidebar}} [[File:Web foundations word cloud.org|right|256px|Internet word cloud transection]] This lesson introduces HTML text elements. __TOC__ == Objectives and Skills == Objectives and skills for this lesson include:<ref>[https://www.ciwcertified.com/resources/documents/objectives/1D0-61b.pdf CIW: Site Development Associate Exam Objectives]</ref><ref>[https://ciwcertified.com/resources/documents/course-descriptions/CCN02CFSDFNKL1208.pdf CIW: Site Development Associate Course Description]</ref> * Use the most current version of Hypertext Markup Language (HTML5) to create Web pages. * Design Web pages to industry standards. == Readings == # [[Wikipedia: Inline element]] # [[Wikibooks: HyperText Markup Language/Text Formatting]] == Multimedia == == Examples == === Bold === Set font to boldface where possible.<ref>[[Wikipedia: HTML element]]</ref> <syntaxhighlight lang="html"> <b>text</b> </syntaxhighlight> Example: <b>text</b> === Italic === Set font to italic where possible.<ref>[[Wikipedia: HTML element]]</ref> <syntaxhighlight lang="html"> <i>text</i> </syntaxhighlight> Example: <i>text</i> === Strong === Strong emphasis (conventionally displayed bold). An aural user agent may use different voices for emphasis.<ref>[[Wikipedia: HTML element]]</ref> <syntaxhighlight lang="html"> <strong>text</strong> </syntaxhighlight> Example: <strong>text</strong> === Emphasis === Emphasis (conventionally displayed in italics). An aural user agent may use different voices for emphasis.<ref>[[Wikipedia: HTML element]]</ref> <syntaxhighlight lang="html"> <em>text</em> </syntaxhighlight> Example: <em>text</em> === Code === A code snippet. Conventionally rendered in a mono-space font.<ref>[[Wikipedia: HTML element]]</ref> <syntaxhighlight lang="html"> <code>text</code> </syntaxhighlight> Example: <code>text</code> === Line Break === A forced line break.<ref>[[Wikipedia: HTML element]]</ref> <syntaxhighlight lang="html"> text<br>more text </syntaxhighlight> Example: text<br>more text == Activities == # Complete the tutorial [https://www.tutorialspoint.com/html/html_formatting.htm TutorialsPoint: HTML Formatting] # Complete the tutorial [https://www.tutorialspoint.com/html/html_phrase_elements.htm TutorialsPoint: HTML Phrase Tags] == Key Terms == ;bold tag ;character set ;em tag ;fixed-width font ;inline element ;strong tag ;text-level element :see inline element ;Unicode == See Also == == References == {{reflist}} {{DEFAULTSORT:{{SUBPAGENAME}}}} {{subpage navbar}} {{CourseCat}} lwo42rw937eat1il5ufcdiy3aarknyn 0 235160 2835694 2835580 2026-10-03T14:01:46Z The Citer 3110681 /* Phylogeny */ 2835694 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Image:Reef0200.jpg|thumb|300px|Right|An feather duster worm of the family Sabellidae in parchment tube.]] Annelida *Name Meaning: Little ring *English Common Name: Segmented worms *Major distinguishing characteristics: Multiple circular segments *Approximate number of species described: over 22,000 living ==Natural History== The life history of the Annelida is '''diverse'''. They live in '''terrestrial''' and '''aquatic''' '''environments''', including around '''deep sea hydrothermal vents'''. They are common, yet rarely seen because most Annelids are '''burrowing'''. Some are highly mobile, some seldom move once established. Some, such as '''earthworms''', are '''omnivorous''', eating any '''organic''' matter in their path. Others, such as the '''leaches''', are specialist in what they will eat. Leaches, for example, are '''specialist blood eaters'''. In all environments where they occur, Annelids are very important in '''moving and mixing the soil''', and breaking up and '''distributing organic material'''. This distribution helps plants get better access to '''nutrients'''. ==Taxonomy== The Phylum Annelida contains 7 Classes, 6 of which have living representatives: *Polychaeta *Clitellata *Oligochaeta (earthworms) *Branchiobdellida *Hirudinea (leeches) *Echiura *†Machaeridia *Echiura is a former Phylum that has been demoted to Class rank within the Annelida. ==Phylogeny== {{clade|style=font-size:80%;|label1='''Annelida''' |1={{clade |1={{clade|label1=Palaeoannelida  |1={{clade |1=Oweniidae [[File:Owenia caissara (10.3897-zoologia.34.e12623) Figures 10–13.jpg|60px]] |2=Magelonidae [[File:Magelona johnstoni.jpg|60px]] }}}} |2={{clade |1={{clade|label1=Chaetopteriformia  |1={{clade |1=''Apistobranchus'' [[File:Apistobranchus tullbergi (YPM IZ 081693) 002.jpeg|60px]] |2={{clade |1=Psammodrilidae [[File:Psammodrilus balanoglossoides.jpg|60px]] |2=Chaetopteridae [[File:Chaetopterus.png|60x60px]] }} }}}} |2={{clade |1={{clade |1=Amphinomida [[File:Notopygos caribea holotype ZooKeys-223-069-g005-top.jpeg|60px]] |2={{clade |1=''Lobatocerebrum'' |2=[[Sipuncula]] (May or not be a phylum on its own) [[File:Sipuncula.jpg|60px]] }} }} |2={{clade|label1=Pleistoannelida |1={{clade |label1=Errantia|1={{clade |label2=Protodriliformia|2={{clade |1=Polygordiidae |2=Protodrilida }} |label1=Aciculata|1={{clade |1=Eunicida |2=Phyllodocida }} }} |label2=''?''|2=Myzostomida|state2=dashed |label3=Sedentaria|3={{clade |1=Orbiniida |2={{clade |1={{clade |1={{clade|1=Cirratuliformia|2=Siboglinidae (pogonophorans)}} |2={{clade|1=Sabellida|2=Spionida}} }} |2={{clade |1={{clade |1=Opheliida|label2=Capitellida|2={{clade|1=Capitellidae|2=Echiura}}}} |2={{clade |1={{clade|1=Terebelliformia|2=Maldanomorpha}} |2={{nowrap|Clitellata}}}} }}}} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} ==Anatomy== Annelids have long bodies. They are generally '''segmented''', the segments usually being visible '''externally'''. Each segment generally contains a full set of '''organs'''. The segments share a common '''digestive system''', '''circulatory system''', and '''nervous system'''. Three segments, the '''prostomium''' (1st segment), '''peristomium,''' (2nd segment), and '''pygidium''' (last segment), are '''specialized'''. The prostomium contains the '''brain''' and '''sense organs'''. The peristomium contains the '''mouth'''. The pygidium is the location of the '''anus'''. Annelids grow from behind. The '''growth region''' is just in front of the pygidium. The peristomium is the oldest segment. ==The Fossil Record== Annelids are '''soft bodied''' and so fossils are rare. The first Annelids probably evolved during the '''Precambrian''', before 541 million years ago. They are present in the '''Burgess Shale''' (about 505 million years old), though there may be some '''Australian''' fossil annelids about 518 million years old. There is a better fossil record of Annelids by 65 million years ago. ==Quiz== * [[/Annelida Quiz/]] ==References and Further Reading== *[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annelid Annelid] on Wikipedia *[http://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Annelida/ Annelida] on the Animal Diversity Web, University of Michigan *[http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/annelida/annelida.html Introduction of the Annelida] at the University of California Museum of Paleontology *[http://eol.org/pages/36/overview Annelida] on the Encyclopedia of Life [[Category:Animals]] [[Category:Taxonomy]] [[Category:Zoology]] [[Category:Biology]] ss0t6k9mxnrrb68qv8kpzcm0keinydp 2835715 2835694 2026-10-03T22:10:20Z The Citer 3110681 More images 2835715 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Image:Reef0200.jpg|thumb|300px|Right|An feather duster worm of the family Sabellidae in parchment tube.]] Annelida *Name Meaning: Little ring *English Common Name: Segmented worms *Major distinguishing characteristics: Multiple circular segments *Approximate number of species described: over 22,000 living ==Natural History== The life history of the Annelida is '''diverse'''. They live in '''terrestrial''' and '''aquatic''' '''environments''', including around '''deep sea hydrothermal vents'''. They are common, yet rarely seen because most Annelids are '''burrowing'''. Some are highly mobile, some seldom move once established. Some, such as '''earthworms''', are '''omnivorous''', eating any '''organic''' matter in their path. Others, such as the '''leaches''', are specialist in what they will eat. Leaches, for example, are '''specialist blood eaters'''. In all environments where they occur, Annelids are very important in '''moving and mixing the soil''', and breaking up and '''distributing organic material'''. This distribution helps plants get better access to '''nutrients'''. ==Taxonomy== The Phylum Annelida contains 7 Classes, 6 of which have living representatives: *Polychaeta *Clitellata *Oligochaeta (earthworms) *Branchiobdellida *Hirudinea (leeches) *Echiura *†Machaeridia *Echiura is a former Phylum that has been demoted to Class rank within the Annelida. ==Phylogeny== {{clade|style=font-size:80%;|label1='''Annelida''' |1={{clade |1={{clade|label1=Palaeoannelida  |1={{clade |1=Oweniidae [[File:Owenia caissara (10.3897-zoologia.34.e12623) Figures 10–13.jpg|60px]] |2=Magelonidae [[File:Magelona johnstoni.jpg|60px]] }}}} |2={{clade |1={{clade|label1=Chaetopteriformia  |1={{clade |1=''Apistobranchus'' [[File:Apistobranchus tullbergi (YPM IZ 081693) 002.jpeg|60px]] |2={{clade |1=Psammodrilidae [[File:Psammodrilus balanoglossoides.jpg|60px]] |2=Chaetopteridae [[File:Chaetopterus.png|60x60px]] }} }}}} |2={{clade |1={{clade |1=Amphinomida [[File:Notopygos caribea holotype ZooKeys-223-069-g005-top.jpeg|60px]] |2={{clade |1=''Lobatocerebrum'' |2=[[Sipuncula]] (May or not be a phylum on its own) [[File:Sipuncula.jpg|60px]] }} }} |2={{clade|label1=Pleistoannelida |1={{clade |label1=Errantia|1={{clade |label2=Protodriliformia|2={{clade |1=Polygordiidae [[File:Polygordius appendiculatus.jpg|60px]] |2=Protodrilida [[File:Protodrilus (YPM IZ 072370) 002.jpeg|60px]] }} |label1=Aciculata|1={{clade |1=Eunicida [[File:Eunice aphroditois.jpg|80x60px]] |2=Phyllodocida [[File:Tomopteriskils.jpg|60px]] }} }} |label2=''?''|2=Myzostomida|state2=dashed |label3=Sedentaria|3={{clade |1=Orbiniida |2={{clade |1={{clade |1={{clade|1=Cirratuliformia|2=Siboglinidae (pogonophorans)}} |2={{clade|1=Sabellida|2=Spionida}} }} |2={{clade |1={{clade |1=Opheliida|label2=Capitellida|2={{clade|1=Capitellidae|2=Echiura}}}} |2={{clade |1={{clade|1=Terebelliformia|2=Maldanomorpha}} |2={{nowrap|Clitellata}}}} }}}} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} ==Anatomy== Annelids have long bodies. They are generally '''segmented''', the segments usually being visible '''externally'''. Each segment generally contains a full set of '''organs'''. The segments share a common '''digestive system''', '''circulatory system''', and '''nervous system'''. Three segments, the '''prostomium''' (1st segment), '''peristomium,''' (2nd segment), and '''pygidium''' (last segment), are '''specialized'''. The prostomium contains the '''brain''' and '''sense organs'''. The peristomium contains the '''mouth'''. The pygidium is the location of the '''anus'''. Annelids grow from behind. The '''growth region''' is just in front of the pygidium. The peristomium is the oldest segment. ==The Fossil Record== Annelids are '''soft bodied''' and so fossils are rare. The first Annelids probably evolved during the '''Precambrian''', before 541 million years ago. They are present in the '''Burgess Shale''' (about 505 million years old), though there may be some '''Australian''' fossil annelids about 518 million years old. There is a better fossil record of Annelids by 65 million years ago. ==Quiz== * [[/Annelida Quiz/]] ==References and Further Reading== *[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annelid Annelid] on Wikipedia *[http://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Annelida/ Annelida] on the Animal Diversity Web, University of Michigan *[http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/annelida/annelida.html Introduction of the Annelida] at the University of California Museum of Paleontology *[http://eol.org/pages/36/overview Annelida] on the Encyclopedia of Life [[Category:Animals]] [[Category:Taxonomy]] [[Category:Zoology]] [[Category:Biology]] 7ce9xvga92jxuu50otdyi0x4xhhx7vv 2835726 2835715 2026-10-04T01:05:59Z The Citer 3110681 The phylogeny is *complete* (and definitely improved)! 2835726 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Image:Reef0200.jpg|thumb|300px|Right|An feather duster worm of the family Sabellidae in parchment tube.]] Annelida *Name Meaning: Little ring *English Common Name: Segmented worms *Major distinguishing characteristics: Multiple circular segments *Approximate number of species described: over 22,000 living ==Natural History== The life history of the Annelida is '''diverse'''. They live in '''terrestrial''' and '''aquatic''' '''environments''', including around '''deep sea hydrothermal vents'''. They are common, yet rarely seen because most Annelids are '''burrowing'''. Some are highly mobile, some seldom move once established. Some, such as '''earthworms''', are '''omnivorous''', eating any '''organic''' matter in their path. Others, such as the '''leaches''', are specialist in what they will eat. Leaches, for example, are '''specialist blood eaters'''. In all environments where they occur, Annelids are very important in '''moving and mixing the soil''', and breaking up and '''distributing organic material'''. This distribution helps plants get better access to '''nutrients'''. ==Taxonomy== The Phylum Annelida contains 7 Classes, 6 of which have living representatives: *Polychaeta *Clitellata *Oligochaeta (earthworms) *Branchiobdellida *Hirudinea (leeches) *Echiura *†Machaeridia *Echiura is a former Phylum that has been demoted to Class rank within the Annelida. ==Phylogeny== {{clade|style=font-size:80%;|label1='''Annelida''' |1={{clade |1={{clade|label1=Palaeoannelida  |1={{clade |1=Oweniidae [[File:Owenia caissara (10.3897-zoologia.34.e12623) Figures 10–13.jpg|60px]] |2=Magelonidae [[File:Magelona johnstoni.jpg|60px]] }}}} |2={{clade |1={{clade|label1=Chaetopteriformia  |1={{clade |1=''Apistobranchus'' [[File:Apistobranchus tullbergi (YPM IZ 081693) 002.jpeg|60px]] |2={{clade |1=Psammodrilidae [[File:Psammodrilus balanoglossoides.jpg|60px]] |2=Chaetopteridae [[File:Chaetopterus.png|60x60px]] }} }}}} |2={{clade |1={{clade |1=Amphinomida [[File:Notopygos caribea holotype ZooKeys-223-069-g005-top.jpeg|60px]] |2={{clade |1=''Lobatocerebrum'' |2=[[Sipuncula]] (May or not be a phylum on its own) [[File:Sipuncula.jpg|60px]] }} }} |2={{clade|label1=Pleistoannelida |1={{clade |label1=Errantia|1={{clade |label2=Protodriliformia|2={{clade |1=Polygordiidae [[File:Polygordius appendiculatus.jpg|60px]] |2=Protodrilida [[File:Protodrilus (YPM IZ 072370) 002.jpeg|60px]] }} |label1=Aciculata|1={{clade |1=Eunicida [[File:Eunice aphroditois.jpg|80x60px]] |2=Phyllodocida [[File:Tomopteriskils.jpg|60px]] }} }} |label2=''Myzostomia?'' |2=Myzostomida [[File:Myzostoma fuscomaculatum at Percys Hole detail.jpg|60px]] |state2=dashed |label3=Sedentaria|3={{clade |1=Orbiniida [[File:Leitoscoloplos pugettensis (Pettibone 1957).jpg|60px]] |2={{clade |1={{clade |1={{clade|1=Cirratuliformia [[File:Orange thread-gilled worm at Pinnacle, near Gordon's Bay DSC02475.JPG|60px]] |2=Siboglinidae (pogonophorans) [[File:Nur04505.jpg|60px]]}} |2={{clade|1=Sabellida [[File:Bispira sp. (Tubeworm).jpg|60px]] |2=Spionida [[File:Magelona johnstoni.jpg|60px]]}} }} |2={{clade |1={{clade |1=Opheliida |label2=Capitellida |2={{clade|1=Capitellidae [[File:Ver non identifié.jpg|60px]] |2=Echiura [[File:Strange spoon worm, an elegant sea pen, a stalked crinoid, and two xenophyophores with brittle stars. New England Seamount Chain. May 2004.jpg|Strange_spoon_worm,_an_elegant_sea_pen,_a_stalked_crinoid,_and_two_xenophyophores_with_brittle_stars._New_England_Seamount_Chain._May_2004|60px]]}}}} |2={{clade |1={{clade|1=Terebelliformia [[File:Lanice conchilega.jpg|Lanice_conchilega|60px]] |2=Maldanomorpha [[File:Maldane adunca A blank.jpg|Maldane_adunca_A_blank|60px]]}} |2={{nowrap|Clitellata [[File:Earthworm (9212338957).jpg|Earthworm_(9212338957)|60px]] [[File:Leech in the point.jpg|Leech_in_the_point|60px]]}}}} }}}} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} ==Anatomy== Annelids have long bodies. They are generally '''segmented''', the segments usually being visible '''externally'''. Each segment generally contains a full set of '''organs'''. The segments share a common '''digestive system''', '''circulatory system''', and '''nervous system'''. Three segments, the '''prostomium''' (1st segment), '''peristomium,''' (2nd segment), and '''pygidium''' (last segment), are '''specialized'''. The prostomium contains the '''brain''' and '''sense organs'''. The peristomium contains the '''mouth'''. The pygidium is the location of the '''anus'''. Annelids grow from behind. The '''growth region''' is just in front of the pygidium. The peristomium is the oldest segment. ==The Fossil Record== Annelids are '''soft bodied''' and so fossils are rare. The first Annelids probably evolved during the '''Precambrian''', before 541 million years ago. They are present in the '''Burgess Shale''' (about 505 million years old), though there may be some '''Australian''' fossil annelids about 518 million years old. There is a better fossil record of Annelids by 65 million years ago. ==Quiz== * [[/Annelida Quiz/]] ==References and Further Reading== *[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annelid Annelid] on Wikipedia *[http://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Annelida/ Annelida] on the Animal Diversity Web, University of Michigan *[http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/annelida/annelida.html Introduction of the Annelida] at the University of California Museum of Paleontology *[http://eol.org/pages/36/overview Annelida] on the Encyclopedia of Life [[Category:Animals]] [[Category:Taxonomy]] [[Category:Zoology]] [[Category:Biology]] 6dzq6mkcw6a6jpa5pr0vn8xjgkmogal 0 264277 2835717 2835587 2026-10-03T23:11:11Z Scogdill 1331941 2835717 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1840s|1840s]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1850s |1850s]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1860s | 1860s]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1870s | 1870s]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1880s | 1880s Headlines]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1890s | 1890s Headlines]] 1890 [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1891 | 1891]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1892 | 1892]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1893 | 1893]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1894 | 1894]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1895 | 1895]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1896 | 1896]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1897 | 1897]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1898 | 1898]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1899 | 1899]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1900s|1900s]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1910s|1910s]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1920s-30s|1920s-30s]] ==January 1890== Sometime in January 1890, [[Social Victorians/People/Horniman|Annie Horniman]] was initiated into the Golden Dawn (Gilbert 86 144). Sometime in 1890 Annie Besant and [[Social Victorians/People/Helena Blavatsky|Helena Blavatsky]] founded the Working Women's Club in the East End (Besant Chronology.pdf). Maye Dilke was a member (Crawford 170). [[Social Victorians/People/Frank Harris|Frank Harris]] says,<blockquote>One day in 1890 I had George Meredith, Walter Pater and [[Social Victorians/People/Oscar Wilde|Oscar Wilde]] dining with me in Park Lane and the time of sex-awakening was discussed. Both Pater and Wilde spoke of it as a sign of puberty. Pater thought it began about thirteen or fourteen and Wilde to my amazement set it as late as sixteen. Meredith alone was inclined to put it earlier.<ref>Harris, Frank. ''My Life and Loves''.</ref></blockquote> ===1 January 1890, Wednesday, New Year's Day=== <blockquote>Sharp frost was experienced over the East of England yesterday morning, and in South London the thermometer had been as low as 27deg., and 28deg. in Hyde-park. It rose during the day to 41deg., but in the evening frost again set in. Later the thermometer rose again to 32deg., and there was an appearance as of coming rain.<ref><cite>The Morning Post. 1 January 1890 (No. 36,675): P. 4, Col. F.</cite></ref></blockquote>Influenza is spreading all over Europe. According to the "Court Circular: Orders for Court Mourning" in the Morning Post,<blockquote>A second supplement to the Gazette, issued last night, contains the following: — "Lord Chamberlain's Office, January 1. "Orders for the Court's going into mourning on Thursday next, the 2d instant, for her late Majesty the Empress of Brazil, viz." — "The ladies to wear black dresses, white gloves, black or white shoes, feathers, and fans, pearls, diamonds, or plain gold or silver ornaments. The gentlemen to wear black Court dress, with black swords and buckles. "The Court to change the mourning on Thursday, the 16th instant, viz.: — [new paragraph] The ladies to wear black dresses, with coloured ribbons, flowers, feathers, and ornaments, or grey or white dresses, with black ribbons, flowers, feathers, and ornaments. The gentlemen to continue the same mourning. "And on Thursday, the 23d instant, the Court to go out of mourning."<ref><cite>"Court Circular: Orders for Court Mourning." The Morning Post, 2 January 1890 (No. 36,676): page 5 Col. G.</cite></ref></blockquote> ===9 January 1890, Thursday=== ==== The York Hunt Ball ==== This account is from the ''Irish Society'', which explains which women's costumes are the focus:<blockquote>The fashionable world and his wife are out of town just now, having good times at country houses. They shed the light of their brilliant presence on those annual functions known as county balls, and enjoy themselves also at those popular and picturesque entertainments to which they are bidden by the masters and members of the various hunts. One of the smartest dances of last week took place at York on Thursday evening. It was in fancy costume, and was in aid of funds for the York County Hospital. Once upon a time the journey from London to the Minster City of the North was a far cry, and one not lightly undertaken. Now it is luxurious and short. In consequence this hall presented the appearance of one in town in mid-season. There was conspicuous for height and handsomeness the familiar figure and face of Countess de Grey. Lady Helen Duncombe, too, who shares with her Grace of Leinster, and Lady Cynthia Graham, the family beauty of the House of Feversham, was seen in the marvellously becoming (to her) costume of the Empire period. Lady Lilian Wemyss, a lady "divinely tall,” and appropriately fair, was garbed in pink and white of a fashion hailing from the Empire. A "square;” in which the lady dancers were all gowned empirically, was the event of the evening. An event worth remembering it was. The costumes were superb, but their attractions were nowhere in comparison with the charms the [Col. 1c–2a] wearers. These were all tall and each one handsome. Lady de Trafford’s pretty face and fine figure showed to great advantage in her gown of white satin, veiled with gold-bordered ''chiffon'', and with an Empire trained cloak from her shoulders of Rose du Barri velvet lined with white satin, and bordered with gold galon. The colour of the velvet in what is seen in the half-yellow, half-scarlet petals of the soft textured nasturtium bloom. [[Social Victorians/People/Bourke|Mrs Algernon Bourke]] looked a picture in a Gainsborough gown. The white satin skirt was flounced with sable and veiled with ''chiffon'', the setuage of which was left to show without being hemmed up. There was a broad sash of rose-pink silk and each buttonhole was filled round with crimped lisse. One might go on for long enough describing costume after costume, and then leave them half out. Therefore, we shall, like the judge "sum up” and "charge” for a verdict of the utmost brilliancy.<ref>"Our London Letter." ''Irish Society'' (Dublin) 11 January 1890, Saturday: 17 [of 24], Col. 1b–2a [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0001939/18900111/042/0017. Same print title, p. 29.</ref></blockquote> === 1890 January 10, Friday === The ball at the Ulster Club Ball, Belfast:<blockquote>The Ulster Club gave on Friday evening last week, in the Ulster Hall, Belfast, one of the most successful balls ever held in that prosperous City of the North of Ireland. It was given in honour of the Marquis of Londonderry and the Marchioness, who, with their son, Lord Castlereagh, were the guests of the evening. Lord Londonderry is an Ulster man of whom the natives of the Northern Province are justly proud, and to entertain him was an honour which has been long looked for by the Club. The hall, which is a splendid building admirably adapted for the purpose of a large dance, was changed beyond the recognition of its oldest frequenters by the skill of clever and tasteful decorators. A temporary archway was erected at the entrance, with cloakrooms for ladies and men at either side. The entrance was prettily carpeted and gracefully draped with delicately-coloured Oriental silk. The walls were hung with handsome Eastern fabrics of rich and harmonious colour, with large mirrors at intervals, which served in effect to double the size of the room. The prettily proportioned vestibule and smaller apartments adjoining the ball-room were decorated and furnished each in the style of a different period. The ceilings were prettily draped with rich but soft-coloured India and China silks. The minor hall made an admirable supper-room, and was also most artistically decorated. The flowers on the table were much admired. The orchestra made music from out a very multitude of floral blooms, and that most effective decoration of blocks of ice hollowed out and lighted by electricity, which so puzzled the Shah of Persia when over here, was liberally made use of. The principal families in the north of Ireland were invited; among others, Prince and Princess Edward of Saxe-Weimar, the Duke and Duchess of Abercorn, the Duke and Duchess of Manchester, [[Social Victorians/People/Mandeville|Lady Mandeville]], the Marchioness of Downshire, the Earl and Countess of Lanesborough, the Earl and Countess of Enniskillen, the Earl and Countess of Belmore, the Earl and Countess of Caledon, the Earl and Countess of Gosford, the Earl and Countess of Ranfurley,  and the Earl and Countess of Erne, His Grace the Primate of all Ireland, Mrs. Knox and the Misses Knox. The regiments stationed in the North of Ireland were largely represented. Mr. J. Blakiston-Houston, V.L., as senior trustee of the club, had the honour of taking Lady Londonderry to supper. The Marquis took the Countess of Castlestuart; the Right Hon. Col. Forde, D.L., also a club trustee, Lady Fanny Lambert; Sir Edward Cowan, Lord Lieutenant of the County Antrim, Lady Clanmorris; Captain Cramsie, J.P., High Sheriff of Antrim, Lady O'Neill; Lord Castlestuart, Lady Charlotte Montgomery; Lord Clanmorris, the Hon. Mrs. Alexander; Lord O'Neill, Mrs. Forde; and General Wiseman-Clarke, Mrs. Knox. Dancing was kept up till an early hour on Saturday morning, the ball having proved a genuine success.<ref>"Court and Society Notes." ''Lady's Pictorial'' 18 January 1890, Saturday: 44 [of 60], Col. 1b [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0005980%2F18900118&page=44. Same print title, p. 94.</ref></blockquote>1890 January 10, Monday Boxing Match<blockquote>Newspaper Title: Dublin Sporting News Publication Date: Friday 17 January 1890 Page Number: 3 A Great Glove Fight. Nunc Wallace and G. Camp for £1,000. On Monday night, at the Ormonde Club, London, the above-named met to do battle for the largest sum of money that has ever been "put up" for a glove contest. That a couple of 8st [8 stone?] men could be brought together in a glove contest for the sum of £1,000 would, even in the palmy days of the Prize Ring, have been scouted by the merest tyro in ring matters. Celebrities like Peter Morris, George Holden, Joe Nolan, and Dan Thomas never fought for more than £200, but here we have a stake of £500 a-side freely put down to see who is the better man of the  two. This money, when the match was made last autumn, would have been gladly increased by either side to double the amount, therefore "the fight of his life" is applicable to both George Camp and Edwin ("Nuns") Wallace. The match, made so far back as October last was really the outcome of the bout between Camp and Wallace in the second round of an 8st competition, decided at the Royal Aquarium in December, 1888. A very close struggle ensued, so close, indeed, that the judges ordered a fourth round of two minutes. Wallace eventually get- [Col. 2c–3a] ting the award. From the moment the decision was given Camp's friends were dissatisfied, and hence the contract which was signed for Monday night's battle. With thirteme week. in to get tit, neither  men was in a hurty to , omnien‘n work, and the  had been ratified neatly a month before  Wallace took lip his quarters at Sutton Col.lleld,  oak Ben Ceiling:4m to look after him. Camp  j to Brighton with his old trainer. George  and it is needless to neither wen  named I. rnrth n, . Thiukm g a chariots  a mouth ago ale. made a mote to  Brighton. where his interests were wheel to the  minutest detail by Mr. Sean Mordecai. Both man  wore waited hand and foot. Mr. Sem Bland  fotd, repieventing Camp's hacker, took op residence  in the fatuous watering-place. anti hardly  ever lost sight 14 Me youth. tin the  other hand Wallace hardly ever drank out of a pot  Mat Mr. Sim Mordecai (LI not summit., and to  this war the mill prow wood satiefactorly in their  Veining.  and tlukee he¢[•'rl f,,r the to  where the in. he in tun, not letter,  from lewd ins% and city  in to those oil( • 1111th  Nte The backers 0ne...11 •ide were  oh lusate, and at the final deposit the name , . of  the f..rtunate <nowiki>''</nowiki>thirty" agreed tip in, were handed  The loan were ar to otagh at twelve  o n Mond-iy, anti au not attract atten.  floe it %tot this important part the  programme should he pram meat at Brighton.  Acvoichnaly thaavale. het Ito< horn lised in Camp's  Itedreoni. the mai*. in the premoiee of Lord  Mandeville. Mr. N W thirty, Mr. I Mr.  lilandforil. anti Mr. and their  grantor+. •• the beam" Wallace wee tied  to weighing Mat tills stripood. I' imp tailing  to roach this half p.tund, clothed rn  garb. Both hooked in splendid trim.  Camp'. ruddy compextols was now.  taking to the rye than the pele appearance of  •• None."  \C.llace attired in drawer, with a  rent ,•oaka, 41111 black rubber-toted woe..  wee all in white, with (-maim at.oea, and  amiclAt altoo-t oppreaaive Ailance they faced each  other at p.m. </blockquote> ===16 January 1890, Thursday=== <blockquote>About two hundred members of the newly formed Dulwich Literary and Scientific Association attended the conversazione given on Jan. 16 at Surrey House Museum, Forest Hill, when Mr. Horniman, F.R.G.S., acted as cicerone round the rooms, richly stored with historical relics, ornithological curiosities, and art treasures.<ref>''Illustrated London News'' (London, England), Saturday, January 25, 1890; pg. 120; Issue 2649, Col. 3.</ref></blockquote> === 1890 January 21, Tuesday === The marriage of Baron S. Alfred Oppenheim and Miss Florence Hutchins:<blockquote>In the church of St. Mary Abbotts, Kensington, the marriage took place of Baron S. Alfred von Oppenberm and Miss Florence Hutchins, daughter of Mrs. Parkinson Sharp, of Palace-gate. The Hon. and Rev E. Carr Glyn and the Rev. Henry White, M.A., officiated. Among those who attended the reception afterwards held were Prince and Princess Malcom Khan, [[Social Victorians/People/Mandeville|Viscountess Mandeville]], Dowager Countess of Harrington, Admiral Sir Edward Inglefield, Sir Arthur Sullivan, Lady Cottenham, and General Du Plat.<ref>"London Day by Day." ''Daily Telegraph & Courier'' (London) 22 January 1890, Wednesday: 5 [of 8], Col. 3b [of 8]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0001112%2F18900122&page=5&article=080&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Print title: ''Daily Telegraph'', p. 5.</ref></blockquote>The ''Pall Mall Gazette'' has a description that is slightly more full. Is Count von Alten related to [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish|Louisa, Duchess of Manchester]]?<blockquote>At St. Mary Abbots, Kensington, yesterday, the marriage took place of Baron S. Alfred Von Oppenheim, only son of Baron Edward Von Oppenheim, of Cologne and Schloss Schlenderham, and Miss Florence Hutchins, only daughter of Mrs. Parkinson Sharp, of 10, Palace-gate. The service was fully choral, the officiating clergy being the Hon. R. E. Carr-Glyn, rector of St. Mary Abbots, and the Rev. Henry White, M.A., chaplain in ordinary to the Queen. The bride, who was given away by her stepfather, Mr Parkinson Sharp, wore a plain dress of rich white ivory satin, elaborately draped with real orange blossoms. Count C. Von Leyden, Councillor of the German Embassy, attended the Baron as best man. Half a dozen bridesmaids followed the bride elegantly attired in costumes of white cashmere, with white corded silk sashes. They were Miss Aim e [sic] Winslow, Miss Emry Von Oppenheim, Miss Vitty Von Oppenbeim, Miss Potter, Miss Eleanor Heywood, and Miss Seymour. The reception was given at Mrs. Parkinson Sharp's town residence, 10, Palace-gate, Kensington, which was largely attended among those present being Prince and Princess Malcom Khan, Baron and Baroness E. von Oppenheim, Baron Max Oppenheim, Baron von Wedd Yarlsberg, Countess de Bunsen, Baron and Baroness de Plency, Count von Alten, [[Social Victorians/People/Mandeville|Viscountess Mandeville]], Dowager Countess of Harrington, Admiral Sir Edward Inglefield, Sir Arthur Sullivan, Lady Cottenham, General Du Plat, &c.<ref>"Marriage of Baron S. Alfred Von Oppenheim." ''Pall Mall Gazette'' 22 January 1890, Wednesday: 7 [of 8m], Col. 2c [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0000098%2F18900122&page=7&article=016&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title and p.</ref></blockquote> === 1890 January 28, Tuesday === According to the ''Dundee Evening Telegraph'' on 28 January 1890 people were buying "Exploration" shares, which funded exploration expeditions with the possibility of rights to minerals or resources or the development of monopolies for goods that were "discovered."<blockquote>Royalty and the peerage have gone in for "Exploration" shares. The Duchess of Albany is the possessor of fifty shares, which hardly seems to assume the dimensions of a royal investment. Certainly the general public would incline to the idea that a princess would never condescend to invest so small a sum as £25 in anything unless it were a hat or a jacket. The Duke of Fife, on the other hand, has been allotted a thousand shares. The Duchess of Manchester and the Countess of Mandeville have thirty each.<ref>"Notes — Mainly Personal." ''Dundee Evening Telegraph'' 28 January 1890, Tuesday: 2 [of 4], Col. 2b [of my 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0000453%2F18900128&page=2&article=001&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Print title: ''Evening Telegraph'', n.p.</ref></blockquote> === 1890 January 29, Wednesday === [[Social Victorians/Santurce Murrieta Wedding 1890-01-29|Santurce Murrieta Wedding 1890-01-29]] === '''1890 January 30, Thursday, through at least''' 1890 February 8, Saturday === Kim, Lord Mandeville was in Brighton — at 80, King's-road — at least as early as 30 January.<ref>"Brighton Visitors." ''Brighton Gazette'' 30 January 1890, Thursday: 3 [of 8], Col. 2a [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0000938%2F18900130&page=3&article=073&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Print title: ''Brighton Gazette and Sussex Telegraph'', p. 3.</ref> The ''Lady's Pictorial'' lists "recent arrivals" in Brighton:<blockquote>Though a good many people have left Brighton, still fresh visitors arrive, and the front is crowded when the weather is a little kind. Amongst the most recent arrivals may be mentioned the Countess of Strafford, Lady Susan Byng, Lady Chelmsford, Lord and Lady Seaton, Lady Jane Grimston, [[Social Victorians/People/Mandeville|Lord Mandeville]], Lord Romilly and the Hon. John Romilly, Viscount and Viscountess Hampden, the Hon. R. Somerset, the Hon.  Thomas Dundas, the Hon. Sidney Greville, the Hon. A. W. Verney Cave, Lady Elizabeth Cartwright, Colonel Sir Alfred and Lady Kirby, Mr. Bazley White, M.P., and Lady Bazley White, Sir Hugh Montgomery, Sir Frederick and Lady Perkins, Lady Ellis, General Seymour, &c., &c.<ref>Dorothy. "Brighton Notes." ''Lady's Pictorial'' 8 February 1890, Saturday: 51 [of 60], Col. 3a [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0005980%2F18900208&page=51&article=671&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title, p. 203.</ref></blockquote> ==February 1890== === 1890 February 6, Thursday === Before 6 February but not long before. The prize-fighter Pete Jackson fought a match at the New Pelican Club.<blockquote>It is always well to hear that distinguished visitors have enjoyed the hospitality which we have extended to them. This satisfaction is afforded us in full measure by the eminent "Parson" Davis, manager of Pete Jackson, the prize-fighter, who has just been regaling an American interviewer with an account of his experiences in England :— He had been treated in splendid style, and Jackson was received well everywhere. Nothing would give him greater pleasure than to revisit England, and he hoped soon to do so. "I shook a paw with the Prince,” said the parson. "We had a high old time with Albert E. His Royal Highness was exceptionally friendly with Jackson, and actually made a pump handle of his arm. He shook hands with him again and again. The Prince is in capital  health, and" —— But at this point the interviewer mysteriously breaks off. The Prince, however, was not the only British notable to whom Parson Davis referred. He explained that the cause of the trouble with Smith at the New Pelican Club was that the gloves furnished Jackson were too small in the fingers, and when he closed his hand he almost split them, and could not fight. The matter was explained to the officers of the Club, where the fight took place, and other gloves were procured for Jackson :— Fair play was given, and the audience, which included [[Social Victorians/People/Mandeville|Lords Mandeville]] and Lonsdale, were loud in their admiration of Jackson's skill.<ref>"The Tittle Tattle of the Week." ''Pall Mall Budget'' 6 February 1890, Thursday: 4 [of 36], Col. 1b [of 2]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0005967%2F18900206&page=4. Same print title, p. 162.</ref></blockquote>Possibly related is this, from 24 January 1890:<blockquote>Further details (says the London ''Evening'' ''Post'') have transpired with regard to the fracas at the Tracadero between Charley Mitchell and Mr Abington. It seems that the cause of the row was the conspicuous and irritating production of Smith’s colours by a gentleman in the stalls in front of Mitchell. These acted upon him like the proverbial red rag, and turning to Mr Abington, he said — "You have got this up for me. I will put this cigar in your eye." Here Lord Mandeville acted the part of the peacemaker, and an adjournment was made to the bar, where the real row took place. Notwithstanding what the ''Sportsman'' says, it is a fact that "the Squire" did take off his coat to Mitchell.<ref>"The Laird of Strichen and the Prize Ring." <i>Fraserburgh Advertiser</i> 24 January 1890, Friday: 5 [of 8], Col. 5a [of 5]. <i>British Newspaper Archive</i> https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0001470%2F18900124&page=5&article=035&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title, n.p.</ref></blockquote> === 12 February 1890, Wednesday === ==== Lady Constance Leslie's Reception ==== <blockquote>On Wednesday last Lady Constance Leslie had an evening party at her residence in Stratford-place. The numerous guests included Prince Ernest of Hohenlohe, Princess Victor of Hohenlohe, and the Countesses Gleichen, the Austro-Hungarian Ambassador, Count Mensdorf, Count and Countess Henry Lützow, Mr. and Mrs. Henry White, Baroness de Brienen and Mdlles de Brienen, the Duke of Abercorn, the Duchess of Cleveland, the Marchioness of Blandford and Lady Frances Spencer Churchill, Earl and Countess of Portarlington, Earl Stanhope, the Earl of Northbrook, the Earl and Countess of Arran, the Earl and Countess of Erne and the Ladies Cole, Julia Countess of Jersey and Mr. Brandling, Viscount Clifden, Viscountess Bary, Viscount Torrington, Viscount and Viscountess Castlerosse and Lady Louisa Beauclerk, Viscount and Viscountess de Vesci and Lady Sarah Spencer, Viscountess Galway, and Mr Caryl Ramsden, Lord de L'Isle and Dudley, Lord Alcester, Lord and Lady Wantage, Lord Ashbourne, Lady Henry Grosvenor and Lady G. Ogilvy, Lady Cloncurry, Lord Morris and Mr. M. Morris, Lady Charles Beresford, Lord Rowton, Lady Blanche Hozier, Lady Colville, Lady Rayleigh, Lady Constance Lytton and Mr. Charles Earle, Lady Evelyn Sutton, Lady Ernest Seymour and Ladies Fortescue, Lord and Lady Sandhurst, Lady Mary Lloyd, Lady Tweedmouth, Lady Windsor, Lord and Lady William Seymour, Lady Guy Campbell, Lady Egerton, Lady Fitzgerald, Baron d'Erlanger and Mr. Charles Derenberg, Hon. R. C. Spencer, M.P., and Mrs. Spencer, Hon. Evelyn Ashley, Hon. W. Mansfield, Hon. Lionel Ashley, Hon. A. Hood, Hon. William Lowther and Miss Lowther, Hon. Sydney Greville, Hon. Fitzroy and Mrs. Stewart, Hon. Frederick Leveson Gower, Hon. Kenneth Howard, Hon. Francis Villiers, Hon. Francis Bertie, Hon. Arthur Walsh, Colonel the Hon. Charles Edgcumbe, General Hon. John Bourke, General and Hon. Mrs. Ellis and Mrs. R. Sneyd and Miss Ellis, [[Social Victorians/People/Bourke|Hon. Algernon and Mrs. Bourke]], Hon. Alan and Hon. Evan Charteris, Hon. Alexander Yorke, Hon. Derek Keppel, General Sir Dighton Probyn, Hon. Percy Wyndham, Hon. Everard Baring and Hon. Susan Baring, Hon. Mrs. Brett, Hon. Claud Hay, the Right Hon. Henry Matthews, Sir George Arthur, Sir George Maude, Sir Philip Currie, C.B., Sir Redvers and Lady Audrey Buller, Sir Charles Grant, Sir Mackenzie Wallace, Sir Herbert Maxwell, M.P., Sir Oscar Clayton, Sir Robert Gresley, Sir Algernon West and Mr. Horace West, Sir George and Lady Russell and Miss Brackenbury, Sir Henry and Lady Longley, the Sub-Dean of the Chapels Royal, General Crealock, General Charles Fraser, Colonel Saunderson, M.P., and Hon. Mrs. Saunderson, Colonel and Mrs. Stewart and Miss Streatfeild [siv], Colonel and Miss Balfour, Colonel and Mrs. Stanley Clarke and Miss Clarke, Colonel R. Baring, Captain and Mrs. Jekyll, Captain and Mrs. J. Bagot, Captain Lambert Ward, Captain A. Bagot, Mr. Charles Hall, Q.C, M.P., Mr[.] Hussey Walsh, M.P., Mr and Mrs. W. Hartpole Lecky, Mr. and Mrs. Richard Combe, Mr Henry Foley, Mrs. Arbuthnot and Miss Guthrie, Mr. and Mrs. Heseltine and Miss Dorothy Heseltine and Lord Cantelupe, the Miss Stopford Brooke, Mr. and Mrs. Thackeray Ritchie, Mr Edmund Byng, Mr. and Mrs. Wilton Phipps, Professor Sidney Colvin, Mr. and Miss Tennant, Mr. Godfrey Webb, Mr. and Mrs. Turton and Mr. Sidney Ponsonby, Mrs. Adare, Mrs Cecil Paget and Mr. Hugo Wemyss, Mrs. L. Drummond, Mr. and Mrs E. Hope, Mrs. L. Seymour and Miss Seymour, Mr. Guy Repton, Mr. and Mrs. Julian Sturgis and Miss Beresford, Mr. Poynter, R.A., Mrs. Daniel Cooper, Mr. Hamilton Aïdé, Mr. Alwyne Maude, Mrs. C. Bentinck, Mrs. Bingham Mildmay, Mr. Philip Habord, Mr. and Mrs. George Bulteel, Mrs. Beerbohm Tree and Miss Julia Neilson, Mr. Hallé [Halle?], Mr. Rudolph Lehmann and Miss Lehmann, [[Social Victorians/People/Fanny Ronalds|Mr. R. Ronalds]], Mr. Ellice, Mr. Arthur, Madame Blumenthal, Miss Julia Leslie, Mr. and Mrs. Jeune, Mr and Mrs. Charles Stuart-Wortley and Misses Millais, Mrs. Arkwright, Mr Joachim, Mr. Gillett, Mr. Pulteney (Scots Guards), Colone| Cuthbert Larking, Mr. Harry Higgins, M. Tividar Nachez, Mr. G. Ross, Herr Johannes Woolff, Mrs. Charles Bagot and Miss Bagot, Mrs. Bischoffsheim, Mr. Henry Petre, Miss Balch, Mr. and Lady Maud Ramsden, Mr. Adolphus Liddell, Mr Knowles, Mr. Grenfell, Mr. Edward Hamilton, Mrs. Henry Gordon and Miss Gordon, Mr. Henry James, Mr. St. Leger, Mrs. Dacre Hamilton and the Misses Nugent, Mr. Harbord, Mr Somerset, Mr. Ruggles-Brise, Mr. and Miss Hughes of Kinmel, Mr. and Mrs Douglas Freshfield, Mrs. Homer, Mr. W. H. Mallock, Mr. and Mrs. Robert Benson, Mr. H. Seymour, Mr. Ernest Law, Mr. Hugh Grimston, Mr. Lionel Cust, Mr. Chappell, Mr. and Mrs. Du Maurier, Mr. Boughton, R.A., and Mrs. Boughton, Mr. R. Roche, Mr. Montagu Wilson, Mr. Herbert Hope, &c.<ref>"Lady Constance Leslie's Reception." ''Morning Post'' 15 February 1890, Saturday: 2 [of 8], Col. 5c [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000174/18900215/008/0002. Same print title and p.</ref></blockquote> === 24 February 1890, Monday === Lilly Langtry starred in Shakespeare's ''As You Like It'' at the St. James's Theatre. The Daily Telegraph had a long review and mentioned more names:<blockquote> The motto of Petronius, which is said to have adorned the Globe Theatre in Shakespeare's time, "Totus mundus agit histrionem," and which is reproduced in Jaques' famous speech, may be said to have received a novel illustration in the brilliant audience which completely filled the St. James's Theatre last evening. A very distinguished section of the world "played the actor" in the stalls, boxes, and dress-circle, and evinced the keenest dramatic interest in the long-deferred production of "As You Like It." The Prince and Princess of Wales, with the Duchess of Fife, surveyed the scene from the Royal box, while amongst the many who secured seats for the first were the Austrian Ambassador, the [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish|Duchess of Manchester]], Countess de Grey, [[Social Victorians/People/Mandeville|Viscountess Mandeville]], Lady Colin Campbell, Lord Wolverton, Lord and Lady Coleridge, Sir Charles Russell, Sir Edward and Lady Guinness, Baroness de Stern, and Mr. Alfred Rothschild. Naturally enough there was much curiosity in seeing once more on the London stage an actress who has since her last appearance devoted so much serious study to her profession, and gained so much success both before American and provincial audiences; while the sympathy evoked by her recent severe illness, delaying for four weeks the production of the comedy, added an almost pathetic note to the general excitement and enthusiasm. In the second scene of the first act, when the tenderly attached cousins make their earliest appearance on the stage, Celia's first words, "| pray thee, Rosalind, sweet, my coz, be merry," answered by Rosalind’s "Dear Celia, I show more mirth than I am mistress of," were almost drowned in the applause which accompanied the recognition of Mrs. Langtry. From time to time, whenever opportunity served, enthusiasm broke out anew, culminating in the triumph of plaudits which formed the fit ending to the gracefully-delivered epilogue with which Rosalind takes her farewell of her audience. There can be no doubt that, with all due allowance for the inevitable nervousness which accompanied a first production before a critical though sympathetic house, the revival of the immortal comedy was generally pronoanced to be a success. The fancifally-named "As You Like It" — where even in nomenclature the author confesses his indebtedness to the romance of Thomas Lodge — with greater dullness than is usually the case with Shakespeare's plays. Indeed interest is hardly aroused till the scene before the Duke's Palace, where Rosalind and Celia witness the wrestling — which after a few more performances will probably go less stagily than it did last night — between Charles and Orlando. It is only when we are transported to the Forest of Arden that Shakespeare's romantic fancy allows itself full course, and it was only when she was accoutred in the doublet and hose that Mrs. Langtry exercised her full charm upon the audience. The difficulty for the actress in the character of Rosalind is the contrast between the early abandon of her frankly-expressed love for the son of Rowland de Bois and the subsequent archness and reserve with which she plays with her lover in the forest. Orlando goes through precisely an opposite change. From the careless desperateness of a man who is out of favour with fortune in the opening scene, he changes to the sentimental devotion of a "love-shaked fancy-monger" in the sylvan glades. If that interchange of parts be missed much is lost in the sprightly  contrasts of the drama. Unfortunately, no sooner did Orlando enter on the wrestling-ground last night, than he started and caught at his heart in obvious suggestion of love at first sight. Much is lost of the utter wonderment at Rosalind’s unexpected graciousness in giving him her chain, which keeps him tongue-tied later, if he betrays so early the fatal ravages of Cupid — a betrayal which is hardly likely in a man whom neglect and misery have driven to the last stage of reckless hardihood. Rosalind must love her champion before her winning thanks for his prowess have made the starred younger brother first marvel at and then adore the frank and generous advances of his benefactress. In the fine words, "My father was no traitor," Mrs. Langtry rose to the full height of the character she was depicting. Throughout the greater part of the first act there was grace, loveableness, charm, but also a kind of flatness, or, at all events, an even and somewhat uninteresting level of characterisation which did not convey the promise of all that this loveliest creation in Shakespeare's gallery could do, when the Court life was exchanged for the freer and less conventional existence in the woods. All the more praise, therefore, is Mrs. Langtry’s due, that when she finds herself in the Forest of Arden, she brings before us a truer Rosalind. The beautiful first scene between the disguised Ganymede and her amorous swain showed Mrs. Langtry at her best. The quick and nimble wit, the archness and pretty coquetry of a girl who is sick at heart with love and feeds her passion in a playful and adorable tyrannising over the unconscious lover, were depicted with a reality which won instant recognition from the spectators. For the rest, however, Mrs. Langtry’s Rosalind was an unequal performance, now rising with unexpected force into the regions of pure comedy, now sinking to an ordinary level of  uncomfortably-disguised womanishness. There were bright patches of power in the midst of a somewhat dull and colourless expanse. Much of this was, no doubt, due to the excitement and fatigue of a first night, to which also may be attributed possibly the sameness of some of her gestures and a restlessness which was something more than Rosalind's anxiety to win in her own incomparable way the happiness of which she was in search. A few nights hence firmness of carriage and self-control of manner will fill in the details of a character which was most graphically and sympathetically sketched in outline at the St. James’s last night. Mr Laurence Cautley as Orlando made most favourable impression on his audience. Through all the earlier scenes — with the exception of that wholly unnecessary lapse into amorousness on the lawn of Duke Frederick, which has been already noted — he sustained the character of a picturesque and youthful gallant with considerable success, though, possibly, a stronger dash of manly independence might not have come amiss to the Shakespearean hero. Touchstone is a more difficult part to play. Indeed, in some respects, he is the most difficult of all Shakespeare's clowns. He is on the borderland between the earlier, more conventional style of Costard, Launce, and Launcelot, and the far more elaborate and important clowns in "Twelfth Night" and "King Lear." He is not so clever as Feste, not so human and real as that inimitable and tender-hearted Edgar who tries to solace the wild ravings of his discrowned king. He is halfway between such farcical beings as Kempe and Tarlton probably depicted, and that witty, self-conscious, irresponsible Jester, which Shakespeare ultimately made an entirely new creation on Elizabethan boards. It is no discredit to Mr. Sugden that he failed to realise so ingenious a conception. He presented a Touchstone who was full of amusing quips, and he went through all the catalogue of points in the Book of Honour in the fifth act with admirable skill; the Touchstone of "As You Like It" we are probably not likely to see often on the modern stage. Mr. Bourchier’s Jaques was a far higher piece of portraiture, grave and bitter and cynical as that early disciple of Schopenhauer should be, with touches of humour which only serve to show the depths of a naturally perverse and misanthropical nature. The celebrated "Seven Ages" speech  was capitally delivered, with a conscientious care and easy mastery which are rare enough in an actor who has so lately left the ranks of the amateurs. For the rest, the Adam of Mr Everill, and the Andrey of Miss Marion Lea seemed to give most pleasure to the audience, though she was sometimes — espectally in the pronunciation of the word "poetry" — inclined to represent the boorishness of the wench with an accent  which reproduced simulated inebriation rather than native clumsiness. Miss Armbruster as Hymen also deserves a word of praise. The piece was produced under the direction of the Hon. Lewis Wingfield, and the scenery, which in the Forest Glade of Acts II., III., and IV., formed a beautiful stage picture, was designed by Messrs. Perkins and Bruce Smith. After all, was any one ever wholly satisfied with the representaton of one of Shakespeare's comedies? No thing is further from the truth as a general statement than the pedant’s theory that Shakespeare is for the study, and not for the boards. If ever, however, the paradox be true that a great dramatic artist suffers when his plays gain a dramatic representation, it is when "As You Like It," "Twelfth Night" and "Midsummer Night's Dream" are brought face to face with a modern audience and amid nineteenth century surroundings. It ts not with impunity that the light that never was on sea and land is parodied by the glare of the footlights. For, honest stage-craftsman as Shakespeare was, in the full spring-tide of his poetic genius there was a divine and masterful intolerance of the real and the commonplace, a reckless flight into an ideal world, peopled by beings coined in the mint of his dainty imagination — aerial and disembodied creations whose actions and characters refuse to submit themselves to the narrow rules of the every-day world. In such a sphere banished lovers shall be predestined to meet and cement their happy unions, and lions and snakes shall be the habitual denizens of a forest where shepherds and shepherdesses prattle their erotic strains, and even a crafty Oliver shall repent of his past sins and fall in love with gentle Celia, owing to the poetic exigencies of Cloud Cuckoo Land. How can one  see all these things with the cynical eye of the modern ''Fin de Siècle'' and not feel an inevitable shock of dissatisfaction and surprise? How is it possible to avoid the jarring sense of discord when the dream picture is realised in the setting of prosaic reality? For Shakespeare's comedy is a romantic work of the mind, a refuge for all those delightful improbabilities which an indolent or whimsical fancy strings together to construct a series of complications and incidents which interest us, while they elude the sober tests of reason and judgment. But we must not carry this vein of thought too far. It is true that we have in such plays comedies of incident rather than of character. Yet Shakespeare is too and heart-whole to linger only at the Ivory gate. He throws even into these merry plots the force of that instinctive knowledge of human nature which produces real personages, tricked out in witty and imaginative guise. Shakespeare was able to pour everything into his comedies which he did into his tragedies, though in the one there is only suggestion, while in the other there is the elaboration of that is deep and tragic as well as humorous in life. Rosalid, Orlando, Touchstone, and Jaques are none the less real because they are ideal; and it is on these grounds that we can praise the conscientious and capable artists who presented these characters in flesh and blood on the St. James's stage. Nor does Shakespeare, as some have thought, intend in this play to preach [Col. 1c–2a]  any polemic against the life of the town, or compose any passionate encomium for the simple graces of the country. He is too great to be didactic on such narrow issues. Wherever men and women live, there they can be happy; or, as Touchstone says to Corin, when he expresses ignorance of the Court, one-sided enthusiasts for either streets or hedge-rows are truly damned, "like an ill-roasted egg, all on one side." Equanimity, such that of the Duke and old Adam, carries with it, wherever it be, the gracious gentleness of an eternal Eden.<ref>"St. James's Theatre." ''Daily Telegraph & Courier'' (London) 25 February 1890, Tuesday: 5 [of 12], Col. 6a–7a [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0001112%2F18900225&page=5&article=048&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Print title: ''The Daily Telegraph'', p. 5. </ref></blockquote> The ''St. James's Gazette'' reported:<blockquote> We came intending to like it very much, and we succeeded in our intention. Indeed, we spent a really pleasant evening at the St. James's Theatre, Many of us knew one another to nod to, and some of us had bowing acquaintance with the author of the play; so it was all very sociable and comfortable. There were just enough shop-window celebrities to give an air of distinction to the rest of the audience, and everybody had a right to hope that his neighbours were wondering who he was. The critics were quite at their ease, having nothing to criticise except the acting; not being expected to suggest any slight alterations in the play (such as cutting out Acts I., III., and V., and rewriting Acts II. and IV.), but just to accept it as it stood, without even tracing it back to the French vaudeville from which it was, no doubt, originally adapted. The performance had many individual merits, but it also had two general faults. The first and least striking fault was that the interludes were  slurred over instead of being played up to. Now, the plot of "As You Like It" is so loose that a lengthy interlude (provided it be pretty) does not check the flow of interest; indeed, it gives a welcome rest and allows you to pick up your thoughts again. The other fault is one which may be, and is likely to be, remedied the play goes on. But at present it is neither smart nor spontaneous: the parts do not hang well together, and there is none of the enthusiasm which helps to pass off the interior performances of less skilful actors. The deficiency which we have noted was probably due to the serious illness from which Mrs. Langtry had been suffering and from which it was evident last night that she had not made a complete recovery. She worked very hard as Rosalind, and worked very well, and several times she made a really good hit; she was, perhaps, at her best in her indignant appeal to the usurper Duke against his unexpected and unjust decree of banishment. She was charming, again, in her embarrassment (as Miss Litton was charming before her) when she had her first meeting with her unconscious lover and she suggested very cleverly the absence of her skirts. She did her love-making archly and merrily; but though the pretended pretence gave her a right to go beyond the limits of maiden coyness, she seemed occasionally to assume the masculine Initiative when the feminine Suggestive would have been prettier. it was a pleasant though uneven performance, with plenty of grace in it and plenty of brains. The Touchstone of Mr. Sugden was in every way admirable — crisp, humorous, and distinctive. That his clowning was occasionally tedious was no fault of his. The palate of a modern audience does not relish these long-drawn pedantries of buffoonery. Our sense of humour is not more refined — it is different, and that's the end of it. But in the scenes with Audrey (and Miss Marion Lea made a capital Audrey — open-mouthed and innocently wicked or wickedly innocent) Mr. Sugden had a better opportunity and he made the most of it. There the humour was not conventional, and the audience enjoyed a laugh which was not scholarly. A word of praise must given to Mr. Brodie for his conscientious and effective rendering of the difficult and ungrateful part of the moonstruck lover of the wayward Phoebe. The first appearance of Mr. Bourchier in London attracted much interest. As an amateur at Oxford and elsewhere he was believed Iikely to to great things upon the stage, and his performance of Jaques was by no means a disappointment. The fault of it was that he did not suggest either the melancholy or the sententiousness which we associate with the character. The melancholy was but skin-deep, and the sententiousness simply was not there. But every actor has a right to read a part in his own way if it is a good way. And there is much to said for Mr. Bourchier's interpretation of Jaques. The temptation is to be stagy; Mr. Bourchier's tendency is to be natural. And he carried it out with great success in speaking the lines of the Seven Ages of Man. He caught up the Duke's phrase just as if it had dropped in the course of an ordinary conversation; and he played with it for a time until it seemed of itself to suggest to his mind the famous soliloquy. Certainly Mr. Bourchier’s method was effective, as it drew one of the heartiest rounds of applause in the whole evening. Among the company were noticed the following well known persons:— His  Royal Highness the Prince of Wales, the Duke and Duchess of Fife, [[Social Victorians/People/Mandeville|Lady Mandeville]], Lord De Grey, Mr. Alfred De Rothschild, Lord Lurgan, Sir Charles Russell, Sir Edward Guinness, Lady Colin Campbell, Lady Curzon, Lady Londonderry, Lady Hothfield, Hon. Alan Charteris, Mr. Oscar Wilde, Mr. Akers Douglas, M.P., Mr. Justin McCarthy, M.P., Sir Allen Young, Lord and Lady Coleridge, the Austrian Ambassador, the Spanish Ambassador, Lady Hozier, Mr. George Lewis, Mr. Whistler, Lady Greville [<nowiki/>[[Social Victorians/People/Lady Violet Greville|Lady Violet Greville]]?].<ref>"As You Like It."  ''St James's Gazette'' 25 February 1890, Tuesday: 5 [of 16], Col. 1b–c [of 2]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0001485%2F18900225&page=5&article=027&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title and p. </ref></blockquote> This report is from ''Blalud, The Bath Society Paper'':<blockquote>Happily, there was no disappointment in store for the friends and admirers of Mrs. Langtry, who gathered on Monday night at the St. James’s Theatre in great force, to welcome this popular lady back to London and receive her with an extra warmth of cordiality in token of satisfaction at her recovery from her recent severe illness. Eight years have elapsed since she last played Rosalind in London. Since then she has travelled much, both at home and abroad, and followed the study and practice of her art with unfailing spirit and determination. She returns to the character which all leading actresses aspire to play in Shakespeare’s glorious dream of the Court of Duke Frederick and the forest of Arden a far riper artist, and, says the ''Daily News'', she presented us on Monday with an impersonation which compared to her former efforts is as the finished portrait to the crude sketch. Her performance may lack the great high tide of girlish impulsiveness, but first nights before an exceptionally critical audience and some remains of the languor of her recent indisposition doubtless contributed to rob her acting of something of its force and impulse. But her ''Rosalind'' remains a most winning and beautiful performance. A handsomer ''Rosalind'', or one that has worn the doublet and hose with more grace and picturesqueness (Mrs, Langtry, we may here note, scorns the modern heresy of boots, and appears in the more orthodox hose cross-gartered), has certainly not been seen in our time. The performance is full of good points; as when at the words, "here on the skirts of this forest like the fringe of a petticoat," she remembers with a momentary touch of maidenly shyness that petticoats no longer form part of her attire. Again, when in bantering her lover, who exhibits so strange an inability to recognize the voice and features of the woman whom he passionately loves, she pauses at "a beard neglected," and pointing at ''Orlando’s'' smooth chin bursts into uncontrollable laughter; again, when in the mock marriage scene, with ''Celia'' for the priest, her mind for the moment seems to wander away into such a dream as this mockery might suggest to one so deeply in love. The distinguishing feature of the impersonation, indeed, is the subtle suggestion of serious passion that underlies the frolicsome and bantering moods, and exhibits itself again and again in many subtle forms. The play is beautifully put on the stage, and if some of the performers fall a long way short of ideal excellence there are several impersonations that stand forth in strong relief and are of far more than common excellence. The ''Phœbe'' and ''Silvius'' of Miss Beatrice Lamb and Mr. Matthew Brodie deserve special note: but the most brilliant success of all in the case of the minor characters was undoubtedly the ''Audrey'' of Miss Marion Lee, whose hoydenish, but not ungraceful antics, whose happy, contented ignorance, whose mingled wonderment and admiration at ''Touchstone's'' philosophical utterances were admirable. Everything that taste can suggest has been done to embellish the play; the musical features are strengthened by an efficient chorus, and the costumes designed by the Hon. Lewis Wingfield are rich and handsome. Perhaps it might be objected that Mrs. Langtry’s beautiful green velvet doublet, with its slashes, tags, and laces, her cinnamon jerkin, her black cap and jewelled buckle, and her rich and massive cloak were hardly suited to her daring enterprise on the highways and in the forests of the Duke’s dominions. The restoration of Hymen, gracefully represented by Miss Violet Armbruster, and the final morris dance in honour of the nuptials, gave the crowning fanciful touch to the performance, and prepared the spectators for the playful epilogue, which was spoken by Mrs. Langtry, in her simple nuptial white robe and leopard skin, with rare elocutionary grace and effect,. [sic] The audience which greeted Mrs. Langtry was at once distinguished and interesting. The Royal box was occupied by the Prince and Princess of Wales, the Duchess of Fife, the Princesses Victoria and Maud of Wales, and the Duke of Fife. Among the representatives of "Society" were Lady Londonderry, [[Social Victorians/People/Mandeville|Lady Mandeville]], Lord de Grey, Lord and Lady Coleridge, Lady Curzon, Lady Hothfield, Lord Lurgan, Lady Greville [<nowiki/>[[Social Victorians/People/Lady Violet Greville|Lady Violet Greville]]?], Lady Hozier, Mr. Alfred de Rothschild, Sir Charles Russell, Sir Edward Guinness, Mr. Coningsby Disraeli, Mr. Akers Douglas, M.P., Mr. Justin M‘Carthy, M.P., Sir Allen Young, Lady Colin Campbell, Lady Monckton, Mrs. Labouchere, and the Austrian and Spanish Ambassadors. Pictorial art was represented by Mr. Whistler; music by Mdme. Antoinette Sterling; dramatic writing by Mr. H. A. Jones; and theatrical interests by Mrs. Bancroft, Miss Genevieve Ward, Mr. and Mrs. John Lart, Mrs. John Hare, Mr. M. L. Mayer, Mr. Augustus Harris, &c.<ref>"Mrs. Langtry." ''Bladud'' 26 February 1890, Wednesday: 9 [of 16], Col. 2b–c [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0005771%2F18900226&page=9&article=055&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Print title: ''Blalud, The Bath Society Paper'', p. 9.</ref></blockquote> === 25 February 1890, Tuesday === On 5 March, the ''World'' reports on a party hosted by Mrs. Adair that must have been held the week before:<blockquote>Many smart people were present at Mrs. Adair's party in Curzon Street on Tuesday night. The rooms, lighted by electricity, looked their prettiest with floral decorations consisting entirely of tulips, the hostess appearing in a gown of terra-cotta velvet trimmed with dark fur. The Austrian Ambassador and Madame Waddington were among those who listened to Miss Damian’s rendering of a new song by Tosti, and to the glees sung by Mr. Avon Saxon's American quartet; and among others present were Lady Charles Beresford, [[Social Victorians/People/Mandeville|Lady Mandeville]], the Duchess of Marlborough, Lady Fanny Marjoribanks, who brought her sister, Lady Sarah Churchill, Sir Arthur Sullivan (just back from his annual sojourn at Monte Carlo), Lord and Lady Wharncliffe, Lady Howe and Lady Edith Curzon, Lord and Lady William Nevill, Mrs. Cavendish-Bentinck, General Charles Fraser, Lady Conyers, Madame de Brienen, and Sir Philip Currie.<ref>"What the World Says." ''The World'' 5 March 1890, Wednesday: 19 [of 44], Col. 2a [of 2]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0006339%2F18900305&page=19&article=061&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title and p.</ref></blockquote>The ''Daily Telegraph'' covered the party with a few additional names:<blockquote>A casual passer-by in Curzon-street last night might almost have imagined from the long string of carriages assembled there that, in spite of the cold east wind blowing, the London season had already begun. Mrs. Adair had together to hear some beautiful music, including a celebrated quartette of American singers, a large and fashionable crowd, composed of the ''élite'' of London society, comprising among many others, the Austrian Ambassador, the French Ambassadress, the Marquis and Marchioness of Tweeddale, Lady Charles Beresford, Lady Fanny Marjoribanks and Lady Sarah Spencer-Churchill, Earl and Countess of Wharncliffe, Countess Howe and Lady Edith Curzon, Lord and Lady William Nevill, Lord George Nevill, Viscount and Viscountess Curzon, Countess of Sefton and Lady Rose Molyneux, Viscountess Mandeville, Julia Countess of Jersey and Mr Brandling, Viscount and Viscountess Bury and the Hon. Mary Keppel, the Countess of Crawford, the Earl of Clonmell, the Countess of Antrim and Lady Louisa Beauclerk, Viscountess Melgund, Lady Conyers, Hon. Lady Cotterell and Miss Cotterell, Lord Alington, Lord Alcester, Lord Greenock, Viscount de Vesci, Lady Hilda Brodrick, Hon. W. Lowther, M.P., and Mrs. Lowther, Hon. Mrs. Bampfylde, Hon. Hallyburton Campbell, Mrs. and Miss Campbell, Hon. Kenneth Howard, Hon. Derek Keppel, Hon. FitzRoy and Mrs. Stewart, Lady FitzGerald, Mrs. Bischoffsheim, Madame de Brienen, Lieutenant-General Sir Seymour Blane, General C. Fraser, M.P., Mr. Chamberlain, M.P., Mr. Howard Vincent, M.P., and Mrs Vincent, Mr. Charles Hall, M.P., Mrs. Cavendish-Bentinck, Sir C. Rivers Wilson, Sir Arthur Sullivan, Sir Philp Currie.<ref>"London Day by Day." ''Daily Telegraph & Courier'' (London) 26 February 1890, Wednesday: 5 [of 8], Col. 4a [of 8]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0001112%2F18900226&page=5&article=094&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Print title: ''The Daily Telegraph'', p. 5. </ref></blockquote>The ''Sporting Gazette'' also had a report, on 1 March:<blockquote>Mrs. Adair's party in Curzon-street on Tuesday night was, as usual, exceedingly smart and dressy. The "smarties" turned out strong for this Anglo-American function, and wore their best frocks and jewels. Lady Tweeddale, Lady Howe, with Lady Edith Curzon, Lady Fanny Majoribanks chaperoning her younger sister, Lady Sarah Churchill, Lady Curzon, Lady Antrim with Lady Louisa Beauclerk, Lady William Nevill with some lovely diamonds, [[Social Victorians/People/Mandeville|Lady Mandeville]], Lord Alington, Sir Arthur Sullivan, Mrs Cavendish Bentinck, and others. The singing of an American quartette was ''the'' feature of the evening.<ref>"The Man About Town." "The County Gentleman." ''Sporting Gazette'' 1 March 1890, Saturday: 6 [of 38], Col. 2b [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0002525%2F18900301&page=6&article=053&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title, p. 274.</ref></blockquote> ==March 1890== === 10 March 1890, Monday === The Prince and Princess of Wales hosted a ball in celebration of their wedding anniversary. This report from the ''Bedfordshire Mercury'' is very brief:<blockquote> The Prince and Princess of Wales, in celebration of the anniversary of their wedding on March 10, 1863, gave a dance at Marlborough House on Monday night. The Danish Minister and Madame de Falbe were among the company invited, also the Earl and Countess Brownlow, [[Social Victorians/People/Mandeville|Viscountess Mandeville]], Lord Alwyne Compton, Baron F. de Rothschild, &c.<ref>"Notes of the Aristocracy." ''Bedfordshire Mercury'' 15 March 1890, Saturday: 7 [of 8], Col. 4b [of 6]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0001290%2F18900315&page=7&article=073&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title and p.</ref></blockquote> The report from the ''Morning Post'' suggests that this was a smaller party than usual for the Prince and Princess of Wales:<blockquote>In celebration of the anniversary of the Prince and Princess of Wales's wedding day, their Royal Highnesses gave an evening party (dancing) at Marlborough House last night. His Royal Highness the Duke of Edinburgh, her Royal Highness Princess Beatrice (Princess Henry of Battenberg) and his Royal Highness Prince Henry of Battenberg, her Royal Highness the Princess Louise of Wales (Duchess of Fife) and the Duke of Fife, his Royal Highness Prince George of Wales, her Royal Highness the Princess Victoria of Wales, her Royal Highness the Princess Maud of Wales, her Royal Highness the Princess Mary Adelaide (Duchess of Teck), and his Highness the Duke of Teck and her Serene Highness the Princess Victoria of Teck and his Serene Highness Prince Francis of Teck, and their Serene Highnesses the Prince and Princess Victor of  Hohenlohe-Langenburg and the Countess Victoria Gleichen were present. The following had the honour to receive invitations, but some amongst them were unavoidably prevented from attending: — The French Ambassador (M. Waddington) and Madame Waddington, the German Ambassador (Count Hatzfeldt) and the Countess Marie Hatzfeldt, the Turkish Ambassador (Rustem Pasha), the Austro-Hungarian Ambassador (Count Deym) and the Countess Deym, the Italian Ambassador  (Count Tornielli), the Countess Tornielli, and Mademoiselle Virginia dei Conti Lazzari, the Danish Minister (M. de Falbe) and Madame de Falbe, the Russian Chargé d'Affaires (M. Bontineff), his Serene Highness Prince Louis Esterhazy, M. A. Kroupensky, M. A. de Stoeckl, Count Leyden, Count Albert Mensdorff, Count Reventlow, Mr. and Mrs. Henry White, M. de Soveral, the Marques and Marquesa de Santurce, Mr. A. de Murrieta, Mr. C. de Murrieta. The Duke and Duchess of Leeds and Lady Alice Osborne, the Duke and Duchess of Buccleuch, the Duke and Duchess of Portland, the Duke and Duchess of Westminster, the Marchioness of Blandford and Lady Frances Spencer Churchill, the Marquis and Marchioness of Granby, the Marquis and Marchioness of Londonderry, the Marquis and Marchioness of Ormonde, the Marquis and Marchioness of Salisbury and Lady Gwendolen Cecil, the Marquis and Marchioness of Stafford, Count Gleichen, the Earl and Countess Brownlow, the Earl and Countess Cadogan and Lady Emily  Cadogan, the Earl and Countess of Clarendon, the Earl of Chesterfield, the Earl of Clonmell, the Earl of Dudley, the Earl and Countess of Dunraven and Lady Florence Wyndham Quin, the Earl and Countess Granville and Lady Victoria Leveson Gower, the Earl and Countess of Hardwicke, the Earl and Countess Howe and Lady Evelyn Curzon, the Earl and Countess of  Kilmorey, the Earl and Countess of Lathom and Lady Alice Wilbraham, the Earl and Countess of Lucan and Lady Rosalind Bingham, the Earl of Mount Edgcumbe and Lady Albertha Edgcumbe, the Earl and Countess of Romney and Lady Florence Marsham, the Earl and Countess of Rosebery, the Earl of Shaftesbury, the Earl of Stradbroke, the Earl and Countess of Sefton and Lady Gertrude Molyneux, the Earl and Countess Spencer, Viscount Drumlanrig, Lord and Lady Randolph Spencer Churchill, Lord Frederick Hamilton, Lord Ernest Hamilton, Lord and Lady Algernon Gordon Lennox, [[Social Victorians/People/Mandeville|Viscountess Mandeville]], Lord Charles Montagu, Viscount Chelsea, Viscount and Viscountess Coke and the Hon. Violet White, Viscount Curzon, Lady Georgina Curzon and Lady Sarah Spencer Churchill, Viscount Fincastle, Viscount Royston, Viscount Valletort, Lord and Lady Brooke, Lord Burghersh, Lord Capell, Lord and Lady Norreys and the Hon. Coralie Glyn, Lady Charles Beresford, Lord Marcus Beresford, Lord Alwyne Compton, Lord and Lady William Nevill, Lord Richard Nevill, Lord Henry Paulet, Lord Henry Vane Tempest, Lord Herbert Vane Tempest, Admiral Lord Alcester, Lady Ampthill and the Hon. Constance Russell, Lord Alington and the Hon. Winifred and Hon. Mildred Sturt, Lord and Lady Colville of Culross  and the Hon. Blanche Colville, Lord and Lady De  Ramsey, Lady Hastings, Lord and Lady Hindlip, Lord Lurgan, Lord and Lady Revelstoke and the Hon. Susan Baring, Lord and Lady Rothschild,  Lord Rowton, Lord Suffield and the Hon. Judith and Hon. Eleanor Harbord, Lord and Lady Wimborne and the Hon. Frances Guest, Lord Wolverton, Baron Ferdinand Rothschild, Captain the Hon. Maurice Bourke, R.N., Colonel the Hon. Henry Byng and the Misses Byng, the Hon. Alan Charteris, Lieutenant-Colonel the Hon. C. Edgcumbe, the Hon. Sir Spencer and Lady Ponsonby Fane, the Hon. Sidney Greville, Colonel the Hon. Oliver Montagu, the Hon. C. R. and Mrs. Spencer, the Hon. S. M'Donnell, the Hon. Alexander Yorke, the Hon. H. and Lady Feodora Sturt, the Hon. Arthur Walsh, the Hon. R. Winn, the Right Hon. W. E. and Mrs. Gladstone and Miss Gladstone, the Right Hon. A. J. Balfour, the Right Hon. H. Chaplin, the Right. Hon. Sir Henry James, the Right Hon. Sir C. L. Wyke, the Hon. S. C. Colville, the Hon. Assheton Harbord, the Hon. Julia Stonor, the Hon. H. Stonor, the Hon. E. Stonor, Captain the Hon. Henry White, Sir Edward and Lady Guinness, Sir Charles Hartopp, Sir Frederick Johnstone, Sir John and Lady Lister Kaye, Sir James and Lady  Mackenzie, Colonel Sir Nigel and Lady Emily Kingscote, Admiral Sir R. and the Hon. Lady Macdonald and Miss Macdonald, General Sir Dighton and Lady Probyn, Sir Francis and the Hon. Lady Knollys, Major-General Sir Christopher Teesdale, Sir Oscar Clayton, Sir Allen Young, Lieutenant-General Bateson, Lieutenant-General Charles Fraser, Major-General and the Hon. Mrs. Arthur Ellis and Miss Ellis, Colonel J. P. Brabazon, Colonel and Mrs. Stanley Clarke and the Misses Clarke, Captain H. F. Stephenson, R.N., Lieutenant-Colonel F. H. Poore, Lieutenant-Colonel R. Vivian, Major C. Swaine, Captain Douglas Dawson, Captain C. H. A. Hervey, the officers of the Queen's Guard, St. James's Palace, Mr. G. Byng, Mr. Henry Calcraft, Mr. Victor Cavendish, Mr. Henry Ellis, Mr. Horace Farquhar, Mr. and Mrs. George Forbes and Miss Forbes, Mr. Montagu Guest, Mr. Charles Hall, Mr. E. W. Hamilton, Mr. and Lady Hilda Higgins, Mr. Holzmann, Miss Knollys, Mr. and Mrs. F. R. Knollys, Mr. Ronald Moncrieffe, Mr. Alfred Montgomery, Mr. Arnold Morley, Mr. Henry Petre, Mr. Alfred de Rothschild, Mr. and Mrs. Leopold de Rothschild, Mr. Reuben Sassoon and Miss Sassoon, Mr. and Mrs. Arthur Sassoon, Mr. Edgar Sebright, Mr. and Mrs. Ralph Sneyd, Mr. Christopher Sykes, and Mr. O. G. St. George Williams. Messrs. Coote and Tinney's band was in attendance.<ref>"Marlborough House." ''Morning Post'' 11 March 1890, Tuesday: 5 [of 8]. Col. 6b–c [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0000174%2F18900311&page=5&article=055&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title and p. </ref></blockquote> ==April 1890== Arnold Dolmetsch took out a three-day ticket to the Reading Room in April 1890 (Campbell 22). === 9 April 1890, Wednesday === ==== The New Forest United Hunt Ball ==== <blockquote>This annual ball was beld at the New Forest Hall, Lyndhearst, on Wednesday night, and was a most brilliant gathering, upwards of 200 being present, not only the New Forest but also neighbouring hunts being well represented. Among those present were Earl and Countess of Londesborough, Lady Mildred Denison, Lady Lilian Denison, Hon. Louis Johnstone, Hon. Gerald and Mrs Lascelles, Major Downman, Capt. Sandbach, R.H.A., Col. and Mrs Sinkins, Col. Fitzroy Smyth, Lady Thursby and party, Mr Stanley Pearce (Master of the Foxhounds), Mr F. Lovell (Master of the Deerhounds) and party, Lady Adela Goff and party, Hon. Miss St. Leger Glyn and party, Mr A. H. Jeffreys, M.P., and Mrs Jeffreys, Hon. Mrs A. Peter, Mr Somerset H. Onslow, Mr Lancelot Orde, Lord Garioch, Mr and Mrs C. K. Francis, the Countess of Normandy, Lady Mary Agar, Lord Montagu, Hon. John Scott Montagu, Viscount Cantelupe, Prince Dhuleep Singh, Hon. D. Keppel, Col. Charles Needham (1st Life Guards), [[Social Victorians/People/Bourke|Hon. Mrs Algernon Bourke]], Mrs Cornwallis West, Mr and Mrs Shelley Bontein, Col. Gridley, Col. Newton, Col. Elliot, R.H.A., Lady Meyrick and party, Sir W. Jervois, Lady Jervois and party, &c.<ref>"The New Forest United Hunt Ball." ''The Sportsman'' 11 April 1890, Friday: 2 [of 4], Col. 5c [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0001055/18900411/024/0002. Same print title and p.</ref></blockquote> ==May 1890== Leonora Braham appeared at the Opera Comique as Ruth Ferns in ''Gretna Green''. ===21 May 1890, Wednesday=== It was his pupil the young Countess Valda Gleichen who found a sponsor for Dolmetsch's first but brief appearance at a London concert on 21 May 1890, when the 'Magpie Minstrels' … gave one of their bi-annual performances at the Princes' Hall" (Campbell 30). ==June 1890== === 3 June 1890, Tuesday === ==== Dinner and Concert Hosted by Mrs. Arthur Williams and Ball by Mrs. Menzies ==== <blockquote>Yesterday evening society passed a large proportion of time on wheels, and the number of receptions was more than the most inveterate could get through wvith comfort. ... Meanwhile, the Duke of Clarence and Avondale dined with Mrs. Arthur Wilson in Grosvenor-place, and a small and select concert followed. The Duchess of Leinster was, as ever, the most beautiful among many beauties, the Hon. Helen Henniker, after her long mourning, was warmly greeted by swarms of friends, and the Countess of Lovelace, in grey satin, chaperoned her débutante niece, Miss Milbank. Prince "Eddie" went from Mrs. Arthur Wilson's hospitable mansion to that of Mrs. J. Graham Menzies. It is unusual to find mother and daughter entertaining this illustrious young man on the same evening. Mrs. Menzies, who has succeeded Lord Suffield in his beautiful house in Upper Grosvenor-street, had one of the smartest and most successful balls of the present season. The Blue Hungarians played with immense vigour and owing to the postponement of Lady Carnarvon's ball, there was no competition for men and married women. Countess Howe, Lady Brougham and Vaux, Lady Aveland and Miss Willoughby, Viscountess Stormont, the Hon. Lady Grey Egerton and Miss Egerton, the Duchess of Buccleuch, the [[Social Victorians/People/Bourke|Hon. Mrs. Algernon Bourke]], the Earl of Craven, Countess of Coventry, Mrs. Mackay, Lady Sykes, the Marchioness of Granby, Mrs. Hwfa Williams, Lord Garioch, Sir Savile and Lady Crossley, Mr. and Mrs. Harry Lawson, and many others were present.<ref>"Yesterday Evening Society." ''Pall Mall Gazette'' 4 June 1890, Wednesday: 4 [of 8], Col. 3a [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000098/18900604/015/0004. Same print title and p.</ref></blockquote> ==== Münster-Hay Wedding ==== Account of the wedding of Count Alexander Münster and Lady Muriel Henrietta Constance Hay. Count Bismarck sent a gift.<blockquote>St. Andrew's Church, Wells-street, was completely filled yesterday afternoon on the occasion of the marriage of Count Alexander Münster, son of Count Münster, German Ambassador in Paris, with Lady Muriel Henrietta Constance Hay, younger daughter of the Earl and Countess of Kinnoull. The ceremony was fixed for half-past two o'clock, but all the seats in the body of the church were occupied long before that time by invited guests. The rood screen was hidden with white flowers, and a number of tall palms were skilfully arranged in and about the chancel. The bridegroom was early in his place, and wore the splendid white and gold uniform of the Garde du Corps of the Emperor; his best man, Prince Hans Heinrich Pless, wearing the scarlet and gold uniform of the Garde Hussars. The six bridesmaids were Lady Mildred Denison, Lady Dorothea Stewart Murray, Hon. Marie Hay, Hon. Marjory Murray, Miss Rosalind Lovell, and Miss Gladys Hadow (niece of the bride). They wore pretty dresses of pale blue satin, veiled with white chiffon; the skirts were edged with a frill, and the bodices finished with quaint fichus of the chiffon, fastened in front with a bunch of forget-me-nots. They wore drawn hats of the chiffon, covered with forget-me-nots, and their posies were of the same flowers, intermixed with pink roses, and tied with narrow pink ribbons. Each wore a gold bangle with centre forming the initials "A.M.," and a single turquoise drop. The bride entered the church at half-past two, and was received by her father, who led her to the chancel steps, preceded by the choristers singing a nuptial hymn. The bride's dress was of ivory satin made with a very long train. The front was fringed round the hem with orange blossoms and veiled with old Brussels lace, the gift of her mother; the bodice was entirely covered with beautiful old lace, and finished at the neck on one side with a cluster of orange blossoms. She wore a small wreath of orange blossoms and myrtle arranged in the hair at the back and a tulle veil falling almost to the end of the train and held by diamond stars, the gift of the bridegroom. The bride's other jewels included two diamond drop hairpins, the gift of Count Münster; an emerald and diamond brooch, from the bridegroom; enamel and diamond heartsease brooch, from Lady Mary Mills; a diamond and emerald bracelet, from the Duke of Beaufort; and a diamond bracelet, from the Duke and Duchess of Athole. Her train was held by her two little nephews, Masters Roland and Patrick Hadow, wearing Scotch dress with lace ruffles. The service, which was fully choral, was performed by the Rev. Provost Rorison, of St. Ninian's Cathedral, Perth, assisted by the Rev. W. T. Houldsworth, rector of St. Andrew's. The Earl and Countess of Kinnoull afterwards entertained the bridal party at the residence of the Earl of Londesborough, uncle of the bride, in Grosvenor-square. Among the numerous guests were the Russian Ambassador and Madame de Staal, the German Ambassador, the Austrian Ambassador and Countess Deym, Count Münster and the Countesses Marie, Julia, and T. Münster, Prince Pless, Prince Louis Esterhazy, Count Donhoff, Baroness von Beckendorff-Hindenburg, Baron E. Fürstenberg, Count Paul Metternich, Geheimrath Schmettau, Countess Valentin, [[Social Victorians/People/de Soveral|M. de]] [[Social Victorians/People/de Soveral|Soveral]], Captain Hasenclever, Count Leyden, Herr von Rath, Count Francis Deym, Baron and Baroness Deichmann, Count Mensdorff, Herr Pilgrim Baltazzi, Count and Countess Henry Lützow, Baroness d' Erlanger [?], Herr von Kemnitz, Baron Cramm, Vicomte de Janzé, the Duke of Beaufort, the Duchess of Athole, and the Ladies Stewart Murray, the Marchioness of Downshire, the Marchioness of Stafford and Lady Sybil St. Clair Erskine, Maria Marchioness of Ailesbury, the Countess of Dunraven and Ladies Wyndham Quin, the Countess of Kilmorey, the Countess of Galloway and Miss Stewart, the Countess of Dudley and Lady Edith Ward, the Countess of Strathmore and Lady Constance Lyon, the Earl and Countess of Roden, Lady Willoughby de Eresby and Hon. Miss Willoughby, the Countess of Westmorland. Viscount and Viscountess Raincliffe, Viscountess Coke, Viscountess Stormont and Hon. MabeI Murray, Viscountess Malden and Hon. Miss Capel, Lord Hay of Kinfauns [?], Lady Delamere and Miss Cholmondeley, Lady Brougham, Lady Esher, Lord Saye and Sele and Hon. Maud and Hon. Gertrude Fiennes, Lady Helen MacGregor and Miss MacGregor, Lord and Lady Algernon Gordon Lennox and Lady Angela St. Clair Erskine, Lady Raglan, Lord Charles Innes Ker, Lady Elizabeth Bertie, Lady Frances Pratt and Lady Clementine Pratt, Lady Geraldine Somerset, Lady Dalton Fitzgerald and Miss Payne, Lady Mary Mills and Miss Pereira, Lady Dorchester, Lady Louisa Moncreiffe and Misses Moncreiffe, Lady Norreys, Lady Petre, Lady Jane Trefusis, Lord Frederic Hamilton, Baroness de Brienen and Miss de Brienen, Helen Lady Forbes and the Misses Forbes, Lady Scott, Miss Scott and Mrs. Green, Lord Zouche and Hon. Miss Curzon, Mr. and Lady Constance Hadow, Hon. Lady Campbell, Lady William Nevill and Miss Bannerman, Hon. Alastair and Mrs. Hay, Hon. Miss Greville, Captain Hon. Randolph Stewart, Hon. FitzRoy and Mrs. Stewart, Hon. Charles Walsh, Hon. William Walsh, [[Social Victorians/People/Bourke|Hon. Mrs. Algernon Bourke]], Colonel Hon. Charles and Mrs. Hay and Miss Maude Hay, Hon. Mrs. Greville Nugent, Hon. Mrs. Colville and Miss Streatfeild [sic], Hon. Claude Hay, Sir Charles and Lady Forbes of Newe, Laely Borthwick, Sir Francis Montefiore, Sir Henry Hoare, Sir George Arthur, Sir William Gordon Cumming, General and Mrs. Wilkinson, Colonel and Mrs. Chaine, Colonel Arthur Paget, Colonel H. M. Hozier, the Provost of St. Ninian's, Major Finch, Major Candy, Colonel Lloyd, Captain and Mrs. Stewart, Mr. and Mrs. Hay Drummond, Captain and Mrs. Lloyd, Mr. William Gillett, Mr. Hulse, M.P., and Mrs. Hulse, Captain Lumley, Captain Barrow, Major Anstruther, Mrs. Hwfa Williams, Mr. Arthur Hay, Mr. Raglan Somerset, Mr. and Mrs. George Cavendish Bentinck, Mrs. Villiers, Mr. Henry Petre, Mrs. Keighley, Mrs. E. Balfour and Miss Balfour and Miss Ellice, Mrs. Dick Cunynghame and Miss A. M'Gregor, Rev. C. Weidemann, Miss Balfour and Miss E. Balfour, Mrs. and Miss Halford, Mr. and Mrs. Toler, Mrs. and Miss Townley, Rev. Dr. M'Ewan, Mr. A. F. Levita, Mr. F. Stephens, Mrs. and Miss Leigh, Mr. and Mrs. George Forbes and Miss Forbes, Mrs. Luke Wheeler, Mrs. J. Beerbohm, Dr. and Mrs. W. M. Collins, Mrs. and Miss Orde, Mrs. Murray, Miss Glyn, Mrs. Godfrey Pearse, Mr. Balfour, Mr. Leopold Goldberg, Mr. and Miss Oswa d [Oswald], Mr. and Mrs. C. Bulteel, Mrs. Brydges Wyllyams, Mr. H. Balfour, the Misses Codrington, Miss Finch, Mrs. Barron and Miss Sullivan, Mr. Hamilton Aidé, Mr. Granville and Miss Berkeley, Mr. M'Gregor, Mrs. and Miss Needham, Mr. and Mrs. A. Consett and Miss Consett, Mrs. Herbert Naylor LeyIand, Mr. and Mrs. A. Darby, Mrs. Montefiore, Mrs. Charles Murray and Miss Murray, Mrs. Thomas Legh, the Rev. John F. Mitchell, Mr. and Mrs. Claud Hay, Mr. Fiztalan Manners, Mr. Albert Stopford, Mr. Hervey Pechell, and Mr. and Mrs. Charles Orde. Later in the day Count Alexander Münster and his bride left for Hillingdon Court, Uxbridge, the residence of the Hon. A. Mills, where they will pass the early days of the honeymoon, and then proceed to Chàlet Sans Souci, Bellaggio, Lake of Como, lent by Mr. Hervey Pechell. They will afterwards go to Wiesbaden, and thence to Count Münster's German country seat, where a great reception awaits them. The wedding presents were very numerous. Count Munster presented the bride with a diamond necklace and pair of diamond drop hairpins. The bridegroom's gifts to his bride included a tiara of three diamond stars, a brooch formed of an emerald of unusual size set in diamonds, large pearl pendant, gold bracelet set with turquoises, and diamond and turquoise ring. The Duke of Beaufort presented Lady Muriel with an emerald and diamond bracelet. The Earl and Countess of Kinnoull's presents included a quantity of plate and other articles. Prince Henry of Battenberg sent a large silver-mounted claret jug; Count Bismarck, a silver box; the Marchioness of Waterford, gold snake bracelet, with pearl head and ruby eyes; the Duke and Duchess of Athole, diamond "M" bangle; Lady Ermyntrude Malet, massive silver bowl; Countess Marie Münster, silver tea set and tray; Baron E. Fürstenberg, pair of gold-mounted claret jugs; Baron and Baroness Erlanger, large silver bowl; Baron and Baroness Gungberg, pair of antique silver mounted jugs.<ref>"Marriage of Count Alexander Münster and Lady Muriel Hay." ''Morning Post'' 4 June 1890, Wednesday: 7 [of 12], Col. 7a–c [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000174/18900604/064/0007. Same print title and p.</ref></blockquote> ===4 June 1890, Wednesday=== Derby Day. According to the Morning Post, <quote>Lady Thurlow's first dance. / Mrs. Coddington's Ball. / The Fourth of June celebration at Eton. / ... Royal Society of Literature — Paper on "Early England," by Mr. Carmichael, S. </quote> ("Arrangements for This Day." The Morning Post Wednesday, 4 June 1890: p. 7 [of 12], Col. 6A). ===13 June 1890, Friday=== ? or on the 12th? Arnold Dolmetsch had a concert at which his students performed (Campbell 31). It was reviewed very positively in the 13 June Daily Graphic, especially Helene Dolmetsch's performance. They did Purcell's Fairy Queen. They used a harpsichord. ===26 June 1890, Thursday=== There was apparently a regular celebration of [[Social Victorians/People/Arthur Collins|Arthur Collins]]' birthday, 26 June, by Bret Harte, George Du Maurier, [[Social Victorians/People/Arthur Sullivan|Arthur Sullivan]], Alfred Cellier, Arthur Blunt, and John Hare (Nissen, Axel. Brent Harte: Prince and Pauper: 239. [http://books.google.com/books?id=WEDewmUnapcC]). Choosing 1885–1902 as the dates because those apparently are the dates of the close relationship between Harte and Collins, ending in Harte's death in 1902. ==July 1890== ===3 July 1890, Thursday=== <blockquote>On July 3, 1890, Besant’s house at 19 Avenue Road, St. John’s Wood, was inaugurated as a new center of Theosophical work, serving as the European headquarters of the [[Social Victorians/Theosophical Society|Theosophical Society]] and as HPB’s residence. That house became also the meeting place of HPB’s Inner Group, twelve of her students who were eager for more intense training than was feasible in a larger, more general gathering.</blockquote>That Inner Group is different from the Esoteric Section.<ref>"Esoteric World Chapter 23." ''The Theosophical Society of America, Online Resources''. http://www.theosophical.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&catid=23&id=1725&Itemid=53</ref><blockquote>The hall had a seating capacity of about 200. On the opening night [July 3, 1890] [sic] the room was crammed, and many were unable to gain admission. The speakers were Mrs. Besant, Mr. Sinnett, a Mrs. Woolff (of America), and Mr. [Bertram] Keightley. HPB was present but said nothing, on account of the critical state of her health.<ref>"23a. Henry S. Olcott, July 1890, London [Olcott 1931, 4:254–6]." Esoteric World Chapter 23. ''The Theosophical Society of America, Online Resources''. http://www.theosophical.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&catid=23&id=1725&Itemid=53.</ref></blockquote> === 4 July 1890, Friday, 11 p.m. === ==== The Queen's State Ball at Buckingham Palace ==== The Prince and Princess of Wales were hosts of this ball, as Queen Victoria was not present. Many of the Queen's children and their spouses were present.<ref>"State Ball at Buckingham Palace." ''Morning Post'' 5 July 1890, Saturday: 5 [of 8], Col. 5a–7b [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000174/18900705/038/0005. Same print title and p.</ref> The dancing commenced shortly after the Prince and Princess of Wales arrived at 11:00. === 1890 July 15, Tuesday === ==== Garden Party at Marlborough House to Meet the Queen ==== The beginning of the ''Morning Post'' article, which is followed by a very long list of people invited:<blockquote>Their Royal Highnesses the Prince and Princess of Wales gave a garden party at Marlborough House yesterday afternoon to meet the Queen. Her Majesty was accompanied by their Royal Highnesses the Princesses Victoria and Margaret of Prussia, and was attended by the Duchess of Roxburghe, Miss M'Neill, the Hon. Evelyn Moore, the Hon. Bertha Lambert, and Major-General Sir Henry Ewart and Major F. A. Bigge. Madlle. De Perpigna was in attendance on the Princesses Victoria and Margaret. The following were present: — Their Royal Highnesses the Duke and Duchess of Edinburgh and Prince Alfred, and the Princesses Marie, Victoria, Alexandra, and Beatrice of Edinburgh; their Royal Highnesses the Duke and Duchess of Connaught and Prince Arthur, and the Princesses Margaret and Patricia of Connaught; their Royal Highnesses the Prince and Princess Christian of Schleswig-Holstein Sonderburg-Augustenburg and Princess Victoria and Princess Louisa of Schleswig-Holstein, her Royal Highness the Princess Louise, Marchioness of Lorne, and the Marquis of Lorne. Her Royal Highness the Duchess of Albany, her Royal Highness the Princess Frederica and the Baron von Pawell-Rammingen, his Royal Highness the Duke of Cambridge, her Royal Highness Princess Mary Adelaide Duchess of Teck and his Highness the Duke of Teck and Princess Victoria of Teck, his Royal Highness the Duke d'Orleans and Princess Hélène d'Orleans, his Imperial Highness Don Pedro Augustus of Coburg and Braganza, his Serene Highness the Prince of Schaumburg-Lippe, his Serene Highness the Prince of Leiningen and their Serene Highnesses Prince and Princess Victor of Hohenlohe-Langenburg and the Countesses Gleichen, and Count Gleichen.<ref>"Garden Party at Marlborough House." ''Morning Post'' 15 July 1890, Tuesday: 5 [of 8], Col. 3a–7c [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000174/18900715/044/0005. Same print title and p.</ref></blockquote> === 19 July 1890, Saturday === ==== Wedding of James Francis Harry St. Clair-Erskine and Violet Aline Vyner ==== This report from the ''Fife Free Press'' is missing a big piece of the 2nd paragraph, where the bridesmaids' and bride's dresses are described, because the page was damaged. The digitized copy is also generally poor.<blockquote>On Saturday forenoon, in Michael’s Church, Chester Square, London, was celebrated the marriage of Lord Loughhorough, eldest son of the Earl of Rosslyn with Miss Violet Aline Vyner, younger daughter of Mr R. C. Vyner, of Fairfield, Yorkshire. The chancel was beautifully decorated with palms and a profusion of lilies most artistically arranged. The Prince of Wales, Duke of Cambridge. Princess Mary Adelaide, Duchess and the Duke of Teck, and Princess Victoria, and the Right Hon. W. E. Gladstone were among those present. The wedding party began to arrive at 11 o’clock, the bridesmaids being early in attendance. They were the Ladies Sybil and Angela St Clair Erskine, sisters of the bridegroom; Lady Anne Lambton, Miss Musgrave, Miss Rachel Gurney, and Miss Fleming. They were charmingly dressed in soft cream crepon, with violet velvet Zoave jackets, forming half sleeves and capes at the back, and pretty turn-down collars and cravats of white mosseline [mousseline?] chiffon, and the skirts were very plainly made. They wore large white hats lined with a band of violet velvet near the face, and trimmed on the crown with white ostrich plumes, a bunch of violets fastening the brim at the back. Each wore a brooch — the St Clair cross in rubies and diamonds set in a circle of the latter, and surmounted by a baron’s cornet of the same precious stones — the gift of the bri[degroom]; and carried a bouquet of Marechal Niel [roses?] ...ging sprays of the same, and tied w... ribbons. The bride entered the ... eleven o’clock, being received at ... father, who led her to the cha... her away. The service be... procession was preceded up ... choir, who sang "The voic..." The bride’s dress was ... with a long court train, ... white velvet being embro... ...und the train, and fasten... ...ver true lover’s knot. The picture... ...gh silver waistband, had full slee... mousseline chiffon; and a small ... blossoms was most becomingly arra... with a long tulle veil. The Earl of Chesterfield discharged the duties of best man. The Rev. Canon Fleming, Chaplain in Ordinary to the Queen and Vicar of St Michael's, performed the marriage rite, assisted by the Rev. Edgar Sheppard, Sub-Dean of the Chapels Royal, and the Rev. J. Thomson, of Rosslyn, near Edinburgh. The hymn “Thine for ever! For of love,” was sung the end of the service. Canon Fleming afterwards delivered a most impressive address. After the benediction the clergy and bride and bridegroom passed to the vestry, the Prince of Wales following with Mrs Vyner. Pretty wedding favours of orange blossoms, Parma violets, and white heather were then distributed amongst the congregation. Mr and Mrs Vyner afterwards welcomed the wedding party at Ashburnham House, Dover-street. The ''dejeuner'' was served in three rooms, one being reserved for the bride and bridegroom and the Royal party. The table in the latter room was decorated with several of Mr Vynet's racing trophies. The band of the Grenadier Guards performed in the garden during the reception. The Prince of Wales, Duke of Cambridge, the Duke and Duchess of Teck and Princess Victoria were present at the breakfast, and among the general company were Count Munster and Countess Maria Munster, the Marchese and Marchesa de Montagliari, the Marquis and Marchioness of Ripon, the Marquis and Marchioness of Stafford, the Marquis of Cholmondeley, the Marquis of Northampton, Maria Marchioness of Ailesbury, the Dowager Marchioness of Conyngham and Lady Blanche Conyngham, the Marchioness of Downshire, the Countess of Rosslyn, Earl and Countess Compton, the Earl of Feversham, the Earl of Durham, the Countess of Coventry and the Ladies Coventry, Countess Howe and Ladies Curzon, the Countess of Yarborough, the Earl of Clonmell, the Earl and Countess of Loudoun, the Countess of Kilmorey, Countess de Grey, Viscount Molyneux, the Bishop of Gibraltar and Mrs Sandford, Viscountess de Labrosse and Mdles. de Labrosse, Lord Greenock, Lord and Lady Algernon Lennox, Lady Lilian Wemyss, Lady Julia Wombwell and Miss Wombwell, Hon. Lady Campbell of Blythswood, Lady Constance Harris, Lady Florence Harris, Lord and Lady Burghley, Lady Dorchester, Lord Houghton, Lady Curzon, Lady Brougham and Vaux and Miss Musgrave, Baron de Hirsch, Helen Lady Forbes and the Misses Forbes, Baroness Burdett Coutts and Mr Burdett Coutts, M.P., Lady Astley, Lord and Lady William Nevill, Lord and Lady Brooke and Hon. Leopold and Hon. Marjorie Greville, Lady Dalton Fitzgerald and Miss Payne, Lord Elcho, Lady Willoughby de Eresby and the Misses Willoughby, Lady Ewart, Lady Hindlip, Lady Cecilia Rose, Lord Rowton, Lord Capell, Lady Mabel Compton, Lord and Lady Herries, Lady Sykes, Lord and Lady Alwyne Compton, Lady Ventry and Hon. Miss de Moleyns, Hon. Lady Knollys, Lady Manners, Hon. Lady Drummond and Misses Drummond, Hon. Sydney Greville, Hon. Assheton Harbord, Hon. Derek Keppel, Hon. Captain Bourke, Hon. Mrs Percy Mitford, Hon. Philip Harbord, Hon. and Rev. L. Tyrwhitt, Hon. Coralie Glyn, Hon. M. Lambton, Hon L. Greville, Hon. Alwyn Greville, Hon[.] Eva Greville, Hon. Frances Dawnay, Hon Evelyn Paget, Hon Mrs Algernon Grosvcnor, Hon and Mrs Lambton. Hon. Mrs Evelyn Pelham, Hon. Fitzroy St Clair Erskine, [[Social Victorians/People/Bourke|Hon. Mrs Algernon Bourke]], Hon. W. Maxwell, Hon. G. and Mrs Dawnay, Hon. Captain Lambton, General Sir Seymour Blane, Sir William Gordon Cumming, Sir Archibald and Miss Edmunstone, Sir Henry and Lady Meysey Thompson, Mrs Gladstone, Mr and Lady Margaret Cameron, Mr and Lady Florence Astley, Mr and Lady Elizabeth Melville Cartwright and Miss Melville Cartwright, General and Mrs Duff and Miss Duff, General Owen Williams, Colonel and Mrs Anstruther Thompson, Colonel Stopford Sackville, Colonel Craig, Colonel Brabazon, Colonel Forester, Colonel Stanley Clarke (in attendance on the Prince of Wales) and Miss Clarke, Major Davidson, Canon and Mrs Fleming, Captain St John Mildmay (in attendance on the Duke of Cambridge), Captain and Mrs FitzGeorge, Mrs William Portal, the Sub Dean of the Chapels Royal, Rev. W. M. and Mrs Wollaston, Rev. R. West, Mr and Miss Chamberlain. Mr and Mrs W. H. Grenfell, Mr Christopher Sykes, M.P., Mr Reuben Sassoon, Mr Arthur Sassoon, Mrs Bischoffsheim, Mr and Mrs Herbert Naylor Leyland, Dr and Mrs Anderson, Mrs Oswald, Mr and Mrs Surtees, Mr Fitzgerald, Mr and Mrs Menzies, Miss Willoughby and Miss Gertrude Willoughby, Mr Arthur Paget, Miss Christie, Mr Dowdall, Mrs Eastwood and the Misses Eastwood, Mr Frederick Warre, Mr William Williamson, Mrs Burton, Mrs Chaine, Captain and Mrs Livesey Wardle, Captain A. R. Hill, Miss Helby, Mrs and Miss Winslow, Mr and Miss Oswald, Mr Willoughby, Mr Quintin Hume, Mr F and Miss Fitzherbert, Mrs and Miss F. Hotham, Mr and Mrs Moreton Frewin, Mrs Charles Otway, Mr Calcraft, Mr Watson, Mr Fennick, Mr Montgomery, Mr Cecil Murray, Mr and Mrs Sneyd, Mr Leslie Stephen, Mr Edgar Sebright, Miss Fleetwood Wilson, Mrs and Miss Farmer of Nonsuch, Mr and Mrs Dennistoun and Miss Dennistoun, Mr and Mrs J. R. Lane Fox and Miss Lane Fox, &c. The bride and bridegroom left early in the afternoon for Easton Lodge, Dunmow, the seat of Lord and Lady Brooke, in Essex, where they will spend the honeymoon. The bride travelled in a costume of biscuit coloured armure silk, the top of the bodice and sleeves being of pale pink mousseline de soie, and the lower part of the former inserted with pink velvet ribbons to form a high band, Tuscan straw-hat trimmed with pink crepe de chine, and biscuit feathers. The presents exceeded four hundred in number. The Prince of Wales presented the bride with a trefoil moonstone and diamond brooch and the bridegroom with a sapphire and diamond pin. The Princess of Wales's gift the bridegroom was a silver-necked claret jug. The Duke of Cambridge gave an amethyst and diamond pendant, and the bridegroom a pair of silver gilt candlesticks; and Princess Mary and the Duke of Teck presented the bride with a silver sugar basin. The bridegroom’s gifts to the bride were a diamond and sapphire watch bracelet, a diamond half-hoop ring, diamond brooch with pearl centre, diamond and turquoise brooch, formed of the St Clair badge in rubies and diamonds set in a circle of diamonds, surmounted by a baron’s coronet in the same precious stones, a large salts bottle with two heart-shaped moonstones set with rubies and diamonds and a silver sugar basin. The bride presented Lord Loughborough with a turquoise and diamond stud. The Earl of Rosslyn presented the bride with diamond necklet. The Countess of Rosslyn’s gifts were diamond orchid brooch and a pink feather fan. Mr R. C. Vyner’s gifts to his daughter were a diamond and pearl tiara and gold mounted dressing case, and Mrs Vyner gave her a sapphire and diamond ring. The Marchioness of Stafford gave a ruby and diamond pin; Lady Mary Vyner antique diamond tiara; the Ladies Angela and Sybil Erskine sapphire and diamond bracelet; Hon. Fitzroy St Clair Erskine with "1890" in rubies and diamonds; Lord and Lady A. Compton large diamond star; the Earl of Rosslyn presented his son with a large silver bowl and two silver dishes; the Countess of Rosslyn's present was a travelling bag; Mr Vyner gave him a luncheon basket; Mrs Vyner a silver ''entree'' dish; the Marchioness of Stafford case containing silver coffee and tea pots, urn and stand, sugar basin, and cream jug; Lord and Lady Brooke four antique silver sauce boats; Lord and Lady Algernon Gordon ['''Col. 1c–2a'''] Lennox three antique silver ''entree'' dishes. The Earl of Rosslyn's Fifeshire tenants presented Lord Loughborough with a beautiful antique silver bowl, two antique silver dessert dishes, and two antique sugar castors; and to the bride they gave an antique silver tea service. The congregation of Rosslyn Chapel presented the bridegroom with a complete and elegant writing set, whilst Lord Rosslyn's servants gave him a silver inkstand and pair of silver candlesticks. Mr Vyner's servants presented the bride with a silver salver and six ''liqueur'' cups. The servants of Newby Hall gave a silver coffee pot, and Mr Vyner’s Cheshire tenants presented a case containing silver tea pot, sugar basin, and cream jug. The bride also received from the Duchess of Portland a travelling bag; the Duchess de Luynes, sapphire and diamond ring; the Duke of Westminister, Indian necklace; the Marquis of Northampton, diamond bracelet; the Marquis of Ripon, sapphire and diamond bracelet; the Marchioness of Ripon, turquoise and diamond bangle, the Earl of Durham, a diamond half hoop bracelet; Earl and Countess Cowper, a diamond "V V” brooch; Dowager Viscountess Downe, moonstone and diamond crescent; Lady Skyes [Sykes] ruby and diamond fish brooch; Lady Millbank, sapphire and diamond brooch Lord Douglas Compton, double heart brooch; Lord Herbert Vane Tempest, gold curb chain bracelet set with pearls; Earl and Countess Compton, bangle with “Vi” and “good luck” on it; the Duke and Duchess of St Albans, tea service with table; the Marchioness Conyngham, silver cream jug; the Marchioness of Tavistock, silver vase; the Countess of Rodin, a silver I bowl; the Countess of Yarborough, silver candlesticks; Viscountess Downe, silver tea caddie; Lady de Trafford, gold mounted salts bottle; the Hon. F. Dawnay, large silver candlesticks[;] Hon. F and Lady Lampton, travelling clock; Hon. W. Lambton, silver candlesticks; Sir R. and Lady Graham, silver salver; Sir Roderick and Miss Cameron, two silver dishes; General Williams, diamond bangle; Colonel and Mrs G. FitzGeorge, gold mounted bottle; Major and Mrs Egerton, pair of silver candlesticks; Major Stuart Wortley, diamond Swallow; Major Davidson, heart-shaped brooch in coral and diamonds; Captain and Lady Cecilia Rose, a brougham; Mr Beaumont, silver bowl; Miss Edmonstone, moonstone and diamond hat pins; Mrs Harris, sapphire and diamond bracelet; Mr Egerton, turquoise and diamond brooch; Sir Cecil Murray, sapphire and diamond pin; Mr A. Farquharson, diamond swallow brooch; Mr and Mrs Hulse, two small silver vases; Miss Fleetwood Wilson, diamond bangle; Mrs A. Wilson, tortoiseshell candlestick; Mr Quintin Hume, salts bottle mounted with diamonds and rubies; Miss Helbert, gold violet pin; Mr Chamberlain, pair of silver candlesticks; Hon. Arthur Coventry, gold mounted bottle with "Vi" in diamonds; Mrs Leopold de Rothschild, diamond hand brooch, together with a number of other gifts. Among the presents to the bridegroom were — from the Marchioness of Downshire, antique silver sugar sifter; the Marquis of Exeter, silver sandwich case; the Marchioness of Bath, antique Dutch silver box; the Marquis of Downshire, a gold pencil; Count Munster, cigarette case and match box; Count Alexander Munster, a hunting flask; the Countess of Lindsay, antique silver pen-tray; the Earl of Mar and Kellie, silver matchbox; the Earl and Countess of Loudoun, silver cigarette box; the Earl of Chesterfield, antique silver gilt inkstand; the Countess of Bradford, gold seal with agate; the Countess of Warwick, antique silver bowl; the Earl of Coventry, silver pen-tray; the Countess of Wharncliffe, two silver candlesticks; the Earl and Countess of Cromartie, two antique silver cups; Viscountess of Newport, silver paper knife; Mr and Mrs A. Sassoon, ruby and diamond pin; Lord John Cecil, silver salver; Lord and Lady Willoughby de Eresby, antique silver-mounted cruet stand; Lord William Nevtll, antique brandy carrier; Lady Margaret Spicer, silver match box; Lord Burghley, four silver salt cellars and spoons; Baron de Hirch [Hirsch?], silver inkstand; Lady W. E. Osborne Elphinstone, silver inkstand; Lord Kesteven, silver cream jug; Lord Capell, silver cigarette case; Lord and Lady Gerard, tortoiseshell and silver travelling clock; Lady Lilian Wemyss, silver cigarette case; Dad Alwyne Compton, umbrella containing matchbox and whistle; Lord and Lady Lennox, two antique silver ''entree'' dishes and bacon dish; Lord Burghersh, silver cigarette lighter; Lady Angela 8t Clair Erskine, four silver salt cellars; Lady Randolph Churchill, gold pencil case, with two sapphires; Lord Houghton, antique gold basket; Lady Sybil St Clair Erskine, umbrella; Lord and Lady Dorchester, large crystal seal; Hon. Derek P. Keppel, pair of silver candlesticks; Hon. E. and Mrs Pelham, silver inkstand; Hon. G. N. Curzon, silver gilt bowl; Hon. F. St Clair Erskine, four silver candle-sticks; [[Social Victorians/People/Bourke|Hon. A. and Mrs Bourke]], four small silver dessert dishes; Hon. Mrs Elliot Yorke, pair of silver candlesticks; Hon. Mr and Mrs L. Greville, tortoise-shell and silver box; Hon. R Somerset, diamond and pearl pin; Hon. G. H. Willoughby, silver ink-stand; Hon. H. and Mrs Grosvenor, umbrella; [[Social Victorians/People/Bourke|Hon. Mrs Algernon Bourke]], enamel and diamond pin; Captain Hon. Maurice Bourke, cigarette case and lighter; Hon. W. Maxwell, silver-backed clothes and hat brushes; Hon. Sidney Greville, saltspoons; Hon. M. C. Maxwell Scott, two silver ''menu'' plates; Hon. W. Edwardes, pin; [[Social Victorians/People/Greville|Captain Hon. A.]] and [[Social Victorians/People/Lady Violet Greville|Mrs Greville]], silver gilt bowl, fork, spoon, and ladle; Sir Frederick Milner, diamond and moonstone pin; Sir George Chetwynd, two long silver flagons; Sir M. and Lady Fitzgerald, two silver saltspoons; Sir N. Gordon Gumming, silver-handled paper knife, &c.<ref>"Marriage of Lord Loughborough with Miss Vyner." ''Fife Free Press'' 26 July 1890, Saturday: 2 [of 8], Col. 1a–2b [of 6]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0001110/18900726/015/0002. Same print title and p.</ref> </blockquote> === 24 July 1890, Thursday === ==== Dinner and Dance Hosted by Lord Alington ==== Perhaps the date on this is uncertain, since the article in ''Truth'' would suggest it was held in late May or early June. The newspaper story in the ''Queen'' mentions another occasion in which the flowers were notable as well. From ''Truth'':<blockquote> But not a quarter of a mile distant [from a dinner and dance hosted by Lord Rothschild featuring Princess Louise and the Marquis of Lorne] a more important event was proceeding, for Lord Alington, having previously walked down the Row and invited his friends right and left to Alington House, South Audley-street, proceeded to give a dance which was honoured by the presence of the Prince and Princess of Wales, the Princesses Victoria and Maud, the Duke of Clarence, Princess Mary Adelaide, and Princess "May" and Prince and Princess Christian. This without exaggeration, with the exception of Lady Leconfield's, Lady Willoughby de Eresby's, and Lady Cadogan's, was the best ball hitherto given this season, and the prolific way ortolans [small songbirds regarded as a delicacy] were distributed at supper will long linger in the memories of those by whom these delicacies are cherished. One lady displayed her enthusiastic appreciation by devouring five of these, and it is to be hoped her devotion did not endanger her life. As for beauty, seldom before have so many pre-eminent for good looks been present at one gathering, as a mere enumeration of a few of these will prove. Of course the Duchess of Leinster heads the list, followed in quick succession by the Duchess of Portland, Lady de Grey, Lady Randolph Churchill, Lady Dudley, Lady Kilmorey, Lady Brooke, Lady de Trafford, Lady Helen Duncombe, Lady Hilda Dundas, Lady Sybil St. Clair Erskine, Lady Olivia Taylour, Miss Rachael Gurney, Lady Cardross, Miss Bourke, Lady Rose Leigh and her sister-in-law, Miss Leigh, Miss Berens (sister to Lady Cairns), Mrs. Ralph Sneyd, Lady Gerard, and a host of others far too numerous to mention. I often wonder that no painter has yet attempted to give us in one picture a permanent record of the chief beauties of our day. It would make a most interesting and exquisite group of lovely women, such as could not be found probably in any other country than this.<ref>Marmaduke, pseud. "Letters from the Linkman." ''Truth'' 12 June 1890, Thursday: 26 [of 56], Col. 1a–b [of 2]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0002961/18900612/064/0026. Same print title, p. 1212.</ref></blockquote> From the ''Queen'':<blockquote>The P<small>RINCE AND</small> P<small>RINCESS OF</small> W<small>ALES</small> and the Princesses Victoria and Maud honoured L<small>ORD</small> A<small>LINGTON</small> by their presence at D<small>INNER</small>, at A<small>LINGTON</small> H<small>OUSE</small>, South Audley-street, on the 24th ult., when a distinguished party was present to meet them, including, among others, the Duke and Duchess of Leinster, the Marquis of Hartington, the Marquis and Marchioness of Ormonde, Maria Marchioness of Ailesbury, Earl and Countess Cadogan and Lady Emily Cadogan, the Earl Countess of Lucan and Lady Rosaline Bingham, the Earl of Hardwicke, the Countess of Dudley and Lady Edith Ward, the EarI of Chesterfield, the Earl of Stradbroke and Lady Hilda Rous, and Earl Annesley. Covers were laid for sixty. Lord Alington afterwards gave a dance to meet the Prince and Princess of Wales and their daughters. As on the previous occasion, the floral decorations were exquisite. The entrance hall and the approaches to the reception rooms were decorated with tall palms and a profusion of lilies, pelargoniums, ferns in every variety, and roses in every imaginable shade. The conservatories at the back were carpeted and furnished luxuriously, and blocks of ice, lighted by fairy lamps, were placed about with artistic effect, serving to keep the atmosphere cool and fresh. Feathery palms, hydrangeos [hydrangeas] and arums were here used freely, and a particularly pretty result was obtained by the windows being framed, one in a fringe of ferns and red pelargoniums, and the other in ferns and fuschias. The ballroom fireplaces were adorned on each side with palms reaching to the ceiling, the mantelpieces being hidden by a delicate arrangement of roses in various shades springing from banks of hydrangeas, calceolarias, pelargoniums, and marguerites, and the walls of the staircase leading from the conservatory to the ball-room were hung with half-balls of floral roses. The supper was served in the dining-room, the tables being embellished with the loveliest orchids and roses of the most delicate tints, intermixed with pancretia; the arrangement was so light and elegant that it was difficult to believe that hands had ever touched the flowers. On those tables with silver candelabra in the centre, the flowers were all pure white, and those having gold candelabra were treated with mauve orchids and the palest pink and yellow roses. A tent, arranged near the conservatory for the Prince of Wales, was draped with Oriental hangings, and outside were groups of flowers and myriads of fairy lamps. The company began to arrive at eleven o'clock, when dancing commenced to the strains of the Blue Hungarian Band. The Princess of Wales was dressed in white striped satin and silk, the front being embroidered in pale shades, and wore handsome diamond ornaments. The Princesses Victoria and Maud wore white tulle over satin, the front being sprinkled all over with tiny sprays of lilies of the valley, each laid on a single leaf. The Duchess of Wellington was in black satin, with a pink sash arranged very prettily across the back of the bodice, and falling to the feet; a cluster of pink flowers and a beautiful diamond spray were fastened in the front of the bodicea and a diamond rivière was arranged in the hair, a diamond necklace being also worn. The Duchess of Westminster was in white satin trimmed with gold embroidery, and veiled in white chiffon. The Marchioness of Ormonde wore white striped brocade and satin trimmed with white lace, and a splendid diamond tiara and other ornaments. Countess de Grey, palest blue satin, with front beautifully embroidered in beads, and a diamond and pearl coronet. Maria, Marchioness of Ailesbury, white brocade and lace, with splendid diamond and emerald ornaments. The Marchioness of Bath, cream an violet brocaded velvet, the front being covered with mauve [38, Col. 3c – 39, Col. 1a] violets. Lady Mary Mills, rose-pink satin, with front richly embroidered; Lady Cardross, white satin, trimmed round the bodice and train with silver embroidery; Lady William Nevill, pale yellow brocade, the front veiled with black net, trimmed up the side with jet leaves, and all round the skirt was a bordering of Maréchal Niel roses, over a flounce of black net; Countess Granville wore rich white brocade and beautiful jewels; the Countess of Sefton, black satin and diamonds; Viscountess Dungan, white mousseline de soie, the skirt edged with a deep flounce; Lady Brooke, pale blue satin, trimmed with silver; Lady Emma Crichton, white satin train, with front of white lisse, prettily embroidered in red; Lady Idina Brassey, pale mauve bengaline, with front of chiffon and a handsome diamon coronet; Lady Rose Molyneux, white cross crêpe de Chine, with a pale green sash, and prettily trimmed with pink roses; Lady Wimborne, pale grey satin; the Hon. Miss Guest, pink satin, veiled with white net, sparkling with silver; Lady Sarah Spencer Churchill, white satin, with a chiffon frill; Lady Chesham, white silk, with pink roses; the Countess of Normanton, pale grey satin, with front of fine old lace; Mrs Hulse, handsome white brocade, diamond tiara, &c.; Mrs Bischoffsheim, white silk, embroidered with silver, and trimmed round the bottom of the skirt and train with a ruche of pale yellow crèpe; the Hon. Muriel Brassey, white chiffon, over satin, slightly trimmed with pink; and the [[Social Victorians/People/Bourke|Hon. Mrs Algernon Bourke]] was in pink, with magnificent diamonds.<ref>"Entertainments, Balls, &c." ''The Queen'' 2 August 1890, Saturday: 38, Col. 3c – 39 [of 82], Col. 1a–1c [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/BL/0002627/18900802/237/0038 and https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0002627/18900802/237/0039. Print: ''The Queen, The Lady's Newspaper'', pp. 170–171.</ref></blockquote>This is the story from the ''Morning Post'':<blockquote>The Prince and Princess of Wales and the Princesses Victoria and Maud honoured Lord Alington by their company at dinner last evening at Alington House, South Audley-street. The guests present to meet their Royal Highnesses comprised the Duke and Duchess of Leinster, the Marquis of Hartington, the Marquis and Marchioness of Ormonde, Maria Marchioness of Ailesbury, Earl and Countess Cadogan and Lady Emily Cadogan, the Earl and Countess of Lucan and Lady Rosaline Bingham, the Earl of Hardwicke, the Countess of Dudley and Lady Edith Ward, the Earl of Chesterfield, Earl Annesley, the Earl of Stradbroke and Lady Hilda Rous, Lord and Lady Gerard, Lady Norreys, Lord Rowton, Lord Calthorpe, Lord Frederick Hamilton, Lord Charles Montagu, Lord Herbert Vane Tempest, Lord Arthur Grosvenor, Lady Lilian Wemyss, Colonel the Hon. Oliver Montagu, Sir John and Lady Lister Kaye, the Hon. Humphrey and Lady Feodore Sturt, the Hon. John Baring, the Hon. Henry and the Hon. Julia Stonor, the Hon. Gilbert Willoughby, Lady Suffield and Major-General Ellis, in waiting on the Prince and Princess of Wales; Sir Henry Calcraft, Mr. and Lady Rose Leigh, General and Mrs. Owen Williams, Mr. Mildmay, M.P., Mr. and Mrs. Arthur Sassoon, Mr. Montague Guest, Captain Orr-Ewing, Mrs. Bulkeley, Mr. Ricardo, and Mr. Caryl Craven. Lord Alington afterwards gave a dance expressly to meet the Prince and Princess of Wales. Among the company were— The Russian Ambassador, the Danish Minister, Prince Louis Esterhazy, Comte Costa de Beaunyardt, the Duchess of Buccleuch and Lady Evelyn Fitzmaurice, the Duchess of Westminster, the Dowager Duchess of Marlborough and Lady Sarah Spencer Churchill, the Duchess of Wellington and Lady Cardross, the Marquis and Marchioness of Granby and Miss Bourke, the Marchioness of Stafford and Lady Sybil St. Clair Erskine, the Marchioness of Bath and Lady Beatrice Thynne, the Marquis of Cholmondeley, the Marquese and Marquesa de Santurce and Lady Wilham Nevill, Countess Spencer, Countess Granville and Lady Victoria Leveson-Gower, Countess de Grey, the Earl of Dunraven, the Countess of Lathom and Lady Edith Wilbraham, the Countess of Enniskillen and Lady Christian Cole, the Earl of Ilchester, the Earl of Durham and Lady Anne Lambton, the Earl of Dalkeith and Lord Ernest Scott, the Countess of Sefton and Lady Rose Molyneux, Countess Howe and the Ladies Curzon, the Countess of Normanton and Lady Mary Agar and Miss Mary Liddell, Earl Craven, Viscount Clifden, Viscount Ennismore and Lady Beatrice Hare, Viscount Coke and the Hon. Violet White, Viscount and Viscountess Castlerosse and the Hon. Susan Baring, Viscountess Newport and the Hon. Miss Bruce, Viscount and Viscountess Melgund, Viscount and Viscountess Curzon, Viscount and Lady Violet Dangan and Lady Eva Wellesley, Viscount Dungarvan, Viscount Chelsea, Viscount Royston, Lady Hastings, Lord Capell, Lord and Lady Willoughby de Eresby and Hon. Margaret Willoughby, Lady Cloncurry and Hon. Miss Winn, Lord and Lady Brooke, Lady Wimborne and Hon. Miss Guest, Lord Sandhurst, Lord and Lady Edmund Talbot, Lord and Lady Alwyne Compton and Miss Gurney, Lord and Lady Chesham, Lady Rossmore and Miss Naylor, Lord Kenyon, Lord Garioch, Lady Alice Portal, Lady Margaret Levett and the Ladies Ashley, Lady W. Nevill, Lord Paulet, Lady Charles Beresford, Lady Forbes and Misses Forbes, Lady Claud Hamilton, Lord Carlow, Lady Mary Mills, Lord Lurgan, Lord Henry Vane Tempest, Lord and Lady Algernon Gordon Lennox, Lord Richard Nevill, the Hon. W. Coventry, the Hon. G. Joliffe, the Hon. Schomberg M'Donnell, the Hon. H. Coventry, Captain the Hon. E. Dawson, the Hon. Alistair and Mrs. Hay, the Hon. Mrs. Grosvenor, [[Social Victorians/People/Bourke|the Hon. Algernon and Mrs. Bourke]], the Hon. F. Dawnay, the Hon. E. J. Mills, the Hon. A. Johnstone, the Hon. Claude Hay, the Hon. Sidney Greville, the Hon. Mr. Dundas and Lady Hilda Dundas, the Hon. Thomas and Lady Idina Brassey and the Hon. Muriel Brassey, the Hon. Mr. Mansfield, Colonel the Hon. Henry Byng and Miss Byng, the Hon. Mrs. Oliphant, the Hon. Mr. Harbord, the Right Hon. Henry Chaplin, M.P., the Hon. G. Somerset, Sir William Gordon Cumming, Sir George Arthur, Sir Hubert Miller, Sir Charles Forbes, Sir William and Lady Eden, Sir George Chetwynd, Sir Frederick Johnstone, Sir John D. Poynder, Colonel and Lady Emma Crichton, the Hon. Miss Harbord, Captain and Lady Jane Combe, Colonel Paget, Captain Williams, Captain Ford, Captain Doyle, Captain Hanbury, Captain Campbell, Captain Constable, Captain Kinloch, Captain Longfield, M. Gutmansthal, Mrs. Bingham, Mr. Guthrie, Mrs. Arthur Paget, Mrs. Charles Wilson and Miss Wilson, Mr. Hulse, M.P., and Mrs. Hulse, Mr. de Murrieta, Mrs. Bischoffsheim, Mr. Spencer Portal, Mr. and Mrs. Gerald Paget, Mr. Leigh and Miss Leigh, Mr. Percy Daniell, Mr. Lister, Mr. Frederick Vincent, Mr. Cazalet, Mr. Alfred de Rothschild, Mr. John Savile Lumley, Mr. and Mrs Leopold de Rothschild, Mr. and Mrs. Skeffington Smith and Miss Taylor, Mrs. George Cavendish Bentinck, Mr. Alfred Farquhar, [[Social Victorians/People/Fanny Ronalds|Mr. Reginald Ronalds]], Miss Alice Ellice, Mr. George Marjoribanks, Mr. Wyndham, Mr. Dugdale, Mr. Montagu, Mrs. Sneyd, Mr. Wynn, Mr. Edward Hamilton, Mr. Murray Guthrie, Mr. George Lambert, Mrs. Sanford, Miss Mabel Forbes. Mr. Herbert Magniac, Mr. Bailey, Mr. Milner, Mr. Charles Kindersley, Mr. Beaumont, Mr. Walter Hervey, Mr. H. Hoare, Mr. Foley, Mr. Scott Murray, Mr. Coventry, Mr. Bertie, Mr. Jarvis, Mr. Guthrie, Mr. George Cavendish Bentinck, Mr. E. Charteris, Mr. Cholmondeley, Mr. Oswald Magniac, Mr. Cecil Campbell, Mr. and Mrs. Henry Oppenheim, Mr. Peploe, Mr. A. Charteris, Mr. Seymour Gore, Mr. Robert Antrobus, Mr. Elliot, M. de Champs, Mr. Wombwell, Mr. Charles Hoare, M.P., and many others.<ref>"Lord Alington's Ball." ''Morning Post'' 25 July 1890, Friday: 3 [of 8], Col. 5 b–c [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000174/18900725/014/0003. Same print title and p.</ref></blockquote> ==August 1890== ===6 August 1890, Friday=== ==== Beautiful Women ==== The ''Lancaster Observer and Morecambe Chronicle'' reprinted a story from ''Vanity Fair'' about "Beautiful Women":<blockquote>Beautiful Women. — ''Vanity Fair'' asks what country in the world can show a more beautiful bevy of women than England? When Lady Helen Vincent, with her sister, Lady Cynthia Graham; when Lady Warwick with her sisters, the Duchess of Sutherland and Lady Westmorland; and when Lady Mar and Kellie, Lady de Trafford, Princess Pless, Lady de Gray[,] Lady Naylor-Leyland, the Duchess of Portland, Lady Alington, Lady Sophie Scott, Lady Chelsea, [[Social Victorians/People/Bourke|Lady Algernon Bourke]], Lady Henry Bentinck, Mrs. Willie Grenfell, Mrs. Rupert Beckett, Mrs. Arthur Paget, and Countess Clary are gathered together it is a sight to make an old man young; while Mrs. Gerard Leigh and her sister, Lady Yarborough, and Lady Powis, Lady Norreys, Mrs Farquharson, Mrs. Willie James, Lady Dalkeith, Mrs. Pretyman, Mrs. Gervase Beckett, Lady Rossmore, Lady Sarah Wilson, Lady Colebrook, Lady Hartopp, Mrs. Willie Walker, and Lady Milton are almost equally admired. The many pretty girls include Miss Enid and Miss Muriel Wilson, who still head the list of the unmarried beauties, Lady Beatrice Butler, Lady Alexandra Hamilton, Miss Kennard, Miss Madeline Bourke, and Miss Leila Crichton; while among the debutantes Lady Evelyn Crichton and Lady Vivian's daughters have had a great success, and Lady Alice Montagu, petite and charmingly pretty, has been so much admired. The daughters of Lady Gosford, Lady Verulam, Lady Leitrim, Lady Inchiquin, and Lady Grey have also been admired, as well as Lady Helen Stewart, Lady Katherine Scott, and Miss Chaplin.<ref>"Beautiful Women." ''Lancaster Observer and Morecambe Chronicle'' 6 August 1897, Friday: 2 [of 8], Col. 5b [of 8]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0001804/18970806/023/0002. Same print title and p.</ref></blockquote> ===25 August 1890, Monday=== Summer Bank Holiday ==September 1890== ==October 1890== ===22 October 1890, Wednesday=== Arnold Dolmetsch went to the Reading Room (Campbell 22). ===25 October 1890, Saturday=== [[Social Victorians/Loder De Vere Beauclerk Wedding|Loder—De Vere Beauclerk Wedding]] ===31 October 1890, Friday=== Halloween. ==November 1890== ===5 November 1890, Wednesday=== Guy Fawkes Day ===19 November 1890, Wednesday=== Arnold Dolmetsch, with some of his students and his daughter Helene, provided musical illustrations for a lecture given by Dr. Frederick Bridge on "Mozart as Teacher," probably at Gresham College, where Bridges was professor (Campbell 34). ===21 November 1890, Friday=== Dr. Frederick Bridge's last fall 1890 lecture at Gresham College, for which Dolmetsch provided illustration. Campbell says, "it is, in fact, the first record in modern times of music by Byrd, Dr. Bull, Jenkins, Simpson, Lawes, Locke and Purcell being played 'on the instruments for which it was written'" (Campbell 34). ===25 November 1890, Tuesday=== Arnold Dolmetsch got a three-month pass to the Reading Room and "thereafter held yearly tickets until 1916" (Campbell 22). ==== 1890 November 29, Saturday ==== ===== [[Social Victorians/Dudley-Beckwith Wedding 1890-11-29|Wedding of Francis Dudley, Lord Leigh and Héléne Forbes Beckwith]] ===== ==December 1890== Sometimes in December 1890, [[Social Victorians/People/William Robert Woodman|William Woodman]], one of the founding members of the [[Social Victorians/Golden Dawn|Golden Dawn]], died (Gilbert 86 12). === 4 December 1890, Thursday === ==== [[Mure-Portal Wedding 1890-12-04|Wedding of Miss Mure and Mr. S. J. Portal]] ==== ===19 December 1890, Friday=== "The eleventh annual ''Truth'' Toy Exhibition for the children in London hospitals, workhouses, and infirmaries was held at the Grosvenor Gallery, Bond-street, on Dec. 19 and 20. There are over 22,000 children in these institutions, and each of them has a separate toy, besides the large and more expensive toys which are presented for the general use of the inmates. A special feature of the show was the dolls dressed by lady readers of ''Truth''. Several special donations in connection with the fund have been made, the principal of which is that of 10,200 new sixpences sent for distribution by the same liberal donor who has given a similar present on former occasions; while Mr. Tom Smith has had specially made, and has forwarded for distribution, over 22,000 crackers; and Mr. Horniman (as stated in our last issue) has given to the adults in hospitals and workhouses 1200 packets of tea, to be given to them as Christmas boxes." (Illustrated London News (London, England), Saturday, December 27, 1890; pg. 806; Issue 2697, Col. B) ===20 December 1890, Saturday=== "In order that the adults connected with the hospitals and workhouses may participate in the good things given to the children in the ''Truth'' toy distribution, Mr. F. J. Horniman, of Wormwood-street, City, has sent Mr. Labouchere 1200 packets of tea to be given to them as a Christmas box." (Illustrated London News (London, England), Saturday, December 20, 1890; pg. 774; Issue 2696, Col. B) From the ''Times'', 22 December 1890, "The Late Sir Edgar Boehm": <blockquote>On Saturday, in accordance with the special request of the Queen, the late Sir Edgar Boehm, R.A., was buried in St. Paul’s Cathedral, in the south aisle of the crypt, the spot being known as “The Painters Corner.” [new paragraph] The funeral cortége left the residence of the deceased at about 11 o’clock, there being five mourning and several private carriages. In the first carriage were the chief mourners, Sir Edgar Collins Boehm, the only son of the late baronet, and Mr. Conrad Herapath. The second and third carriages were occupied by Sir Frederic Leighton, P.R.A., Sir Nigel Kingscote, Mr. Richard Mills, Colonel Francis Baring, Mr. Alma-Tadema, R.A., Sir R. H. Collins, Mr. Edward J. Poynter, R.A., and Mr. Duncan MacGregor, all of whom subsequently, at the cathedral, acted as pall bearers. The fourth carriage contained representatives of the Council of the Royal Academy – Mr. Edwin Long, R.A., Mr. J. B. Burgess, R.A., Mr. F. Goodall, R.A., and Mr. Beavis. In the fifth carriage were the following members of the professional staff of the deceased – Mr. R. Glassby, Mr. E. Lantéri, Signor Finili, and Herr Gross. The cortége stopped for a few moments at the Royal Academy, in order that it might be joined by two carriages containing other representatives of the institution. Leaving Piccadilly, the route taken was Waterloo-place, Pall-mall, Cockspur-street, the Strand, Fleet-street, and Ludgate-hill, the cathedral being reached about noon. The procession was met at the great west door by Canon Gregory, the Archdeacon of London, the Rev. Dr. Baker, Minor Canons Milman, Russell, and Kelly, and the choir, who had a few minutes previously left the vestry; by Major Bigge, Equerry to the Queen, representing her Majesty; Colonel Stanley Clarke, who attended on behalf of the Prince and Princess of Wales; and Colonel W. J. Colville, representing the Duke of Edinburgh. The [[Social Victorians/People/Princess Louise|Princess Louise]] (Marchioness of Lorne) attired in deep mourning, and accompanied by [[Social Victorians/People/Arthur Collins|Lieut.-Col. Arthur Collins]] and Lady Sophia Macnamara, arrived at the cathedral a few minutes before 12 o’clock, and was conducted to a seat in the south side of the nave, close to the late Sir Edgar Boehm’s two daughters, upon whom her Royal Highness had called earlier in the morning. As the procession came slowly up the nave towards the chancel, “I am the resurrection of life” and other sentences of the burial service were chanted to music by Dr. Croft. The coffin, which was completely hidden by splendid wreaths, was preceded by the choristers and the clergy. Then followed Sir E. C. Boehm, with Mr. Conrad Herapath and Mr. Alfred Gilbert, A.R.A., the officers and council of the Royal Academy, and members of the deceased’s studio. The coffin was deposited upon a bier, which had been placed under the dome in front of the opening into the crypt, through which the body was subsequently lowered. The mourners having been conducted to the seats which had been reserved for them, and the clergy and choir having proceeded to their places in the chancel, Psalms xxxix. and xc. Were sung to music by Purcell and Felton, followed by Spohr’s anthem, “Blest are the departed,” and the lesson 1 Cor. Xv. 20, which was read by Canon Gregory. Whilst the hymn “Days and moments quickly flying” was being sung the Archdeacon of London and Minor Canon Milman proceeded from the chancel and took up positions by the side of the coffin. The remainder of the service preceding and following the lowering of the body into the crypt was read by Minor Canon Milman, and the collect was impressively recited by Archdeacon Sinclair. The late Dr. Newman’s beautiful hymn, “Lead kindly light,” was afterwards sung by the choir, and the service was brought to a close by Beethoven’s Funeral March, which was played in compliance with the special request of her Majesty, at whose desire also Chopin’s Funeral March had preceded the service. Dr. Martin was the organist. While Beethoven’s march was being played the son and daughters of the late “Sculptor in ordinary to her Majesty,” together with other mourners, descended the crypt by the door near Howard’s monument, and saw the coffin for the last time. It bore the following inscription:- “Joseph Edgar Boehm. Born July 6, 1834; died at his work December 12, 1890. Thy will be done.” The coffin had already been deposited in the brick grave prepared for it, which is next to that of Sir Edwin Landseer. Immediately around it lie the remains of painters and sculptors of bygone days – Sir Joshua Reynolds, James Barry, Benjamin West, Henry Fuseli, Sir Thomas Lawrence, J. M. W. Turner, and John Henry Foley, while within half-a-dozen yards is the tomb of the great architect of the cathedral, Sir Christopher Wren. The coffin as last seen was covered by the floral tributes of loving friends, the symbolic laurel wreath forwarded by her Majesty surmounting them. This bore the inscription, “A tribute of gratitude for many beautiful memorial works executed for her. From Victoria, R. I.” Attached to the beautiful wreath sent by the Prince and Princess of Wales were the words, “A token of sincere regard and friendship.” Wreaths were forwarded by other members of the Royal Family, by Sir John and Lady Millais, Lord and Lady Reay, the Countess Sydney, Lord and Lady de Vesci, Mr. Henry Irving, Mr. and Mrs. Bancroft, by members of the council, students and officers of the Royal Academy, the Society of Artistic Sculptors (Vienna), and by the London Hungarian Association." (http://glassby.com/Chapter1.htm) </blockquote> ===24 December 1890, Wednesday=== "The people of South London and adjacent suburbs have to be grateful to Mr. Frederick Horniman, a well-known City merchant residing at Dulwich, for a munificent and beneficial Christmas gift. This gentleman has, during thirty years, formed a collection, worth above £100,000, of specimens of art, European, Indian, Chinese, and Japanese, also of decorative manufactures, and of ethnology and natural history, and rare books and manuscripts, at Surrey House, Forest Hill, which he intends to present to the public. The museum was opened by Sir Morell Mackenzie on Wednesday afternoon, Dec. 24. It already comprises twenty-four rooms, containing many beautiful specimens of horse and chain armour, Elizabethan bed-room furniture, an old English parlour and pantry, an Oriental armoury, a bible and manuscript room, an Egyptian gallery, and ethnographical saloon, a book and embroidery saloon, a porcelain and glass room, and a zoological saloon, with two live Russian bears and a monkey. We may describe the museum further, after another visit. Our Artist has sketched, in the ethnograhical saloon, an idol's shrine, made of cocoanut-fibre, from Fiji. Mr. Horniman, in acknowledging a vote of thanks, said that in an adjoining house he had accumulated a vast library of bibles and entomological works and specimens. It was his intention to build a hall at the back of the present building to contain a thousand persons, while the galleries would contain a library, and a stage would be provided, so that both eye and ear could be amused. He also contemplated buying sufficient land to enable a public body to erect class-rooms and gymnasia. Three cheers were given for Mr. Horniman, and the company proceeded to inspect the museum." "(Mr. F. Horniman's Museum, Forest Hill." Illustrated London News (London, England), Saturday, January 03, 1891; pg. 7; Issue 2698, Col. C) ===25 December 1890, Thursday=== Christmas Day ===26 December 1890, Friday=== Boxing Day ==Works Cited== *"Besant Chronology.pdf." From Anderson, Nancy Fix, Walter L Arnstein, Deborah Logan, and Susie L Steinbach, Volume Editors. Lives of Victorian Political Figures, Part III: Queen Victoria, Florence Nightingale, Annie Besant and Millicent Garrett Fawcett by their Contemporaries. Volume 3 of Lives of Victorian Political Figures. Series Editors, Nancy LoPatin-Lummis and Michael Partridge. London: Pickering and Chatto, 2008. *Crawford, Elizabeth. The Women’s Suffrage Movement: A Reference Guide, 1866–1928. Google Books. Accessed 14 October 2010. 8tb7lyq2ifqehtgqxbezvhjfg6hrpxo 0 264381 2835718 2835588 2026-10-03T23:11:17Z Scogdill 1331941 2835718 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Viscount Mandeville Vanity Fair 1882-04-22.jpg|alt=Old drawing for a magazine of an aristocratic man in a formal suit|thumb|"Kim," Viscount Mandeville, 1882]] == Overview == The Mandeville who was in a relationship with music-hall and vaudeville star Bessie Bellwood was Kim (George Victor Drogo) Montagu, 8th Duke of Manchester (17 June 1853 – 18 August 1892). He was Viscount Mandeville from 18 August 1855 (when his grandfather died) to 22 March 1890 (when his father died).<ref name=":1" /> When he succeeded to the dukedom in 1890, he ended his relationship with Bellwood. His father was the 7th Duke and his mother was [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish|Louise Cavendish]], "double Duchess" of [[Social Victorians/People/Manchester|Manchester]] and then [[Social Victorians/People/Devonshire|Devonshire]]. In 1882 Viscount Mandeville (right) was "Man of the Day" (#255) for ''Vanity Fair'', drawn by Leslie Ward ("Spy").<ref>"Viscount Mandeville Vanity Fair 1882-04-22.jpg." Wikimedia Commons. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Viscount_Mandeville_Vanity_Fair_1882-04-22.jpg (retrieved 8 September 2026).</ref> == Also Known As == *Family name: Montagu *The title Viscount Mandeville is a courtesy title for the heir apparent and eldest son of the [[Social Victorians/People/Manchester |Duke of Manchester]]. This title is one of only 2 (for the heir apparent of a duke) that is below the rank of Earl (the other is the heir apparent of the Duke of Somerset). (Is Mandeville a toponym?) *Viscount Mandeville **"Kim" (George Victor Drogo) Montagu [8th Duke], (18 August 1855 – 22 March 1890) **[[Social Victorians/People/William Angus Drogo Montagu|William Angus Drogo Montagu]], 9th Duke (22 March 1890 – 18 August 1892) **Alexander George Francis Drogo Montagu (2 October 1902 – 9 February 1947)<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2020-10-15|title=Alexander Montagu, 10th Duke of Manchester|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alexander_Montagu,_10th_Duke_of_Manchester&oldid=983660353|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> *Viscountess Mandeville **Consuelo Iznaga y Clement Montagu [8th Duchess] (22 May 1876 – 22 March 1890) **Helena Zimmerman Montagu (14 November 1890 – 18 August 1892) *Lord Kimbolton (Baron Kimbolton of Kimbolton is the courtesy title for the heir presumptive, the heir apparent's eldest son, so the son of Viscount Mandeville<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2026-09-21|title=Duke of Manchester|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Duke_of_Manchester&oldid=1375987697|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref>) ** [[Social Victorians/People/William Angus Drogo Montagu|William Angus Drogo Montagu]], 9th Duke (1877 – 22 March 1890) == Acquaintances, Friends and Enemies == === "Kim" Montagu, 8th Duke, Lord Mandeville until 1890 === ==== Friends ==== * Edward Russell, 24th Baron de Clifford * Derrick Westenra, 5th Baron Rossmore * Francis Needham, 3rd Earl of Kilmorey === Consuelo Iznaga y Clement Montagu === ==== Friends ==== *Consuelo Iznaga y Clement Montagu was in the intimate circle of [[Social Victorians/People/Albert Edward, Prince of Wales |Albert Edward, Prince of Wales]]. ==Organizations== === "Kim" Montagu, 8th Duke, Lord Mandeville until 1890 === * Eton<ref name=":1" /> === Consuelo Iznaga y Clement Montagu === * Consuelo Iznaga y Clement Montagu was a member of the New York City social set called the Buccaneers when she was a teenager.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|date=2020-10-06|title=Consuelo Montagu, Duchess of Manchester|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Consuelo_Montagu,_Duchess_of_Manchester&oldid=982192002|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> Edith Wharton is said to have take details from the 8th Duke's marriage ''The Buccaneers''.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|date=2020-10-06|title=George Montagu, 8th Duke of Manchester|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=George_Montagu,_8th_Duke_of_Manchester&oldid=982188929|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> == Timeline == '''1855 August 18''', the 6th Duke died. The families "placed in mourning":<blockquote>He is succeeded in the Dukedom by his eldest son, Viscount Mandeville, M.P. By the melancholy event the families of the Marquess and Marchioness of Tweeddale, the Duchess of Wellington, the Duke of Montrose, Lord and Lady Olivia Ossulston [?], Lady Eliza [Elisa?] Steele, the Duke of Richmond, the Countess of St Germans, Lady Sophia Cecil, and many others of rank, are placed in mourning.<ref>"Death of the Duke of Manchester." ''Edinburgh Evening Post and Scottish Standard'' 22 August 1855, Wednesday: 2 [of 4], Col. 5c [of 8]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0001177%2F18550822&page=2&article=025&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Print title ''Edinburgh Evening Post and Scottish Record''; n.p.</ref></blockquote>'''1855 October 11, Wednesday''', H. I. Cridland says in a "Notice,"<blockquote>I will hold Audit Days at Lyttelton, on Wednesday, 11th October, for the receipt of rents and other monies due to the 25th of September, on account of the Soames, Jackson, Ecclesiastical, and Lyttelton Trust Estates, the lands of Lord Mandeville, Lady Emily Bathurst, Lady Olivia Sparrow, Rev. J. P. Rhoades, Rev. Charles Hodge, Dr. Merrion C. T. Maunsell, George Hart, late William Draper, and J. E. Fitz Gerald, Esqrs. ... Tenants are requested to present their last receipt.<ref>"Notice." ''Lyttelton Times'' 6 October 1855, Saturday: 1 [of 10], Col. 3c [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0003346%2F18551006&page=1&article=004&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Newspaper title ''The Lyttelton Times'', n.p. </ref></blockquote>This notice was repeated in the ''Lyttelton Times'' on 29 December 1855. '''1855 October 20, Saturday''', the [[Social Victorians/People/Wilton|Earl and Countess of Wilton]] hosted a [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1850s#1855 October 20, Saturday|house party at Heaton Hall]], with a visit to a silk mill in town. [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish|Luise, Duchess of Manchester]] was present with the Duke and their son Lord Mandeville (Kim, later 8th Duke), who was 2 years old. '''1876 May 22''', Consuelo Iznaga y Clement and "Kim" (George Victor Drogo, 8th Duke) Montagu married in Grace Church, New York City.<ref name=":0" /> === 1890s === '''1890 January 10, Friday''', Lady Mandeville was invited to a ball at the Ulster Club, Belfast. The article in the ''Lady's Pictorial'' says the "principal families in the north of Ireland were invited,"<ref>"Court and Society Notes." ''Lady's Pictorial'' 18 January 1890, Saturday: 44 [of 60], Col. 1b [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0005980%2F18900118&page=44. Same print title, p. 94.</ref> but Lord Mandeville is not mentioned. '''1890 January 21, Tuesday''', on or about, Lady Mandeville attended the [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1890#1890 January 21, Tuesday|wedding of Baron S. Alfred Oppenheim and Miss Florence Hutchins]]. '''1890 January 28, Tuesday''', Lady Mandeville attended what was supposed to be [[Social Victorians/People/Lily Langtry#1890 January 28, Tuesday|Lily Langtry's opening-night performance at the St. James's]] with the Prince of Wales and some of his circle. Also on this date, the ''Dundee Evening Telegraph'' reported that Lady Mandeville [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1890#1890 January 28, Tuesday|had bought 30 "Exploration" shares]], which funded exploration expeditions with the possibility of rights to minerals or resources or the development of monopolies for goods that were "discovered."<ref>"Notes — Mainly Personal." ''Dundee Evening Telegraph'' 28 January 1890, Tuesday: 2 [of 4], Col. 2b [of my 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0000453%2F18900128&page=2&article=001&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Print title: ''Evening Telegraph'', n.p.</ref> Her mother in law, [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish|Louisa, Duchess of Manchester]] also had bought 30 shares, both small amounts compared to some others. '''1890 January 29, Wednesday''', Consuelo Lady Mandeville was a guest at the house party around and the [[Social Victorians/Santurce Murrieta Wedding 1890-01-29|wedding of Miss Clarita de Murietta and the Duc de Santona]]. She had her eldest son with her, Lord Kimbolton (the 9th Duke of Manchester). Her mother in law, [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish|Louise, Duchess of Manchester]] was also present. '''1890 February 6, Thursday''' '''(shortly before 6 February)''', Kim Lord Mandeville attended a [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1890#1890 February 6, Thursday|boxing match fought by the prize-fighter Pete Jackson]] at the New Pelican Club. '''1890 January 30, Thursday, through at least February 8, Saturday''', Kim Lord Mandeville was among the [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1890#1890 February 8, Saturday|recent arrivals at Brighton]] although apparently after the most notable had already left. Certainly he does not appear to have been at the party the next evening that the Prince of Wales attended. '''1890 February 9, Sunday''', the Prince of Wales came after one of Consuelo's dinner parties:<blockquote>Lady Mandeville, who has been giving a series of small dinners in her house in Cumberland Place, had a dinner on Sunday. The Prince of Wales came in after dinner to meet a small party.<ref>"Society Gossip. (From ''The World''.)." ''Leighton Buzzard Observer and Linslade Gazette'' 11 February 1890, Tuesday: 6 [of 8], Col. 6b [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0001091%2F18900211&page=6&article=106&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Print title: ''The Leighton Buzzard Observer'', p. 6. </ref></blockquote>'''1890 February 24, Monday''', Consuelo Lady Mandeville attended [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1890#24 February 1890, Monday|Lilly Langtry's performance as Rosalind in As You Like It at the St. James's Theatre]]. '''1890 February 25, Tuesday''', Consuelo Lady Mandeville attended a [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1890#25 February 1890, Tuesday|party hosted by Mrs. Adair]]. Viscount Mandeville is not listed among those who attended. '''1890 March 4, Wednesday''', Consuelo's brother Fernando Yznaga married New York "beauty and society leader" Miss Mabel Wright.<ref>"Personal." ''American Register'' 22 March 1890, Saturday: 5 [of 8], Col. 5a [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0003338%2F18900322&page=5&article=070&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title and p.</ref> Presumably at least Consuelo was there? '''1890 March 10, Monday''', the Prince and Princess of Wales gave a [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1890#10 March 1890, Monday10 March 1890, Monday|dance at Marlborough House in honor of their wedding anniversary]]. The Viscountess Mandeville is listed among the guests invited, but the Viscount is not mentioned. '''1890 March 22, Saturday''', the Portsmouth ''Evening News'' expressed outrage about a man with a reputation like Kim's becoming 8th Duke of Manchester:<blockquote>While the House of Commons were debating the necessity for a House of Lords, the Duke of Manchester was on his death bed in Naples. There is more in the incident than appears at first sight, for Viscount Mandeville succeeds to the Dukedom, with the attendant rights of presentation to seven livings and the privilege of mutilating or rejecting Bills demanded by the people and passed by their representatives in the Commons.<p> It will hardly be urged by the moat zealous advocate of the Upper Chamber, as at present constituted, that the new Duke of Manchester, ''nee'' Viscount Mandeville, will bring much dignity, wisdom, or weight to the House of irresponsible legislators. This nobleman has had a merry time. The one sensible thing he did was to marry a charming and accomplished American lady, who, by consenting to share the name of Mandeville has kept its head above water. Viscount Mandeville himself has a weakness for bankruptcy proceedings, rows with cabmen, which music hall ladies come forward to take his part, and the class of events generally which do not approve themselves to the minds of the ordinary Briton. It is possible that Lord Mandeville may now discover that he has sown his wild oats, and may settle down with his beautiful and popular wife to the enjoyment of his  25,000 acres of land and £38,000 a-year. We have not to do with what Lord Mandeville may be. Our simple duty is to point out that it is an outrage on common decency and common sense that a man bearing the reputation of Lord Mandeville should have the right to step into the House of Lords whenever a vote is needed to swell the prejudice or sustain the selfishness that find among the Peers their natural home.<ref>"To-Day." ''Portsmouth Evening News'' 22 March 1890, Saturday: 2 [of 4], Col. 1c [of 6]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0000290%2F18900322&page=2&article=001&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Print title: ''The Evening News'', n.p.</ref></blockquote>The ''Birmingham Daily Mail'' had a similar opinion, though perhaps slightly more optimistic:<blockquote>The Duke of Manchester, who expired last night at Naples, cannot be said to have been much of a public man. He led a quiet, retired life, and the announcement of his death would, if Lord  Mandeville were not heir to the title, arouse but little interest. Lord Mandeville is, unfortunately for himself, more widely known than his father was. He developed tastes for gambling, with disastrous financial results, as the details of his bankruptcy made public last year, and more recently, his name has been publicly associated with those of prizefighters and music-hall singers. Altogether, he can hardly be termed a credit to the aristocracy of England, but the higher position to which he will now attain may cause him to alter his ways and try redeem the errors of the past.<ref>"Notes and News." ''Birmingham Mail'' 22 March 1890, Saturday: 2 [of 4], Col. 3a [of 8]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0000644%2F18900322&page=2&article=027&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Print title: ''Birmingham Daily Mail'', n.p.</ref></blockquote>On the same day, Consuelo's brother and new wife were reported to apparently be immigrating to the UK:<blockquote>Among the immigrants, says a London lady correspondent, is a New York belle who has just been married to Mr. Ferdinand Yznaga, brother to Lady Mandeville and of Lady Lister-Kaye. Young Mrs. Yznaga will enter London society under the wing of her sister-in-law, Lady Mandeville, and is expected to make as great a furore as did Mrs. Langtry a few seasons ago. Mr. Yznaga married a sister-in-law of Mr. Vanderbilt, who divorced him two years ago.<ref>"An American Belle." ''Huddersfield and Holmfirth Examiner'' 22 March 1890, Saturday: 6 [of 16], Col. 4a [of 6]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0003869%2F18900322&page=6&article=006&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Print title: ''The Huddersfield Examiner'', p. 6.</ref></blockquote>'''1890 November 14''', William Angus Drogo Montagu (9th Duke) and Helena Zimmerman married secretly, in London. '''1897 July 2''', the Duke and Duchess of Devonshire ( [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish|Luise Friederike Auguste Gräfin von Alten Montagu Cavendish]] and [[Social Victorians/People/Spencer Compton Cavendish|Spencer Cavendish]]) hosted the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball|Duchess of Devonshire's fancy-dress ball]] at Devonshire House. Lord Charles Montagu, likely Charles William Augustus Montagu, attended, as did [[Social Victorians/People/William Angus Drogo Montagu|William Angus Drogo Montagu]]. == Demographics == ===Nationality=== *Consuelo Iznaga y Clement was Cuban-American. *Helena Zimmerman was American. *George, William and Alexander Montagu were British. === Residences === * 1890: "The family estates — 27,312 acres, with a nominal rent-roll of £40,000 — were chiefly situated in Huntingdonshire and Armagh."<ref>"Men and Things." (London) ''Echo'' 22 March 1890, Saturday: 1 [of 4], Col. 6b [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0004596%2F18900322&page=1&article=010&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title, n.p.</ref> * In 1890 at the death of the 7th Duke, Kimbolton Castle: <blockquote>The Duke of Manchester... He was an old-fashioned Tory, and a man of simple tastes, whose chief interests were military and agricultural rather than political. Kimbolton Castle is a magnificent place, and the Duke's horses and troop of yeomanry were always the admiration of the Prince of Wales, the Marquis of Hartington, and many other visitors. Lord Hartington, it may be mentioned, was at Kimbolton when the news came of the  breaking out of the war between France and Germany [1871], he being a member of the Cabinet. The Duke had travelled much as a young man, and was familiar with the Continent, as also with South Africa, of which he was very fond. There is a private chapel at Kimbolton Castle, connected with which is a very extensive library containing some theological and historical volumes of great value. Notwithstanding his somewhat bluff manner the Duke was liked by the tenantry and poor from the kindly interest he took in their concerns. Even the poachers had a good word for his Grace. The feature, however, of the Duke's career was the marked contrast between his pursuits and those of the Duchess. The Duke loved every blade of grass, every tree and flower on his ancestral domain, and cared nothing for London life in its modern developments. Lord Mandeville [the 8th Duke] succeeds to the title, but the estates are heavily mortgaged.<ref>"Death of the Duke of Manchester." ''Pall Mall Gazette'' 22 March 1890, Saturday: 6 [of 8], Col. 2b [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0000098%2F18900322&page=6&article=014&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title and p. </ref></blockquote> == Family == *Consuelo (María Consuelo) Iznaga y Clement Montagu, Duchess of Manchester (1853 – 20 November 1909), née Doña María Consuelo Iznaga y Clement<ref name=":0" /> *"Kim" (George Victor Drogo) Montagu, 8th Duke of Manchester (17 June 1853 – 18 August 1892)<ref name=":1" /> #William Angus Drogo Montagu, 9th Duke of Manchester (3 March 1877 – 9 February 1947) #Jacqueline Mary Alva Montagu (27 November 1879 – 15 March 1895). #Alice Eleanor Louise Montagu (27 November 1879 – 10 January 1900) *[[Social Victorians/People/William Angus Drogo Montagu|William Angus Drogo Montagu]], 9th Duke of Manchester (3 March 1877 – 9 February 1947)<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2020-10-08|title=William Montagu, 9th Duke of Manchester|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=William_Montagu,_9th_Duke_of_Manchester&oldid=982513036|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> *Helena Zimmerman Montagu (25 September 1878 – 15 December 1971)<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2020-10-08|title=Helena, Countess of Kintore|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Helena,_Countess_of_Kintore&oldid=982513630|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> #Mary Alice Montagu Gregory (26 October 1901 – 9 October 1962) #Alexander George Francis Drogo Montagu, 10th Duke of Manchester (2 October 1902 – 23 November 1977) #Edward Eugene Fernando Montagu (26 July 1906 – 4 May 1954/1956) #Ellen Millicent Louise Montagu Hofer Shairp (5 January 1908 – 2 August 1948) === Relations === The three Iznaga y Clement sisters were prominent in London "Society": *Consuelo (María Consuelo) Iznaga Montagu, Duchess of Manchester (1853 – 20 November 1909) *Emilie Iznaga y Clement () *Natividad (Natica) Iznaga y Clement Lister-Kaye () == Questions and Notes == *In a ''British Newspaper Archive'' search for name=mandeville keyword=#viscount for 18 August 1855–22 March 1890 (September 2026), first did "Publication date oldest first," but Kim was 2 years old when his grandfather died and his father acceded to the dukedom, so on p. 57 of the search results (the page containing 1 January 1856) I switched to "Publication date newest first." Decided it would be more fruitful to work backwards. == Papers, Memoirs and Biographies == == Footnotes == {{reflist}} 7rmfdac5j5eo4yftnrsj5nkihpjsizk 0 264724 2835704 2835525 2026-10-03T18:38:27Z Scogdill 1331941 2835704 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Dress worn by Queen Victoria at her wedding to Prince Albert in 1840}} = Sandbox = Page to draft revisions for Wikipedia articles. For Gwladys Robinson, see Gwladys Lowther Robinson, [[Social Victorians/People/Ripon|Marchioness of Ripon]] and, earlier, [[Social Victorians/People/Lowther|Countess of Lonsdale]] ==References== {{reflist|2}} [[Category:1840 works]] [[Category:Royal wedding dresses|Victoria Queen]] [[Category:1840s fashion]] [[Category:British royal attire]] [[Category:Dresses in the Royal Collection of the United Kingdom|Victoria, Wedding]] [[Category:Diamond Jubilee of Queen Victoria]] = Victorian fashion = ==Women's fashion== == Men's fashion == (Two intros: one to Victorian Fashion, giving background for both women's and men's fashions; two to the decades for men's fashion) Among the influences on men's styles: * differentiation of genders (domestic ideology, ideology of the spheres) * the "Great Male Renunciation," the French Revolution and English tailoring * industrial revolution: mass production of fabrics and articles of clothing, especially for working-class men * sports and country clothing * Albert Edward, Prince of Wales, later King Edward VII, influence went beyond England; tailors led by him led fashion for the upper classes * then later, cult of youth * military uniforms * comfort and convenience * evolving definitions of gender, both femininity and masculinity evolved as concepts. The changing definitions of masculinity affected men's clothing. For the growing and rising middle classes, gender roles became more and more rigid around the concept of the separate spheres, the public for men and the private sphere for women. Cultural sources for men's clothing and men's fashion: industrial revolution; expanding middle class; technological advancements; an association in the culture between outward appearance and inward nature; French Revolution; Albert Edward, Prince of Wales Citation for Victorian Hell: <ref name=":29">{{Cite web|url=https://victorianhell.substack.com/p/victorian-mens-fashion-history-and|title=Victorian Men’s Fashion History and Clothing Guide|last="It's Monty, Actually"|date=31 October 2025|website=Victorian Hell|access-date=7 September 2026}}</ref> === Frock coats === * [[File:Apostol Mănescu, politician, wearing a frock coat, butterfly tie, black waistcoat with button chain and light coloured pants, drainpipe type. Circa 1866. Photo by Franz Duschek.jpg|thumb|Romanian (?) Politician, c. 1866, ill-fitting but probably handmade suit]]Apostol Mănescu, politician, wearing a frock coat, butterfly tie, black waistcoat with button chain and light coloured pants, drainpipe type. Circa 1866. Photo by Franz Duschek.jpg (1866) * * FrockCoat.jpg (1870s) * Hint's about men's dress, right principles economically applied (IA hintsaboutmensdr00barr).pdf (book) * Men in frock coats, capes and top hats look at pictures pegg Wellcome V0039491.jpg (1813, but note the full coat) * Four young men wearing frock coats - DPLA - 4706a21c9267c45034d51c8fc5309251 (page 1).jpg (used; 1850–1860s?, derby hats) * Full-length portrait of two young men wearing frock coats with sashes and pistols at their waists LCCN2006689564.tif * Fashion- the power that influences the world (IA fashionpowerthat00foxg).pdf (1871) * How to behave and how to amuse. A handy manual of etiquette and parlor games (IA howtobehavehowto00sand).pdf (1895; Men's Dress, p. 23) * The etiquette of men's dress (IA etiquetteofmensd00cluc).pdf (1888; search for "frock" — '''cutaway vs Prince Albert''') *S.W. Silver & Co.'s handbook for transatlantic travellers .. (IA swsilvercoshandb00silv).pdf (1883; has pages where ppl can write "Introductions" and "Engagements," but this is not a conduct book, it's sort of a guide to London) *Gazette of Fashion, October 1864, RP-P-2009-2673.jpg (1864; used; men + 1 boy; note trousers; Edward Minister & Son, Regent Street) *Gazette of Fashion, February 1865, RP-P-2009-2675.jpg (1865; used; men + 1 boy + 1 woman in a crinoline cage; Edward Minister & Son, Regent Street) *George Augustus Henry Sala.jpg (Mathew Brady, 1855–1865) *W Curtis Noyes.jpg (Mathew Brady, 1855–1865; use for coats, no trousers) *Photo of Prince Louis of Orléans, Prince of Condé.png (French, 1861; lighter version available) *Stockholms mode-journal- Tidskrift för den eleganta werlden 1847, illustration nr 2.jpg (Swedish, 1847) *[https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f6/How_we_go_to_those_who_cannot_come_to_us.._%28IA_howwegotothosewh00roge%29.pdf?utm_source=commons.wikimedia.org&utm_campaign=index&utm_content=original How we go to those who cannot come to us.. (IA howwegotothosewh00roge).pdf] (Roger, Peet & Co.; American, pp. 11, clerical frock; 7 "Prince Alberts" double-breasted frocks; 23 shirts as underwear) * ['''new content'''] Women followed Paris fashion in Europe and America, but London tailors led the way for men’s fashion. The Industrial Revolution actually impacted men’s fashion more than women’s.  Sewing machines in factories began mass producing cheap clothing for the largest group in the population, working class men. Ready-made clothing affected the social structure, the economy, and gender differentiation. Paper patterns, introduced in fashion magazines that targeted women, along with domestic sewing machines had more impact on women’s fashion than men’s. Haute couture was still bespoke (being individually constructed by tailors or dressmakers or fashion houses like Maison Worth). === Industrial Revolution and Technological Advancements === * the railroad * mass production of fabrics for working-class men's clothing ** Jacquard looms ** * sewing machines * aniline dyes, including black === Expanding Middle Class === * gender roles getting more clearly defined and rigid (referring back to page overview) === French Revolution === Sarah Gharmallah Alzahrani and Safia Abdelaziz Saroukh (https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Safia-Saroukh/publication/385099194_The_Semiotic_Dimension_of_Men's_Fashion_in_Modern_Eras/links/671686fbd796f96b8ec4f90e/The-Semiotic-Dimension-of-Mens-Fashion-in-Modern-Eras.pdf):<blockquote>The 19th century started with a fashion landscape that was changing dramatically and rapidly from the styles of a generation earlier. The French Revolution brought fashions that had been emerging since the 1780s to the forefront. Neoclassicism now defined fashion as both men and women taking inspiration from classical antiquity. For women, the high-waisted silhouette in lightweight muslin was the dominant style, while fashionable men looked to the tailors of Britain for a new, refined look [17]. [17]  Franklin, H. (Aug 18, 2020). Published on Jun 25, 2020, Retrieved: <nowiki>https://fashionhistory.fitnyc.edu/1800-1809/</nowiki> 11/11/2023. Edited. ...</blockquote>Brent Shannon:<blockquote>"Costume," wrote Max Beerbohm in 1896, "enables us to classify any 'professional man' at a glance, be he lawyer, leech or who not" (24–25). A man's profession and class were read by his jacket, his hat, what he rode in, and how he carried himself. "Perhaps there is a tendency among Englishmen to judge a man too much by the shape of his hat or the kind of collar he wears," conduct author John Wanamaker confessed; "But one must remember that in England if you ''wear'' the wrong thing, you will probably ''do'' the wrong thing, and generally ''be'' the wrong thing" (1).¹¹ Such assertions were predicated on the powerful Victorian conviction that outward appearance reflected inner qualities.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Cut of His Coat: Men, Dress, and Consumer Culture in Britain, 1860–1914|last=Shannon|first=Brent Alan|publisher=Ohio University Press|year=2006|location=Athens, Ohio}}</ref> (148)</blockquote> == Victorian Men's Fashion == David Kutcha traces the origin of the 3-piece men's suit to King Charles II of England, who may be said to be wearing a coat, pants and a waistcoat, but otherwise is not wearing a "suit" we — or the Victorians — would recognize as such: <blockquote>... since 1666, male gentility has been associated with modesty and plainness in dress. Eschewing fashion as an increasingly feminized realm Charles II's vest inaugurated a new and essentially modern era of masculine aesthetics, one that reversed a long-held association between elaborate display and high social status. Manly thrift now displayed elite status.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Three-Piece Suit and Modern Masculinity, England 1550–1850|last=Kutcha|first=David|publisher=University of California Press|year=2002|location=Berkeley and Los Angeles}}</ref> (2)</blockquote>So it's really Cromwell who should get credit?? The French Revolution caused both men and women to change stylistic direction radically. For one generation, stylish women wore simple white muslin dresses without foundation garments underneath. The changes in men's fashion was more lasting: men turned away from the ornamentation and ruffles of the ''ancien régime'', choosing instead understated and subtle tailoring to indicate good taste and wealth. Beau Brummell: "Men began to aspire to fine cutting, tailoring, and perfect fit in their clothes, flawless grooming and manners in themselves. The Englishman George Bryan (Beau) Brummell deserves much credit for the ideal of meticulous masculine appearance."<ref name=":25">{{Cite book|title=The History of Costume: From Ancient Mesopotamia Through the Twentieth Century|last=Payne|first=Blanche|last2=Winakor|first2=Geitel|last3=Farrell-Beck|first3=Jane|publisher=Addison-Wesley Longman|year=1992|isbn=0-06-047141-7|edition=2nd|location=New York, New York}}</ref> (458) "From 1796 to 1816, the Beau set the pattern for cleanliness and liberal use of starch." (459) '''Victorian gender ideologies''' relegated men to the "public sphere" and women to the "domestic sphere." (??) More than that “the cult of youth . . . the secularization of sport and the influence of modern warfare in generating men’s fashions, the tendency to prefer modern ideas of comfort and convenience, and the transformation of fashion knowledge and fashion urbanism from print to hyperreality”<ref name=":26">McNeil, Peter. "Men's Fashion: 1800–2022." Chapter 22. ''The Routledge History of Fashion and Dress, 1800 to the Present''. Routledge, 2024. https://opus.lib.uts.edu.au/bitstream/10453/182707/2/Men%27s%20Fashion%20200822_24_12_20_09_29_44.pdf DOI: 10.4324/9780429295607-27.</ref> (McNeil 1 or 411) changed the perceptions of masculinity and femininity. The growing middle class involved among other things more and more jobs and careers for young men as clerks, office workers, they were junior, subordinate, and they were commuting on the railroads from suburbs. Carolyn Kirby:<blockquote>In western Europe the fashion for plain dark suits coincided with the rise of the affluent middle-classes in a world where the pace of industrialisation and the globalisation of trade was accelerating as never before. The sharp, dark business suit became the last word in male power-dressing. And so it remains to this day.<ref name=":27">{{Cite web|url=https://historiamag.com/invent-masculine-fashion/|title=The invention of masculine fashion|last=Kirby|first=Carolyn|date=3 December 2025|website=Historia: Magazine of the Historical Writers' Association|access-date=25 August 2026}}</ref></blockquote>Albert Edward, Prince of Wales was very concerned with fashion and authoritative about it, with a very specific eye to small details. He was increasingly influential in men's fashion from the last third of the 19th and into the 20th century, and many noticed what he did and copied him.<blockquote>When that great lover of pleasure, Edward VII, visited Marienbad incognito as the Duke of Lancaster, he was followed by tailors from Paris, Budapest, Vienna, and Berlin who photographed him and took notes about his clothes. Edward VII introduced many [423–424] novelties into men’s fashion. ... He is also credited with making fashionable the creased trouser in 1909 (his groom dried them with a board weight after heavy rain, resulting in the line), turned-up cuff trouser (after hitching his trouser bottoms at a dirty racing track) and, as his girth grew, undoing the bottom button of his waistcoat."<ref name=":26" /> (424)</blockquote>Cowles<blockquote>The Prince was not just ‘a swell’. In the jargon of the day he was ‘a heavy swell’, and apparently there was a world of difference between the two terms. A swell was a rich young aristocrat who lived in extreme comfort; but a heavy swell added showmanship to the comfort and lived in a stylish luxury that even the French were obliged to envy. And of course the heavy swell was the acme of sartorial elegance. The Prince did not mind changing his dress half a dozen times a day. He loved clothes, and since whatever he chose to wear became the prevailing fashion overnight, he soon was regarded as an expert on the subject. His tailor-in-chief made a fortune. For many years he patronised a Mr. Poole. He discovered this gentleman by accident. He went to the theatre one night to see a well-known actor by the name of Fecher playing ‘Robert Macaire’. As an impecunious adventurer [129–130] Fechter was obliged to wear a coat that was torn and dirty, but Bertie’s expert eye noticed the elegant cut. At the end of the performance he asked Fechter for the name of his tailor, and Mr. Poole’s future was assured. The Prince had so many clothes he could never travel with less than two valets; and two more valets were left at home cleaning, brushing and pressing his vast wardrobe. There were suits and coats for every variation of every climate the world over. There were over a hundred pieces of headgear; and since Bertie was an honorary admiral and an honorary general of most of the countries of Europe, there was an entire room devoted to uniforms, sashes, epaulettes, belts, buckles, swords, feathers and other regalia. ... Men’s clothes became of such importance that new [130–131] shops sprang up like mushrooms in Savile Row, Clifford Street and Bond Street. Most of the Prince’s innovations were inspired by comfort and convenience. He altered the cut of the evening dress waistcoat, he shortened the tails on the tail coat, he left his frock coat open (due to an increasing girth), he introduced the black homburg, and he attended race meetings, not in the frock coat hitherto ''de regueur'' but in tweeds. He tried having his trousers creased down the sides rather than the front and back, in order to hide his bandy legs, but this idea did not catch on, and he soon discarded it himself. But the prince was not the only arbiter of men’s fashions. The band of  "heavy swells" who followed his lead gave him plenty of competition. Lord Raglan and Lord Petersham invented coats which are still named after them. Lord Dupplin the dinner jacket and Lord Cardigan the button-up sweater. But Lord Hardwicke made the most spectacular contribution. Men’s silk hats were made of beaver which was left in its original rough, shaggy state. Lord Hardwicke polished his hat until he could see his face in it, and consequently was known as "Glossy Top". He is responsible for the top hat as we know it today.<ref name=":28">{{Cite book|title=Gay monarch, the life and pleasures of Edward VII|last=Cowles|first=Virginia|publisher=Harper|year=1956|location=New York, New York|archive-url=https://archive.org/details/gaymonarchlifepl0000cowl/}}</ref> (129–131)</blockquote>Poole "comfort and convenience" — trousers, sack coats, collars and cuffs without a shirt, wool rather than silks and satins; knee breeches constantly riding up men as leaders of fashion, in spite of our sense that men didn't do fashion in the way that women did, were more serious than that ==== Men’s Clothing 1830 -1900 ==== “Tailored wool garments , originally inspired by the clothing of English country gentry, formed the backbone of men’s wardrobes in the early nineteenth century.”<ref name=":25" /> (458) Men’s clothing began to change from styles that were colorful and flamboyant in the eighteenth century to styles that emphasized cut over color. By the end of the century men’s clothing had settled into a kind of uniform with coats and trousers usually made of the same fabric, often with a vest or waistcoat of the same fabric. The uniform included a shirt with a stiff collar, a necktie and very little jewelry. It took the entire nineteenth century to change to a rather static style that is still worn today. (this is middle-class men for day wear?) ==== Silhouette ==== The silhouette for men sometimes followed the same line as women’s clothing on the top half of their bodies.. For example, as women’s sleeves grew into the huge leg-of-mutton fullness, the shoulders of men’s coats also had added fabric to make a pouf at the shoulder, thus emphasizing a broad shouldered look across the front. Men’s silhouettes changed subtly without the exaggerated fullness of women’s skirts or the raising and lowering of the neckline. Once men began to wear trousers, they did not go back to formal knee breeches (except in European courts or for court wear for Victoria). The line of men’s garments changed in smaller increments than women’s. Coats and trousers might fit tighter in some decades and looser in others. They were slim, then boxy, flared, then straight and evolved into the contemporary line we see on men today. ==== Coats and Shirts ==== Several styles of coats were available to fashion-conscious aristocratic and upper-middle-class men. Men’s suits in this period were tailor made, fitted to one specific man. The factories, however, knew that the vast majority of men were working class and began to manufacture and sell  ready-made shirts, coats and trousers. More clothes were available for working men and they cost less. The cheaper work clothes enabled upper-working-class men to own more than one set of clothes and to have more formal clothes for church or other events. Ready-made shirts were also available in generic sizes, small, medium and large. Generic sizing speeded up the mass production process and, since little of the shirts could be seen, they did not need custom fitting. [[File:Frock coat MET CI38.23.39 F.jpeg|alt=Old-fashioned coat hanging on a mannequin|thumb|Frock coat, 1840, American]] Frock coats were introduced in the 1820s and worn throughout the nineteenth century with only minor changes to the line or fit. Sleeves were full at the top and waists were tight, creating an hourglass form. Initially frock coats were tightly fitted and closed with buttons. The more tailored frock coats had a waist seam and a flared skirt almost to the knees. The rate of fashion change notable in women's fashion was true for men's clothing as well. The frock coat persisted for a century, but it was in a state of constant (but subtle) evolution, with collars and lapels, coat length, the waist seam, the fullness of the coat itself as well as the sleeve, color, patterns like stripes or plaids. A Prince Albert is a double-breasted, very well-tailored, form-fitting frock coat.<ref name=":30">[Baker, William Henry.] ''Clothes Dictionary''. Chicago, Ill.: Cahn, Wampold, 1901. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Clothes_dictionary;_(IA_clothesdictionar00bake).pdf.</ref> (33) Men around the world and especially in the British Empire wore frock coats: images and descriptions exist of men wearing frock coats in India<ref>Woodyatt, Nigel Gresley. ''Under Ten Viceroys; The Reminiscences of a Gurkha''. London: H. Jenkins Limited, 1922. Pp. 31, 107, 1774.</ref>, Iran (Persia at that time)<ref>Sparroy, Wilfrid. ''Persian children of the royal family; the narrative of an English tutor at the court of H. I. H. Zillus-Sultán, G.C.S.I''. London and New York, J. Lane, 1902. Pp. 11, 29, 30.[https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d1/Persian_children_of_the_royal_family%3B_the_narrative_of_an_English_tutor_at_the_court_of_H._I._H._Zillus-Sult%C3%A1n%2C_G._C._S._I_%28IA_persianchildreno00sparrich%29.pdf?utm_source=commons.wikimedia.org&utm_campaign=index&utm_content=original https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d1/Persian_children_of_the_royal_family%3B_the_narrative_of_an_English_tutor_at_the_court_of_H._I._H._Zillus-Sult%C3%A1n%2C_G._C._S._I_%28IA_persianchildreno00sparrich%29.pdf].</ref>, Japan<ref>Watson, W. Petrie. ''Japan, Aspects and Destinies''. New York, Dutton: 1904. P. 7, 19, 31.</ref>, Egypt and Turkey<ref>Butler, Alfred Joshua. ''Court Life in Egypt''. London: Chapman and Hall, 1887. P. 7.</ref>, .... Almost all of the coats Victorian men wore could be single or double breasted, with a couple of exceptions like morning coats and Norfolk jackets. On more formal occasions upper-class men wore a cutaway morning coat with light trousers during the daytime, and a dark tail coat and trousers in the evening. Shirts and collars separated: "by 1827 detachable collars became available."<ref name=":25" /> (477) Shirts were considered more like underwear early in the century but by the end of the 1800s, they were becoming the outside garments popular in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries. Neck treatments (and shirt cuffs) ==== Overcoats ==== Overcoats became a significant fashion element and many styles were seen throughout the century. <ref name=":24" />Kay, Fiona and Neil R. Storey, ''Victorian Fashions for Women'', Pen & Sword History, Yorkshire - Philadelphia, 2022 Surtout: "An overcoat cut in the style of a frock coat."<ref name=":30" /> (39) ==== Trousers ==== Breeches: Men’s bifurcated garment that ended just below the knee Trousers: men’s bifurcated garment that went down to the ankles or foot The most sweeping change in men’s fashion before 1820 was in the length of their pants. Trousers that went from waist to foot were so much more comfortable and popular than knee breeches that they replaced what had dominated men’s wear since the sixteenth century. And trousers have been worn for over two centuries now. They were originally tailored but began to be mass produced. Although the aristocracy were required to wear knee breeches at court, they wore trousers more than they wore breeches, and they could afford to have their suits and shirts hand sewn and individually. Working class men had to contend with small, medium, and large from mass production. This bifurcated garment was modified in specific places, like the length, the fullness over the hips or the width of the leg. In summer trousers were lighter in color — "grayish blue, aqua and pearl gray." (Payne 2, 505) In winter trousers mixed darker colors like "steel gray and brown, black and brown, and black and green." (Payne 505) More on summer colors, winter colors? [Find quote about QV's men's court dress and the men being so cold] ==== Waistcoats ==== Victorian men put their creativity, color and specialty fabrics into their waistcoats. At the beginning of the century men's waistcoats were made from specialty fabrics, like velvet or brocade or a patterned silk, '''sometimes two at the same time''': "During the 1820s and 1830s, men sometimes wore two waistcoats, in combinations like white velvet over rose-and-gold brocade."<ref name=":25" /> (474) Long after coats and trousers were made from the same dark wool, waistcoats continued to be colorful, making them the focus of the ensemble. By the end of the 19th century waistcoats made from the same fabric as the trousers and coat dominated men’s fashion. 1880s: "The term vest now applied to all but low-necked formal styles, which were still called waistcoats." (Payne 2 528) [[File:Homosexualitywilde.jpg|thumb|Oscar Wilde and Bosie Douglas, straw boater and derby, 1894]] ==== Hats ==== The upper-class continued to wear top hats, and [[bowler hats]] were worn by the working class. 1830s Men wore [[top hats]], with wide brims in sunny weather. 1830s - 1900 Top hats briefly became the very tall "stovepipe" shape, but a variety of other hat shapes were popular.[[File:Men's fashion silhouette of 1837.jpg|thumb|Men's coats, 1837]] [[File:Lev Wittgenstein by F. Kruger.JPG|thumb|Lev Wittgenstein by F. Kruger, 1836]] === 1830s and 1840s === Men's fashions in the 19th century have been less researched than women's fashions, in part because of fewer artifacts of what men wore were saved in museums for study. Photography, the first century that we have actual images (rather than artists' interpretations) of what people wore.[[File:Man's Frock Coat LACMA M.2007.211.61 (1 of 4).jpg|alt=Male mannequin wearing a light-colored thigh-length coat similar to a suit jacket and a top hat|thumb|Men's frock coat, c. 1845]] [[File:Stockholms mode-journal- Tidskrift för den eleganta werlden 1847, illustration nr 2.jpg|thumb|Stockholm's fashion magazine, 1847]] ==== Silhouette ==== Some men wore corsets, so the waist was nipped in and the skirt of the frock coat flared out. The sleeves were slightly puffed at the shoulders. The trouser legs were straight with a strap under the instep. The figure on the left in the fashion plate from ''Modes de Paris Journal des Tailleurs'' (right) illustrates this silhouette very clearly. ==== Coats and Shirts ==== Frock coats became fashionable for day wear in the 1820s<ref name=":25" /> (474) and were worn throughout the century. The main changes in frock coats in these two decades were in the colors and the neck treatment (collar and lapels). Initially frock coats were brightly colored, like "plum, mulberry, brown, bright blue, and bottle green,"<ref name=":25" /> (474) although the truly bright, saturated colors made possible by synthetic dyes were a couple of decades away still. Middle- and upper-class men limited their use of tailcoats to evening wear and more formal occasions. Shirts were made of linen or cotton with low collars, occasionally turned down, and were worn with wide [[cravats]] or neck ties. Before shirts were mass produced, they were tailored for upper and wealthy middle-class men. ==== Trousers ==== "Trousers of the 1830s fit quite snugly ..., but in the 1840s they became looser."<ref name=":25" /> (477) Knee breeches still existed, but only for court wear, riding and country wear (in the form of knickerbockers). ==== Waistcoats ==== waistcoat; vest “Waistcoats [or vests] remained colorful, decorative items in men’s wardrobes after the rest of their costumes had become plain.” (Payne 2 460-462) They could be single- or double-breasted, with shawl or notched collars, and might be finished in double points at the lowered waist. Collars gradually lowered over the course of the two decades. Often the colorful vests were decorated with fur or velvet collars. ==== Original Text ==== During the [[1840s in fashion|1840s]], men wore tight-fitting, calf length [[frock coat]]s and a [[waistcoat]] or vest. Sleeves were full at the top and waists were tight, creating an hourglass form. For more formal occasions, a cutaway morning coat was worn with light trousers during the daytime, and a dark tail coat and trousers was worn in the evening. Shirts were made of linen or cotton with low collars, occasionally turned down, and were worn with wide [[Cravat (early)|cravat]]s or neck ties. Men wore [[top hat]]s, with wide brims in sunny weather. [[File:Four young men wearing frock coats - DPLA - 4706a21c9267c45034d51c8fc5309251 (page 1).jpg|thumb|American, 1850–60s?, derby hats]] === 1850s === The 1850s revealed several industrial inventions that significantly impacted clothing. First, the Industrial Revolution began (and still does today) with machines to weave fabric and machines to sew fabrics. Manufacturers quickly learned that the majority of the population was working class. Theirs were the simplest, least trimmed garments made in the nineteenth century. Second, mass production of shirts, trousers and coats changed how most people shopped for clothes. The aristocracy and upper middle class folks could still have their clothes made to specifically fit their bodies. Manufacturers knew that they could not mass produce clothing for each individual’s body. They invented generic sizing in small, medium, and large. They could, therefore, produce many more items of clothing with generic sizing. Third, Isaac Singer patented and began to manufacture home or domestic sewing machines (treadle machines) enabling more form-fitted '''dresses''' to be constructed for an individual’s specific shape and size. The fourth item to impact fashion and clothing was the invention of the paper pattern. These were introduced in fashion magazines targeting women. Almost all women were taught to sew by hand, whether they were aristocrats or working class. Sewing machines enormously speeded up the '''process of constructing from hours to minutes'''. Finally, aniline dyes made colors brighter and longer lasting. Prints and stripes, checks and plaids, fabrics had much more vibrant color with aniline dyes. The Industrial Revolution impacted the working class and changed their lives the most. children's clothes? Women made men's clothing too According to Judith Flanders, working-class men's clothes could be colorful. For example drivers of hansom cabs () dressed more up-scale, and drivers of hackneys () did not.<blockquote>While hackney drivers were also considered to be stereotypically shabby, hansom-cab drivers were generally represented as smartly dressed. A print in 1850 showed a driver in a snappy brown coat instead of the coachman’s heavy multiple-caped outfit, pale green striped trousers, short boots and top hat, the [167–168] reins held daintily in his gloved hands. Both cab and coach drivers wore top hats, but cabbies of a sporting bent later switched to bowlers, and in summer donned bright checked outfits.<ref name=":23">{{Cite book|title=The Victorian City: Everyday Life in Dickens' London|last=Flanders|first=Judith|publisher=Thomas Dunne Books|year=2012|location=New York, New York}}</ref> (167–168 [of 972])</blockquote> '''Silhouette''' A variety of silhouettes was seen in the 1850s. Trousers were long and slim with a strap under the instep of the shoe. '''Coats and Shirts''' “Although the frock coat was worn throughout the century, it lost its dominant position in the 1850s, when the morning coat began to replace it.”<ref name=":29" /> A jacket shorter than the frock coat or morning coat that had visible pockets began to be worn in about 1850. By the 1860s, it had become the most popular casual coat. Cutaway tail coats were still reserved for formal occasions. All of these coats could be single or double breasted. During the [[1850s in fashion|1850s]], men started wearing shirts with high upstanding or turnover [[collar (clothing)|collars]] and [[necktie#Four-in-hand|four-in-hand necktie]]s tied in a bow, or tied in a knot with the pointed ends sticking out like "wings." '''Trousers''' Trousers had fly fronts and breeches were used for formal functions and knickers (short pants fuller cut than breeches) for horseback riding. Men's choice to wear trousers is an instance of the importance of comfort and convenience outweighing style and presentation, a value that increased in importance through the 20th century. '''Waistcoats''' Waistcoats remained the one garment that could be brightly colored and copiously trimmed on exotic fabrics. Waistcoats show that men were concerned with decorative elements in their ensemble. ==== Notes & Quotes ==== * transition from frock coats to ditto suits, 1850s (Payne, 463) ==== Hats ==== The upper-class continued to wear top hats, and [[bowler hat]]s were worn by the working class. Caps [[File:Gazette of Fashion, February 1865, RP-P-2009-2675.jpg|thumb|1865, Frock coats, etc. (Paris)]] [[File:Gazette of Fashion, October 1864, RP-P-2009-2673.jpg|thumb|1864, Frock coats, etc., Paris]] [[File:Broadway fashions, New York LCCN2003677917.jpg|thumb|Butterick, Spring-Summer 1866, Broadway Fashions]] === 1860s === [[File:Corporal frock coat 1862 med.jpg|thumb|Corporal frock coat 1862, 9-botton military]]The 1860s saw fewer inventions that influenced or changed the way people were acquiring clothes. But the changes begun by mass production continued with the working class. Little changed for the higher classes, except maybe paper patterns and sewing machines. '''Silhouette''' The different shape and size in clothing continued to provide slightly different silhouettes for men in the upper and middle classes. As women's clothes grew more complex in cut and style, men's clothes became simpler in cut and style. '''Coats and Shirts''' Individualized fittings continued for upper class and wealthy middle class clients. Working class as well as middle and upper class. Morning coats still led the way but frock coats were still in demand and worn in business and more casual situations. Leisure wear like knickers and ditto suits became more popular in the 1860s. Haute couture wanted every occasion or event to have special clothing. In some ways men dressed more alike (coat, trousers, waistcoat) and in some ways there was more variety in the cut of their coats and in the manufactured clothing they could buy. Many upper class men still had their shirts custom made. Frock coats were shortened to knee-length and were worn for business, while the mid-thigh length [[sack coat]] slowly displaced the frock coat for less-formal occasions, with the overall effect of a looser silhouette. The Prince of Wales: "For the countryside such as at Sandringham, he permitted an informal dress code. The Henry Poole ledger marked as 'HRH 1865' is for an evening coat without tails, the first 'dinner jacket.'"<ref name=":26" /> (424) Shirts '''Trousers''' Trousers were cut full and boxy during most of the 1850s and 1860s. The strap under the shoe disappeared and trouser legs reached the back of the heel in length. Knickers were still worn for hunting or riding and breeches were still ''de rigueur'' at court. '''Waistcoats''' Waistcoats remained decorative and worn with most of the coats that were popular. The young “dandies” wore the most colorful and decorated waistcoats. These “dandies” gave their highest priority to their appearance. They were the avant garde of haute couture. ==== Necks ==== In the [[1860s in fashion|1860s]], men started wearing wider neckties that were tied in a bow or looped into a loose knot and fastened with a stickpin. ==== Hats ==== Top hats briefly became the very tall "stovepipe" shape, but a variety of other hat shapes were popular.[[File:Mens Coats 1872 Fashion Plate.jpg|thumb|upright|Drawing of Victorian men 1870s]] [[File:Ashurst frock coat.jpg|thumb|Ashurst Frock coat]] [[File:Grand Duke Alexis Alexandrovich of Russia Wearing a Frock Coat; Standing (fbc266c2feca43f6ad5b44e031635a8d).tif|alt=Old photograph of a man wearing a dark thigh-length coat similar to a suit coat with light-colored trousers|thumb|Grand Duke Alexis Alexandrovich of Russia Wearing a Frock Coat, c. 1872]] [[File:Caillebotte Hugot.jpg|thumb|Portrait of Paul Hugot, 1878]] [[File:Oscar Wilde (1854-1900), by Hills & Saunders, Rugby & Oxford 3 april 1876.jpg|thumb|Oscar Wilde, 1876, ditto suit]] === 1870s === To correct and prevent errors being made in court dress, in 1875 the Lord Chamberlain published ''Dress Worn by Gentleman at Her Majesty's Court'', "a summary of regulations for court uniform and dress."<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/Dress_worn_by_Gentlemen_at_Her_Majesty_s/pvrbQCXq0MEC?hl=en|title=Dress worn by Gentlemen at Her Majesty's Court|last=Britain)|first=Victoria (Queen of Great|date=1875|language=en}}</ref> This is the kind of thing Bertie really cared about. Define court dress. '''Silhouette''' A portly, boxy silhouette was sought for most of the 1870s. Older men whose stomachs had spread outward and thus looked prosperous to the Victorians were the ideal for men’s high fashion. Sack coats and trousers were cut a little wider in the legs. '''Coats and Shirts''' There were minor changes to some of the coats Victorian men wore. Frock coats were shortened to the knee. Sack coats (or ditto coats — the forerunner of the suits worn by men in the western cultures of the twentieth and twenty-first centuries) were found to be so comfortable that most men of the upper and middle classes had a ditto suit. Men still wore morning coats and the aristocracy still wore cutaway coats with trousers to parties and balls but cutaway coats with knee breeches at court. Although ready-made shirts were available, the upper and middle classes still wore bespoke clothing hand-made, with better fabric and an excellent fit but stitched on machines. The suits and shirts made for the working class were of cheaper fabrics. Corduroy for trousers and muslin for shirts was often used in working class clothing.. '''Trousers''' Most men were wearing trousers  all of the time (except at court) and have worn them ever since. Trousers had button flies by the 1870s which most men found to be much more convenient than laces. Trousers did not “ride up” the leg in the way that knee breeches did when dancing or sitting. If a man did not have fashionable legs, they could be obscured behind trousers. '''Waistcoats''' ==== Original Text ==== During the [[1870s in fashion|1870s]], three-piece suits grew in popularity along with patterned fabrics for shirts. Neckties were the four-in-hand and, later, the [[Ascot tie]]s. A narrow ribbon tie was an alternative for tropical climates, especially in the Americas. Both frock coats and sack coats became shorter and more form fitting. Flat straw boaters were worn when boating. [[File:Elliott & Fry10a.jpg|thumb|William Gladstone, 1887, morning coat]] [[File:British politicians gambling at Ascot Wellcome V0050378.jpg|thumb|British Politicians Gambling at Ascot, 1884]] [[File:Scribner's magazine (1887) (14595087238).jpg|thumb|1887, types of American servants]] === 1880s === ==== Silhouette ==== The silhouette narrowed and straightened. That is, the line went straight down without the flare of skirts on the coats. This smooth line had few decorations. Men wore hardly any jewelry. They might have a boutonniere or a ring.  Suits were not  decorated. All coats were straighter and shorter. Depending on the time of day, the Prince of Wales might change his clothes (thus, his silhouette) up to six times per day,<ref name=":28" /> (129) and some aristocrats and upper-class men would follow his lead. ==== Coats and Shirts ==== Although the frock coat was worn throughout the nineteenth century, the single fabric sack suit was worn for casual wear and was beginning to be seen as a businessman’s suit.  Morning coats were still in use for some events as well as casual occasions. The modern tuxedo or Cowes jacket appeared and was worn for formal occasions. The tuxedo is still worn as formal dress today. Shirts were still custom made for the rich and the working class bought ready-made shirts. The shirt remained basically the same but it could handle the different neck treatments.  Even mass produced shirts could have buttons or button holes for detachable collars and cuffs. ==== Trousers ==== Trouser legs began to decrease in width as the coat became narrower and emphasized strong vertical lines. ==== Waistcoats ==== During the 1880s waistcoats were called vests and much of their bold trim and colorful fabric disappeared and vests were constructed from the same fabric as the coat and trousers. The business suit for men developed in the 1880s and was firmly established in the 1890s. ==== Original Text ==== During the [[1880s in fashion|1880s]], formal evening dress remained a dark tail coat and trousers with a dark waistcoat, a white bow tie, and a shirt with a winged collar. In mid-decade, the dinner jacket or [[tuxedo]], was used in more relaxed formal occasions. The [[Norfolk jacket]] and tweed or woolen breeches were used for rugged outdoor pursuits such as shooting. Knee-length topcoats, often with contrasting velvet or fur collars, and calf-length overcoats were worn in winter. Men's shoes had higher heels and a narrow toe. [[File:American fashions - The Jno. J. Mitchell Co. Litho., New York. LCCN2006676665.jpg|thumb|Fashion plate from the Jno. J. Mitchell Co., New York, 1899]] [[File:Alfred Milner Vanity Fair 1897-04-15.jpg|thumb|Alfred Milner, 1897, Leslie Ward ("Spy"), for Vanity Fair]] [[File:Nobl-08.jpg|thumb|Sherlock Holmes, 1892, Sidney Paget]] [[File:PUK1894page380rector poor.jpg|thumb|Rector and Drinker, 1894]] === 1890s === ==== Silhouette ==== The dominant silhouette for men became the sack suit in the 1890s and while changes in the sack have been subtle, it remains the dominant silhouette today. ==== Coats and Shirts ==== “Sacks became ''the'' favored style of suit coat,”(Payne2, p. 532) especially among the younger men. Frock coats were associated with older men along with the cutaway coat. There were many more choices for sports wear and leisure wear than ever before. Norfolk jackets were often worn while hunting. Most informal styles could be purchased ready made. The rich still had their clothing custom made by tailors but even working class men could purchase most ready-made versions of the coats, trousers, and vests. Shirts could be made of patterned fabric as well as solid colors and white.  Shirts were beginning to be acceptable as outer wear especially when worn as sporting clothing. ==== Trousers ==== Early in the 1890s, “slim, straight trousers were news.” (Payne 2, p. 532) Trousers could be plaid or checked as well as the same fabric as the coat and vest. ==== Waistcoats ==== Fancy fabrics and bold trim were not seen much as the more subdued vest dominated the fashion scene. ==== Original Text ==== Starting from the [[1890s in fashion|1890s]], the [[blazer]] was introduced, and was worn for sports, sailing, and other casual activities.<ref>{{cite web|last=Landow|first=George|url=http://www.victorianweb.org/art/costume/90s/2.html|title=Men's informal sporting dress, late 1880s and '90s}}</ref> Throughout much of the Victorian era most men wore fairly short hair. This was often accompanied by various forms of facial hair including moustaches, side-burns, and full beards. A clean-shaven face did not come back into fashion until the end of the 1880s and early 1890s.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.victorianweb.org/art/costume/nunn21.html|title=Victorian Men's Fashions, 1850–1900: Hair}}</ref> Distinguishing what men really wore from what was marketed to them in periodicals and advertisements is difficult, as reliable records do not exist.<ref name="shannon597">{{cite journal|last=Shannon|first=Brent|title=Refashioning Men: Fashion, Masculinity, and the Cultivation of the Male Consumer in Britain, 1860–1914|journal=Victorian Studies|year=2004|volume=46|issue=4|pages=597–630|doi=10.1353/vic.2005.0022}}</ref> === Notes === *Men's suits buttoned higher up than today (Payne, 467) * Norfolk jackets and sack suits (Payne, 471) * formal attire, tuxedos with tails, cutaways (Payne, 469) * Keith Middlemas (https://archive.org/details/storyoffiesta00huxf/page/200/mode/2up?q=fashion) *Brent Shannon. "Refashioning Men: Fashion, Masculinity, and the Cultivation of the Male Consumer in Britain, 1860–1914." Victorian Studies 46, no. 4 (Summer 2004): 597–630. == Hats and headwear == [[File:Ford.madox.brown.last.emma.study.jpg|thumb|''Emma Hill'' by [[Ford Madox Brown]] (1853), a woman wearing a later version of the [[poke bonnet]]]] [[File:Hoed,_objectnr_KA_1237.tif|left|thumb|Perched bonnet style of the early 1870s.]] Hats were crucial to a respectable appearance for both men and women. === Men's Hats === The top hat, for example, was standard formal wear for upper- and middle-class men.[Payne] According to Blanche Payne, "The high top hat, usually black or dark gray, had reached its characteristic shape by 1798 and dominated the entire nineteenth century." (457–58) Although top hats were the dominant hat in the 19th century, other hats became popular for working classes and lower income middle class. “The style of an individual’s hat varied, depending on fashion and their social position, as well as their profession or chosen activity..” ''Goodman 53 of 460'' Other hats that became necessary and popular include the Derby, the straw Boater, and a flat cap with a short brim. In many cases the class, work activity and income could be determined by what kind of hat was on the head of the wearer. For some men, a hat supporting a particular sport or team was important. The Derby or Bowler hat was designed by William and Thomas Bowler, brother shopkeepers in 1849. ''(Goodman 55 of 460)'' It cost less than a top hat but  lasted longer and was soon worn by middle class bankers and clerks. Straw boaters were worn by the aristocracy for casual events and working class factory workers and agricultural laborers. By 1901 working class men had changed their preference to the flat caps which became the most popular hat for the workers. Headdress for men was an essential part of dress for the entire period of the Victorian age, from the 1830s through the end of the century. Judith Flanders describes the hats worn by men in London, <blockquote>It is difficult to bear in mind the importance of hats as not only markers of class and income, but also as indicators of respectability. [509–519] [George Augustus] Sala commented that "every" man throughout the history of the world "must, necessarily and habitually, wear some kind of covering to his head". Postmen wore hats, small children wore hats, field labourers and market gardeners wore hats, cricketers, skaters — all sportsmen — wore hats. It was, self-evidently, impossible to go outdoors without one. ... Those in professional occupations wore pot hats, as did clerks and all those with pretensions to middle-class status. Even doctors' delivery boys wore battered hand-me-down pot hats: "the nap rusty, the band a mournful strip of tarnished lace; but still a Hat", which "stamps him as being associated, in however slender a manner, with a learned profession". Cloth caps were for labourers, for costers and for boys. ... Artisans wore caps made out of paper, which they folded [510–511] themselves and so could easily replace as they became dirty.<ref name=":23" /> (509–511 [of 972]) </blockquote>A pot-hat is a kind of derby or bowler in men's hats. (Lewandowski, 237) ==== Original Text ==== Hats were crucial to a respectable appearance for both men and women. The top hat, for example, was standard formal wear for upper- and middle-class men.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book |last=Steele |first=Valerie |url=https://archive.org/details/fashioneroticism0000stee |title=Victorian Fashion. Fashion and Eroticism: Ideals of Feminine Beauty from the Victorian Era to the Jazz Age |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1985 |isbn=978-0-19-503530-8 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/fashioneroticism0000stee/page/51 51]–84 |url-access=registration}}</ref> For women, the styles of hats changed over time and were designed to match their outfits. === Women's Hats === For a discussion of the history of plumes and feathers, see [[Social Victorians/Victorian Things#Ostrich Plumes and Prince of Wales's Feathers|Ostrich Plumes and Prince of Wales's Feathers in ''Victorian Things'']]. ==== Original Wikipedia Text ==== During the early Victorian decades, hats were modest in size and design, straw and fabric bonnets being the popular choice. [[Poke bonnet]]s, which had been worn during the late [[Regency period]], had high, small crowns and brims that grew larger until the 1830s, when the face of a woman wearing a poke bonnet could only be seen directly from the front. They had rounded brims, echoing the rounded form of the bell-shaped hoop skirts. Bonnets shrunk at the end of the 1860s and moved to a perched position in the early 1870s as hairstyles grew in scale and intricacy. This led to the popularization of hats, which became the headwear of choice for the remainder of the Victorian era.<ref name="g4223">{{cite book |last=Cunnington |first=Cecil Willett |title=English Women's Clothing in the Nineteenth Century |date=1990-05-01 |publisher=Courier Corporation |isbn=0-486-26323-1 |publication-place=New York |page=}}</ref> [[File:The_London_and_Paris_ladies'_magazine_(Apr_1885)_03.png|thumb|Flower pot style hat of 1885.]] The 1880s saw a hat inspired by the top hat for women known as the flowerpot hat, and the 1890s saw the popularity of the boater. The hats of the late Victorian era were covered with elaborate creations of silk flowers, ribbons, and above all, exotic plumes; hats sometimes included entire exotic birds that had been stuffed. Many of these plumes came from birds in the Florida everglades, which were nearly made entirely extinct by overhunting. By 1899, early environmentalists like [[Adeline Knapp]] were engaged in efforts to curtail the hunting for plumes. By 1900, more than five million birds a year were being slaughtered, and nearly 95 per cent of Florida's shore birds had been killed by [[Plume hunting|plume hunter]]s.<ref>{{cite web|title=Everglades National Park|url=https://www.pbs.org/nationalparks/parks/everglades/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090927085907/http://www.pbs.org/nationalparks/parks/everglades/|url-status=dead|archive-date=27 September 2009|publisher=PBS|access-date=7 November 2011}}</ref> == Shoes == The women's shoes of the early Victorian period were narrow and heelless, in black or white satin. By 1850s and 1860s, they were slightly broader with a low heel and made of leather or cloth. Ankle-length laced or buttoned boots were also popular. From the 1870s to the twentieth century, heels grew higher and toes more pointed. Low-cut pumps were worn for the evening.<ref name=":4" /> == Cosmetics == [[Victorian-era cosmetics]] were typically less obvious than ours. However, small amounts of pale face powder or powdered blush were widely used.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Goodman |first=Ruth |title=How to be a Victorian |date=2014 |publisher=Penguin Books |isbn=978-0-670-92136-2 |location=London}}</ref> Tints were sometimes added to face creams. Some cosmetics contained toxic or caustic ingredients like lead, mercury, ammonia, and arsenic {{Citation needed|date=October 2025}}. Hair color ==Mourning black== {{See also |Mourning stationery}} [[File:The royal children in mourning Mar 1862.jpg|thumb|Victoria's five daughters (Alice, Helena, Beatrice, Victoria and Louise), photographed wearing mourning black beneath a bust of their late father, Prince Albert (1862)]] [[File:Mourning dress MET 50.40.3a-b front CP4.jpg|alt=Black Victorian mourning dress|thumb|Mourning Dress, 1894–95]] In Britain, black is the colour traditionally associated with mourning for the dead. The customs and etiquette expected of men, and especially women, were rigid but evolving during much of the Victorian era. The expectations depended on a complex hierarchy of close or distant relationship with the deceased. (Davidoff) The closer the relationship, the longer the mourning period and the wearing of black. The wearing of full black was known as First Mourning, which had its own expected attire, including fabrics, and an expected duration of 4 to 18 months. Following the initial period of First Mourning, the mourner would progress to Second Mourning, a transition period of wearing less black, which was followed by Ordinary Mourning, and then Half-mourning. Some of these stages of mourning were shortened or skipped completely if the mourner's relationship to the deceased was more distant. Half-mourning was a transition period when black was replaced by acceptable colours such as lavender and mauve, possibly considered acceptable transition colours because of the tradition of [[Church of England]] (and [[Catholic Church|Catholic]]) clergy wearing lavender or mauve [[Stole (vestment)|stoles]] for funeral services, to represent the [[Passion (Christianity)|Passion of Christ]].<ref>{{cite web|title=The Colors of the Church Year|url=http://fullhomelydivinity.org/articles/colors.htm|publisher=Consortium of Country Churches|access-date=6 November 2011|archive-date=13 November 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111113075214/http://fullhomelydivinity.org/articles/colors.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> The mourning dress worn by Queen Victoria (below, right) "shows the traditional touches of mourning attire, which she wore from the death of her husband, Prince Albert (1819–1861), until her own death."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/155839?&searchField=All&sortBy=Relevance&deptids=8&ft=queen+victoria&offset=0&rpp=20&amp;pos=2|title=Mourning Dress, 1894–95|last=The Metropolitan Museum of Art|date=7 September 2019|website=The Metropolitan Museum of Art|access-date=7 September 2019}}</ref> Dating from 1894–95, Queen Victoria wore this dress as a result of the death of the eldest son of the Prince and Princess of Wales, Eddy, in line to the throne. === Norms for mourning=== ''Manners and Rules of Good Society, or, Solecisms to be Avoided'' (London, Frederick Warne & Co., 1887) gives clear instructions, such as the following:<ref>{{cite book|last=Flanders|first=Judith|title=The Victorian House|year=2003|publisher=Harper Perennial|location=London|isbn=0-00-713189-5|pages=378–83}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" |- ! Relationship to deceased !! First mourning !! Second mourning !! Ordinary mourning !! Half-mourning |- | Wife for husband || 1-year, 1-month; [[bombazine]] fabric covered with [[Crape|crepe]]; [[widow's cap]], [[lawn cuff]]s, collars || 6 months: less crepe || 6 months: no crepe, silk or wool replaces bombazine; in last 3 months jet jewellery and ribbons can be added || 6 months: colours permitted are grey, lavender, mauve, and black-and-grey |- | Daughter for parent || 6 months: black with black or white crepe (for young girls); no linen cuffs and collars; no jewellery for first 2 months || 4 months: less crepe || – || 2 months as above |- | Wife for husband's parents || 18 months in black bombazine with crepe || – || 3 months in black || 3 months as above |- | Parent for son- or daughter-in-law's parent || – Black armband in representation of someone lost || – || 1-month black || – |- | Second wife for parent of a first wife || – || – || 3 months black || – |} The complexity of these etiquette rules extends to specific mourning periods and attire for siblings, step-parents, aunts and uncles distinguished by blood and by marriage, nieces, nephews, first and second cousins, children, infants, and "connections" (who were entitled to ordinary mourning for a period of "1–3 weeks, depending on level of intimacy"). Men were expected to wear mourning black to a lesser extent than women, and for a shorter mourning period. After the mid-19th century, men would wear a black hatband and black suit, but for only half the prescribed period of mourning expected of women. Widowers were expected to mourn for a mere three months, whereas the proper mourning period expected for widows was up to four years.<ref>{{cite book|last=Flanders|first=Judith|title=The Victorian House|year=2003|publisher=Harper Perennial|location=London|isbn=0-00-713189-5|pages=378–9}}</ref> Women who mourned in black for longer periods were accorded great respect in public for their devotion to the departed, the most prominent example being Queen Victoria herself. It was not uncommon for a widow who did not remarry to wear half-mourning for the rest of her life, except when another death necessitated full mourning. For example, Alexandra, Princess of Wales wore half-mourning for the rest of her life after her eldest son Eddy died in 1894. Empress Elisabeth of Austria did the same, as did Empress Eugénie of France. They reverted to full mourning when appropriate, but they never wore less than half-mourning after their sons' deaths. Women with lesser financial means tried to keep up with the example being set by the middle and upper classes by dyeing their daily dress. Dyers made most of their income during the Victorian period by dyeing clothes black for mourning.<ref>{{cite book|last=Flanders|first=Judith|title=The Victorian House|year=2003|publisher=Harper Perennial|location=London|isbn=0-00-713189-5|page=341}}</ref> == Technological advancement == The technological changes that affected the manufacture and consumption of clothing in the Victorian age included the following: * the mass production of fabrics — for example, "by the early 1850s there were thousands of steam-powered looms churning out millions of miles of fabric every year"  [62] * the invention of aniline dyes, which were much more vibrantly colored and resistant to fading than the natural dyes that had been used. — . Invented by chemist [[William Henry Perkin]] in 1856, the first aniline dye mauveine (or mauve) "wash[ed] the fashionable landscape in a haze of purple."<ref name=":22">{{Cite book|title=The Dress Diary: Secrets from a Victorian Woman's Wardrobe|last=Strasdin|first=Kate|publisher=Pegasus Books|year=2023|location=New York, New York}}</ref> (247) Other intense and, to the Victorians, intensely exciting colors followed, but the new synthetic additions to fabric sometimes included chemicals harmful to their wearers. For example, a "bright-magenta hue was achieved by adding arsenical-based chemicals to existing aniline dyes, brightening the already luminous shades – but these left residues themselves, along with a toxic labour trail in their wake."<ref name=":22" /> (255) Perhaps the most famous of these is arsenic green, used on fabrics, wallpapers, and trim: "The craze for artificial foliage to adorn the heads and dresses of women of fashion in the mid-nineteenth century had seen the proliferation of flower workshops, where young women in their hundreds laboured to produce the lifelike green leaves and blooms that would make a fetching headdress or would trail becomingly across the bodice of a gown. The lushness of the green was achieved by the application of a powder, a pigment that was created by mixing copper and the highly toxic chemical, arsenic trioxide. The physical effects of working with this poisonous compound were horrific. Contemporary medical drawings depict the green hue of the skin and dreadful open lesions on the hands of the maker, whilst the daily gradual ingestion of the powder by the flower girls was eventually fatal."<ref name=":22" /> (255) * the invention of a sewing machine that could be used in the home. Although sewing machines were already in use in the clothing industry, in 1858 Isaac Merritt Singer began to sell "lightweight domestic machines" for home sewing, radically increasing women's control over their own dress.<ref name=":24">{{Cite book|title=Victorian Fashions for Women|last=Kay|first=Fiona|last2=Storey|first2=Neil R.|publisher=Pen & Sword History|year=2022|isbn=978 1 39900 416 9|location=Yorkshire and Philadelphia|pages=}}</ref> (91 [of 298]) * the spread of journalism for women and fashion journalism * the Jacquard loom: "French inventor Joseph-Marie Jacquard’s loom attachment mechanized the weaving of figured fabrics by 1804."<ref name=":25" /> (454) Perhaps not at the same scale as these but as important in 1850s designs was a technology that turned iron into steel, which could then be drawn into fine wires.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book|title=The Culture of Fashion|last=Breward|first=Christopher|publisher=Manchester University Press|year=1995|pages=145–180}}</ref> Steel was refined to a malleable state so that thin blades could be curved into concentric circles (called hoops) and connected with wires to form the cage. Technological advancements not only influenced the economy but brought a major change in the fashion styles worn by men and women. As the Victorian era was based on the principles of gender, race and class.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Graham|first1=P|title=The Victorian Era|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.261548|journal=Digital Library of India}}</ref> Much advancement was in favor of the upper class as they were the ones who could afford the latest technology and change their fashion styles accordingly. In 1830s there was introduction of horse hair crinoline that became a symbol of status and wealth as only the upper-class women could wear it. In 1850s there were more fashion technological advancements hence 1850s could rightly be called a revolution in the Victorian fashion industry such as the innovation of artificial cage crinoline that gave women an artificial hourglass silhouette without layers of petticoats, which was lighter and more hygienic.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Shrimpton|first1=J|title=Victorian Fashion|publisher=Bloomsbury Shire Publications}}</ref> Synthetic dyes, such as [[mauveine]] (aniline purple), were introduced in 1856, adding bright colours to garments. In 1855's ''[[Haute couture]]'' was introduced as tailoring became more mainstream in years to follow.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Aspelund|first1=Karl|title=Fashioning Society|publisher=Fairchild Books}}</ref> Charles Frederick Worth, a prominent English designer, became popular amongst the upper class though its city of destiny always is Paris. Haute couture became popular at the same time that sewing machines were invented.<ref name="Haute Couture">{{cite book|last1=Martin|first1=Richard|last2=Koda|first2=Harold|title=Haute Couture|publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art}}</ref> Princess [[Eugénie de Montijo|Eugenie]] of France wore the Englishman dressmaker, Charles Frederick Worth's couture and he instantly became famous in France though he had just arrived in Paris a few years ago. In 1855, Queen Victoria and Prince Albert of Britain welcomed [[Napoleon III]] and Eugenie of France to a full state visit to England. Eugenie was considered a fashion icon in France. Queen Victoria, who had been the fashion icon for European high fashion, was inspired by Eugenie's style and the fashions she wore.{{Citation needed|date=October 2025}} Later, Queen Victoria also appointed Charles Frederick Worth as her dress maker and he became a prominent designer amongst the European upper class. Charles Frederick Worth is known as the father of the haute couture as later the concept of labels were also invented in the late 19th century as custom, made to fit tailoring became mainstream.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Saillard|first1=Olivier|last2=Zazzo|first2=Anne|title=Paris Haute Couture|publisher=Skira Flammarion}}</ref> By the 1860s, when made-to-fit tailoring was popular in Europe, crinolines were considered impractical. In the 1870s, women preferred more slimmer silhouettes, hence bodices grew longer and the polonaise, a skirt and bodice made together, was introduced. In 1870s the Cuirass Bodice, a piece of armour that covers the torso and functions like a corset, was invented. Towards the end of Victoria's reign, dresses were flared naturally as crinolines were rejected by middle-class women. Designers such as Charles Frederick Worth were also against them. All these inventions and changes in fashion led to women's liberation as tailored looks improved posture and were more practical.<ref name="Haute Couture"/> dressmakers, couturiers, modistes == Home decor == {{main|Victorian decorative arts}} Home decor started spare, veered into the elaborately draped and decorated style we today regard as Victorian, then embraced the retro-chic of [[William Morris]] as well as pseudo-[[Japonaiserie]]. == Myths and Oversimplifications == === Modesty === {{main|Victorian morality}} {{Original research|section|date=May 2008}} [[File:1868-skirt-lengths-girl-ages-Harpers-Bazar.gif|thumb|upright|"The proper length for little girls' skirts at various ages", from ''[[Harper's Bazaar]]'', showing a 1900 idea of how the hemline should descend towards the ankle as a girl got older]]Many myths and exaggerations about the period persist to the modern day. Examples include the idea of men's clothing is seen as formal and stiff, women's as elaborate and over-done; clothing covered the entire body, and even the glimpse of an ankle was scandalous. Critics contend that [[corset]]s constricted women's bodies and lives. Homes are described as gloomy, dark, cluttered with massive and over-ornate furniture and proliferating [[bric-a-brac]]. Myth has it that even piano legs were scandalous, and covered with tiny [[pantalette]]s. === Tight Lacing === Tight-lacing, which was not possible until the development of the grommet in 1828, was famously controversial in the Victorian age, generating many column inches of profitable newspaper copy, in part because it was (and still is) fetishistic and subversive in that adolescent girls used it as a means of rebellion and upper-working- or lower-middle-class shop girls saw it as a means of upward mobility.<ref name=":21">{{Cite book|title=Fashion and Fetishism: Corsets, Tight-Lacing and Other Forms of Body-sculpture|last=Kunzle|first=David|publisher=History Press|year=2013|isbn=978 0 7524 9545 3|location=Stroud, Gloucestershire|pages=}}</ref> (71 [of 1182]) No evidence exists that tight lacing was widespread or particularly dangerous.<ref name=":21" /> () In truth, men's formal clothing may have been less colourful than it was in the previous century, but brilliant [[waistcoat]]s and [[cummerbund]]s provided a touch of colour, and [[smoking jacket]]s and [[robe|dressing gown]]s were often of rich Oriental [[brocade]]s. This phenomenon was the result of the growing textile manufacturing sector, developing mass production processes, and increasing attempts to market fashion to men.<ref name="shannon597"/> Corsets stressed a woman's sexuality, exaggerating hips and bust by contrast with a tiny waist. Women's [[evening gown]]s bared the shoulders and the tops of the breasts. The [[jersey dress]]es of the 1880s may have covered the body, but the stretchy novel fabric fit the body like a glove.<ref>{{cite book |last=Gernsheim |first=Alison |title=Victorian & Edwardian Fashion: A Photographic Survey |year=1981 |publisher=Dover Publications |location=New York |page=65|edition=New |isbn=0-486-24205-6}}</ref> Home furnishing was not necessarily ornate or overstuffed. However, those who could afford lavish draperies and expensive ornaments, and wanted to display their wealth, would often do so. Since the Victorian era was one of increased social mobility, there were ever more ''[[nouveaux riches]]'' making a rich show. The items used in decoration may also have been darker and heavier than those used today, simply as a matter of practicality. London was noisy and its air was full of [[soot]] from countless coal fires. Hence those who could afford it draped their windows in heavy, sound-muffling curtains, and chose colours that didn't show soot quickly. When all washing was done by hand, curtains were not washed as frequently as they might be today. There is no actual evidence that piano legs were considered scandalous. Pianos and tables were often draped with [[shawl]]s or cloths—but if the shawls hid anything, it was the cheapness of the furniture. There are references to lower-middle-class families covering up their [[pine]] tables rather than show that they couldn't afford [[mahogany]]. The piano leg story seems to have originated in the 1839 book, ''A Diary in America'' written by Captain [[Frederick Marryat]], as a satirical comment on American prissiness.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Marryat |first1=C.B. |title=A Diary in America: With Remarks on Its Institutions |date=1839 |publisher=Longman, Orme, Brown, Green, and Longmans |location=London, England |volume=2 |pages=246–247 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2-VEAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA246}} From pp. 246-247: "I was requested by a lady to escort her to a seminary for young ladies, and on being ushered into the reception-room, conceive my astonishment at beholding a square piano-forte with four ''limbs''. However, that the ladies who visited their daughters, might feel in its full force the extreme delicacy of the mistress of the establishment, and her care to preserve in their utmost purity the ideas of the young ladies under her charge, she had dressed all these four limbs in modest little trousers, with frills at the bottom of them!"</ref> Victorian manners may have been as strict as imagined—on the surface. One simply did not speak publicly about sex, childbirth, and such matters, at least in the respectable middle and upper classes. However, as is well known, discretion covered a multitude of sins. Prostitution flourished. Upper-class men and women indulged in [[adultery|adulterous]] liaisons. == Gallery == {{gallery |2=A mid-Victorian interior: ''Hide and Seek'' by [[James Tissot]], c. 1877 Image:Winterhalter Elisabeth.jpg|3=Dress designed by [[Charles Frederick Worth]] for [[Elisabeth of Bavaria|Elisabeth of Austria]] painted by [[Franz Xaver Winterhalter]].|4=File:Frith A Private View detail.jpg|5=[[William Powell Frith]]'s painting of 1883 contrasts women's [[Aesthetic dress]] (left and right) with fashionable attire (center).|6=File:Tissot lilacs 1875.jpg|7=Day dress, c. 1875 [[James Tissot]] painting.|8=File:James Abbot McNeill Whistler 011.jpg|9=[[James McNeill Whistler|Whistler]]'s [[Portrait of Lady Meux]], 1882 Image:Jeanna_Samary-Renoir.png|10=[[Pierre-Auguste Renoir|Renoir]]'s portrait of [[Jeanne Samary]] in an [[evening gown]], 1878|11=File:Melville_-_Queen_Victoria.jpg|12=Portrait by [[Alexander Melville (artist)|Alexander Melville]] of [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]], 1845|13=File:Henry Treffry Dunn Rossetti and Dunton at 16 Cheyne Walk.jpg|14=An artistic interior: [[Dante Gabriel Rossetti]] reading to [[Theodore Watts-Dunton]] in the drawing room at No. 16 [[Cheyne Walk]], 1882|15=File:Punch - Masculine beauty retouched1.png|16=Men's swimwear: Cartoon from ''[[Punch (magazine)|Punch]]'' by [[George du Maurier]]}} == See also == * [[Emily Clapham]] * [[Victorian decorative arts]] * [[Victorian dress reform]] * [[Victorian morality]] * [[Victoriana]] * [[Women in the Victorian Era]] * [[Charles Frederick Worth]] === Time periods === * [[1830s in fashion]] * [[1840s in fashion]] * [[1850s in fashion]] * [[1860s in fashion]] * [[1870s in fashion]] * [[1880s in fashion]] * [[1890s in fashion]] === Women's clothing === * [[Corset]] * [[Corset controversy]] * [[Tightlacing]] * [[Bloomers (clothing)|Bloomers]] * [[Bodice]] === Contemporary interpretations === * [[Steampunk]] * [[Neo-Victorian]] * [[Lolita Fashion|Lolita]] == References == {{Reflist}} == Further reading == *{{cite book |author=Phipps, Elena| title= ''From Queen to Empress: Victorian dress 1837-1877'' | location=New York | publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art | year=1988 | isbn=0870995340| url= http://libmma.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/compoundobject/collection/p15324coll10/id/69547/rec/235 | display-authors=etal}} * Sweet, Matthew – ''Inventing the Victorians'', St. Martin's Press, 2001 {{ISBN|0-312-28326-1}} == External links == * [http://www.victorians.co.uk/victorian-fashion Victorian Fashion] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180407223711/http://www.victorians.co.uk/victorian-fashion |date=7 April 2018 }} * [https://www.victorianvoices.net/topics/fashion/index.shtml VictorianVoices.net] – Fashion articles and illustrations from Victorian periodicals; extensive fashion image gallery * [http://www.cracked.com/article_19575_5-ridiculous-sex-myths-from-history-you-probably-believe.html Victorian myths] * [http://www.victorianstation.com/lifestylemenu.htm Victorian fashion, etiquette, and sports] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180103162620/http://www.victorianstation.com/lifestylemenu.htm |date=3 January 2018 }} * [http://www.thesmartset.com/article/article12180701.aspx Background on "A Diary in America"] * [http://www.mccord-museum.qc.ca/en/keys/webtours/VQ_P2_17_EN.html Form and Fashion] — the evolution of women's dress during the 19th century (many photographs) * [http://www.mccord-museum.qc.ca/en/keys/games/jeu2/ Educational Game: Mix and Match] — build a 19th-century dress using a virtual mannequin * {{cite web |publisher= [[Victoria and Albert Museum]] |url= http://www.vam.ac.uk/content/articles/v/victorian-dress-at-v-and-a/ |title= Victorian Dress |work= Fashion, Jewellery & Accessories |date= 14 January 2011 |access-date= 2011-04-03}} *[http://cv.vic.gov.au/stories/creative-life/fashion-detective-fashion-fiction-and-forensics/ Fashion detective: Fashion, Fiction and Forensics in nineteenth century Australian fashion] on Culture Victoria {{Timeline of clothing and fashion|state=collapsed}}{{Victorian era|state=collapsed}} [[Category:Victorian fashion| ]] [[Category:19th-century fashion|*]] [[Category:1900s fashion]] [[Category:History of Western fashion]] [[Category:19th century in the arts]] =From ''Women in the Victorian era''= ===Victorian women's fashion=== {{Multiple issues|{{tone|date=March 2023}} {{more footnotes needed|date=March 2023}}|section=y}}{{Further|Victorian fashion}} The ideal Victorian woman was pure, chaste, refined, and modest. This ideal was supported by etiquette and manners. The etiquette extended to the pretension of never acknowledging the use of undergarments (sometimes generically referred to as "unmentionables"). The discussion of such a topic, it was feared, would gravitate towards unhealthy attention on anatomical details. As one Victorian lady expressed it: "[those] are not things, my dear, that we speak of; indeed, we try not even to think of them", in contrast to current norms.<ref>{{cite book |last=Cunnington |first=C. Willett |title=English Women's Clothing in the Nineteenth Century: A Comprehensive Guide with 1,117 Illustrations |publisher=Dover Publications |year=1990 |isbn=978-0-486-26323-6 |pages=20}}</ref> The pretence of avoiding acknowledgement of anatomical realities met with embarrassing failure on occasion. In 1859, the Hon. Eleanor Stanley wrote about an incident where the [[Louisa Cavendish, Duchess of Devonshire|Duchess of Manchester]] moved too quickly while manoeuvring over a [[stile]], tripping over her large [[hoop skirt]]: {{blockquote|[the Duchess] caught a hoop of her cage in it and went regularly head over heels lighting on her feet with her cage and whole petticoats above, above her head. They say there was never such a thing seen – and the other ladies hardly knew whether to be thankful or not that a part of her undergarments consisted in a pair of scarlet tartan [[knickerbockers (clothing)|knickerbockers]] (the things Charlie shoots in) which were revealed to the view of all the world in general and the [[Aimable Pélissier|Duc de Malakoff]] in particular".<ref>{{cite book|last=Cunnington|first=C. Willett|title=English Women's Clothing in the Nineteenth Century: A Comprehensive Guide with 1,117 Illustrations|year=1990|publisher=Dover Publications|isbn=978-0-486-26323-6|pages=20–1}}</ref>}} However, despite the fact that Victorians considered the mention of women's undergarments in mixed company unacceptable, men's entertainment made great comedic material out of the topic of ladies' [[bloomers (clothing)|bloomers]], including men's magazines and music hall skits.<ref>{{cite book |last=Cunnington |first=C. Willett |title=English Women's Clothing in the Nineteenth Century: A Comprehensive Guide with 1,117 Illustrations |publisher=Dover Publications |year=1990 |isbn=978-0-486-26323-6 |pages=22}}</ref> Victorian women's clothing followed trends that emphasised elaborate dresses, skirts with wide volume created by the use of layered material such as [[crinoline]]s, hoop skirt frames, and heavy fabrics. Because of the impracticality and health impact of the era's fashions, a [[Victorian dress reform|dress reform movement]] began among women. The ideal silhouette of the time demanded a narrow waist, which was accomplished by constricting the abdomen with a laced [[corset]]. While the silhouette was striking, and the dresses themselves were often exquisitely detailed creations, the fashions were cumbersome. At best, they restricted women's movements and at worst, they had a harmful effect on women's health. Physicians turned their attention to the use of corsets and determined that they caused several medical problems: compression of the thorax, restricted breathing, organ displacement, poor circulation, and prolapsed uterus.<ref name="O'Connor"/> Articles advocating the reform of women's clothing by the British National Health Society, the Ladies' Dress Association, and the [[Rational Dress Society]] were reprinted in ''The Canada Lancet'', Canada's medical journal. In 1884, Dr J. Algernon Temple of Toronto even voiced concern that the fashions were having a negative impact on the health of young women from the working classes. He pointed out that a young working-class woman was likely to spend a large part of her earnings on fine hats and shawls, while "her feet are improperly protected, and she wears no flannel petticoat or woollen stockings".<ref name="O'Connor"/> [[File:Bloomers.jpg|thumb|1850s illustration of a woman wearing [[bloomers]]]] [[Florence Pomeroy]], Lady Haberton, was president of the Rational Dress movement in Britain. At a National Health Society exhibition held in 1882, Viscountess Haliburton presented her invention of a "[[divided skirt]]", which was a long skirt that cleared the ground, with separate halves at the bottom made with material attached to the bottom of the skirt. She hoped that her invention would become popular by supporting women's freedom of physical movement, but the British public was not impressed by the invention, perhaps because of the negative "unwomanly" association of the style with the American [[Bloomers]] movement.<ref>{{cite book|last=Murray|first=Janet Horowitz|title=Strong-Minded Women and Other Lost Voices from 19th Century England|year=1982|publisher=Pantheon Books|location=New York|isbn=0-394-71044-4|pages=[https://archive.org/details/strongmindedwome00jane/page/68 68–70]|url=https://archive.org/details/strongmindedwome00jane/page/68}}</ref> [[Amelia Jenks Bloomer]] had encouraged the wearing of visible bloomers by feminists to assert their right to wear comfortable and practical clothing, but it was no more than a passing fashion itself among radical feminists. The movement to reform women's dress would persist and have long-term success, however; by the 1920s, [[Coco Chanel]] was successful at selling a progressive, far less restrictive silhouette that abandoned the corset and raised hemlines. The new silhouette symbolised modernism for trendy young women and became the 20th century standard. Other Paris designers continued reintroducing pants for women and the trend was gradually adopted over the next century. Fashion trends, in one sense, travelled "full circle" over the course of the Victorian era. The popular women's styles during the [[Georgian era]], and at the very beginning of Victoria's reign, emphasized a simple style influenced by flowing gowns worn by women in [[Ancient Greek clothing|Ancient Greece]] and [[Clothing in ancient Rome|Rome]]. The [[Empire waist]] silhouette was replaced by a trend towards ornate styles and an artificial silhouette, with the restrictiveness of women's clothing reaching its low point during the mid-century passion for narrow corseted waists and hoop skirts. The iconic wide-brimmed women's hats of the later Victorian era also followed the trend towards ostentatious display. Hats began the Victorian era as simple [[Bonnet (headgear)|bonnets]]. By the 1880s, milliners were tested by the competition among women to top their outfits with the most creative (and extravagant) hats, designed with expensive materials such as silk flowers and exotic plumes such as ostrich and peacock. As the Victorian era drew to a close, however, fashions were showing indications of a popular backlash against excessive styles. Model, actress and socialite [[Lillie Langtry]] took London by storm in the 1870s, attracting notice for wearing simple black dresses to social events. Combined with her natural beauty, the style appeared dramatic. Fashions followed her example (as well as Queen Victoria's wearing of mourning black later in her reign). According to [[Harold Koda]], the former Curator-in-chief of the [[Costume Institute at The Met|Metropolitan Museum of Art's Costume Institute]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.metmuseum.org/about-the-museum/press-room/exhibitions/2014/death-becomes-her|title=Death Becomes Her: A Century of Mourning Attire : October 21, 2014-February 1, 2015|website=Metmuseuim.org|access-date=7 November 2021}}</ref> "The predominantly black palette of [[mourning]] dramatizes the evolution of period silhouettes and the increasing absorption of fashion ideals into this most codified of etiquettes," said Koda, "The veiled widow could elicit sympathy as well as predatory male advances. As a woman of sexual experience without marital constraints, she was often imagined as a potential threat to the social order." ====Evolution of Victorian women's fashion==== <gallery> File:Fashion plate December 1844.jpg|Ladies' December Fashions (1844). Hand-coloured steel engraving from a women's magazine. File:Thegalleryofhmscalcutta james tissot 1876.jpg|''[[The Gallery of HMS Calcutta]]'' by [[James Tissot]] (1876). [[Bustle]]s were fashionable in the 1870s and 1880s. File:Mrs lillie langtry george frederic watts 1880.jpg|''Mrs. Lillie Langtry'' by [[George Frederic Watts]] (1880). File:Five-women-on-queenslander-steps-r.jpg|Fashionable women in [[Queensland]], Australia around 1900. </gallery> {{Short description|Irish writer (born 1963)}} {{Use Irish English|date=August 2025}} {{Use dmy dates|date=August 2025}} {{Infobox writer | name = Darach Ó Scolaí | image = Darach Ó Scolaí.JPG | alt = Man holding prize-winning book | caption = Ó Scolaí in 2019 | birth_name = Darach Ó Scolaí | birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1963|df=y}} | birth_place = [[County Galway]], The Republic of Ireland | death_date = | death_place = | occupation = Writer, artist, publisher | alma_mater = [[University of Galway]] | years_active = 1998–present | genre = Novel, retelling, translation, play, screenplay, illustrated book for children and adults | other_names = | spouse = | children = 3 | awards = [[Awards and Honors received by Darach Ó Scolaí|Awards and Honors]] | signature = | website = }}[[File:Darach Ó Scolaí.JPG|thumb|Darach Ó Scolaí, holding ''Oileán an Órchiste'' (his translation of Robert Louis Stevenson's ''Treasure Island'')]] == Darach Ó Scolaí == Darach Ó Scolaí (<small>Irish:</small> [/ˈda.rax/ /oː/ /sˠkˠoː/l̪ˠəi/]; born 1963<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://portraidi.ie/en/darach-o-scolai/|title=Darach Ó Scolaí|date=20 October 2017|website=Portráidí (Portraits of Irish-Language Writers)|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref>) is an Irish author who works in a number of genres, from novels, plays and screenplays to illustrated books for children and adults. He began his literary career in 1998 writing screenplays, stage plays, retellings and translations; he began to publish novels in 2008. Ó Scolaí is widely recognized as a leading figure in contemporary Irish literature, known as “one of the most important Irish language writers of his generation”<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Poirtéir|first=Cathal|date=2022|title=? Suil an Daill: Constant Tensions and Shifting Allegiances|url=https://booksirelandmagazine.com/suil-an-daill-constant-tensions-and-shifting-allegiances/|journal=Books Ireland}}</ref> and "one of the great Irish language novelists [duine d’úrscéalaithe móra na Gaeilge]."<ref name=":17" /> His writing has been called “the high literature of the Irish language.”<ref>Ó Coimín, Maitiú. ''Nós'' 2 February 2018). Qtd. in "Táin Bó Cuailnge." ''Leabhar Breac''. Retrieved 25 August 2025.</ref> Much of his fiction is based on a knowledge of traditional Irish tales and narrative practices as well as Irish history. He specializes in literary and [[wikipedia:Historical_fiction|historical fiction]], or as novelist Alan Titley says, Ó Scolaí’s “peak (for now), or at least his greatest imaginative interest, is the historical novel [tá an chuma air gurb é a bhuaic (go fóill), nó ar a laghad, a mhórspéis samhlaíochta, an t-úrscéal staire].”<ref name=":11">{{Cite journal|last=Titley|first=Alan|date=Fall 2020|title=An Stíl Go Deo!: Soather Dharach Uí Scolaí (The style would be forever!: Worker Darach Ó Scolaí)|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/27046090|journal=Comhar|volume=80, No. 10|pages=27|via=JSTOR}}</ref> His retellings of old stories and tales from their original Middle and Early-Modern Irish into Modern Irish ([[wikipedia:Irish_language|Gaeilge]]) are respected for their accessibility to students and language learners as well as for their artistry. Ó Scolaí also regularly reviews books and lectures and writes on literature and culture. Beyond his writing, Ó Scolaí is a publisher and has co-produced a number of film, television shows and stage plays. == Life == Ó Scolaí was born in Dublin and raised in the Galway [[wikipedia:Gaeltacht#Galway Gaeltacht|Gaeltacht]] (Irish-speaking) regions of Cois Fharraige on the north shore of Galway Bay, in the Republic of Ireland, where he lives now with his wife and children in Lochán Beag (Indreabhán).<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|date=30 October 2024|title=Duais don úrscéal liteartha is fearr buaite ag Darach Ó Scolaí ag Oireachtas na Samhna|url=https://tuairisc.ie/duais-don-ursceal-liteartha-is-fearr-buaite-ag-darach-o-scolai-ag-oireachtas-na-samhna/|journal=Tuairisc}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ní Scolaí|first=Aifric|date=2024|title=Darach Ó Scolaí|url=https://www.taiscecf.ie/ealaiontoiri?category=Scr%C3%ADbhneoir|journal=Taisce Chois Fharraige}}</ref> He graduated the [[wikipedia:University_of_Galway|University of Galway]] (then University College Galway) with a B.A. in 1983.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.linkedin.com/in/darach-ó-scolaí-20026920/|title=Darach Ó Scolaí|last=Ó Scolaí|first=Darach|date=August 2025|website=LinkedIn}}</ref> === Writing and Publishing === Ó Scolaí writes in Irish ([[wikipedia:Irish_language|Gaeilge]]), his native language, and lives in an area defined for the predominant presence of Irish as the vernacular language, the language spoken at home. Irish was the language of his parents' home and is the language of children as well. He is fluent in Irish and English and conversant in French. None of his works has been translated into English. ==== Leabhar Breac ==== In 1995 Darach Ó Scolaí and his brother Caomhán Ó Scolaí — a [[wikipedia:Typography|typographer]] and designer — founded the publishing house Leabhar Breac at Indreabhán (Inverin), County Galway. Their father “Séamas Ó Scolaí was an editor at An Gúm and worked on the Irish-English dictionary team [bhí a n-athair Séamas Ó Scolaí ina eagarthóir sa Ghúm agus d’oibrigh sé ar fhoireann an fhoclóra Gaeilge-Béarla].”<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/about-us/|title=About Us|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 July 2025}}</ref> Darach Ó Scolaí has been publisher and literary editor at Leabhar Breac since its founding. Named for [[wikipedia:An_Leabhar_Breac|An Leabhar Breac (The Speckled Book)]], Leabhar Breac publishing house has more than 140 books in print.<ref name=":0" /> Leabhar Breac aims to publish Irish-language books that meet “a high literary and artistic standard.”<ref name=":0" /> Besides the content, Leabhar Breac is known for the typically "superb [thar cionn]" quality of the design and production of the "physical book [leabhar fisiciúil]."<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=Ní Mhuilneoir|first=Gráinne|date=30 July 2024|title=‘Bláthnaid’ – leabhar álainn i sraithín álainn faoi mhná|url=https://tuairisc.ie/blathnaid-leabhar-alainn-i-sraithin-alainn-faoi-mhna/|journal=Tuairisc}}</ref> Its books regularly win awards for literary and artistic quality. Leabhar Breac also publishes translations for children and adults from various early versions of Irish as well as from French and English (and has published translations of books for young readers from Spanish, Catalan, and Italian as well). Leabhar Breac prints its books in Ireland. === Stage and Screen === ==== Rosg ==== In 1998 along with Ciarán Ó Cofaigh,<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=http://www.rosg.ie/en/about/History_6/|title=About Us: History|date=July 2025|website=Rosg|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> Ó Scolaí co-founded the film and television production company [http://www.rosg.ie/en/ Rosg] and was co-director until 2006. Rosg produced Ó ScolaÍ’s films ''Cosa Nite'' (1999), ''An Leabhar'' (2001) and ''Na Cloigne'' (2010). He left Rosg in 2006 to devote his time to other artistic activities. ==== Ealaín ar Oileán ==== In 2004, along with Val Balance, Ó Scolaí co-founded the annual artists' symposium Ealaín ar Oileán (trans., Art on an Island). The Irish-language symposium was held annually in the Áras Éanna arts and cultural center on Inis Oírr ([[wikipedia:Inisheer|Inisheer]], the smallest of the [[wikipedia:Aran_Islands|Aran Islands]]) from 2004 to 2013. Ó Scolaí was its co-director from its founding<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darach_Ó_Scolaí.|title=Darach Ó Scolaí|date=3 February 2024|website=Vicipéid|access-date=1 July 2025}}</ref> until 2013. Besides being its co-director, Ó Scolaí has taken part in this conference as an artist<ref>{{Cite journal|date=16 January 2005|title=Darach Ó Scolaí|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050116163252/http://bliainiris.com/authors/darach_oscolai.html|journal=Bliainiris}}</ref> and writer<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=http://ealainaroilean.ie/ealainaroilean.html|title=The Conference|date=7 September 2013|website=Ealaín ar Oileán|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130907083744/http://ealainaroilean.ie/ealainaroilean.html|archive-date=7 September 2013|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref>. ==== Salamandar ==== In 2006 Ó Scolaí founded the stage production company Salamandar and directed his own play ''An Braon Aníos''. His plays ''An tSeanbhróg'' (2009) and ''Craos'' (2008) were also produced by Salamandar.<ref name=":19">{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/product-category/darach-o-scolai/|title=Darach Ó Scolaí|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 July 2025}}</ref> == Works == === Novels === * [[wikipedia:An_Cléireach|''An Cléireach'' (trans., ''The Clerk'')]], Leabhar Breac, 2007. The Oireachtas Prize for Literary Fiction, 2007; The Ó Súilleabháin Award (Book of the Year) in 2008, and "named as ‘the best novel since the turn of the Century’ by Comhar."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/fiction/an-cleireach/|title=An Cléireach - Leabhar Breac - Irish language novel|website=Leabhar Breac|language=en-US|access-date=2025-10-24}}</ref> * ''Na Comharthaí'' (trans., ''The Signs''), Leabhar Breac, 2014. * ''Súil an Daill'' (trans., ''The Eye of the Blind''), Leabhar Breac, 2021. The Oireachtas Prize for Literary Fiction, 2019.<ref name=":4">{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/fiction/suil-an-daill/|title=Súil an Daill|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> * ''Bódléar'', Leabhar Breac, 2024. The Oireachtas Prize for Literary Fiction, 2024<ref name=":7" />; The Ó Súilleabháin Award (Book of the Year) in 2025; featured in the 2025 Listen-Up Irish Summer Challenge for students of the Irish language.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://connachttribune.ie/novel-approach-helps-people-learn-irish-in-a-creative-way/|title=Novel approach helps people learn Irish in a creative way|last=Murphy|first=Judy|date=3 October 2025|work=Connaught Tribune|access-date=24 October 2025}}</ref> === Retellings, Translations and Editions === The retellings and translations are into modern Irish. * ''Feis Tigh Chonáin'' (trans., ''The Feast of Conán's House''), Leabhar Breac, 2000; a retelling of a 15^th-century tale from the [[wikipedia:Fenian_Cycle|Fenian Cycle]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/fiction/feis-tigh-chonain/|title=Feis Tigh Chonáin|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> * ''An Ceithearnach Caolriabhach'' (trans., ''The Narrow-Striped Kern''), Leabhar Breac, 2002; a retelling from c. 1500, also illustrated by Darach Ó ScolaÍ.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/fiction/an-ceithearnach-caolriabhach/|title=An Ceithearnach Caolriabhach|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> * ''Táin Bó Cuailnge'' (trans., ''The Cattle Raid of Cooley''), Leabhar Breac, 2017, both a modern edition of an 11th-century epic and an annotated edition.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/darach-o-scolai/tain-bo-cuailnge-2-2/|title=Táin Bó Cuailnge|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> "''Táin Bó Cuailnge'' won the Aodán Mac Poilín Memorial Prize 2017."<ref name=":19" /> * ''Deirdre'', Leabhar Breac, 2023, a “picture book for adults” with artist Anastasia Melnykova.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/darach-o-scolai/deirdre/|title=Deirdre|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> Part of the [[wikipedia:Ulster_Cycle|Ulster Cycle]], ''Deirdre'' is a retelling of the story of possibly the most widely known Irish figure from the early tales and sagas.<ref>{{Cite book|title=A Dictionary of Celtic Mythology|last=MacKillop|first=James|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2004|isbn=9780198609674|pages=181}}</ref> * ''Bláthnaid'', Leabhar Breac, 2024, a “picture book for adults” with artist Anastasia Melnykova; “one of the great stories of the [[wikipedia:Ulster_Cycle|Ulster Cycle]].”<ref name=":4" /> * ''Sadhbh,'' Leabhar Breac, 2025, a picture book for adult readers, illustrated by Alé Mercado; a retelling of the medieval tale ''Ceasacht Inghine Ghuile (''trans., ''The Complaint of Guile's Daughter'').<ref name=":5">{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/tales-of-wonder/|title=Tales of Wonder|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> * ''Eoghan Béal'', Leabhar Breac, 2025, a picture book for adult readers illustrated by Alé Mercado<ref name=":5" />; a retelling of the medieval tale ''[https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caithr%C3%A9im_Cellaig Cathréim Ceallaigh]'' from ''The Yellow Book of Leacan.''<ref name=":5" /> === For Young Readers === Ó Scolaí has written illustrated books for young readers (8–10 years old) in two series, the Fionn Series and the Scéalta Staire series, and translated a large number of classics and popular books for children of all ages. The number of these written and translated works suggests a commitment to children and their literacy in Irish. The Fionn Series “is a retelling ... of the great legends of the Fianna for the young Irish readers of today.”<ref name=":6">{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/oige-en/8-9/doiteoir-na-samhna/|title=Dóiteoir na Samhna|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> [[wikipedia:The_Boyhood_Deeds_of_Fionn|Macgnímartha Finn (The Boyhood Deeds of Fionn)]] is a medieval story in the [[wikipedia:Fenian_Cycle|Fenian Cycle]]. * ''An Bradán Feasa'' (trans., ''The Salmon of Knowledge''), Leabhar Breac, 2010, “shortlisted for the Réics Carlo award 2010.”<ref name=":9">{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/oige-en/8-9/an-bradan-feasa/|title=An Bradán Feasa|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> * ''Dóiteoir na Samhna'' (trans., ''The Halloween Burner''), 2010.<ref name=":6" /> * ''Bodach an Chóta Lachna'' (trans., ''The Churl in the Dun Coat''), 2011.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/oige-en/7-8/bodach-an-chota-lachna/|title=Bodach an Chóta Lachna|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> The Scéalta Staire (Historical Stories) series<ref name=":9" /> * ''Mánas Ó Dónaill'', 2000. * ''Seán Ó Néill'', Leabhar Breac, 2000. * ''Gráinne Mhaol Ní Mháille'', Leabhar Breac, 2003. * ''Tadhg Dall Ó hUiginn'', Leabhar Breac, 2003. ==== Translations ==== * Robert Louis Stevenson, ''Oileán an Órchiste'' (trans. of ''Treasure Island''), Leabhar Breac, 2014.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2025-06-19|title=Oireachtas na Gaeilge|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Oireachtas_na_Gaeilge&oldid=1296394643|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> * Robert Louis Stevenson, ''An Fuadach'' (trans. of ''Kidnapped''), Leabhar Breac, 2016. * Clement Clarke Moore, ''Cuairt San Nioclás'' (trans. of ''A Visit from St. Nicholas'', or "'Twas the Night Before Christmas"), Leabhar Breac, 2022. '''''The Corto Maltese Graphic Novels''''' Written in Italian by Hugo Pratt and translated by Ó Scolaí, both adults and teenagers read this series of Italian adventure graphic novels.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2025-07-01|title=Corto Maltese|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Corto_Maltese&oldid=1298285365|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> Ó Scolaí's '''translation of ''Corto Maltese''''' was listed in 2017 among "The 30 Irish books that Irish people love."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ó Murchú|first=Eoin P.|date=09/06/2017|title=Na 30 leabhar Gaeilge is fearr leis na Gaeil [The 30 Irish books that Irish people love]|url=https://nos.ie/cultur/leabhair/an-30-leabhar-gaeilge-is-fearr-leis-na-gaeil/|journal=Nós}}</ref> * Hugo Pratt, ''Corto: Port na Farraige Goirt'', Leabhar Breac, 2013. * Hugo Pratt, ''Corto: The Golden House in Samarkand'', 2014. * Hugo Pratt, ''Corto: Na Liopard-Fhir ó Rufiji'' (trans. of ''Corto: The Leopard Men of Rufiji''), Leabhar Breac, 2014. * Hugo Pratt, ''Corto: In Ainm Dé Uilthrócairigh'' (trans. of ''Corto: In the Name of God All-Merciful''), Leabhar Breac, 2014. * Hugo Pratt, ''Corto: Tóraíocht Eile'' (trans. of ''Corto: Another Quest''), Leabhar Breac, 2014. * Hugo Pratt, ''Corto: Sa tSibéir'' (trans. of ''Corto: In Siberia''), Leabhar Breac, 2016. '''''Other Translations for Children''''' Ó Scolaí has translated into Irish six books from the ''Le Pavillon Noir'' (trans., ''Jolly Roger'') series by Alain Surget; four books from the ''Catalan First Steps'' series by Enric Lluch Girbés and the ''Caitlín & Cormac'' series by Joan Carles; three books from the ''Louisette le Taupe'' series by Bruno Heitz, and three books from the ''Loup'' series by Orianne Lallemand. === Plays and Screenplays === ==== Stage Plays ==== Ó Scolaí was writer and director of the original productions of two plays in the ''Trí Bhraon'' (trans., ''Three Drops'') trilogy; ''Coinneáil Orainn'' was directed by Darach Mac Con Iomaire and staged by An Taibhdhearc. All three plays have been published in book form by Leabhar Breac. * ''Coinneáil Orainn'' (trans., ''We'll Keep Going''), 2005.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://irishplayography.com/play?playid=32553|title=Coinneáil Orainn|date=2025|website=PlayographyIreland: A Comprehensive Database of New Irish Plays Produced Professionally Since 1904.|access-date=25 August 2025}}</ref> The first play in the ''Trí Bhraon'' (''Three Drops'') trilogy. [[wikipedia:Taibhdhearc_na_Gaillimhe|An Taibhdhearc]], the national Irish-language theatre of Ireland, toured the country in 2005 with ''Coinneáil Orainn''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/darach-o-scolai/coinneail-orainn/|title=Coinneáil Orainn|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> Walter Macken Prize, 2005; BBC Stewart Parker Award, 2006.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://irishplayography.com/person/darach-scola|title=Darach Ó Scolaí|date=2025|website=PlayographyIreland: A Comprehensive Database of New Irish Plays Produced Professionally Since 1904.|access-date=25 August 2025}}</ref> * ''Branwen'', 2006, by Darach Ó Scolaí and Ifor ap Glyn, in Irish, Welsh and English, co-produced by Project Arts Centre and Llwyfan Gogledd Cymru, toured the Republic of Ireland and Wales.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://irishplayography.com/play?playid=32418|title=Branwen|date=2025|website=PlayographyIreland: A Comprehensive Database of New Irish Plays Produced Professionally Since 1904|access-date=25 August 2025}}</ref> * ''An Braon'' Aníos (trans., ''Rising Damp''), 2006, directed by Ó Scolaí.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://irishplayography.com/play?playid=32461|title=An Braon Aníos|date=2025|website=PlayographyIreland: A Comprehensive Database of New Irish Plays Produced Professionally Since 1904|access-date=25 August 2025}}</ref> The second play in the ''Trí Bhraon'' (''Three Drops'') trilogy. “The Salamandar company toured the country in 2006-07 with this play, and Salamandar also produced a radio version of the play for RTÉ Raidió na Gaeltachta in 2009.”<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/darach-o-scolai/an-braon-anios/|title=An Braon Aníos|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> * ''Craos'' (trans., ''Gluttony''), 2008, directed by Ó Scolaí.<ref name=":13">{{Cite web|url=https://irishplayography.com/play?playid=32867|title=Craos|date=2025|website=PlayographyIreland: A Comprehensive Database of New Irish Plays Produced Professionally Since 1904|access-date=25 August 2025}}</ref> The third play in the ''Trí Bhraon'' (''Three Drops'') trilogy, it toured to Cork and Belfast.<ref name=":13" /> A review of the 2008 Salamander performance in the ''Irish Times'' says, “a humorous play which offers plenty to think about, fine acting, and sparklingly witty dialogue.”<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/darach-o-scolai/craos-2/|title=Craos|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> * ''A+E'', 2008, by Ríonach Ní Néill and Darach Ó Scolaí, "dance and music drama," co-produced by Ciotóg and Salamandar.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://irishplayography.com/play?playid=32962|title=A+E|date=2025|website=PlayographyIreland: A Comprehensive Database of New Irish Plays Produced Professionally Since 1904|access-date=25 August 2025}}</ref> * ''An tSeanbhróg'' (trans., ''The Old Shoe''), 2009, produced by Salamander<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://irishplayography.com/play?playid=33042|title=An tSeanbhróg|date=2025|website=PlayographyIreland: A Comprehensive Database of New Irish Plays Produced Professionally Since 1904|access-date=25 August 2025}}</ref> and staged in the Axis Arts Centre, Dublin, and the Letterkenny Arts Centre. * '''In ''Mhuir Fhíondorcha/The Wine-Dark Sea: The Homer Project'', Ó Scolaí's translation of Homer's Cyclops story, performed at the 2019 IMRAM festival'''.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/culture/books/imram-a-festival-celebrating-the-irish-language-1.4047610|title=Imram: a festival celebrating the Irish language. Liam Carson reveals the myths and legends appearing in this year’s programme|last=Carson|first=Liam|date=11 October 2019|work=The Irish Times|access-date=15 October 2025}}</ref> ==== Screenplays ==== * ''Cosa Nite'' (trans., ''Washed Feet''), short film, 1998 (dir. Dearbhla Walsh, prod. Ciarán Ó Cofaigh, Rosg); "a prose version of ''Cosa Nite'' was published (Rosg 2000)."<ref name=":9" /> Nominated for an Irish Film and Television Award.<ref>{{Citation|title=Cosa Nite (Short 1998) - Awards - IMDb|url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0191917/awards/|accessdate=2025-08-25|language=en-US}}</ref> * ''Na Glúnta'' (trans., ''The Generations''), 2001<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.iftn.ie/production/production_companies/production_sub/feature/?act1=record&aid=70&rid=3917&tpl=filmography_dets&only=1&force=1|title=Na Glúnta {{!}} The Irish Film & Television Network|website=www.iftn.ie|access-date=2025-08-25}}</ref>, co-directors Ciarán Ó Cofaigh & Darach Ó Scolaí, prod. Ciarán Ó Cofaigh, Rosg. * ''An Leabhar'' (trans., ''The Book''), short film, 2000, (dir. Robert Quinn, prod. Ciarán Ó Cofaigh, Rosg) Rosg, 2000.<ref>{{Citation|title=An Leabhar|url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0963767/|publisher=Bord Scannán na hÉireann / The Irish Film Board, ROSG|accessdate=2025-08-25|first=Robert|last=Quinn|others=Colm O&apos;Maonlai, Peadar O&apos;Treasaigh, Diarmuid Mac an Adhastair}}</ref> * ''Na Cloigne'' [trans., The Heads], 3-episide series, 2010 (dir. Robert Quinn, prod. Ciarán Ó Cofaigh, Rosg), TG4.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt1607924/|title=Na cloigne|date=2010|website=IMDb|access-date=25 August 2025}}</ref> === Nonfiction === Ó Scolaí's essays and lectures are published and his interviews are broadcast regularly, making for a large body of nonfiction critical and analytical work. Here are a few, almost all published in [https://comhar.ie/iris/scribhneoiri/darach-o-scolai/ Comhar]: * “Ceol Ciúin na nÉagmaise” (trans., “The Silent Music of Absence ['''the Fall?''']”), an essay on the 2014 Nobel Prize winner for literature, [[wikipedia:Patrick_Modiano|Patrick Modiano]], ''Comhar'', December 2014. * The Ó Cadhain Lecture: [https://leachtaiuichadhain.clo.ie/leachtai/2014 “Cuimhne agus Díchuimhne (trans., “Memory & Forgetfulness"]), 2014. * “Rithim agus Réim” ("Rhythm and Register"), a public lecture in the University College Dublin lecture series “Ó Thrácht go Twitter” (trans., "From Talk to Twitter"), 2014. * Review of Pádraig Ó Cíobháin’s ''Dréachta Chrích Fodla'', '''Comhar?, ??'''. * “Na Geilt i mBun an Tí” (trans., "The Madmen in Charge"), a talk at the Merriman Winter School, Comhar April 2012.<ref name=":18">{{Cite web|url=http://darachoscolai.ie/beathaisneis.html|title=Darach Ó Scolaí: Beathaisnéis|website=darachoscolai.ie|access-date=2025-09-26}}</ref> * The EFACIS podcast: Síle Ní Choincheannain talks to Darach Ó Scolaí about the historical novel. == Critical Reception == Ó Scolaí’s style has been called “crisp and elegant, and rich in language while being highly readable,”<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Heussaf|first=Anna|date=Summer 2025|title=Bláthnaid—A tale of love, violence and sorcery retold for readers today|url=https://booksirelandmagazine.com/blathnaid-a-tale-of-love-violence-and-sorcery/|journal=Books Ireland}}</ref> with “an unsurpassed richness and precision of language.”<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|last=Ó Cróinín|first=Breandán|date=Summer 2025|title=unknown|journal=The Limerick Leader}}</ref> “Whimsical, hilarious, and subtly learned” is how Éilis Ní Dhuibhne described his writing.<ref name=":20" /> === Original Works === Ó Scolaí’s first novel, the 2007 ''An Cléireach'' (''The Clerk'') won two prizes and was described as “one of the great historical novels in the Irish language and among the best books written in the language since the beginning of this century.”<ref name=":12" /> Novelist Alan Titley says, “In ''An Cléireach'' Ó Scolaí creates the Ireland of war in the 17th century more fully than any other Irish writer on the subject of war since ''L’Attaque'' Eoghain Ó Thuairisc around 1798 [In ''An Cléireach'' cruthaíonn Ó Scolaí Éire an chogaidh san 17ú haois níos iomláine ná mar a dhein aon scríbhneoir Gaeilge eile ar ábhar cogaidh ó ''L’Attaque'' Eoghain Uí Thuairisc timpeall ar 1798].”<ref name=":11" />{{rp|25, Col. 1a}} Not all the reviews of this first novel were so positive, however; Proinsias O' Drisceoil says for the Irish Times says,<blockquote>This then is a novel in search of a plot, a story that attempts to attain a significance that eludes it.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/news/a-disaffected-clerk-in-the-confederates-1.943070|title=A disaffected clerk in the confederates|last=O' Drisceoil|first=Proinsias|date=5 July 2008|work=The Irish Times|access-date=16 October 2025}}</ref></blockquote> In the ''Oxford Handbook of Modern Irish Fiction'' Pádraig Ó Siadhail analyzes rather than reviews ''An Cléireach'': <blockquote>In ''An Cléireach'', Ó Scolaí revisits the trauma of Cromwellian Ireland. The primary narrative device is once again the first-hand account, in this case by Tadhg Ó Dúbháin, a clerk and quartermaster in the Confederate Army in 1650. We sample the hardships, the friendships, the tensions, the rivalries, and the petty jealousies amongst comrades in arms, including remnants of the Gaelic literary class, as the Confederate soldiers, increasingly a rabble more than a cohesive unit, retreat in advance of Cromwell’s forces. ''An Cléireach'' concludes with the narrator and his family in exile in continental Europe. But along the retreat route, and central to the novel, members of the Confederate army camp, rest up, and tell versions of a story about the keeper of the treasured manuscript "Saltair an Easpaig" (The Bishop’s Psalter). Their versions raise issues about memory construction, the limitations of individual perspectives, personal agendas, and how minor changes in the telling of a story can alter our understanding of history, Thus, ''An Cléireach'' complements ''Fontenoy'' in moving beyond more realistic recreation of a historical event or period to interrogate the notion of history as construct.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Oxford Handbook of Modern Irish Fiction|last=Ó Siadhail|first=Pádraig|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2020|isbn=9780198754893|editor-last=Harte|editor-first=Liam|pages=598–99|chapter=Contemporary Irish Fiction}}</ref> </blockquote> Of ''Súil an Daill,'' in ''Nós'', Cathal Seoighe says, "The book deserves a significant place among the collection of high-quality books published in recent years that would make you feel sorry for someone who does not speak Irish [Tá áit shuntasach ag dul don leabhar i measc an chnuasaigh leabhair ar ardchaighdeán a foilsíodh le roinnt blianta anuas a d’fhágfadh trua agat don té atá gan Ghaeilge]."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Seoighe|first=Cathal|date=09/26/2022|title=‘Dar leathmhagairle an diabhail, is leabhar den scoth é seo!’ ['According to the devil’s half-wit, this is a great book!’]|url=https://nos.ie/cultur/leabhair/dar-leathmhagairle-an-diabhail-is-leabhar-den-scoth-e-seo/|journal=Nós}}</ref> ''Bódléar'', Ó Scolaí's most recent book, is a “beautiful novel. There is magic and craftsmanship in it. A small miracle of a book and it is highly recommended.”<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/bodlear-mioruilt-bheag-de-leabhar/|title=Bódléar: Míorúilt bheag de leabhar (Bódléar: A Small Miracle of a Book)|last=Ní Ghairbhí|first=Róisín|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> Éilis Ní Dhuibhne in the ''Irish Times'' says,<blockquote>what a gem! An affectionately gentle satire of the Irish poetic scene during one creatively fluid 19th-century year, the story focuses on a Maigue poet and schoolteacher who goes on a trip to France and returns with camembert, a cafetiere, ‘Fleurs du Mal’, and a mission to convert the local traditionalists to la modernité. Whimsical, hilarious, and subtly learned, it’s absolutely delightful!<ref name=":20">{{Cite journal|last=Ní Dhuibhne|first=Éilis|date=30 June 2025|title=Éilís Ní Dhuibhne on the best Irish language books of 2025 so far: Including a history of the Gaeltacht Civil Rights Movements, a gem of a novel by Darach Ó Scolaí and Joe McHugh’s entertaining account of learning Irish|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/culture/books/review/2025/06/30/eilis-ni-dhuibhne-on-the-best-irish-language-books-of-2025-so-far/|journal=The Irish Times|pages=22}}</ref></blockquote> === Retellings and Translations === ==== ''Táin Bó Cuailnge'' ==== ''Táin Bó Cuailnge'' [''The Cattle Raid of Cooley''] is a modern edition of an 11th-century epic into modern Irish.<ref name=":3" /> Gearóid Denvir reviewed ''Táin Bó Cuailnge'' for ''Comhar'':<blockquote>Darach Ó Scolaí has ​​achieved a feat in this challenging reworking. He has found a high level of the Irish language to tell his story – as he has done before in his groundbreaking novel An Cléireach (2007, Leabhar Breac) and in his other prose works. This book is a decoration of the language, literature and culture of the Irish language, following the path of the old storytellers and writers and presenting material from the tradition to his own generation according to the understandings of his own time. The book will be a classic that will be of great interest to all readers of the Irish language, both ordinary readers, students, scholars and writers, and there should be a copy in every home in the country. [Tá éacht déanta ag Darach Ó Scolaí san athleagan dúshlánach seo. Tá réim ard den teanga Ghaeilge aimsithe aige lena scéal a inseacht – mar a rinne sé cheana ina úrscéal ceannródaíoch An Cléireach (2007, Leabhar Breac) agus i saothair eile phróis dá chuid. Is maisiú ar an teanga agus ar litríocht agus cultúr na Gaeilge an leabhar seo a leanas conair na seanscéalaithe agus na seanscríobhaithe agus ábhar de chuid an traidisiúin á chur i láthair a ghlúine féin aige de réir thuiscintí a linne féin. Clasaic a bheas sa leabhar a gcuirfidh léitheoirí uilig na Gaeilge, idir ghnáthléitheoirí, mhic léinn, scoláirí agus scríbhneoirí spéis thar na bearta ann, agus ba cheart cóip a bheith i chuile theach sa tír.]<ref name=":15">{{Cite journal|last=Denvir|first=Gearóid|date=April 2018|title=Táin Bó Cuailgne|url=https://comhar.ie/iris/78/4/leirmheas/|journal=Comhar|via=JSTOR}}</ref> </blockquote>Cathal Poirtéir says, "The freshness and richness of Ó Scolaí’s version are a joy …. The author delights us with the linguistic and stylistic richness of the ancient epic in a modern-Irish version that reflects the original’s spirit and language."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Poirtéir|first=Cathal|date=May/June 2018|title=Leabhair Idir Lámha|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26564180|journal=Books Ireland|pages=46–47|via=JSTOR}}</ref>{{rp|47}} Novelist and academic Alan Titley calls Ó Scolaí's "a wonderful gutsy telling" of ''Táin Bó Cuailnge''.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/culture/2023/03/11/the-tain-retold-maeve-and-ailills-spat-could-be-out-of-a-soap-opera/|title=The Táin retold: ‘Maeve and Ailill’s spat could be out of a soap opera’|last=Titley|first=Alan|date=11 March 2023|work=The Irish Times|access-date=16 October 2025}}</ref> ==== ''Deirdre'' ==== Marie Whelton, in "Léann Teanga" ("Language Studies"), in the 2024 ''An Reiviú'' says,<blockquote>this version [of ''Deirdre''] by Darach Ó Scolaí succeeds in skillfully capturing and portraying the complexity of gender and power issues in the ‘Deirdre’ tradition [éiríonn leis an leagan seo le Darach Ó Scolaí castacht cheisteanna na hinscne agus na cumhachta i dtraidisiún scéal Dheirdre a ghabháil agus a léiriú go sciliúil]. … There is no doubt that this new version greatly contributes to the legacy of the story and that it revives that legacy thoughtfully and artistically [Níl amhras faoi ach go gcuireann an leagan úr seo go mór le hoidhreacht an scéil agus go ndéanann sé an oidhreacht sin a athbheochan go tuisceanach agus go healaíonta.].<ref name=":16">{{Cite web|url=https://www.tara.tcd.ie/tara8/server/api/core/bitstreams/3c20175a-7631-44b2-8b0f-f454edd712b4/content|title=An Artistic Retelling of Deirdre's Tale and the Defeat of Conor Review of Deirdre or the Ship of Mac Uisnigh by Darach Ó Scolaí [Athinsint Ealaíonta ar Oidhe Dheirdre agus ar Ansmacht Chonchúir Léirmheas ar Deirdre nó Loingeas Mhac Uisnigh le Darach Ó Scolaí]|last=Whelton|first=Marie|date=2024|website=The Review [An Reiviú], Language Studies [Léann Teanga]|access-date=25 September 2025}}</ref></blockquote> === Works for Young Readers === Meadhbh Ní Eadhra said of ''Bodach an Chóta Lachna'' that it was "Beautiful Irish, but easy to understand for young readers."<ref>Ní Eadhra, Meadhbh. In ''Gaelscéal'', qtd. in "Bodach an Chóta Lachna" https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/oige-en/7-8/bodach-an-chota-lachna/.</ref> == Awards and Honors == Ó Scolaí's works are regularly nominated and make the short list for prizes, an honor in itself, but they are generally not listed here unless they are named as the first-place winner in their category. === Oireachtas Prize === The Oireachtas Prize is the literary prize awarded by [[wikipedia:Oireachtas_na_Gaeilge|Oireachtas na Gaeilge]], the annual arts festival dedicated to Irish language, arts and culture. Darach Ó Scolaí has won the Oireachtas Prize for Literary Fiction three times, once for ''An Cléireach'' (''The Clerk'') in 2007, for ''Súil an Daill'' (''The Eye of the Blind'') in 2021 and for ''Bódléar'' in 2024. * 2007, for ''An Cléireach'' (trans., ''The Clerk'') — “(a special prize commemorating the 400th anniversary of the foundation of Coláiste na nGael in Louvain, awarded under the auspices of the Franciscan Province of Ireland). The prize of €10,000 was the largest prize ever awarded to an Irish language novel [(duais speisialta chomórtha 400 bliain bhunú Choláiste na nGael i Lobháin a bronnadh faoi urraíocht Phroibhinse Phroinsiasach na hÉireann). Ba é an duais €10,000 sin an duais ba mhó a bronnadh riamh ar úrscéal Gaeilge].”<ref name=":18" /> * 2021, for ''Súil an Daill'' (''The Eye of the Blind'') * 2024, for ''Bódléar'' === Ó Shúilleabháin Award, Irish language “Book of the Year” === The first prize of this award includes €5,000 to the publisher and €2,500 to the author of the winning work.<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal|date=15 August 2023|title=20 saothar san iomaíocht do ‘Leabhair Ghaeilge na Bliana 2023’|url=https://tuairisc.ie/20-saothar-san-iomaiocht-do-leabhair-ghaeilge-na-bliana-2023/|journal=Tuairisc}}</ref> * ''An Cléireach'' (''The Clerk'').<ref>{{Cite web|url=http:/www.gaelport.com/uploads/documents/edition19.html|title=Eagrán / Edition 19 - 04 11 2008|date=4/11/2008|website=Internet Archive|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130525011340/http:/www.gaelport.com/uploads/documents/edition19.html|archive-date=25 May 2013|access-date=25 August 2025}}</ref> * ''Táin Bó Cuailnge'', 2018. * ''Bódléar'', 2025. ==== De Bhaldraithe Award ==== The Gradam de Bhaldraithe is awarded to the best work in translation.<ref name=":10" /> * ''Cuairt San Nioclás,'' a translation of Clement Clarke Moore's ''A Visit from St. Nicholas'', or "'Twas the Night Before Christmas."<ref name=":10" /> ==== Other ==== * Walter Macken Prize, for ''Coinneáil Orainn'' (trans., ''We'll Keep Going''), 2005 * Bháiteir Uí Mhaicín Memorial Award, for ''Coinneáil Orainn'' (trans., ''We'll Keep Going''), 2005<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/gaeilge/tuarascail/duais-oireachtais-1.501571|title=Oireachtas Prize: Over €50,000 was awarded to writers in the Oireachtas Literary Competitions at an event in Dublin last night. Winners… [Duais Oireachtais: Bronnadh breis agus €50,000 ar scríbhneoirí i gComórtais Liteartha an Oireachtais ar ócáid i mBaile Átha Cliath aréir. Bhuaigh…]|work=5 October 2005|access-date=15 October 2025}}</ref> * BBC Stewart Parker Award, for ''Coinneáil Orainn'' (trans., ''We'll Keep Going''), 2006 * The Aodán Mac Póilín Commemorative Prize, for ''Táin Bó Cuailnge'' (trans., ''The Cattle Raid of Cooley''), 2017 == External Links == * Leabhar Breac website: https://leabharbreac.com/en/ * Leabhar Breac Facebook pages: * Rosg website: [http://www.rosg.ie/en/ <nowiki>http://ww</nowiki>w.rosg.ie/en/] * Art on the Island (Ealaín ar Oileán) website, archived at the Wayback Machine: https://web.archive.org/web/20130601000520/http://ealainaroilean.ie/ 31 March 2012, 1 June 2013 and 8 January 2014 * Darach Ó Scolaí's website Archived 25 September 2015 at the Wayback Machine: https://web.archive.org/web/20150925103456/http://darachoscolai.ie/ * Youtube video of [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OlP2AmSBzXc Breandán Ó Cróinin introducing Deirdre at the book launch] in the pub Tigh Mholly (Molly’s House). == Primordial Ooze == * Known for his sensitivity to language and voices. * Finish scanning through JSTOR * Scan through Irish Times, 56 hits * Check Goodreads * Check YouTube (In the spring of 2013, the arts programme Imeall interviewed the author on TG4.) * Check both Wikipedias for pages on the origins of the retold tales (like Deirdre) and link to this article * Propose link from University of Galway page once Darach’s is up * Write Irish National Biography (<nowiki>https://www.dib.ie</nowiki>) to propose an article about Darach once the Wikip article is done? See what they say. * Link to Ó Scolaí from the Wikipedia * Make sure links '''to''' Wikipedia in the actual encyclopedia work right === Not Placed Yet === * "So here are the books that Irish people love the most! [Mar sin seo iad na leabhair is gile leis na Gaeil!]" — "32. An Cléireach – Darach Ó Scolaí (2)" [18 books got 2 votes, and then they're alphabetized by author's last name, so the 32 of 34 doesn't signify the specificity it seems to]<ref name=":14">{{Cite journal|last=Ó Murchú|first=Eoin P.|date=9 June 2017|title=Na 30 leabhar Gaeilge is fearr leis na Gaeil. [The 30 best Irish books for Irish people]|url=https://nos.ie/cultur/leabhair/an-30-leabhar-gaeilge-is-fearr-leis-na-gaeil/|journal=Nós}}</ref> * "Below is a list of those 111 works – a list that shows a great deal of diversity in the reading habits of Irish speakers.Here is a list of those 111 works – a list that shows a great deal of diversity in the reading habits of Irish speakers [Anseo thíos tá liosta den 111 saothar sin – liosta a léiríonn éagsúlacht an-mhór i nósanna léitheoireachta Gaeilgeoirí.Anseo thíos tá liosta den 111 saothar sin – liosta a léiríonn éagsúlacht an-mhór i nósanna léitheoireachta Gaeilgeoirí]." "Corto Maltese – Hugo Pratt (aistrithe ag Darach Ó Scolaí)"<ref name=":14" /> * "Ceann eile de bhuaicphointí na hÉigse a bheidh sa seisiún le Darach Ó Scolaí, duine d’úrscéalaithe móra na Gaeilge, agus duine de chomhbhunaitheoirí teach foilsitheoireachta Leabhar Breac. [Another highlight of the Éigse will be the session with Darach Ó Scolaí, one of the great Irish language novelists, and one of the co-founders of the publishing house Leabhar Breac.]"<ref name=":17">{{Cite journal|last=Nós|date=4 May 2023|title=Éigse na Bruiséile le filleadh i mí na Bealtaine. [Éigse na Bruséile to return in May]|url=https://nos.ie/cultur/eigse-na-bruiseile-le-filleadh-i-mi-na-bealtaine/|journal=Nós}}</ref> === Things Taken Out for Now === “’The play is a comedy about language, lies, bureaucracy and Gaeltacht grants, in the tradition of Myles na Gcopaleen,’ according to Norma-Jean Kenny in the ''Galway Advertizer'', ‘in which the author comments and criticizes the institutions of the Irish language in Ireland without ceasing.’" Supposedly a quotation by Gearóid Denvir reviewing ''Táin Bó Cuailnge'' for ''Comhar'' (but I don't find it in the article): This book has long been needed by Irish language readers and there is no doubt that it will become a classic in time and surpass Thomas Kinsella’s English version. This version remains faithful to the language of the original while at the same time finding an appropriate language in today’s Irish. Ó Scolaí masterfully overcomes the difficulties of the original’s rhetorical difficulties and the versions of the original poetic texts are extremely effective.[supposedly <ref name=":15" />] “The biggest prize ever awarded for a novel in Irish was presented at a special ceremony in the National Concert Hall in Dublin, today (Thursday, 4 October 2007). Darach Ó Scolaí, writer, artist & playwright from Casla, Co. Galway, was awarded €10,000 for his literary novel, ‘An Ardscoil’. This work, under the new title ‘An Cléireach’, will be launched at Oireachtas na Samhna in Westport in November. This is the first novel from his pen, a story set in the late seventeenth century. This competition was sponsored by the Franciscan Province of Ireland.” (archive, Oireachtas na Gaeilge site, 04 October, 2007) ''Súil an Daill'' (trans., ''The Eye of the Blind''), Leabhar Breac, 2021. number 2 in ''Comhar'' literary magazine’s list of best books of 2021. '''{6}.''' *William Shakespeare, ''Romeo agus Juliet'' (trans. of ''Romeo and Juliet''), Leabhar Breac, 2016. *Jonathan Swift, ''Camchuairt Ghuilivéir'' (trans. of ''Gulliver's Travels''), Leabhar Breac, 2016. *Hugo Pratt, ''Corto Maltese'' '''''Flag of Bones (Bratach na gCnámh) Series''''' Leabhar Breac published the Bratach na gCnámh series of books for young readers. Written in French by Alain Surget, illustrated by Annette Marnat and translated by Darach Ó Scolaí, this series uses the history of Caribbean Sea pirates<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/product-category/alain-surget/|title=Alain Surget Archives|website=Leabhar Breac|language=en-US|access-date=2025-09-30}}</ref>: *Alain Surget, ''Éalú as Páras'' (''Escape from Paris''), Annette Marnat (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2011. * Alain Surget, ''Oilean na Siorcanna'' (''Shark Island''), Annette Marnat (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2011. * Alain Surget, ''Long na dTaibhsi'' (''Ship of the Ghosts''), Annette Marnat (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2011. * Alain Surget, ''San Ochtapas Dubh'' (''In the Black Octopus''), Annette Marnat (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2013. * Alain Surget, ''San Ionsai ar Veracruz'' (''The Attack on Veracruz''), Annette Marnat (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2013. '''''For "First Readers" (children to 6 years old or so)''''' These books were written originally in Catalan by Spanish author Enric Lluch Girbés and translated into Irish by Ó ScolaÍ: *Enric Lluch, ''Ag Péinteáil an Tí'' (''Painting the House''), Anna Clariana (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2017. *Enric Lluch, ''An Colúr Bacach'' (''The Lazy Dove''), Anna Clariana (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2017. *Enric Lluch, ''An Phluais'' (''The Cave''), Anna Clariana (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2017. *Enric Lluch, ''Madra Dhaideo'' (''Grandpa's Dog''), Anna Clariana (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2017. *Enric Lluch, ''Fiacail Mháire'' (''Mary's Tooth''), Anna Clariana (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2017. '''''Bruno Heitz''''' Leabhar Breac published a series of 3 Heitz books for small children. Published originally in French, this series of three comic books is about a blind mole named Cáitín Chaoch in Irish (and ''Louisette la taupe'' in French).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/product-category/bruno-heitz-en/|title=Bruno Heitz Archives|website=Leabhar Breac|language=en-US|access-date=2025-10-02}}</ref> Ó Scolaí translated these: *Bruno Heitz (author and illustr.), ''Práinneach'' (''Urgent''), Leabhar Breac, 2020 *Bruno Heitz (author and illustr.), ''Preab san Aer'' (''Bounce in the Air''), Leabhar Breac, 2020. '''''Books for Toddlers''''' Leabhar Breac has published 14 books written by French author Orianne Lallemand's and illustrated by Eleonore Thuillier, about Lallemmand's popular character Loup, Wolf. These are translated by Ó Scolaí: *Orianne Lallemand, ''An Mac Tire a Raibh Faitios an Domhain Air'' (trans. of ''The Son Who Saw the World in His Eyes''), Eleonore Thuillier  Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2018. *Orianne Lallemand, ''Macan agus an Goban'' (trans. of ''Macan and the Goblin''), Eleonore Thuillier (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2018. * Orianne Lallemand, ''A Mac Tíre a Chuaigh go Tóin na Farraige'' (trans. of ''The Wolf Who Went to the Bottom of the Sea''), Éléanore Thuillier  (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2019. '''''Board Books (for babies)''''' J. C. (Joan Carles) Girbés Aparisi is a Catalan author and editor. These books were written in Catalan and translated by Ó Scolai. *J. C. Girbés, ''An Phicnic'' (''The Picnic''), Silvia Ortega (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2013. * J. C. Girbés, ''An Chóisir'' (''The Party''), Silvia Ortega (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2013. *J. C. Girbés, ''Lá Mór Fada'' (''A Long Day''), Silvia Ortega (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2014. *J. C. Girbés, ''Tabhair Leat do Leabhar'' (''Bring Your Book''), Silvia Ortega (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2014. ==== Gradam Réics Carló ==== The Réics Carló prize is awarded for the best book in the Irish language for young readers. It is named for one of the characters of 20th-century writer [[wikipedia:Cathal_Ó_Sándair|Cathal Ó Sándair (Charles Saunders)]]. * ''An Bradán Feasa'' was “shortlisted for the Réics Carlo award 2010.”<ref name=":9" /> == References == {{reflist}} tc08beo2p61b611dxfsa8mxixcia1kl 2 289273 2835743 2835600 2026-10-04T04:18:13Z Dc.samizdat 2856930 /* Special relativity is Galilean relativity in a Euclidean space of four orthogonal dimensions */ 2835743 wikitext text/x-wiki {{align|center|David Brooks Christie}} {{align|center|dc@samizdat.org}} {{align|center|Draft in progress}} {{align|center|June 2023 - October 2026}} <blockquote>'''Abstract:''' The physical universe is properly visualized as real Euclidean space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math> of four orthogonal spatial dimensions. Space itself has a fourth perpendicular dimension, of which we are unaware in ordinary life. Atoms are 4-polytopes, small round 4-dimensional objects, and stars are 4-balls of atomic plasma, large round 4-dimensional objects. We ourselves and our planet are only 3-dimensional objects, but nonetheless we can see in four dimensions of space. We have been unaware that when we look up at night we see stars and galaxies, themselves large 4-dimensional objects, distributed all around us in 4-dimensional Euclidean space, and moving through it, like us, at the constant velocity <math>c</math>. Light from them reaches us directly, on straight lines through 4-space. This view of the observed universe is compatible with special and general relativity, and with quantum mechanics. It furnishes those theories with an explanatory geometric model.</blockquote> == Summary == We observe that: * Physical space has four perpendicular dimensions, not just three. * Atoms are [[W:4-polytope|4-polytopes]]. * The sun is a [[W:4-ball|4-ball]] that is round in four dimensions. * Everything of intermediate size between an atom and a star, including us and our planet, lies in a 3-dimensional manifold of ordinary space. * Our entire 3-space manifold is moving through Euclidean 4-space at the speed of light, in a direction perpendicular to its three interior dimensions. * Special relativity describes the linear motion of objects and light signals in four-dimensional Euclidean space. == A theory of the Euclidean cosmos == The physical universe is properly visualized as [[w:Four-dimensional_space|real Euclidean space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math>]] of four orthogonal spatial dimensions. Space itself has a fourth perpendicular dimension, of which we are unaware in ordinary life. Atoms are [[w:4-polytope|4-polytopes]], small round 4-dimensional objects, and stars are [[W:4-ball|4-balls]] of atomic plasma, large round 4-dimensional objects. Objects intermediate in size between atoms and stars, including molecules, people, and planets, are so flat as to be essentially 3-dimensional, having only the thickness of an atom in the orthogonal fourth dimension. All objects with mass move inertially through Euclidean 4-space at constant velocity <math>c</math> as long as they exist, and acceleration only varies their direction. Objects moving in the same direction are in the same inertial reference frame. Their direction of motion through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math> is their proper time dimension, simply because their direction and velocity of motion through time is the same as their direction and velocity of motion through space. A typical galaxy such as ours occupies a 4-ball of mostly empty space, with stars and other objects distributed non-uniformly within it. The galaxy's orbital center may be nothing: a smaller 4-ball of empty space they surround. The stars in our spiral galaxy appear from our accustomed point of view to occupy a disk-like region of 3-dimensional space, with a denser ball-like center, but they are not so confined: they are distributed within a region of 4-dimensional space. The disk and ball have thickness not only in the third dimension, but in the fourth spatial dimension as well. Light from stars and galaxies reaches us on straight lines through Euclidean 4-space, so from our viewpoint, in what we have always imagined to be a 3-space universe, we look into the surrounding 4-space. Although we are physically confined within a 3-dimensional hyperplane by the inertia of our motion through 4-space at constant velocity <math>c</math>, light signals are not so confined, so we observe all the cosmological objects surrounding us, both in and above or below our hyperplane, without perceiving their separation in our fourth orthogonal dimension, the direction of our motion. We may perceive a galaxy as elliptical when it is actually spherical, because that is how its image projects from its 4-ball shape into a 3-ball region in our hyperplane, where we measure it with our 3-dimensional bodies. More generally, orbits are circular in 4-space, but elliptical in the 3-space of their elliptic hyperplane. The galaxy as a whole, or more properly its orbital barycenter, is translating through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>, in a distinct direction orthogonal to all three dimensions of our ordinary proper 3-space. Stars within the galaxy are translating with it at the same velocity <math>c</math> in the same direction, but on spiral trajectories as they pursue their various orbits within the galaxy. The galaxy as a whole occupies a 4-ball within its proper inertial reference frame (that is, in the moving frame of reference in which the galaxy considers itself to be a stationary rotating 4-ball). Over time, the galaxy 4-ball occupies a 4-dimensional cylinder and progresses along the cylinder's axis at velocity <math>c</math>. In this more universal inertial reference frame, the stars in the galaxy follow helical geodesic paths through the 4-cylinder; their trajectories are screw-translations through 4-space, the compound of a simple rotation and a completely orthogonal linear translation. The gravitational force and the inertial tendency to follow a geodesic are the same phenomenon, by the equivalence principle. That said, they can be distinguished, and the galaxy is held together primarily by gravity as inertia, not by gravity as attraction to a central mass toward which objects fall in orbit. There is not enough mass in the galaxy to hold it together by attraction, there is just enough to bend the stars' trajectories toward each other, in helical orbits around a barycentric axis of motion. It is the tremendous inertial force of stars in translational motion at velocity <math>c</math> that holds the cylinder of motion together, not some invisible dark matter. The observed universe as a whole appears to be a [[W:3-sphere|3-sphere]] expanding radially from a central origin point at velocity <math>c</math>, the invariant velocity of mass-carrying objects through 4-space, also the propagation speed of light relative to any moving 3-space manifold, as measured by all observers. A 3-sphere is a hypersphere in Euclidean 4-space, but the enclosing surface of a 3-sphere is a curved, finite 3-space, dimensionally analogous to the surface of the earth which is a curved, finite 2-space. This 3-sphere could be the domain of our visible cosmos, but of course we do not know for certain that all the cosmological objects we observe lie near the surface of our expanding 3-sphere, since it is only our assumption that they must all have originated in the same big bang long ago. Possibly some of the more distant objects we observe did not, and lie elsewhere, outside our big-bang's 3-sphere of outflying matter or even inside its 3-sphere, below its surface. We cannot assume that all objects in the 4-space universe lie near the surface of the same expanding 3-sphere. For all observers, the conjectured big-bang of their origin corresponds not only to a now-distant point in their proper time past, it also corresponds to a distinct now-distant point in 4-dimensional space: the same point in the same Euclidean 4-space for all observers with the same origin. Our big bang had a distinct origin point in real space as well as in real time. More generally, time and Euclidean 4-space can be measured independently, just as time and Euclidean 3-space were measured classically, without the necessity to combine them as spacetime. The same inertial force which holds the galactic cylinder of motion together also confines us physically to an exceedingly thin three-dimensional surface manifold moving through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>. All objects in our solar system except the sun itself lie within this thinest three-dimensional manifold, and have only the thickness of an atom in their direction-of-motion fourth dimension. That is why we are 3-dimensional objects ourselves, and why we cannot construct more than three perpendiculars through a single point in our local 3-dimensional space. A spherical region of 4-space is called a [[W:4-ball|4-ball]]. The enclosing surface of a 4-ball of any size is a finite, curved (non-Euclidean) 3-dimensional space called a [[w:3-sphere|3-sphere]]. Our entire big-bang-origin universe appears to be the largest 3-sphere we observe, but each of the cosmological objects within it (including our galaxy and our sun) is contained in a smaller 3-sphere shell of its own, lying (we assume) on the largest 3-sphere embedded in its surface, like a soap bubble on the surface of a larger soap bubble. All the 3-dimensional surfaces are expanding, as the largest 3-sphere inflates at radial velocity <math>c</math>. We ourselves live within such an expanding 3-dimensional surface, in an infinitesimally curved 3-manifold surface embedded in Euclidean 4-space. That surface is the ordinary 3-dimensional space we experience, and it contains the earth, all the planets and the 3-dimensional space between them. Our solar system is only a small patch on the surface of a dimensionally rounder space, although that surface is not infinite. It is curved, and finite, analogous to the way the 2-dimensional surface of the earth -- once thought to be flat -- is curved and finite. Our solar system occupies a small patch on a filmy 4-dimensional soap-bubble of galactic size rounded by gravity, that is thicker-skinned than the diameter of an atom only in the interior of stars and supermassive objects. Our 3-manifold of ordinary space, as a surface within our moving 4-ball galaxy, is translating through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math> with the galaxy, in a distinct direction orthogonal to the manifold's three orthogonal dimensions of interior space. At every material point in the manifold (at every atom), the translation through 4-space is following a geometric law of motion discovered by Coxeter, that governs the propagation of individual objects through Euclidean space by the actions of their symmetry groups. The solar system's atoms of mass are 4-polytopes that are simultaneously rotating and translating, and as they advance together they define a moving 3-dimensional manifold by their own collective inertia, also called gravity, the property of matter's ceaseless propagation through 4-space at the constant velocity <math>c</math>, the universal rate of causality at which quantum events occur, all objects move, and the universe evolves. Any moving 3-dimensional manifold such as ours is an evolving surface boundary that is empty in most places, occupied by single atoms in comparatively fewer places, and occupied by bound complexes of multiple atoms (molecules) in still fewer places. In all these places it is no thicker than one atom in the dimension corresponding to its direction of translation, because molecules are 3-dimensional complexes of atoms that add no thickness to the manifold. Every object which we find occurring naturally in the solar system other than the sun itself, even the largest of 3-dimensional objects a planet, is a 3-dimensional smear of atoms no thicker than one atom in its fourth dimension, the direction of its linear translation through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>. The moving surface manifold cannot be thicker than one atom at any point unless and until there is enough mass near that point for the force of gravity as attraction to overcome the force of gravity as inertia, allowing atoms to be "heaped up" into larger 4-dimensional objects that form a lump in its moving surface. We have little understanding of such 4-dimensional lumps thicker than one atom, since they occur naturally in our vicinity only in the interior of the sun. In fact the sun is the only such lump occurring naturally in our solar system. We refer to such 4-dimensional lumps of matter as atomic plasma, and have little experimental knowledge of their internal geometry or processes. We know that such a lump as the sun burns at its surface 3-sphere and emits radiation, and we know a good deal about those surface processes which are nuclear atomic processes, but we know almost nothing about its interior 4-ball, a dimensionally rounder enclosed space whose existence we did not suspect. Every moving surface boundary of matter in the observed universe is evolving in four dimensions at velocity <math>c</math>. The current location in 4-space of any of its material objects corresponds to the present moment in the proper time of that object's inertial reference frame. The object's direction of movement at velocity <math>c</math> corresponds to its proper time dimension, which is a spiral over time, not a Euclidean (straight-line) dimension, since its direction is changing in its orbit. Objects with mass of all sizes, from subatomic particles to the largest objects observed in the cosmos, are perpetually in inertial rotational motion in some orbit, and simultaneously in inertial translational motion propagating themselves through 4-space, in two completely orthogonal inertial motions each at the constant universal rate of transformation <math>c</math>. Every object with mass moves relative to universal 4-coordinate Euclidean space on its own distinct geodesic spiral, a screw displacement trajectory that is the compound of its two completely orthogonal inertial motions, a rotation and a translation. Objects without mass such as photons lie off such moving surface boundaries of matter from which they were emitted, and their motion is of a different nature. They are in translational motion at velocity <math>c</math> through all four dimensions concurrently, without any rotational component of motion, so they move through 4-space on straight lines at a compound velocity. The propagation speed of light measured on a straight line through Euclidean 4-space is <math>c\prime = 2c</math>, so we can see in four dimensions, even though we are physically confined to a 3-dimensional manifold that is moving at velocity <math>c</math>. For example, we can look across the center of the mostly-empty 4-ball containing our galaxy and see stars in the opposite sides of its concentric 3-sphere orbital surfaces. We have been unaware that when we look up at night we see stars and galaxies, themselves large 4-dimensional objects, distributed all around us in 4-dimensional Euclidean space, and moving through it, like us, at the constant velocity <math>c</math>. They move in the 4-space direction corresponding to their proper time, perpendicular to all three dimensions of their proper 3-space, and generally the farther they are from us the greater the divergence of their direction of motion from our direction of motion: the greater the relative motion between us and their Hubble redshift. Light from them reaches us directly, propagating on straight lines through 4-space at twice the velocity at which they, and we ourselves, are propagating through 4-space. This physical model of the observed universe is compatible with the theories of special and general relativity, and with the atomic theory of quantum mechanics. It explains those theories geometrically, as expressions of intrinsic symmetries in Euclidean space. == Symmetries == It is common to speak of nature as a web, and so it is, the great web of our physical experiences. Every web must have its root systems somewhere, and nature in this sense must be rooted in the symmetries which underlie physics and geometry, the [[W:Group (mathematics)|mathematics of groups]].{{Sfn|Conway, Burgiel & Goodman-Strauss|2008}} As I understand [[W:Noether's theorem|Noether's theorem]] (which is not mathematically), hers is the deepest meta-theory of nature yet, deeper than [[W:Theory of relativity|Einstein's relativity]] or [[W:Evolution|Darwin's evolution]] or [[W:Euclidean geometry|Euclid's geometry]]. It finds that all fundamental findings in physics are based on conservation laws which can be laid at the doors of distinct [[W:symmetry group |symmetry group]]s. Thus all fundamental systems in physics, as examples [[W:quantum chromodynamics|quantum chromodynamics]] (QCD) the theory of the strong force binding the atomic nucleus and [[W:quantum electrodynamics|quantum electrodynamics]] (QED) the theory of the electromagnetic force, each have a corresponding symmetry [[W:group theory|group theory]] of which they are an expression. [[W:Coxeter group|Coxeter's theory of symmetry groups]] generated by reflections did for geometry what Noether's theorem and Einstein's relativity did for physics. [[W:Coxeter|Coxeter]] showed that Euclidean geometry is based on conservation laws that correspond to distinct symmetry groups, and that their group actions express the principle of relativity. Here is Coxeter's formulation of the motions of objects (their congruent transformations) in an ''n''-dimensional Euclidean space, excerpted:{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|pp=217-218|loc=§12.2 Congruent transformations}} <blockquote>Let <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> denote a rotation, <math>\mathrm{R}</math> a reflection, <math>\mathrm{T}</math> a translation, and let <math>\mathrm{Q}^q \mathrm{R}^r\mathrm{T}</math> denote a product of several such transformations, all commutative with one another. Then <math>\mathrm{RT}</math> is a glide-reflection (in two or three dimensions), <math>\mathrm{QR}</math> is a rotary-reflection, <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> is a screw-displacement, and <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> is a double rotation (in four dimensions).<br> Every orthogonal transformation is expressible as:<br> :<math>\mathrm{Q}^q \mathrm{R}^r</math><br> where <math>(2^q + r \le n)</math>, the number of dimensions.<br> Transformations involving a translation are also expressible as:<br> :<math>\mathrm{Q}^q \mathrm{R}^r \mathrm{T}</math><br> where <math>(2^q + r + 1 \le n)</math>.<br> For <math>(n = 4)</math> in particular, every displacement is either a double rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math>, or a screw-displacement <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> [where the rotation component <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> is a simple rotation, but the <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> is chiral like a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>]. Every enantiomorphous transformation in 4-space (reversing chirality) is a <math>\mathrm{QRT}</math>.</blockquote> If we begin with this most elemental [[w:Kinematics|kinematics]] of Coxeter's, and also assume the [[W:Galilean relativity|Galilean principle of relativity]], every displacement in 4-space can be viewed as either a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> or a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>, because we can view any <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> as a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> in a linearly moving (translating) reference frame. Therefore any transformation from one inertial reference frame to another is expressable as a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>. By the same principle, we can view any <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> or <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> as an isoclinic (equi-angled) <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> by proper choice of reference frame.{{Efn|[[W:Arthur Cayley|Cayley]] showed that any rotation in 4-space can be decomposed into two isoclinic rotations, which intuitively we might see follows from the fact that any transformation from one inertial reference frame to another is expressable as a [[W:SO(4)|rotation in 4-dimensional Euclidean space]].|name=Cayley's rotation factorization into two isoclinic reference frame transformations}} Coxeter's relation is thus a mathematical statement of the principle of relativity, on group-theoretic grounds. It correctly captures the limits to [[W:General relativity|general relativity]], in that we can only exchange the translation (<math>\mathrm{T}</math>) for ''one'' of the two rotations (<math>\mathrm{Q}</math>). An observer in any inertial reference frame can always measure the presence, direction and velocity of ''one'' rotation (<math>\mathrm{Q}</math>) up to uncertainty, and can always distinguish the direction of their own proper time translation (<math>\mathrm{T}</math>). As I understand Coxeter theory (which is not mathematically), the symmetry groups underlying physics seem to have an expression in a [[W:Euclidean space|Euclidean space]] of four [[W:dimension|dimension]]s, that is, they are [[W:Euclidean geometry#Higher dimensions|four-dimensional Euclidean geometry]]. Therefore as I understand that geometry (which is entirely by synthetic methods rather than by Clifford's algebraic methods), the [[W:Atom|atom]] seems to have a distinct Euclidean geometry, such that atoms and their constituent particles are four-dimensional geometric objects (4-polytopes), and nature can be understood in terms of their [[W:group action|group actions]], including centrally their group <math>SO(4)</math> [[W:rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space|rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space]]. The distinct Coxeter symmetry groups have characteristic <math>SO(4)</math> rotational expressions as the [[W:Regular_4-polytope|regular 4-polytopes]]. Their discrete isoclinic rotations are distinguishing properties of fundamental objects in geometry, relativity and quantum mechanics. For example, atoms exhibit <math>SO(4)</math> symmetries of the discrete isoclinic (equi-angled) double rotations (<math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>) of a set of regular 4-polytopes that is characteristic of their [[w:Atomic_number|atomic number]]. == Special relativity describes Euclidean 4-space == <blockquote>Our entire model of the universe is built on symmetries. Some, like isotropy (the laws are the same in all directions), homogeneity (same in all places), and time invariance (same at all times) seem natural enough. Even relativity, the Lorentz Invariance that allows everyone to observe a constant speed of light, has an elegance to it that makes it seem natural.<ref>{{Cite book|first=Dave|last=Goldberg|title=The Universe in the Rearview Mirror: How Hidden Symmetries Shape Reality|chapter=§10. Hidden Symmetries: Why some symmetries but not others?|year=2013|publisher=Dutton Penguin Group|isbn=978-0-525-95366-1|ref={{SfnRef|Goldberg|2013}}}}</ref></blockquote> Although the Minkowski spacetime of relativity is a non-Euclidean 4-dimensional space,{{Efn|Spacetime is a non-Euclidean (curved) 4-dimensional space because it consists of three orthogonal space dimensions and a time dimension. The time dimension is not orthogonal to the three spatial dimensions; the time coordinate has the opposite sign as the three space coordinates so spacetime is hyperbolic, not a Euclidean (flat) 4-space at all.}} it has been noticed that its 3-dimensional space component could be modeled as a [[W:3-sphere|3-sphere]] embedded in 4-dimensional Euclidean (flat) space. That is, we could imagine that the ordinary 3-dimensional space we perceive is the curved 3-dimensional surface of a 4-dimensional ball (since the surface of a 4-ball is a curved 3-dimensional space called a 3-sphere, just as the surface of a 3-ball like the earth is a curved 2-dimensional space called a 2-sphere). This was [[#Origins of the theory|imagined by Einstein]] himself in 1921, as a thought experiment in which he carefully described his fourth orthogonal spatial dimension as merely a mathematical abstraction. Subsequently it was noticed by others (not mainstream physicists) that if physical space were really embedded in Euclidean 4-dimensional space (with our 3-dimensional space embedded in 4-space as some non-Euclidean 3-manifold, not necessarily a 3-sphere), then the Lorentz transformation effects of special relativity (spatial forshortenings and time dilations and so forth) could all be explained by ordinary perspective geometry in 4-dimensional Euclidean space. Special relativity reduces to classical vector space geometry (based on the 4-dimensional version of the Pythagorean theorem), but if and only if every observer is moving through 4-space at a universal constant velocity <math>c</math>, in some 4-space direction.{{Sfn|Yamashita|2023}} This counter-intuitive alternative geometric model of relativity, which has usually been called [[W:Formulations of special relativity#Euclidean relativity|Euclidean relativity]], is motivated by the fact that in every kind of relativity, but originally in Einstein's special relativity, each observer moves on a vector through a Euclidean four-dimensional space consisting of their three proper spatial dimensions and their proper time dimension, and the Pythagorean vector-sum of their motion through this kind of proper 4-space is always <math>c</math>, as measured by all observers from any inertial reference frame.{{Efn|Each observer is stationary in space in their own proper reference frame, while they move at maximum velocity {{Math|c}} through their own proper time. Observed from another reference frame in relative motion, they appear foreshortened in space in their direction of motion, and their clocks appear to be slowed to less than the maximum velocity {{Math|c}}.}} This is the Lorentz invariant, that allows everyone to observe a constant speed of light, regardless of their motion relative to the light source.{{Efn| ...cite Lewis Epstein's elegant explanation of the Lorentz Invariance as observers moving at constant velocity {{Math|c}} through space and proper time.}} But no physicists have taken the leap of claiming that therefore, our universe is physically [[W:Euclidean geometry#Higher dimensions|this kind of Euclidean 4-space]], and that observers are actually moving through it at velocity <math>c</math>. In physics as it has been universally understood, observers are not supposed to be able to move at velocity <math>c</math>. Their motion takes place in 3-space and in universal coordinate time (in Minkowski spacetime), and the cosmos is considered to be a non-Euclidean 3-space, generally a closed (finite) expanding 3-space, but with only three spatial dimensions, not four. In the Euclidean relativity alternative view, however, every observer is always moving at velocity <math>c</math> through the universe, which is real Euclidean 4-dimensional space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math>. The direction in which they are moving is called their proper time axis.{{Efn|Time in spacetime is universal coordinate time, but there is another kind of time in relativity, the proper time in each inertial reference frame. Your proper time is the time you experience, and every observer has his own proper time; proper time runs at different rates in different inertial reference frames. It runs slower (compared to universal coordinate time) in a gravitational field (according to general relativity), and observers in motion with respect to each other view each other's clocks as running slower than their own clocks (according to special relativity).}} Their movement in time is not just modelled as movement in an abstract fourth dimension (as it is in Minkowski spacetime), their movement in time is isomorphic to their movement through physical space in a distinct direction at velocity <math>c</math>. Two observers' directions of movement through space may be different (or not, if they happen to be going in the same direction). Your proper time dimension is whichever direction you are moving. The other three directions perpendicular to your proper time axis are the three dimensions of your ordinary proper space, which again, will be different directions for you than for other observers moving in a different direction. There are four orthogonal spatial dimensions which we all share, but we share the same orthogonal proper time axis and ordinary proper 3-space axes only if we are at rest with respect to each other, actually moving in the same direction at velocity <math>c</math>, in the same inertial reference frame. Your proper 4-space coordinate system is rotated with respect to another observer's proper 4-space coordinate system, precisely as your vectors (directions of motion) are rotated in Euclidean 4-space with respect to each other, but there are no metric distortions (no Lorentz transformations) between your proper Euclidean 4-space coordinate systems; you are both embedded in the same Euclidean 4-dimensional space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math>. Lorentz transformations are required only to convert between your respective proper Minkowski spacetime coordinate systems. So in this novel alternate view of relativity, every mass in the universe must be perpetually in motion at velocity <math>c</math> through Euclidean 4-space, along with all the masses in its vicinity that are going in (nearly) the same direction. The entire solar system, for example, must be translating in the fourth dimension at the "speed of light" <math>c</math>, although we do not notice it, since we are all moving in that same direction together. Acceleration of an object varies its direction of motion through 4-space, but never its velocity, which is invariant for all objects with mass. Two objects which are in motion relative to each other are both actually in motion at the same velocity <math>c</math>, but in at least slightly different directions.{{Efn|The angular divergence between two observer's motion vectors is proportional to their relative velocity: the more they diverge, the greater their relative velocity, up to the maximum divergence possible in the space. In Euclidean relativity all observers are in motion at velocity {{Math|c}} relative to universal Cartesian 4-coordinate space, so the maximum relative velocity between two observers is {{Math|2c}} when they are moving in exactly opposite directions in 4-space. This is not a contradiction of special relativity, which limits the maximum relative velocity between two observers to {{Math|c}}, it is the same measurement in different units. Special relativity measures all velocities in Minkowski spacetime (in a non-Euclidean 3-space). Euclidean relativity measures all velocities in Euclidean 4-space.}} In Einstein's relativity, the invariant <math>c</math> is the speed of light through 3-space. In Euclidean relativity, the invariant <math>c</math> is the speed of matter through 4-space! The speed of light through 3-space is also perceived as <math>c</math> by all observers, because they are each living in a moving 3-manifold that is translating through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>. Despite their extreme differences in viewpoint, Einstein's relativity and Euclidean relativity are equivalent theories in complete agreement with each other, by definition. The two theories make exactly the same special relativity predictions of how observers in different inertial reference frames will perceive each other's motions in time and space. It is beyond the scope of this present paper to show how they also agree on the predictions of general relativity, but it is important to understand that our formulation of Euclidean relativity requires our acceptance of the experimentally verified findings of special relativity, general relativity and quantum mechanics. Our model and the standard model both describe the same geometric relations of space and time based on the same evidence, but as embedded in two very different universal host spaces: Euclidean 4-space versus Minkowski spacetime. In some instances our model provides a geometric explanation for physical phenomena where the standard model has none, as yet. An example is the two models' differing explanations for the gravitational coherence of galaxies: either their inertial motion at velocity <math>c</math>, or their possession of experimentally undetected dark matter. A more central example is our use of Coxeter's kinematics to explain the laws of relativistic motion geometrically. {{Efn|More generally, our model is concerned with group-theoretic properties of number elucidated by Coxeter and other geometers. ...cite Kappraff & Adamson's 2003 paper on The Relationship of the Cotangent Function to Special Relativity Theory, geometry and properties of number,{{Sfn|Kappraff & Adamson|2003|loc=Special Relativity Theory, Geometry and properties of number}} which shows how the Lorentz coefficient is a function of a deep geometric property of number{{Sfn|Kappraff & Adamson|2000|loc=A Fresh Look at Number}} discovered by Steinbach,{{Sfn|Steinbach|1997|loc=Golden Fields: A Case for the Heptagon}} by means of which the root formula of geometry in any Euclidean dimension, the Pythagorean theorem, may be derived solely in terms of the addition of polygon side lengths, without recourse to their products or squares. More generally, Steinbach found that in the relations among regular polytope chords, to add is to multiply; every chord is both the product (quotient) of a pair of chords and the sum (difference) of another pair of chords.}} Euclidean relativity is not even a fringe theory; no physicists or astronomers have adopted it. There are many good reasons why the revolutionary leap to a four orthogonal spatial dimensions viewpoint has not been taken, beginning with the universally observed fact that we can only construct three perpendiculars through a point in our immediate space, which appears to be resolutely 3-dimensional, not 4-dimensional. Euclidean relativity offers a nice geometric explanation of the reasons for the Lorentz transformations, but only at the cost of raising other mysteries, which have been difficult for its aficionados to explain. Another mystery is how light signals between observers in relative motion could "catch up" with the receiver moving on a diverging path through 4-space from the emitter. If both observers are already moving at <math>c</math> (on diverging paths), the propagation speed of light through 4-space between them would have to be greater than <math>c</math>. Euclidean relativity is a revolutionary theory indeed, in which <math>c</math> cannot possibly be the speed of light! We conclude that, for a theory of Euclidean 4-space to be physically viable (that is, for <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math> to be our real space and not merely an abstract mathematical space), the speed of light through Euclidean 4-space must be <math>c\prime = 2c</math>, with massless photons translating through 4-space at twice the speed of mass-carrying objects. Photons must translate the diagonal distance through 4-space along the long diameter of a unit 4-hypercube, in the same time that massive particles translate inertially along the edge (or the radius) of a unit 4-hypercube. This is conceivable in Euclidean 4-space (and in no other Euclidean space of any dimensionality) because the long diagonal of the unit 4-hypercube is the natural number <math>\sqrt{4}</math>. == An object's motion in space is the product of its discrete self-reflections == Coxeter theory describes all the possible motions of an object in space as local functions of the object's discrete geometry (its shape). Coxeter observed that in a Euclidean space of any number of dimensions, any displacement of a geometric object from one place to another, and any rotation of the object from one orientation to another, can be broken down into the product of a number of discrete self-reflections. Any action of a polytope that transforms its position and orientation in space may be measured as a distinct sequence of self-reflections of the object in its own surfaces. Therefore any motion of the object whatsoever may be precisely described as the object propagating itself through space by a discrete sequence of local self-reflections. This is a purely kinematic description of motion which does not give any account of forces acting on the object that cause it to move. Coxeter found that both changes in position (translations) and changes in orientation (rotations) can be broken down into the simplest of all displacements (self-reflections). A translation occurs when an object self-reflects twice, in two distinct surfaces which are parallel to each other. A rotation also occurs when an object self-reflects twice, but in two distinct surfaces which intersect each other. When a object self-reflects once, it turns itself inside out (it reverses its chirality), but in translations and rotations it self-reflects twice, preserving its chirality. Coxeter's laws of kinematics are a geometric counterpart to Newton's algebraic laws of motion in three dimensional Euclidean space. They are helpful because they can be understood as geometric pictures, which may help us to visualize the relationships between translation and rotation in classic Newtonian physics problems, such as the [[W:Kepler problem|Kepler problem]] of the motion of the planets.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Feynman|first=Richard|title=Feynman's Lost Lecture: The Motion of Planets Around the Sun|date=1996|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|isbn=978-0393039184}}</ref> But they are also a revolutionary advance beyond Newton's laws, because Coxeter formulated them in Euclidean spaces of any number of dimensions. In particular, they give us geometric pictures of all the possible motions of objects in 4-dimensional Euclidean space: <blockquote>Every orthogonal transformation in 4-space is expressible as:<br> :<math>\mathrm{Q}^q \mathrm{R}^r \mathrm{T}^t</math><br> where <math>(2^q + r + t \le 4)</math>. Every displacement is either a double rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math>, or a screw-displacement <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> [where the rotation component <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> is a simple rotation, but the <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> is chiral like a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>]. Every enantiomorphous transformation in 4-space (reversing chirality) is a <math>\mathrm{QRT}</math>.</blockquote> While this description should be understood as geometric pictures, some of the pictures may not be easy for us to visualize, since we have no physical experience in 4-dimensional space. Rotation (<math>\mathrm{Q}</math>), reflection (<math>\mathrm{R}</math>) and translation (<math>\mathrm{T}</math>) are obvious analogues of what they are in three-dimensional space, but double rotation (<math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math>) is something new and unprecedented in our physical experience, because double rotations cannot occur until there are four or more dimensions of space in which to rotate. A point in 4-space may be in motion on two circles in two completely orthogonal rotation planes simultaneously. Nothing constrains the two circles to be of the same radius, or constrains either circle from being of infinite radius such that the point moves in a straight line within its rotation plane: a translation <math>\mathrm{T}</math> rather than a rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}</math>. The motion of a rigid object defined by multiple points is constrained by its rigidity, such that the radii of both circles may approach infinity, but only one of the two radii may actually reach infinity. For a rigid object, only one of the two rotations may actually be a translation. Four dimensional Euclidean space can accomodate no such thing as a <math>\mathrm{Q}^2\mathrm{T}</math>. A translating double rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math>, like a translating simple rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}</math>, is simply a screw translation <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>. That is the essence of the way the principle of relativity operates in Euclidean 4-space. An object which is double-rotating in its own proper inertial reference frame may be seen to be performing nothing more mysterious than a screw translation, when observed from an inertial reference frame from which the object is in relative translational motion. Of course, it is a screw translation in 4-space, which is more mysterious than a screw translation in our ordinary 3-space. In 3-space the orbit of a screw translation (or any <math>\mathrm{Q}</math>) lies on a great circle of an ordinary sphere (a 2-sphere). In 4-space the orbit of a screw translation <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> or double rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math> lies on a great circle of a hypersphere (a 3-sphere). Such 4-dimensional great circles are inherently more complex than the ordinary circles we experience in 3-space. They do not lie in a single plane, but bend through all four dimensions, in either a left or right hand direction of curvature. Unlike ordinary circles they are inherently chiral, and their circumference is not <math>2\pi r</math>, but like ordinary circles they are truly circular, geodesic circles. In 4-space they might even be said to be more circular than ordinary circles, which bend in only two dimensions. We refer to such 4-dimensional great circles as ''isoclines'', to distinguish them from ordinary 2-dimensional great circles in the plane. Their name comes from the fact that a point on a rigid 4-dimensional object undergoing [[W:SO(4)#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinic rotation]] traverses an isocline circle. In a universe which is real Euclidean four-dimensional space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math>, wherein these motions occur only at the constant velocity <math>c</math>, there is a universal Cartesian 4-coordinate reference frame in which every rigid object is translating on a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> at velocity <math>c</math>. That universal inertial reference frame is not the proper reference frame of any object or observer, wherein the object or observer is stationary, but it is the common reference frame of all observers. == Light propagates through 4-space at twice its apparent velocity <math>c</math>== Coxeter's laws of kinematics in 4-dimensional Euclidean space apply to all objects with mass, but we find there is an additional kind of displacement which applies only to massless particles such as photons, considered as single point objects. Light quanta (photons) translate through 4-space by 4-dimensional reflection <math>\mathrm{R}^4</math>, which may be termed a double translation <math>\mathrm{T}^2</math>, a pure translation via two pairs of parallel reflections without any rotation component <math>\mathrm{Q}</math>. Matter (atoms and all particles with mass) are perpetually rotating and translating through 4-space by <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>, a screw translation of a rotating object, which is relativistically equivalent to a stationary isoclinic <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>, an isoclinically rotating object such as an atom. A simple rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> or simple translation <math>\mathrm{T}</math> is a double reflection <math>\mathrm{R^2}</math>, so a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> or <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> is an <math>\mathrm{R^4}</math>, but not with the same group of reflection angles as a light signal <math>\mathrm{R^4}</math>. A translation <math>\mathrm{T = R^2}</math> is a double reflection in two parallel planes, and a rotation <math>\mathrm{Q = R^2}</math> is a double reflection in two intersecting planes, as in a <math>\mathrm{QT = R^4}</math> which is both at once. A double translation <math>\mathrm{T^2 = R^4}</math> is two double reflections in pairs of parallel planes at once, a reflection in four non-intersecting parallel planes; it is all translation and no rotation. In a <math>\mathrm{T^2}</math> all the motion goes to translation, so the translation goes twice as far as the simple translation <math>\mathrm{T}</math> in a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>. A double translation <math>\mathrm{T^2 = R^4}</math> is the opposite of a double rotation <math>\mathrm{Q^2 = R^4}</math>, which is stationary but rotates twice as far as the simple rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> in a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>. The product of the two translations in a <math>\mathrm{T^2}</math> is a diagonal 4-space translation over the long diameter of the unit 4-hypercube, exactly twice the distance of a simple <math>\mathrm{T}</math> over the edge length (or radius) of the unit 4-hypercube. The [[w:Tesseract|4-hypercube (also known as the 8-cell or tesseract)]] is ''radially equilateral'', which means its edge length is equal to its radius, like the hexagon, so its long diameter (twice its radius) is exactly twice its edge length. The photon moves an equal distance in four orthogonal directions. By the four-dimensional Pythagorean theorem, each of those four distances is half the total distance the photon moves: one edge length (one radius) is half the total diagonal distance moved (the long diameter). That total movement is a double the unit-distance translation, but without any rotation component, so it cannot carry any mass with it. A <math>\mathrm{T^2}</math> cannot reposition a 4-polytope the way a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> does, it can only reposition a quantum of energy that has no distinguishing rotational symmetry, such as a photon. That is the price light pays to move exactly twice as fast as matter.{{Efn| ...lensing of double translations <math>\mathrm{T^2 = R^4}</math> in more than two pairs of parallel planes at once...relationship to the frequency of light emitted and the coherence length of the wave packet...}} == Special relativity is Galilean relativity in a Euclidean space of four orthogonal dimensions == {{Efn|...TAC suggests this section is needed sooner, i.e. in the preceding Special Relativity section, as it explains how Euclidean relativity reduces special relativity to 4D perspective geometry...it's misplaced (too late) here...}} Perspective effects known as the Lorentz transformations occur because each observer's proper 3-dimensional space is a moving curved manifold embedded in flat 4-dimensional Euclidean space. The curvature of their 3-space complicates sightline calculations for observers; they sometimes require Lorentz transformations to produce the actual 4-space Cartesian coordinates of objects in the scene being observed. But if all four spatial dimensions are considered, no Lorentz transformations are required (or permitted) in correct scene construction, except when an observer wants to calculate a projection, that is, the shadow of how things will appear to them from a three-dimensional viewpoint (not how they really are).{{Sfn|Yamashita|2023}} Space really has four orthogonal dimensions, and space and time behave there just as they do in a classical vector space, only bigger by one dimension. It is not necessary to combine 4-space with time in a unified spacetime to explain 4-dimensional perspective effects at high relative velocities, because Euclidean 4-space is already 4-dimensional, and those effects fall out naturally from the 4-dimensional Pythagorean theorem, exactly as ordinary visual perspective does in three dimensions from the 3-dimensional Pythagorean theorem. Because one of the four spatial dimensions corresponds to an observer's direction of motion (in both space and proper time), and all observers and all scenes being observed are in motion (at constant velocity) in their respective proper time directions, we observe perspective foreshortenings in time as well as in a spatial dimension. In special relativity these perspective effects are reciprocal, precisely because they are only apparent, not actual, changes in size and duration. (In general relativity the actual rate of physical processes varies from place to place, and reference frame differences are neither reciprocal nor illusory.) None of these Lorentz effects are beyond geometric explanation or paradoxical. The universe is unexpectedly strange to us in precisely the ways the Euclidean fourth dimension is strange to us; but that does hold many surprises. Euclidean 4-space is much more interesting than Euclidean 3-space, analogous to the way 3-space is much more interesting and deeply explanatory to us than it would be if we experienced it only as a 2-space with many folds and curves, as perhaps an ant does. The emergent properties of 4-space are hard for us to visualize because they lie so wholly beyond our physical experience, just as it was hard for our ancestors to imagine the earth as round like a ball. However, Euclidean spaces of successive dimensions are analogous, and so higher dimensional spaces can be anticipated and explored: that is Schläfli's great discovery. Moreover dimensional analogy itself, like everything else in nature, is an exact expression of intrinsic group-theoretic symmetries: that is Nother's great discovery. == General relativity is special relativity in a Euclidean space of four orthogonal dimensions == The statement that the laws of special relativity hold to good approximation in freely falling (and non-rotating) reference frames is known as the Einstein equivalence principle. ... == Dimensional relativity == Coxeter's kinetic law of <math>n</math>-dimensional congruent Euclidean transformations may be called ''dimensional relativity'', since it captures the theories of special and general relativity, and has its roots in dimensional analogy. Dimensional analogy is the exploration of [[w:Hermann_Grassmann#Mathematician|Hermann Grassmann's vector space principle]], in which space cannot be limited to any finite number of dimensions. The geometry of higher-dimensional space is accessable by reason of direct analogy, as [[w:Ludwig Schläfli|Ludwig Schläfli]] subsequently demonstrated. By analogy to the surface of the earth, the bounding surface of a spherical region of <math>n</math>-dimensional Euclidean space is an <math>(n-1)</math>-sphere, a spherical space of one fewer dimensions than the <math>n</math>-ball of Euclidean space it surrounds. In dimensional relativity the sky is not a ceiling, but an infinite regress of alternating spherical and Euclidean <math>n</math>-spaces of increasing <math>n</math>, accessible from each observer's point of view. By dimensional analogy, each observer looks up into their own reference frame's regress of concentric alternating <math>n</math>-spaces. By the capacity for dimensional analogy which they possess, some observers see deeper into <math>n</math>-dimensional space than others. == Polycentric spherical relativity == An intelligent observer equipped with the principle of relativity may perceive the universe from any inertial reference frame, not only from their own proper stationary reference frame in the <math>n</math>-space universe in which they physically locate themself. We see that every observer may also properly view themself as stationary and the universe as an <math>(n+1)</math>-sphere with themself at the center observing it, perceptually equidistant from all points on its <math>n</math>-space surface, including their own physical location which is one of those surface points, distinguished to them but moving on the surface, and not the center of anything. This ''polycentric model'' of the universe is a further restatement of the principle of relativity. It is compatible with Galileo's relativity of uniformly moving objects in ordinary space, Einstein's special relativity of inertial reference frames in 4-dimensional spacetime, Einstein's general relativity of all reference frames in non-Euclidean spacetime, and Coxeter's dimensional relativity of orthogonal group actions in Euclidean and spherical spaces of any number of dimensions. It should be known as Thoreau's principle of ''spherical relativity'', since the first precise written statement of it appears in 1849: "The universe is a sphere whose center is wherever there is intelligence."{{Sfn|Thoreau|1849|p=349|ps=; "The universe is a sphere whose center is wherever there is intelligence." [Contemporaneous and independent of [[W:Ludwig Schlafli|Ludwig Schlafli]]'s pioneering work enumerating the complete set of regular polyschemes in any number of dimensions.]}} == Revolutions == The original Copernican revolution in 1543 displaced the center of the universe from the center of the earth to a point farther away, the center of the sun, with the earth performing a ''revolution'' around the sun, and the stars remaining on a fixed 2-sphere around the sun instead of around the earth. But this led inevitably to the recognition that the sun must be a star itself, not equidistant from all the stars, and the center of but one of many spheres, no monotheistic center at all. In such fashion the Euclidean four-dimensional revolution, emerging three to five centuries later, initially lends itself to the big bang theory of a single origin of the whole universe, but leads inevitably to the recognition that all the galaxies need not be equidistant from a single origin in time, any more than all the stars lie in the same galaxy, equidistant from a single center in space. The expanding sphere of matter on the surface of which we find ourselves living is likely to be one of many 3-spheres expanding at velocity <math>c</math>, with their big bang origins occurring at distinct times and places in the ''n''-dimensional universe. The most distant objects we see when we look up at night may not all have the same origin in space and time. As recently as Copernicus we believed all the stars lay on a single 2-sphere embedded in Euclidean 3-space, with our sun at its center. During the enlightenment we dispersed those stars into an infinite Euclidean 3-space, and relinquished our privileged position at the center. Then Einstein showed that our 3-space could not be Euclidean, that it must be a 3-manifold curved in every place in obedience to Newton's inverse-square law of gravity; and in a geometry related to time, at least, it must be 4-dimensional. In this work we suggest a theory of ''n''-dimensional real space and how light travels in it, a theory which says we can see into four orthogonal dimensions of Euclidean space, and so when we look up at night we see cosmological objects distributed in at least four dimensions of space around us, rather than all located in our own local 3-space. Looking still deeper and farther out, the universe viewed as a 4-sphere might, or might not, be expanding, and the most distant objects we see when we look up at night may, or may not, lie in our 4-dimensional hyperplane. Real space has ''n'' dimensions as [[w:Hermann_Grassmann|Grassmann]] and [[w:Schläfli|Schläfli]] showed, and we do not know how many dimensions the most distant objects we see may be distributed in. They need not all lie within the four spatial dimensions in which we have now learned to observe them, any more than they lie in the three dimensional hyperplane of local space in which we find everything residing in our solar system. When we look up at the objects that surround us, we have no way of discerning how many dimensions beyond three the space we are looking into has. We know their distance from us primarily by virtue of how long it takes their light to reach us. We can measure their distribution around us in 3-space or 4-space, but that is simply how we choose to measure their positions, not an actual finding of how they are distributed. Even if it is now evident that they do not all lie in the same 3-space, how many more dimensions than three are needed to contain them? We observe that our 4-ball galaxy is embedded in Euclidean ''n''-space as one of many 4-ball galaxies, each translating in a distinct direction through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>, on more or less divergent paths from each other. But only much closer observation will reveal evidence of whether everything we see lies in the same Euclidean 4-space, or if it is distributed in five or more dimensions, and how it is moving there. To remain in agreement with the theory of relativity, the Euclidean four-dimensional viewpoint requires that all mass-carrying objects be in motion in some distinct direction through 4-space at the constant velocity <math>c</math>, although the relative velocity between nearby objects is much smaller since they move on similar vectors, aimed away from a common origin point in the past. It is natural to expect that objects moving at constant velocity away from a common origin will be distributed roughly on the surface of an expanding 3-sphere. Although their paths away from their origin are not straight lines but various helical isoclines (screw translations), nearby objects must be translating radially at the same velocity, since the objects in a system (such as our solar system or galaxy) do not separate rapidly over time but remain in orbital formation. Each system's screw translation has ''two'' [[w:Completely_orthogonal|completely orthogonal]] components of motion in 4-space, an orbital rotation (such as the earth's around our sun) and a linear translation of the entire system at velocity <math>c</math> in the direction of the original 3-sphere's radial expansion (along the system's proper time vector). Of course the view from our solar system does not suggest that each galaxy's own distinct 3-sphere is expanding at this great rate from its galactic center. The standard theory has been that the entire observable universe is expanding from a single big bang origin in time, with galaxies forming later. While the Euclidean four-dimensional viewpoint lends itself to that standard theory, it also supports theories which require no single origin point in space and time. These are the voyages of starship Earth, to boldly go where no one has gone before. We made the jump to lightspeed long ago, in whatever big bang our atoms emerged from, and have never slowed down since. == Origins of the theory == Einstein himself may have been the first to imagine the universe as the three-dimensional surface of a four-dimensional Euclidean 3-sphere, in what was narrowly the first written articulation of the geometry of Euclidean 4-space relativity, contemporaneous with the teen-aged Coxeter's (quoted below).{{Efn|[[W:William Rowan Hamilton|Hamilton]]'s algebra '''H''' of [[W:Quaternions|quaternions]] contains the notion of a [[W:Three-dimensional sphere|three-dimensional sphere]] embedded in a four-dimensional space, but Hamilton did not conceive of the quaternions as the Cartesian 4-coordinates of a Euclidean 4-space, and did not describe our ordinary 3-space as embedded in Euclidean 4-space.}} Einstein did this as a [[W:Gedankenexperiment|gedankenexperiment]] in the context of investigating whether his equations of general relativity predicted an infinite or a finite universe, in his 1921 Princeton lecture.<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/36276|title=The Meaning of Relativity|last=Einstein|first=Albert|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=1923|isbn=|location=|pages=110-111}}</ref> He invited us to imagine "A spherical manifold of three dimensions, embedded in a Euclidean continuum of four dimensions", but he was careful to disclaim parenthetically that "The aid of a fourth space dimension has naturally no significance except that of a mathematical artifice." Informally, the Euclidean 4-dimensional theory of relativity may be given as a sort of reciprocal to that disclaimer of Einstein's: ''The Minkowski spacetime has naturally no significance except that of a mathematical artifice, as an aid to understanding how things will appear to an observer from their perspective; the foreshortenings, clock desynchronizations and other Lorentz transformations it predicts are proper calculations of actual perspective effects; but real space is a flat, Euclidean continuum of four orthogonal spatial dimensions, and in it the ordinary laws of a flat vector space hold (such as the Pythagorean theorem), and all sightline calculations work classically, so long as you consider all four spatial dimensions.'' The Euclidean theory of relativity differs from the special theory of relativity in ascribing to the physical universe a geometry of four or more orthogonal spatial dimensions, rather than the special theory's [[w:Minkowski spacetime|Minkowski spacetime]] geometry, in which three spatial dimensions and a time dimension comprise a unified spacetime of four dimensions. Anco and Maghadam found that <math>SO(4)</math> breaks to <math>\mathbb{S}^3</math> (the 3-sphere) if the energy in the Kepler orbit is negative (an elliptical orbit), and to <math>H^3</math> (Minkowski spacetime) if the energy is positive (a hyperbolic orbit). Therefore the fact that the planets orbit on ellipses in our 3-space suggests that they orbit on a 3-sphere embedded in Euclidean 4-space which is the actual geometry of our physical universe, and Minkowski spacetime is an abstraction; the reciprocal of Einstein's disclaimer is the direct model. Of course spacetime remains a true and useful abstraction, although it must relinquish its privileged position as our exclusive conception of our place in space.{{Efn| ...origins of the Euclidean 4-space insight in the observations of Fock, Atkinson, Moser and others.}} The invention of Euclidean geometry of more than three spatial dimensions preceded Einstein's theories by more than fifty years, when it was worked out originally by the Swiss mathematician [[w:Ludwig Schläfli|Ludwig Schläfli]] before 1853.{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|loc=§7. Ordinary Polytopes in Higher Space; §7.x. Historical remarks|pp=141-144|ps=; "Practically all the ideas in this chapter ... are due to Schläfli, who discovered them before 1853 — a time when Cayley, Grassmann and Möbius were the only other people who had ever conceived the possibility of geometry in more than three dimensions."}} Schläfli extended Euclid's geometry of one, two, and three dimensions in a direct way to four or more dimensions, generalizing the rules and terms of [[w:Euclidean geometry|Euclidean geometry]] to spaces of any number of dimensions. He coined the general term ''[[polyscheme]]'' to mean geometric forms of any number of dimensions, including two-dimensional [[w:polygon|polygons]], three-dimensional [[w:polyhedron|polyhedra]], four dimensional [[w:polychoron|polychora]], and so on, and in the process he found all of the [[w:Regular polytope|regular polyschemes]] that are possible in every dimension, including in particular the [[User:Dc.samizdat/Rotations#Sequence of regular 4-polytopes|six convex regular polychora]] which can be constructed in a Euclidean space of four dimensions (the set analogous to the five [[w:Platonic solid|Platonic solids]] the ancients found in three dimensional space). Thus Schläfli was the first to explore the fourth dimension, reveal its emergent geometric properties, and discover its astonishing regular objects. Because his work was only published posthumously in 1901, and remained almost completely unknown until Coxeter published [[w:Regular_Polytopes_(book)|Regular Polytopes]] in 1947, other researchers had more than fifty years to rediscover the regular polychora, and competing terms were coined; today [[w:Reinhold_Hoppe|Reinhold Hoppe]]'s word ''[[w:Polytope|polytope]]'' is the commonly used term for ''polyscheme.''{{Efn|[[w:Reinhold_Hoppe|Reinhold Hoppe]]'s German word ''polytop'' was introduced into English by [[W:Alicia Boole Stott|Alicia Boole Stott]], who like Hoppe and [[W:Thorold Gosset|Thorold Gosset]] rediscovered Schlafli's six regular convex 4-polytopes, with no knowledge of their prior discovery. Today Schläfli's original ''polyschem'', with its echo of ''schema'' as in the configurations of information structures, seems even more fitting in its generality than ''polytope'' -- perhaps analogously as information software (programming) is even more general than information hardware (computers).}} Because of this century-long lag in the dissemination of a scientific discovery, the regular 4-polytopes appear to have played no role at all, by any name, in the twentieth century discovery and evolution of the theories of relativity and quantum mechanics.{{Efn|One could argue that the higher-dimensional polytopes have barely influenced science or culture at all thus far. The physicist John Edward Huth's comprehensive deep dive through the history of cultural and scientific concepts of physical space, from ancient flatland models of the world through general relativity and quantum mechancs, shows exactly how we got to our present standard model of the universe, although it includes no mention of higher-dimensional Euclidean space.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Huth|first=John Edward|title=A Sense of Space: A local's guide to a flat earth, the edge of the cosmos, and other curious places|year=2025|publisher=University of Chicago Press}}</ref>}} == Boundaries == <blockquote>Ever since we discovered that Earth is round and turns like a mad-spinning top, we have understood that reality is not as it appears to us: every time we glimpse a new aspect of it, it is a deeply emotional experience. Another veil has fallen.<ref>{{Cite book|author=Carlo Rovelli|author-link=W:Carlo Rovelli|title=Seven Brief Lessons on Physics|publisher=Riverhead|year=2016|isbn=978-0399184413}}</ref></blockquote> Of course it is strange to consciously contemplate this world we inhabit, our planet, our solar system, our 3-sphere surface in our vast galaxy, as the merest film, a boundary no thicker in the places we inhabit than the diameter of an electron (though much thicker in some places we cannot inhabit, such as the interior of stars). But is not our unconscious traditional concept of the boundary of our world even stranger? Since the enlightenment we are accustomed to thinking that there is nothing beyond three dimensional space: no boundary, because there is nothing else to separate us from. But anyone who knows the [[polyscheme]]s Schläfli discovered knows that space can have any number of dimensions, and that there are fundamental objects and motions to be discovered in four dimensions that are even more various and interesting than those we can discover in three. The strange thing, when we think about it that way, is that there ''is'' a boundary between three and four dimensional space. ''Why'' can't we move (or apparently, see) in more than three dimensions? Why is our physical world apparently only three dimensional? Why would it have just ''three'' dimensions, and not four, or five, or the ''n'' dimensions that Schläfli mapped? What is the nature of the boundary which confines us to just three dimensions? We know that in Euclidean geometry the boundary between three and four dimensions is itself a spherical three dimensional space, so we should suspect that we are materially confined within such a curved boundary surface. Light need not be confined with us within our three dimensional boundary space. We would look directly through four dimensional space in our natural way, by receiving light signals that travelled through it to us on straight lines. In that case the reason we do not observe a fourth spatial dimension in our vicinity is that there are no nearby objects in it, just off our hyperplane in the wild. The nearest four-dimensional object we can see with our eyes is our sun, which lies equatorially in our own hyperplane, though it bulges out of it above and below. But when we look up at the heavens, every pinprick of light we observe is itself a four-dimensional object off our hyperplane, and they are distributed all around us in four-dimensional space through which we gaze. We are four-dimensionally sighted creatures, even though our bodies are three-dimensional objects, thin as an atom in the fourth dimension. But that should not perplex us: we can see into three dimensional space even though our retinas are two dimensional objects, thin as a photoreceptor cell. Our unconscious provincial concept is that there is nothing else outside our three dimensional world: no boundary, because there is nothing else to separate us from. But Schläfli discovered something else: all the astonishing regular objects that exist in higher dimensions, which vastly extend our notions of the beauty and mystery of space itself, and the intrinsic spatial symmetries of our universe which geometry reveals. Space is more commodious than we thought it was, and permits previously unimagined objects and motions. So our provincial conception of our place in it now has the same kind of status as our idea that the sun rises in the east and passes overhead: it is mere appearance, not a true model and no longer a proper explanation. An inertial boundary is an explanation, be it ever so thin. And would a boundary of ''no'' thickness, a mere abstraction with no physical power to separate, be a more suitable explanation? We must look for a physically powerful explanation in the geometry of space itself, which general relativity properly associates with the gravitational or inertial force. <blockquote>The number of dimensions possessed by a figure is the number of straight lines each perpendicular to all the others which can be drawn on it. Thus a point has no dimensions, a straight line one, a plane surface two, and a solid three .... In space as we now know it only three lines can be imagined perpendicular to each other. A fourth line, perpendicular to all the other three would be quite invisible and unimaginable to us. We ourselves and all the material things around us probably possess a fourth dimension, of which we are quite unaware. If not, from a four-dimensional point of view we are mere geometrical abstractions, like geometrical surfaces, lines, and points are to us. But this thickness in the fourth dimension must be exceedingly minute, if it exists at all. That is, we could only draw an exceedingly small line perpendicular to our three perpendicular lines, length, breadth and thickness, so small that no microscope could ever perceive it. We can find out something about the conditions of the fourth and higher dimensions if they exist, without being certain that they do exist, by a process which I have termed "Dimensional Analogy."<ref>{{Citation|title=Dimensional Analogy|last=Coxeter|first=Donald|date=February 1923|publisher=Coxeter Fonds, University of Toronto Archives|authorlink=W:Harold Scott MacDonald Coxeter|series=|postscript=|work=}}</ref></blockquote> I believe, but I cannot prove, that we live in real space, which is Schläfli's Euclidean space of ''n'' analogous dimensions. As Grassmann showed first, space cannot be limited to any finite number of dimensions. There will always be higher dimensions to discover, first in imagination and then to explore physically, each an astonishing new enlightenment.<ref>{{Cite book|first=T.S.|last=Eliot|title=Little Gidding|volume=Four Quartets|year=1943}}<blockquote> :We shall not cease from exploration :And the end of all our exploring :Will be to arrive where we started :And know the place for the first time. :Through the unknown, remembered gate :When the last of earth left to discover :Is that which was the beginning; :At the source of the longest river :The voice of the hidden waterfall :And the children in the apple-tree :Not known, because not looked for :But heard, half-heard, in the stillness :Between two waves of the sea. </blockquote></ref> Schläfli discovered every regular convex polytope that exists in any dimension, but that was only the beginning of the story of dimensional analogy, not its end or even the end of its beginning. That project is forever beginning anew. Coxeter discovered that Schläfli's Euclidean space is an expression of intrinsic symmetries, as Noether discovered all of physics is. Kappraff and Adamson discovered that even the sequences of humble regular polygons have fractal complexity. Symmetry itself is chaotic, always reachable but forever beyond our complete grasp. We are on a Wilderness Project, and just at its beginning, but already we observe a Euclidean space of four or more orthogonal spatial dimensions in which all objects with mass move ceaselessly at the constant velocity <math>c</math>, the universal rate at which everything moves, quantum events occur, and each of our proper times evolves. I believe these facts explain the experimentally verified theories of relativity and quantum mechanics, by revealing their unified polycentric geometry, the same way the facts about Copernicus's heliocentric solar system explained the observed motions of the planets, by revealing the geometry of gravity. But others will have to do the math, work out the physics, and perform experiments to prove or disprove all of this, because I don't have the mathematics; entirely unlike Coxeter and Einstein, I am illiterate in those languages. <blockquote> ::::::BEECH :Where my imaginary line :Bends square in woods, an iron spine :And pile of real rocks have been founded. :And off this corner in the wild, :Where these are driven in and piled, :One tree, by being deeply wounded, :Has been impressed as Witness Tree :And made commit to memory :My proof of being not unbounded. :Thus truth's established and borne out, :Though circumstanced with dark and doubt— :Though by a world of doubt surrounded. :::::::—''The Moodie Forester''<ref>{{Cite book|title=A Witness Tree|last=Frost|first=Robert|year=1942|series=The Poetry of Robert Frost|publisher=Holt, Rinehart and Winston|edition=1969|}}</ref> </blockquote> == Appendix: Sequence of regular 4-polytopes == {{Regular convex 4-polytopes|wiki=W:|columns=7}} == ... == {{Efn|In a ''[[W:William Kingdon Clifford|Clifford]] displacement'', also known as an [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinic rotation]], all the Clifford parallel{{Efn|name=Clifford parallels}} invariant planes are displaced in four orthogonal directions (two completely orthogonal planes) at once: they are rotated by the same angle, and at the same time they are tilted ''sideways'' by that same angle. A [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Isoclinic rotations|Clifford displacement]] is [[W:8-cell#Radial equilateral symmetry|4-dimensionally diagonal]].{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} Every plane that is Clifford parallel to one of the completely orthogonal planes (including in this case an entire Clifford parallel bundle of 4 hexagons, but not all 16 hexagons) is invariant under the isoclinic rotation: all the points in the plane rotate in circles but remain in the plane, even as the whole plane tilts sideways. All 16 hexagons rotate by the same angle (though only 4 of them do so invariantly). All 16 hexagons are rotated by 60 degrees, and also displaced sideways by 60 degrees to a Clifford parallel hexagon. All of the other central polygons (e.g. squares) are also displaced to a Clifford parallel polygon 60 degrees away.|name=Clifford displacement}} {{Efn|It is not difficult to visualize four hexagonal planes intersecting at 60 degrees to each other, even in three dimensions. Four hexagonal central planes intersect at 60 degrees in the [[W:cuboctahedron|cuboctahedron]]. Four of the 24-cell's 16 hexagonal central planes (lying in the same 3-dimensional hyperplane) intersect at each of the 24-cell's vertices exactly the way they do at the center of a cuboctahedron. But the ''edges'' around the vertex do not meet as the radii do at the center of a cuboctahedron; the 24-cell has 8 edges around each vertex, not 12, so its vertex figure is the cube, not the cuboctahedron. The 8 edges meet exactly the way 8 edges do at the apex of a canonical [[W:cubic pyramid]|cubic pyramid]].{{Efn|name=24-cell vertex figure}}|name=cuboctahedral hexagons}} {{Efn|name=radially equilateral}} {{Efn|Eight {{sqrt|1}} edges converge in curved 3-dimensional space from the corners of the 24-cell's cubical vertex figure{{Efn|The [[W:vertex figure|vertex figure]] is the facet which is made by truncating a vertex; canonically, at the mid-edges incident to the vertex. But one can make similar vertex figures of different radii by truncating at any point along those edges, up to and including truncating at the adjacent vertices to make a ''full size'' vertex figure. Stillwell defines the vertex figure as "the convex hull of the neighbouring vertices of a given vertex".{{Sfn|Stillwell|2001|p=17}} That is what serves the illustrative purpose here.|name=full size vertex figure}} and meet at its center (the vertex), where they form 4 straight lines which cross there. The 8 vertices of the cube are the eight nearest other vertices of the 24-cell. The straight lines are geodesics: two {{sqrt|1}}-length segments of an apparently straight line (in the 3-space of the 24-cell's curved surface) that is bent in the 4th dimension into a great circle hexagon (in 4-space). Imagined from inside this curved 3-space, the bends in the hexagons are invisible. From outside (if we could view the 24-cell in 4-space), the straight lines would be seen to bend in the 4th dimension at the cube centers, because the center is displaced outward in the 4th dimension, out of the hyperplane defined by the cube's vertices. Thus the vertex cube is actually a [[W:cubic pyramid|cubic pyramid]]. Unlike a cube, it seems to be radially equilateral (like the tesseract and the 24-cell itself): its "radius" equals its edge length.{{Efn|The vertex cubic pyramid is not actually radially equilateral,{{Efn|name=radially equilateral}} because the edges radiating from its apex are not actually its radii: the apex of the [[W:cubic pyramid|cubic pyramid]] is not actually its center, just one of its vertices.}}|name=24-cell vertex figure}} {{Efn|The hexagons are inclined (tilted) at 60 degrees with respect to the unit radius coordinate system's orthogonal planes. Each hexagonal plane contains only ''one'' of the 4 coordinate system axes.{{Efn|Each great hexagon of the 24-cell contains one axis (one pair of antipodal vertices) belonging to each of the three inscribed 16-cells. The 24-cell contains three disjoint inscribed 16-cells, rotated 60° isoclinically{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} with respect to each other (so their corresponding vertices are 120° {{=}} {{radic|3}} apart). A [[16-cell#Coordinates|16-cell is an orthonormal ''basis'']] for a 4-dimensional coordinate system, because its 8 vertices define the four orthogonal axes. In any choice of a vertex-up coordinate system (such as the unit radius coordinates used in this article), one of the three inscribed 16-cells is the basis for the coordinate system, and each hexagon has only ''one'' axis which is a coordinate system axis.|name=three basis 16-cells}} The hexagon consists of 3 pairs of opposite vertices (three 24-cell diameters): one opposite pair of ''integer'' coordinate vertices (one of the four coordinate axes), and two opposite pairs of ''half-integer'' coordinate vertices (not coordinate axes). For example: {{indent|17}}({{spaces|2}}0,{{spaces|2}}0,{{spaces|2}}1,{{spaces|2}}0) {{indent|5}}({{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}}){{spaces|3}}({{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}}) {{indent|5}}(–{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}}){{spaces|3}}(–{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}}) {{indent|17}}({{spaces|2}}0,{{spaces|2}}0,–1,{{spaces|2}}0)<br> is a hexagon on the ''y'' axis. Unlike the {{sqrt|2}} squares, the hexagons are actually made of 24-cell edges, so they are visible features of the 24-cell.|name=non-orthogonal hexagons|group=}} {{Efn|Visualize the three [[16-cell]]s inscribed in the 24-cell (left, right, and middle), and the rotation which takes them to each other. [[24-cell#Reciprocal constructions from 8-cell and 16-cell|The vertices of the middle 16-cell lie on the (w, x, y, z) coordinate axes]];{{Efn|name=six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}} the other two are rotated 60° [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinically]] to its left and its right. The 24-vertex 24-cell is a compound of three 16-cells, whose three sets of 8 vertices are distributed around the 24-cell symmetrically; each vertex is surrounded by 8 others (in the 3-dimensional space of the 4-dimensional 24-cell's ''surface''), the way the vertices of a cube surround its center.{{Efn|name=24-cell vertex figure}} The 8 surrounding vertices (the cube corners) lie in other 16-cells: 4 in the other 16-cell to the left, and 4 in the other 16-cell to the right. They are the vertices of two tetrahedra inscribed in the cube, one belonging (as a cell) to each 16-cell. If the 16-cell edges are {{radic|2}}, each vertex of the compound of three 16-cells is {{radic|1}} away from its 8 surrounding vertices in other 16-cells. Now visualize those {{radic|1}} distances as the edges of the 24-cell (while continuing to visualize the disjoint 16-cells). The {{radic|1}} edges form great hexagons of 6 vertices which run around the 24-cell in a central plane. ''Four'' hexagons cross at each vertex (and its antipodal vertex), inclined at 60° to each other.{{Efn|name=cuboctahedral hexagons}} The [[24-cell#Hexagons|hexagons]] are not perpendicular to each other, or to the 16-cells' perpendicular [[24-cell#Squares|square central planes]].{{Efn|name=non-orthogonal hexagons}} The left and right 16-cells form a tesseract.{{Efn|Each pair of the three 16-cells inscribed in the 24-cell forms a 4-dimensional [[W:tesseract|hypercube (a tesseract or 8-cell)]], in [[24-cell#Relationships among interior polytopes|dimensional analogy]] to the way two tetrahedra form a cube: the two 8-vertex 16-cells are inscribed in the 16-vertex tesseract, occupying its alternate vertices. The third 16-cell does not lie within the tesseract; its 8 vertices protrude from the sides of the tesseract, forming a cubic pyramid on each of the tesseract's cubic cells. The three pairs of 16-cells form three tesseracts.{{Efn|name=three 8-cells}} The tesseracts share vertices, but the 16-cells are completely disjoint.{{Efn|name=completely disjoint}}|name=three 16-cells form three tesseracts}} Two 16-cells have vertex-pairs which are one {{radic|1}} edge (one hexagon edge) apart. But a [[24-cell#Simple rotations|''simple'' rotation]] of 60° will not take one whole 16-cell to another 16-cell, because their vertices are 60° apart in different directions, and a simple rotation has only one hexagonal plane of rotation. One 16-cell ''can'' be taken to another 16-cell by a 60° [[24-cell#Isoclinic rotations|''isoclinic'' rotation]], because an isoclinic rotation is [[3-sphere]] symmetric: four [[24-cell#Clifford parallel polytopes|Clifford parallel hexagonal planes]] rotate together, but in four different rotational directions,{{Efn|name=Clifford displacement}} taking each 16-cell to another 16-cell. But since an isoclinic 60° rotation is a ''diagonal'' rotation by 60° in ''two'' completely orthogonal directions at once,{{Efn|name=isoclinic geodesic}} the corresponding vertices of the 16-cell and the 16-cell it is taken to are 120° apart: ''two'' {{radic|1}} hexagon edges (or one {{radic|3}} hexagon chord) apart, not one {{radic|1}} edge (60°) apart as in a simple rotation.{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} By the [[W:chiral|chiral]] diagonal nature of isoclinic rotations, the 16-cell ''cannot'' reach the adjacent 16-cell by rotating toward it; it can only reach the 16-cell ''beyond'' it. But of course, the 16-cell beyond the 16-cell to its right is the 16-cell to its left. So a 60° isoclinic rotation ''will'' take every 16-cell to another 16-cell: a 60° ''right'' isoclinic rotation will take the middle 16-cell to the 16-cell we may have originally visualized as the ''left'' 16-cell, and a 60° ''left'' isoclinic rotation will take the middle 16-cell to the 16-cell we visualized as the ''right'' 16-cell. (If so, that was our error in visualization; the 16-cell to the "left" is in fact the one reached by the left isoclinic rotation, as that is the only sense in which the two 16-cells are left or right of each other.)|name=three isoclinic 16-cells}} {{Efn|In a double rotation each vertex can be said to move along two completely orthogonal great circles at the same time, but it does not stay within the central plane of either of those original great circles; rather, it moves along a helical geodesic that traverses diagonally between great circles. The two completely orthogonal planes of rotation are said to be ''invariant'' because the points in each stay in the plane ''as the plane moves'', tilting sideways by the same angle that the other plane rotates.|name=helical geodesic}} {{Efn|A point under isoclinic rotation traverses the diagonal{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} straight line of a single '''isoclinic geodesic''', reaching its destination directly, instead of the bent line of two successive '''simple geodesics'''. A '''[[W:geodesic|geodesic]]''' is the ''shortest path'' through a space (intuitively, a string pulled taught between two points). Simple geodesics are great circles lying in a central plane (the only kind of geodesics that occur in 3-space on the 2-sphere). Isoclinic geodesics are different: they do ''not'' lie in a single plane; they are 4-dimensional [[W:helix|spirals]] rather than simple 2-dimensional circles.{{Efn|name=helical geodesic}} But they are not like 3-dimensional [[W:screw threads|screw threads]] either, because they form a closed loop like any circle (after ''two'' revolutions). Isoclinic geodesics are ''4-dimensional great circles'', and they are just as circular as 2-dimensional circles: in fact, twice as circular, because they curve in a circle in two completely orthogonal directions at once.{{Efn|Isoclinic geodesics are ''4-dimensional great circles'' in the sense that they are 1-dimensional geodesic ''lines'' that curve in 4-space in two completely orthogonal planes at once. They should not be confused with ''great 2-spheres'',{{Sfn|Stillwell|2001|p=24}} which are the 4-dimensional analogues of 2-dimensional great circles (great 1-spheres).}} These '''isoclines''' are geodesic 1-dimensional lines embedded in a 4-dimensional space. On the 3-sphere{{Efn|All isoclines are geodesics, and isoclines on the 3-sphere are circles (curving equally in each dimension), but not all isoclines on 3-manifolds in 4-space are circles.}} they always occur in [[W:chiral|chiral]] pairs and form a pair of [[W:Villarceau circle|Villarceau circle]]s on the [[W:Clifford torus|Clifford torus]],{{Efn|Isoclines on the 3-sphere occur in non-intersecting chiral pairs. A left and a right isocline form a [[W:Hopf link|Hopf link]] called the {1,1} torus knot{{Sfn|Dorst|2019|loc=§1. Villarceau Circles|p=44|ps=; "In mathematics, the path that the (1, 1) knot on the torus traces is also known as a [[W:Villarceau circle|Villarceau circle]]. Villarceau circles are usually introduced as two intersecting circles that are the cross-section of a torus by a well-chosen plane cutting it. Picking one such circle and rotating it around the torus axis, the resulting family of circles can be used to rule the torus. By nesting tori smartly, the collection of all such circles then form a [[W:Hopf fibration|Hopf fibration]].... we prefer to consider the Villarceau circle as the (1, 1) torus knot [a [[W:Hopf link|Hopf link]]] rather than as a planar cut [two intersecting circles]."}} in which ''each'' of the two linked circles traverses all four dimensions.}} the paths of the left and the right [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Double rotations|isoclinic rotation]]. They are [[W:Helix|helices]] bent into a [[W:Möbius strip|Möbius loop]] in the fourth dimension, taking a diagonal [[W:Winding number|winding route]] twice around the 3-sphere through the non-adjacent vertices of a 4-polytope's [[W:Skew polygon#Regular skew polygons in four dimensions|skew polygon]].|name=isoclinic geodesic}} {{Efn|[[File:Hopf band wikipedia.png|thumb|150px|Two [[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]] great circles spanned by a twisted [[W:Annulus (mathematics)|annulus]].]][[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]]s are non-intersecting curved lines that are parallel in the sense that the perpendicular (shortest) distance between them is the same at each point. A double helix is an example of Clifford parallelism in ordinary 3-dimensional Euclidean space. In 4-space Clifford parallels occur as geodesic great circles on the [[W:3-sphere|3-sphere]].{{Sfn|Kim|Rote|2016|pp=8-10|loc=Relations to Clifford Parallelism}} Whereas in 3-dimensional space, any two geodesic great circles on the [[W:2-sphere|2-sphere]] will always intersect at two antipodal points, in 4-dimensional space not all great circles intersect. In 4-polytopes various discrete sets of Clifford parallel non-intersecting geodesic great circles can be found on the 3-sphere. They spiral around each other in [[W:Hopf fibration|Hopf fiber bundles]] which visit all the vertices just once. The simplest example is that six mutually orthogonal great circles can be drawn on the 3-sphere, as three pairs of completely orthogonal great circles, intersecting at 8 points defining a [[16-cell]]. Each completely orthogonal pair of circles is Clifford parallel. They cannot intersect at all, because they lie in planes which intersect at only one point: the center of the 16-cell. Because they are perpendicular and share a common center, the two circles are obviously not parallel and separate in the usual way of parallel circles in 3 dimensions; rather they are connected like adjacent links in a chain, each passing through the other without intersecting at any points, forming a [[W:Hopf link|Hopf link]]|name=Clifford parallels}} {{Efn|In the 24-cell each great square plane is completely orthogonal{{Efn|name=completely orthogonal planes}} to another great square plane, and each great hexagon plane is completely orthogonal to a plane which intersects only two vertices: a great [[W:digon|digon]] plane.|name=pairs of completely orthogonal planes}} {{Efn|In an [[24-cell#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinic rotation]], each point anywhere in the 4-polytope moves an equal distance in four orthogonal directions at once, on a [[W:8-cell#Radial equilateral symmetry|4-dimensional diagonal]]. The point is displaced a total [[W:Pythagorean distance]] equal to the square root of four times the square of that distance. For example, when the unit-radius 24-cell rotates isoclinically 60° in a hexagon invariant plane and 60° in its completely orthogonal invariant plane,{{Efn|name=pairs of completely orthogonal planes}} all vertices are displaced to a vertex two edge lengths away. Each vertex is displaced to another vertex {{radic|3}} (120°) away, moving {{radic|3/4}} in four orthogonal coordinate directions.|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} {{Efn|Each square plane is isoclinic (Clifford parallel) to five other square planes but completely orthogonal{{Efn|name=completely orthogonal planes}} to only one of them.{{Efn|name=Clifford parallel squares in the 16-cell and 24-cell}} Every pair of completely orthogonal planes has Clifford parallel great circles, but not all Clifford parallel great circles are orthogonal (e.g., none of the hexagonal geodesics in the 24-cell are mutually orthogonal).|name=only some Clifford parallels are orthogonal}} {{Efn|In the [[16-cell#Rotations|16-cell]] the 6 orthogonal great squares form 3 pairs of completely orthogonal great circles; each pair is Clifford parallel. In the 24-cell, the 3 inscribed 16-cells lie rotated 60 degrees isoclinically{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} with respect to each other; consequently their corresponding vertices are 120 degrees apart on a hexagonal great circle. Pairing their vertices which are 90 degrees apart reveals corresponding square great circles which are Clifford parallel. Each of the 18 square great circles is Clifford parallel not only to one other square great circle in the same 16-cell (the completely orthogonal one), but also to two square great circles (which are completely orthogonal to each other) in each of the other two 16-cells. (Completely orthogonal great circles are Clifford parallel, but not all Clifford parallels are orthogonal.{{Efn|name=only some Clifford parallels are orthogonal}}) A 60 degree isoclinic rotation of the 24-cell in hexagonal invariant planes takes each square great circle to a Clifford parallel (but non-orthogonal) square great circle in a different 16-cell.|name=Clifford parallel squares in the 16-cell and 24-cell}} {{Efn|In 4 dimensional space we can construct 4 perpendicular axes and 6 perpendicular planes through a point. Without loss of generality, we may take these to be the axes and orthogonal central planes of a (w, x, y, z) Cartesian coordinate system. In 4 dimensions we have the same 3 orthogonal planes (xy, xz, yz) that we have in 3 dimensions, and also 3 others (wx, wy, wz). Each of the 6 orthogonal planes shares an axis with 4 of the others, and is ''completely orthogonal'' to just one of the others: the only one with which it does not share an axis. Thus there are 3 pairs of completely orthogonal planes: xy and wz intersect only at the origin; xz and wy intersect only at the origin; yz and wx intersect only at the origin.|name=six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}} {{Efn|Two planes in 4-dimensional space can have four possible reciprocal positions: (1) they can coincide (be exactly the same plane); (2) they can be parallel (the only way they can fail to intersect at all); (3) they can intersect in a single line, as two non-parallel planes do in 3-dimensional space; or (4) '''they can intersect in a single point'''{{Efn|To visualize how two planes can intersect in a single point in a four dimensional space, consider the Euclidean space (w, x, y, z) and imagine that the w dimension represents time rather than a spatial dimension. The xy central plane (where w{{=}}0, z{{=}}0) shares no axis with the wz central plane (where x{{=}}0, y{{=}}0). The xy plane exists at only a single instant in time (w{{=}}0); the wz plane (and in particular the w axis) exists all the time. Thus their only moment and place of intersection is at the origin point (0,0,0,0).|name=how planes intersect at a single point}} (and they ''must'', if they are completely orthogonal).{{Efn|Two flat planes A and B of a Euclidean space of four dimensions are called ''completely orthogonal'' if and only if every line in A is orthogonal to every line in B. In that case the planes A and B intersect at a single point O, so that if a line in A intersects with a line in B, they intersect at O.{{Efn|name=six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}}|name=completely orthogonal planes}}|name=how planes intersect}} {{Efn|Polytopes are '''completely disjoint''' if all their ''element sets'' are disjoint: they do not share any vertices, edges, faces or cells. They may still overlap in space, sharing 4-content, volume, area, or lineage.|name=completely disjoint}} {{Efn|If the [[W:Euclidean distance|Pythagorean distance]] between any two vertices is {{sqrt|1}}, their geodesic distance is 1; they may be two adjacent vertices (in the curved 3-space of the surface), or a vertex and the center (in 4-space). If their Pythagorean distance is {{sqrt|2}}, their geodesic distance is 2 (whether via 3-space or 4-space, because the path along the edges is the same straight line with one 90^o bend in it as the path through the center). If their Pythagorean distance is {{sqrt|3}}, their geodesic distance is still 2 (whether on a hexagonal great circle past one 60^o bend, or as a straight line with one 60^o bend in it through the center). Finally, if their Pythagorean distance is {{sqrt|4}}, their geodesic distance is still 2 in 4-space (straight through the center), but it reaches 3 in 3-space (by going halfway around a hexagonal great circle).|name=Geodesic distance}} {{Efn|Two angles are required to fix the relative positions of two planes in 4-space.{{Sfn|Kim|Rote|2016|p=7|loc=§6 Angles between two Planes in 4-Space|ps=; "In four (and higher) dimensions, we need two angles to fix the relative position between two planes. (More generally, ''k'' angles are defined between ''k''-dimensional subspaces.)"}} Since all planes in the same [[W:hyperplane|hyperplane]] are 0 degrees apart in one of the two angles, only one angle is required in 3-space. Great hexagons in different hyperplanes are 60 degrees apart in ''both'' angles. Great squares in different hyperplanes are 90 degrees apart in ''both'' angles (completely orthogonal){{Efn|name=completely orthogonal planes}} or 60 degrees apart in ''both'' angles.{{Efn||name=Clifford parallel squares in the 16-cell and 24-cell}} Planes which are separated by two equal angles are called ''isoclinic''. Planes which are isoclinic have [[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]] great circles.{{Efn|name=Clifford parallels}} A great square and a great hexagon in different hyperplanes are neither isoclinic nor Clifford parallel; they are separated by a 90 degree angle ''and'' a 60 degree angle.|name=two angles between central planes}} {{Efn|The 24-cell contains 3 distinct 8-cells (tesseracts), rotated 60° isoclinically with respect to each other. The corresponding vertices of two 8-cells are {{radic|3}} (120°) apart. Each 8-cell contains 8 cubical cells, and each cube contains four {{radic|3}} chords (its long diagonals). The 8-cells are not completely disjoint{{Efn|name=completely disjoint}} (they share vertices), but each cube and each {{radic|3}} chord belongs to just one 8-cell. The {{radic|3}} chords joining the corresponding vertices of two 8-cells belong to the third 8-cell.|name=three 8-cells}} {{Efn|Departing from any vertex V₀ in the original great hexagon plane of isoclinic rotation P₀, the first vertex reached V₁ is 120 degrees away along a {{radic|3}} chord lying in a different hexagonal plane P₁. P₁ is inclined to P₀ at a 60° angle.{{Efn|P₀ and P₁ lie in the same hyperplane (the same central cuboctahedron) so their other angle of separation is 0.{{Efn|name=two angles between central planes}}}} The second vertex reached V₂ is 120 degrees beyond V₁ along a second {{radic|3}} chord lying in another hexagonal plane P₂ that is Clifford parallel to P₀.{{Efn|P₀ and P₂ are 60° apart in ''both'' angles of separation.{{Efn|name=two angles between central planes}} Clifford parallel planes are isoclinic (which means they are separated by two equal angles), and their corresponding vertices are all the same distance apart. Although V₀ and V₂ are ''two'' {{radic|3}} chords apart{{Efn|V₀ and V₂ are two {{radic|3}} chords apart on the geodesic path of this rotational isocline, but that is not the shortest geodesic path between them. In the 24-cell, it is impossible for two vertices to be more distant than ''one'' {{radic|3}} chord, unless they are antipodal vertices {{radic|4}} apart.{{Efn|name=Geodesic distance}} V₀ and V₂ are ''one'' {{radic|3}} chord apart on some other isocline. More generally, isoclines are geodesics because the distance between their ''adjacent'' vertices is the shortest distance between those two vertices, but a path between two vertices along a geodesic is not always the shortest distance between them (even on ordinary great circle geodesics).}}, P₀ and P₂ are just one {{radic|1}} edge apart (at every pair of ''nearest'' vertices).}} (Notice that V₁ lies in both intersecting planes P₁ and P₂, as V₀ lies in both P₀ and P₁. But P₀ and P₂ have ''no'' vertices in common; they do not intersect.) The third vertex reached V₃ is 120 degrees beyond V₂ along a third {{radic|3}} chord lying in another hexagonal plane P₃ that is Clifford parallel to P₁. The three {{radic|3}} chords lie in different 8-cells.{{Efn|name=three 8-cells}} V₀ to V₃ is a 360° isoclinic rotation.|name=360 degree geodesic path visiting 3 hexagonal planes}} {{Sfn|Mamone, Pileio & Levitt|2010|loc=§4.5 Regular Convex 4-Polytopes|pp=1438-1439|ps=; the 24-cell has 1152 symmetry operations (rotations and reflections) as enumerated in Table 2, symmetry group 𝐹₄.}} ==Notes== {{Regular convex 4-polytopes Notelist|wiki=W:}} ==Citations== {{Regular convex 4-polytopes Reflist|wiki=W:}} ==References== {{Refbegin}} * {{Cite book|title=A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers|last=Thoreau|first=Henry David|author-link=W:Thoreau|publisher=James Munroe and Company|year=1849|isbn=|location=Boston|ref={{SfnRef|Thoreau|1849}}}} * {{Cite journal|title=Theoretical Evidence for Principles of Special Relativity Based on Isotropic and Uniform Four-Dimensional Space|first=Takuya|last=Yamashita|date=25 May 2023|doi= 10.20944/preprints202305.1785.v1|journal=Preprints|volume=2023|issue=2023051785|url=https://doi.org/10.20944/preprints202305.1785.v1|ref={{SfnRef|Yamashita|2023}}}} * {{Cite_arXiv | arxiv=2512.02903v2 | date=2 January 2026 | title=Symmetry transformation group arising from the Laplace–Runge–Lenz vector | first1=Stephen C. | last1=Anco | first2=Mahdieh Gol Bashmani | last2=Moghadam | class=math-ph}} === [[Polyscheme|Polyschemes]] === {{Regular convex 4-polytopes Refs|wiki=W:}} {{Refend}} aszlgcgzm5nq82u98c48lcf3emhcuvf 0 303488 2835778 2604613 2026-10-04T09:29:24Z Bobseymour2065 3112099 /* */ 2835778 wikitext text/x-wiki = A potential method to create a 'perfect' clone of a female organism using somatic cell nuclear transfer = == Author information == Author: Charles Milner == Abstract == Somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT) is a method which can be used to clone an organism by removing the original nucleus of an egg cell and fusing a nucleus of a somatic cell with that egg cell to create an organism whose nuclear deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is the same as of the donor of the nucleus of the somatic cell. However, the DNA of the mitochondria is not copied in this approach, meaning that the clone would not be considered a ‘perfect’ one. Fortunately, there is a potential method to solve this issue when a female organism is cloned. == Main Paper == Somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT) can be used to artificially clone an organism for reproductive cloning by replacing the nucleus of an egg cell with the nucleus of a donor’s somatic cell and charging it with electricity so that the nucleus of the somatic cell fuses with the egg cell. This would start the development of an organism with the nuclear deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) of the donor of the nucleus of the somatic cell. The issue with this method of reproductive cloning is that while the nuclear DNA of the donor is copied in the cloned organism, the DNA of the mitochondria in the cytoplasm of a cell is not copied from that donor. The DNA of the mitochondria in the clone holds the DNA of the mitochondria of the egg cell. This means that the clone would not be ‘perfect’ and this may have important implications for cross-species nuclear transfer in which nuclear-mitochondrial incompatibilities may lead to death. However, there may be a method to avoid this issue when cloning a female organism. A female could have the nucleus of their somatic cell fused with their own egg cell with its nucleus taken out. This way, the donor of the nucleus of the somatic cell could have their mitochondrial DNA from their egg cell used as well and the organism which would develop from this process would have the same nuclear DNA and mitochondrial DNA as the female organism it would be cloned from, making it a ‘perfect’ clone. == Additional information == === Acknowledgements === This paper was authored by Charles Milner. === Competing interests === There are no competing interests relating to this paper held by its authors. [[Category:Biological cloning]] [[Category:Genetics]] [[Category:Theoretical biology]] 3v5d13agw2esiom2dl7qi2bd8kpariu 0 305491 2835682 2835656 2026-10-03T12:19:30Z ~2026-53155-18 3112031 /* */ 2835682 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Dynamic List}} {| class="wikitable" !Generation !Mccrindle !Pew !Strauss-Howe !Japanese Traditional Generations !GenWHY |- |Arthurian | rowspan="19" |N/A | rowspan="19" |N/A |1433-1460 (28) | | |- |Humanist |1461-1482 (22) | | |- |Reformation |1483-1511 (29) | | |- |Reprisal |1512-1540 (29) | | |- |Elizabethan |1541-1565 (25) | | |- |Parliamentary |1566-1587 (22) | | |- |Puritan |1588-1617 (30) | | |- |Cavalier |1618-1647 (30) | | |- |Glorious |1648-1673 (26) | | |- |Enlightenment |1674-1700 (27) | | |- |Awakening |1701-1723 (23) | | |- |Liberty |1724-1741 (18) | | |- |Republican |1742-1766 (25) | | |- |Compromise |1767-1791 (25) | | |- |Transcendental |1792-1821 (30) | | |- |Gilded |1822-1842 (21) | | |- |Progressive |1843-1859 (17) | | |- |Missionary |1860-1882 (23) |明治一桁世代 (Meiji Hitoketa Sedai) 1868-1877 (10) | |- |Lost |1883-1900 (18) |明治二桁世代 (Meiji Futaketa Sedai) 1878-1911 (34) | |- |G.I. |?-1924 |?-1927 |1901-1924 (24) |大正世代 (Taisho Sedai) 1912-1925 (13) | |- |Silent |1928-1945 (18) |1928-1945 (18) |1925-1942 (18) |昭和一桁世代 (Showa Hitoketa Sedai) 1926-1935 (10) 焼け跡世代 (Yakeato Sedai) 1935-1946 (12) |1924-1943 (20) |- |Baby Boom |1946-1963 (18) |1946-1963 (18) |1943-1960 (18) |団塊世代 (Dankai "Boomer" Sedai) 1947-1950 (4) - cusp しらけ世代 (Shirake Sedai) 1951-1964 (14) |1944-1963 (20) |- |Generation X |1964-1979 (16) |1964-1981 (18) |1961-1981 (21) |バブル世代 (Baburu "Bubble" Sedai) 1965-1970 (6) - cusp 氷河期世代* (Hyougakki "Ice Age" Sedai) 1971-1981 (11) |1964-1983 (20) |- |Millennial |1980-1994 (15) |1982-1996 (15) |1982-2005 (24) |プレッシャー世代 (Puresshaa "Pressure" Sedai) 1982-1986 (5) - cusp ゆとり世代 (Yutori Sedai) 1987-1996 (10) |1984-2003 (20) |- |Generation Z |1995-2009 (15) |1997-2011 (15) |N/A |脱ゆとり・さとり世代 (Datsu Yutori / Satori Sedai) 1997-2005 (9) - cusp コロナ世代** (Korona "COVID" Sedai) 2001-2014 (14) |N/A |- |Generation Alpha |2010-2024 (15) |2012-? |2006-2029 (24) |TBD |2004-2023 (20) |- |Generation Beta |2025-2039 (15) |TBD |2030-? |TBD |TBD |} <nowiki>*</nowiki> = This can further be divided up into 団塊ジュニア世代 (Dankai Jr. "Boomer Jr." Sedai) (early 1970s) and the rest ポスト団塊ジュニア世代 (Post Dankai Jr. Sedai) (late 1970s-1981) <nowiki>**</nowiki> = (As of 2024,) it is generally accepted as someone who was 5 (turning 6) to 19 years old in 2020 (start of COVID-19 pandemic), which likely affected their school years (K-12 and university). According to a 2022 survey from Japanese high school students, they considered themselves as コロナ世代. (However, it won't be confirmed until c. 2032 when all of them are 18 or older to see if this name stays). In the context of working, however, it can be defined as 1998-2006 (age 18-26 in 2024). This is because during the COVID pandemic (2020-2024), they became adults and were in university during part or all of this time period. There is also a chance that this could be the last Japanese traditional generation name because Japanese people are beginning to use the English generation names (e.g., Z世代・α世代). {| class="wikitable" ! rowspan="2" |Birth year range ! colspan="5" |English Generation !Japanese Generation |- !McCrindle !Pew !Strauss-Howe ! colspan="2" |Summary ! |- |1433-1460 | rowspan="23" |N/A | rowspan="25" |N/A |Arthurian | colspan="2" |Arthurian | rowspan="18" |N/A |- |1461-1482 |Humanist | colspan="2" |Humanist |- |1483-1511 |Reformation | colspan="2" |Reformation |- |1512-1540 |Reprisal | colspan="2" |Reprisal |- |1541-1565 |Elizabethan | colspan="2" |Elizabethan |- |1566-1587 |Parliamentary | colspan="2" |Parliamentary |- |1588-1617 |Puritan | colspan="2" |Puritan |- |1618-1647 |Cavalier | colspan="2" |Cavalier |- |1648-1673 |Glorious | colspan="2" |Glorious |- |1674-1700 |Enlightenment | colspan="2" |Enlightenment |- |1701-1723 |Awakening | colspan="2" |Awakening |- |1724-1741 |Liberty | colspan="2" |Liberty |- |1742-1766 |Republican | colspan="2" |Republican |- |1767-1791 |Compromise | colspan="2" |Compromise |- |1792-1821 |Transcendental | colspan="2" |Transcendental |- |1822-1842 |Gilded | colspan="2" |Gilded |- |1843-1859 |Progressive | colspan="2" |Progressive |- |1860-1867 | rowspan="3" |Missionary | colspan="2" rowspan="3" |Missionary |- |1868-1877 |明治一桁世代 (Meiji Hitoketa Sedai) |- |1878-1882 | rowspan="3" |明治二桁世代 (Meiji Futaketa Sedai) |- |1883-1900 |Lost | colspan="2" |Lost |- |1901-1911 | rowspan="2" |G.I. | colspan="2" rowspan="2" |G.I |- |1912-1924 | rowspan="2" |大正世代 (Taisho Sedai) |- |1925 | rowspan="6" |Builder | rowspan="5" |Silent | rowspan="2" |G.I ! rowspan="2" |Silent |- |1926-1927 | rowspan="2" |昭和一桁世代 (Showa Hitoketa Sedai) |- |1928-1934 | rowspan="4" |Silent | colspan="2" rowspan="3" |Silent |- |1935 |昭和一桁世代 (Showa Hitoketa Sedai) / 焼け跡世代 (Yakeato Sedai) |- |1936-1942 | rowspan="3" |焼け跡世代 (Yakeato Sedai) |- |1943-1945 | rowspan="4" |Baby Boom !Silent |Baby Boom |- |1946 | rowspan="4" |Baby Boom | rowspan="4" |Baby Boom | colspan="2" rowspan="3" |Baby Boom |- |1947-1950 |団塊世代 (Dankai "Boomer" Sedai) |- |1951-1960 | rowspan="2" |しらけ世代 (Shirake Sedai) |- |1961-1963 | rowspan="4" |Generation X !Baby Boom |Generation X |- |1964-1970 | rowspan="2" |Generation X | rowspan="3" |Generation X | colspan="2" rowspan="2" |Generation X |バブル世代 (Baburu "Bubble" Sedai) |- |1971-1979 | rowspan="2" |氷河期世代** (Hyougakki "Ice Age" Sedai) |- |1980-1981 | rowspan="3" |Generation Y !Generation X |Millennial |- |1982-1986 | rowspan="3" |Millennial | rowspan="4" |Millennial | colspan="2" rowspan="2" |Millennial |プレッシャー世代 (Puresshaa "Pressure" Sedai) |- |1987-1994 | rowspan="2" |ゆとり世代 (Yutori Sedai) |- |1995-1996 | rowspan="3" |Generation Z !Millennial |Generation Z |- |1997-2005 | rowspan="3" |Generation Z |Millennial !Generation Z |脱ゆとり・さとり世代 (Datsu Yutori / Satori Sedai) |- |2006-2009 | rowspan="4" |Homeland !Generation Z | | |- |2010-2011 | rowspan="2" |Generation Alpha |Generation Z !Generation Alpha | |- |2012-2024 | rowspan="3" |TBD | colspan="2" |Generation Alpha | |- |2025-2029 | rowspan="2" |Generation Beta | colspan="2" rowspan="2" |TBD | |- |2030-2039 |TBD | |} {| class="wikitable" !Generation !Strictest !Probable !Broadest |- |Arthurian |1433-1460 (28) |1433-1460 (28) |1433-1460 (28) |- |Humanist |1461-1482 (22) |1461-1482 (22) |1461-1482 (22) |- |Reformation |1483-1511 (29) |1483-1511 (29) |1483-1511 (29) |- |Reprisal |1512-1540 (29) |1512-1540 (29) |1512-1540 (29) |- |Elizabethan |1541-1565 (25) |1541-1565 (25) |1541-1565 (25) |- |Parliamentary |1566-1587 (22) |1566-1587 (22) |1566-1587 (22) |- |Puritan |1588-1617 (30) |1588-1617 (30) |1588-1617 (30) |- |Cavalier |1618-1647 (30) |1618-1647 (30) |1618-1647 (30) |- |Glorious |1648-1673 (26) |1648-1673 (26) |1648-1673 (26) |- |Enlightenment |1674-1700 (27) |1674-1700 (27) |1674-1700 (27) |- |Awakening |1701-1723 (23) |1701-1723 (23) |1701-1723 (23) |- |Liberty |1724-1741 (18) |1724-1741 (18) |1724-1741 (18) |- |Republican |1742-1766 (25) |1742-1766 (25) |1742-1766 (25) |- |Compromise |1767-1791 (25) |1767-1791 (25) |1767-1791 (25) |- |Transcendental |1792-1821 (30) |1792-1821 (30) |1792-1821 (30) |- |Gilded |1822-1842 (21) |1822-1842 (21) |1822-1842 (21) |- |Progressive |1843-1859 (17) |1843-1859 (17) |1843-1859 (17) |- |Missionary |1860-1882 (23) |1860-1882 (23) |1860-1882 (23) |- |Lost |1883-1900 (18) |1883-1900 (18) |1883-1900 (18) |- |G.I. |1901-1924 (24) |1901-1924 (24) |1901-1927 (27) |- |Silent |1925-1945 (21) |1925-1945 (21) |1928-1945 (18) |- |Baby Boom |1946-1963 (18) |1946-1963 (18) |1946-1963 (18) |- |Generation X |1964-1979 (16) |1964-1979 (16) |1964-1981 (18) |- |Millennial |1980-1994 (15) |1980-1995 (16) |1982-1996 (15) |- |Generation Z |1995-2009 (15) |1996-2011 (16) |1997-2011 (15) |- |Generation Alpha |2010-2024 (15) |2012-2024 (13) |2012-2024 (13) |- |Generation Beta |2025-2039 (15) |2025-? |2025-? |} == Notes == [a] Mccrindle's 'Builders' align best with other models' Silent Generation [b] Mccrindle's 'Generation Y' aligns best with other models' Millennial Generation [c] Whilst not explicit, any direct successor of Generation Z proposed by Pew Research Center must align best with other Mccrindle's 'Gen Alpha' and S&H's 'Homeland Generation' [d] S&H's 'Homeland Generation' aligns best with Mccrindle's Generation Alpha == References == https://mccrindle.com.au/article/topic/demographics/the-generations-defined/ https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2019/01/17/where-millennials-end-and-generation-z-begins/ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strauss%E2%80%93Howe_generational_theory https://www.genwhy.com/_files/ugd/5ccc25_695074dbc5724d76ae103635b5d9ab5d.pdf qzfyu1rmrw3smkzx09p0141deb2zsrp 2835684 2835682 2026-10-03T12:22:24Z ~2026-53155-18 3112031 /* */ 2835684 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Dynamic List}} {| class="wikitable" !Generation !Mccrindle !Pew !Strauss-Howe !Japanese Traditional Generations !GenWHY |- |Arthurian | rowspan="19" |N/A | rowspan="19" |N/A |1433-1460 (28) | | |- |Humanist |1461-1482 (22) | | |- |Reformation |1483-1511 (29) | | |- |Reprisal |1512-1540 (29) | | |- |Elizabethan |1541-1565 (25) | | |- |Parliamentary |1566-1587 (22) | | |- |Puritan |1588-1617 (30) | | |- |Cavalier |1618-1647 (30) | | |- |Glorious |1648-1673 (26) | | |- |Enlightenment |1674-1700 (27) | | |- |Awakening |1701-1723 (23) | | |- |Liberty |1724-1741 (18) | | |- |Republican |1742-1766 (25) | | |- |Compromise |1767-1791 (25) | | |- |Transcendental |1792-1821 (30) | | |- |Gilded |1822-1842 (21) | | |- |Progressive |1843-1859 (17) | | |- |Missionary |1860-1882 (23) |明治一桁世代 (Meiji Hitoketa Sedai) 1868-1877 (10) | |- |Lost |1883-1900 (18) |明治二桁世代 (Meiji Futaketa Sedai) 1878-1911 (34) | |- |G.I. |?-1924 |?-1927 |1901-1924 (24) |大正世代 (Taisho Sedai) 1912-1925 (13) | |- |Silent |1928-1945 (18) |1928-1945 (18) |1925-1942 (18) |昭和一桁世代 (Showa Hitoketa Sedai) 1926-1935 (10) 焼け跡世代 (Yakeato Sedai) 1935-1946 (12) |1924-1943 (20) |- |Baby Boom |1946-1963 (18) |1946-1963 (18) |1943-1960 (18) |団塊世代 (Dankai "Boomer" Sedai) 1947-1950 (4) - cusp しらけ世代 (Shirake Sedai) 1951-1964 (14) |1944-1963 (20) |- |Generation X |1964-1979 (16) |1964-1981 (18) |1961-1981 (21) |バブル世代 (Baburu "Bubble" Sedai) 1965-1970 (6) - cusp 氷河期世代* (Hyougakki "Ice Age" Sedai) 1971-1981 (11) |1964-1983 (20) |- |Millennial |1980-1994 (15) |1982-1996 (15) |1982-2005 (24) |プレッシャー世代 (Puresshaa "Pressure" Sedai) 1982-1986 (5) - cusp ゆとり世代 (Yutori Sedai) 1987-1996 (10) |1984-2003 (20) |- |Generation Z |1995-2009 (15) |1997-2011 (15) |N/A |脱ゆとり・さとり世代 (Datsu Yutori / Satori Sedai) 1997-2005 (9) - cusp コロナ世代** (Korona "COVID" Sedai) 2001-2014 (14) |N/A |- |Generation Alpha |2010-2024 (15) |2012-? |2006-2029 (24) |TBD |2004-2023 (20) |- |Generation Beta |2025-2039 (15) |TBD |2030-? |TBD |TBD |} <nowiki>*</nowiki> = This can further be divided up into 団塊ジュニア世代 (Dankai Jr. "Boomer Jr." Sedai) (early 1970s) and the rest ポスト団塊ジュニア世代 (Post Dankai Jr. Sedai) (late 1970s-1981) <nowiki>**</nowiki> = (As of 2024,) it is generally accepted as someone who was 5 (turning 6) to 19 years old in 2020 (start of COVID-19 pandemic), which likely affected their school years (K-12 and university). According to a 2022 survey from Japanese high school students, they considered themselves as コロナ世代. (However, it won't be confirmed until c. 2032 when all of them are 18 or older to see if this name stays). In the context of working, however, it can be defined as 1998-2006 (age 18-26 in 2024). This is because during the COVID pandemic (2020-2024), they became adults and were in university during part or all of this time period. There is also a chance that this could be the last Japanese traditional generation name because Japanese people are beginning to use the English generation names (e.g., Z世代・α世代). {| class="wikitable" ! rowspan="2" |Birth year range ! colspan="5" |English Generation !Japanese Generation |- !McCrindle !Pew !Strauss-Howe ! colspan="2" |Summary ! |- |1433-1460 | rowspan="23" |N/A | rowspan="25" |N/A |Arthurian | colspan="2" |Arthurian | rowspan="18" |N/A |- |1461-1482 |Humanist | colspan="2" |Humanist |- |1483-1511 |Reformation | colspan="2" |Reformation |- |1512-1540 |Reprisal | colspan="2" |Reprisal |- |1541-1565 |Elizabethan | colspan="2" |Elizabethan |- |1566-1587 |Parliamentary | colspan="2" |Parliamentary |- |1588-1617 |Puritan | colspan="2" |Puritan |- |1618-1647 |Cavalier | colspan="2" |Cavalier |- |1648-1673 |Glorious | colspan="2" |Glorious |- |1674-1700 |Enlightenment | colspan="2" |Enlightenment |- |1701-1723 |Awakening | colspan="2" |Awakening |- |1724-1741 |Liberty | colspan="2" |Liberty |- |1742-1766 |Republican | colspan="2" |Republican |- |1767-1791 |Compromise | colspan="2" |Compromise |- |1792-1821 |Transcendental | colspan="2" |Transcendental |- |1822-1842 |Gilded | colspan="2" |Gilded |- |1843-1859 |Progressive | colspan="2" |Progressive |- |1860-1867 | rowspan="3" |Missionary | colspan="2" rowspan="3" |Missionary |- |1868-1877 |明治一桁世代 (Meiji Hitoketa Sedai) |- |1878-1882 | rowspan="3" |明治二桁世代 (Meiji Futaketa Sedai) |- |1883-1900 |Lost | colspan="2" |Lost |- |1901-1911 | rowspan="2" |G.I. | colspan="2" rowspan="2" |G.I |- |1912-1924 | rowspan="2" |大正世代 (Taisho Sedai) |- |1925 | rowspan="6" |Builder | rowspan="5" |Silent | rowspan="2" |G.I ! rowspan="2" |Silent |- |1926-1927 | rowspan="2" |昭和一桁世代 (Showa Hitoketa Sedai) |- |1928-1934 | rowspan="4" |Silent | colspan="2" rowspan="3" |Silent |- |1935 |昭和一桁世代 (Showa Hitoketa Sedai) / 焼け跡世代 (Yakeato Sedai) |- |1936-1942 | rowspan="3" |焼け跡世代 (Yakeato Sedai) |- |1943-1945 | rowspan="4" |Baby Boom !Silent |Baby Boom |- |1946 | rowspan="4" |Baby Boom | rowspan="4" |Baby Boom | colspan="2" rowspan="3" |Baby Boom |- |1947-1950 |団塊世代 (Dankai "Boomer" Sedai) |- |1951-1960 | rowspan="2" |しらけ世代 (Shirake Sedai) |- |1961-1963 | rowspan="4" |Generation X !Baby Boom |Generation X |- |1964-1970 | rowspan="2" |Generation X | rowspan="3" |Generation X | colspan="2" rowspan="2" |Generation X |バブル世代 (Baburu "Bubble" Sedai) |- |1971-1979 | rowspan="2" |氷河期世代* (Hyougakki "Ice Age" Sedai) |- |1980-1981 | rowspan="3" |Generation Y !Generation X |Millennial |- |1982-1986 | rowspan="3" |Millennial | rowspan="4" |Millennial | colspan="2" rowspan="2" |Millennial |プレッシャー世代 (Puresshaa "Pressure" Sedai) |- |1987-1994 | rowspan="2" |ゆとり世代 (Yutori Sedai) |- |1995-1996 | rowspan="3" |Generation Z !Millennial |Generation Z |- |1997-2005 | rowspan="3" |Generation Z |Millennial !Generation Z |脱ゆとり・さとり世代 (Datsu Yutori / Satori Sedai) |- |2006-2009 | rowspan="4" |Homeland !Generation Z | | |- |2010-2011 | rowspan="2" |Generation Alpha |Generation Z !Generation Alpha | |- |2012-2024 | rowspan="3" |TBD | colspan="2" |Generation Alpha | |- |2025-2029 | rowspan="2" |Generation Beta | colspan="2" rowspan="2" |TBD | |- |2030-2039 |TBD | |} {| class="wikitable" !Generation !Strictest !Probable !Broadest |- |Arthurian |1433-1460 (28) |1433-1460 (28) |1433-1460 (28) |- |Humanist |1461-1482 (22) |1461-1482 (22) |1461-1482 (22) |- |Reformation |1483-1511 (29) |1483-1511 (29) |1483-1511 (29) |- |Reprisal |1512-1540 (29) |1512-1540 (29) |1512-1540 (29) |- |Elizabethan |1541-1565 (25) |1541-1565 (25) |1541-1565 (25) |- |Parliamentary |1566-1587 (22) |1566-1587 (22) |1566-1587 (22) |- |Puritan |1588-1617 (30) |1588-1617 (30) |1588-1617 (30) |- |Cavalier |1618-1647 (30) |1618-1647 (30) |1618-1647 (30) |- |Glorious |1648-1673 (26) |1648-1673 (26) |1648-1673 (26) |- |Enlightenment |1674-1700 (27) |1674-1700 (27) |1674-1700 (27) |- |Awakening |1701-1723 (23) |1701-1723 (23) |1701-1723 (23) |- |Liberty |1724-1741 (18) |1724-1741 (18) |1724-1741 (18) |- |Republican |1742-1766 (25) |1742-1766 (25) |1742-1766 (25) |- |Compromise |1767-1791 (25) |1767-1791 (25) |1767-1791 (25) |- |Transcendental |1792-1821 (30) |1792-1821 (30) |1792-1821 (30) |- |Gilded |1822-1842 (21) |1822-1842 (21) |1822-1842 (21) |- |Progressive |1843-1859 (17) |1843-1859 (17) |1843-1859 (17) |- |Missionary |1860-1882 (23) |1860-1882 (23) |1860-1882 (23) |- |Lost |1883-1900 (18) |1883-1900 (18) |1883-1900 (18) |- |G.I. |1901-1924 (24) |1901-1924 (24) |1901-1927 (27) |- |Silent |1925-1945 (21) |1925-1945 (21) |1928-1945 (18) |- |Baby Boom |1946-1963 (18) |1946-1963 (18) |1946-1963 (18) |- |Generation X |1964-1979 (16) |1964-1979 (16) |1964-1981 (18) |- |Millennial |1980-1994 (15) |1980-1995 (16) |1982-1996 (15) |- |Generation Z |1995-2009 (15) |1996-2011 (16) |1997-2011 (15) |- |Generation Alpha |2010-2024 (15) |2012-2024 (13) |2012-2024 (13) |- |Generation Beta |2025-2039 (15) |2025-? |2025-? |} == Notes == [a] Mccrindle's 'Builders' align best with other models' Silent Generation [b] Mccrindle's 'Generation Y' aligns best with other models' Millennial Generation [c] Whilst not explicit, any direct successor of Generation Z proposed by Pew Research Center must align best with other Mccrindle's 'Gen Alpha' and S&H's 'Homeland Generation' [d] S&H's 'Homeland Generation' aligns best with Mccrindle's Generation Alpha == References == https://mccrindle.com.au/article/topic/demographics/the-generations-defined/ https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2019/01/17/where-millennials-end-and-generation-z-begins/ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strauss%E2%80%93Howe_generational_theory https://www.genwhy.com/_files/ugd/5ccc25_695074dbc5724d76ae103635b5d9ab5d.pdf fhhw9y5ndk51ptqg9y9cluhqqwbm7kn 2835692 2835684 2026-10-03T12:54:18Z ~2026-53155-18 3112031 /* */ 2835692 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Dynamic List}} {| class="wikitable" !Generation !Mccrindle !Pew !Strauss-Howe !Japanese Traditional Generations !GenWHY |- |Arthurian | rowspan="19" |N/A | rowspan="19" |N/A |1433-1460 (28) | | |- |Humanist |1461-1482 (22) | | |- |Reformation |1483-1511 (29) | | |- |Reprisal |1512-1540 (29) | | |- |Elizabethan |1541-1565 (25) | | |- |Parliamentary |1566-1587 (22) | | |- |Puritan |1588-1617 (30) | | |- |Cavalier |1618-1647 (30) | | |- |Glorious |1648-1673 (26) | | |- |Enlightenment |1674-1700 (27) | | |- |Awakening |1701-1723 (23) | | |- |Liberty |1724-1741 (18) | | |- |Republican |1742-1766 (25) | | |- |Compromise |1767-1791 (25) | | |- |Transcendental |1792-1821 (30) | | |- |Gilded |1822-1842 (21) | | |- |Progressive |1843-1859 (17) | | |- |Missionary |1860-1882 (23) |明治一桁世代 (Meiji Hitoketa Sedai) 1868-1877 (10) | |- |Lost |1883-1900 (18) |明治二桁世代 (Meiji Futaketa Sedai) 1878-1911 (34) | |- |G.I. |?-1924 |?-1927 |1901-1924 (24) |大正世代 (Taisho Sedai) 1912-1925 (13) | |- |Silent |1928-1945 (18) |1928-1945 (18) |1925-1942 (18) |昭和一桁世代 (Showa Hitoketa Sedai) 1926-1935 (10) 焼け跡世代 (Yakeato Sedai) 1935-1946 (12) |1924-1943 (20) |- |Baby Boom |1946-1963 (18) |1946-1963 (18) |1943-1960 (18) |団塊世代 (Dankai "Boomer" Sedai) 1947-1950 (4) - cusp しらけ世代 (Shirake Sedai) 1951-1964 (14) |1944-1963 (20) |- |Generation X |1964-1979 (16) |1964-1981 (18) |1961-1981 (21) |バブル世代 (Baburu "Bubble" Sedai) 1965-1970 (6) - cusp 氷河期世代* (Hyougakki "Ice Age" Sedai) 1971-1981 (11) |1964-1983 (20) |- |Millennial |1980-1994 (15) |1982-1996 (15) |1982-2005 (24) |プレッシャー世代 (Puresshaa "Pressure" Sedai) 1982-1986 (5) - cusp ゆとり世代 (Yutori Sedai) 1987-1996 (10) |1984-2003 (20) |- |Generation Z |1995-2009 (15) |1997-2011 (15) |N/A |脱ゆとり・さとり世代 (Datsu Yutori / Satori Sedai) 1997-2005 (9) - cusp コロナ世代** (Korona "COVID" Sedai) 2001-2014 (14) |N/A |- |Generation Alpha |2010-2024 (15) |2012-? |2006-2029 (24) |TBD |2004-2023 (20) |- |Generation Beta |2025-2039 (15) |TBD |2030-? |TBD |TBD |} <nowiki>*</nowiki> = This can further be divided up into 団塊ジュニア世代 (Dankai Jr. "Boomer Jr." Sedai) (early 1970s) and the rest ポスト団塊ジュニア世代 (Post Dankai Jr. Sedai) (late 1970s-1981) <nowiki>**</nowiki> = (As of 2024) it is generally accepted as someone who was 5 (turning 6) to 19 years old in 2020 (start of COVID-19 pandemic), which likely affected their school years (K-12 and university). According to a 2022 survey from Japanese high school students, they considered themselves as コロナ世代. (However, it won't be confirmed until c. 2032 when all of them are 18 or older to see if this name stays). In the context of working, however, it can be defined as 1998-2006 (age 18-26 in 2024). This is because during the COVID pandemic (2020-2024), they became adults and were in university during part or all of this time period. There is also a chance that this could be the last Japanese traditional generation name because Japanese people are beginning to use the English generation names (e.g., Z世代・α世代). {| class="wikitable" ! rowspan="2" |Birth year range ! colspan="5" |English Generation !Japanese Generation |- !McCrindle !Pew !Strauss-Howe ! colspan="2" |Summary ! |- |1433-1460 | rowspan="23" |N/A | rowspan="25" |N/A |Arthurian | colspan="2" |Arthurian | rowspan="18" |N/A |- |1461-1482 |Humanist | colspan="2" |Humanist |- |1483-1511 |Reformation | colspan="2" |Reformation |- |1512-1540 |Reprisal | colspan="2" |Reprisal |- |1541-1565 |Elizabethan | colspan="2" |Elizabethan |- |1566-1587 |Parliamentary | colspan="2" |Parliamentary |- |1588-1617 |Puritan | colspan="2" |Puritan |- |1618-1647 |Cavalier | colspan="2" |Cavalier |- |1648-1673 |Glorious | colspan="2" |Glorious |- |1674-1700 |Enlightenment | colspan="2" |Enlightenment |- |1701-1723 |Awakening | colspan="2" |Awakening |- |1724-1741 |Liberty | colspan="2" |Liberty |- |1742-1766 |Republican | colspan="2" |Republican |- |1767-1791 |Compromise | colspan="2" |Compromise |- |1792-1821 |Transcendental | colspan="2" |Transcendental |- |1822-1842 |Gilded | colspan="2" |Gilded |- |1843-1859 |Progressive | colspan="2" |Progressive |- |1860-1867 | rowspan="3" |Missionary | colspan="2" rowspan="3" |Missionary |- |1868-1877 |明治一桁世代 (Meiji Hitoketa Sedai) |- |1878-1882 | rowspan="3" |明治二桁世代 (Meiji Futaketa Sedai) |- |1883-1900 |Lost | colspan="2" |Lost |- |1901-1911 | rowspan="2" |G.I. | colspan="2" rowspan="2" |G.I |- |1912-1924 | rowspan="2" |大正世代 (Taisho Sedai) |- |1925 | rowspan="6" |Builder | rowspan="5" |Silent | rowspan="2" |G.I ! rowspan="2" |Silent |- |1926-1927 | rowspan="2" |昭和一桁世代 (Showa Hitoketa Sedai) |- |1928-1934 | rowspan="4" |Silent | colspan="2" rowspan="3" |Silent |- |1935 |昭和一桁世代 (Showa Hitoketa Sedai) / 焼け跡世代 (Yakeato Sedai) |- |1936-1942 | rowspan="3" |焼け跡世代 (Yakeato Sedai) |- |1943-1945 | rowspan="4" |Baby Boom !Silent |Baby Boom |- |1946 | rowspan="4" |Baby Boom | rowspan="4" |Baby Boom | colspan="2" rowspan="3" |Baby Boom |- |1947-1950 |団塊世代 (Dankai "Boomer" Sedai) |- |1951-1960 | rowspan="2" |しらけ世代 (Shirake Sedai) |- |1961-1963 | rowspan="4" |Generation X !Baby Boom |Generation X |- |1964-1970 | rowspan="2" |Generation X | rowspan="3" |Generation X | colspan="2" rowspan="2" |Generation X |バブル世代 (Baburu "Bubble" Sedai) |- |1971-1979 | rowspan="2" |氷河期世代* (Hyougakki "Ice Age" Sedai) |- |1980-1981 | rowspan="3" |Generation Y !Generation X |Millennial |- |1982-1986 | rowspan="3" |Millennial | rowspan="4" |Millennial | colspan="2" rowspan="2" |Millennial |プレッシャー世代 (Puresshaa "Pressure" Sedai) |- |1987-1994 | rowspan="2" |ゆとり世代 (Yutori Sedai) |- |1995-1996 | rowspan="3" |Generation Z !Millennial |Generation Z |- |1997-2005 | rowspan="3" |Generation Z |Millennial !Generation Z |脱ゆとり・さとり世代 (Datsu Yutori / Satori Sedai) |- |2006-2009 | rowspan="4" |Homeland !Generation Z | | |- |2010-2011 | rowspan="2" |Generation Alpha |Generation Z !Generation Alpha | |- |2012-2024 | rowspan="3" |TBD | colspan="2" |Generation Alpha | |- |2025-2029 | rowspan="2" |Generation Beta | colspan="2" rowspan="2" |TBD | |- |2030-2039 |TBD | |} {| class="wikitable" !Generation !Strictest !Probable !Broadest |- |Arthurian |1433-1460 (28) |1433-1460 (28) |1433-1460 (28) |- |Humanist |1461-1482 (22) |1461-1482 (22) |1461-1482 (22) |- |Reformation |1483-1511 (29) |1483-1511 (29) |1483-1511 (29) |- |Reprisal |1512-1540 (29) |1512-1540 (29) |1512-1540 (29) |- |Elizabethan |1541-1565 (25) |1541-1565 (25) |1541-1565 (25) |- |Parliamentary |1566-1587 (22) |1566-1587 (22) |1566-1587 (22) |- |Puritan |1588-1617 (30) |1588-1617 (30) |1588-1617 (30) |- |Cavalier |1618-1647 (30) |1618-1647 (30) |1618-1647 (30) |- |Glorious |1648-1673 (26) |1648-1673 (26) |1648-1673 (26) |- |Enlightenment |1674-1700 (27) |1674-1700 (27) |1674-1700 (27) |- |Awakening |1701-1723 (23) |1701-1723 (23) |1701-1723 (23) |- |Liberty |1724-1741 (18) |1724-1741 (18) |1724-1741 (18) |- |Republican |1742-1766 (25) |1742-1766 (25) |1742-1766 (25) |- |Compromise |1767-1791 (25) |1767-1791 (25) |1767-1791 (25) |- |Transcendental |1792-1821 (30) |1792-1821 (30) |1792-1821 (30) |- |Gilded |1822-1842 (21) |1822-1842 (21) |1822-1842 (21) |- |Progressive |1843-1859 (17) |1843-1859 (17) |1843-1859 (17) |- |Missionary |1860-1882 (23) |1860-1882 (23) |1860-1882 (23) |- |Lost |1883-1900 (18) |1883-1900 (18) |1883-1900 (18) |- |G.I. |1901-1924 (24) |1901-1924 (24) |1901-1927 (27) |- |Silent |1925-1945 (21) |1925-1945 (21) |1928-1945 (18) |- |Baby Boom |1946-1963 (18) |1946-1963 (18) |1946-1963 (18) |- |Generation X |1964-1979 (16) |1964-1979 (16) |1964-1981 (18) |- |Millennial |1980-1994 (15) |1980-1995 (16) |1982-1996 (15) |- |Generation Z |1995-2009 (15) |1996-2011 (16) |1997-2011 (15) |- |Generation Alpha |2010-2024 (15) |2012-2024 (13) |2012-2024 (13) |- |Generation Beta |2025-2039 (15) |2025-? |2025-? |} == Notes == [a] Mccrindle's 'Builders' align best with other models' Silent Generation [b] Mccrindle's 'Generation Y' aligns best with other models' Millennial Generation [c] Whilst not explicit, any direct successor of Generation Z proposed by Pew Research Center must align best with other Mccrindle's 'Gen Alpha' and S&H's 'Homeland Generation' [d] S&H's 'Homeland Generation' aligns best with Mccrindle's Generation Alpha == References == https://mccrindle.com.au/article/topic/demographics/the-generations-defined/ https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2019/01/17/where-millennials-end-and-generation-z-begins/ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strauss%E2%80%93Howe_generational_theory https://www.genwhy.com/_files/ugd/5ccc25_695074dbc5724d76ae103635b5d9ab5d.pdf pq0jlhl48l17lim42rft3e3udk1neka 2835696 2835692 2026-10-03T15:22:07Z ~2026-53155-18 3112031 /* */ 2835696 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Dynamic List}} {| class="wikitable" !Generation !Mccrindle !Pew !Strauss-Howe !Japanese Traditional Generations !GenWHY |- |Arthurian | rowspan="19" |N/A | rowspan="19" |N/A |1433-1460 (28) | | |- |Humanist |1461-1482 (22) | | |- |Reformation |1483-1511 (29) | | |- |Reprisal |1512-1540 (29) | | |- |Elizabethan |1541-1565 (25) | | |- |Parliamentary |1566-1587 (22) | | |- |Puritan |1588-1617 (30) | | |- |Cavalier |1618-1647 (30) | | |- |Glorious |1648-1673 (26) | | |- |Enlightenment |1674-1700 (27) | | |- |Awakening |1701-1723 (23) | | |- |Liberty |1724-1741 (18) | | |- |Republican |1742-1766 (25) | | |- |Compromise |1767-1791 (25) | | |- |Transcendental |1792-1821 (30) | | |- |Gilded |1822-1842 (21) | | |- |Progressive |1843-1859 (17) | | |- |Missionary |1860-1882 (23) |明治一桁世代 (Meiji Hitoketa Sedai) 1868-1877 (10) | |- |Lost |1883-1900 (18) |明治二桁世代 (Meiji Futaketa Sedai) 1878-1911 (34) | |- |G.I. |?-1924 |?-1927 |1901-1924 (24) |大正世代 (Taisho Sedai) 1912-1925 (13) | |- |Silent |1928-1945 (18) |1928-1945 (18) |1925-1942 (18) |昭和一桁世代 (Showa Hitoketa Sedai) 1926-1935 (10) 焼け跡世代 (Yakeato Sedai) 1935-1946 (12) |1924-1943 (20) |- |Baby Boom |1946-1963 (18) |1946-1963 (18) |1943-1960 (18) |団塊世代 (Dankai "Boomer" Sedai) 1947-1950 (4) - cusp しらけ世代 (Shirake Sedai) 1951-1963 (13) |1944-1963 (20) |- |Generation X |1964-1979 (16) |1964-1981 (18) |1961-1981 (21) |バブル世代 (Baburu "Bubble" Sedai) 1964-1970 (7) - cusp 氷河期世代* (Hyougakki "Ice Age" Sedai) 1971-1981 (11) |1964-1983 (20) |- |Millennial |1980-1994 (15) |1982-1996 (15) |1982-2005 (24) |プレッシャー世代 (Puresshaa "Pressure" Sedai) 1982-1986 (5) - cusp ゆとり世代 (Yutori Sedai) 1987-1996 (10) |1984-2003 (20) |- |Generation Z |1995-2009 (15) |1997-2011 (15) |N/A |脱ゆとり・さとり世代 (Datsu Yutori / Satori Sedai) 1997-2005 (9) - cusp コロナ世代** (Korona "COVID" Sedai) 2001-2014 (14) |N/A |- |Generation Alpha |2010-2024 (15) |2012-? |2006-2029 (24) |TBD |2004-2023 (20) |- |Generation Beta |2025-2039 (15) |TBD |2030-? |TBD |TBD |} <nowiki>*</nowiki> = This can further be divided up into 団塊ジュニア世代 (Dankai Jr. "Boomer Jr." Sedai) (early 1970s) and the rest ポスト団塊ジュニア世代 (Post Dankai Jr. Sedai) (late 1970s-1981) <nowiki>**</nowiki> = (As of 2024) it is generally accepted as someone who was 5 (turning 6) to 19 years old in 2020 (start of COVID-19 pandemic), which likely affected their school years (K-12 and university). According to a 2022 survey from Japanese high school students, they considered themselves as コロナ世代. (However, it won't be confirmed until c. 2032 when all of them are 18 or older to see if this name stays). In the context of working, however, it can be defined as 1998-2006 (age 18-26 in 2024). This is because during the COVID pandemic (2020-2024), they became adults and were in university during part or all of this time period. There is also a chance that this could be the last Japanese traditional generation name because Japanese people are beginning to use the English generation names (e.g., Z世代・α世代). {| class="wikitable" ! rowspan="2" |Birth year range ! colspan="5" |English Generation !Japanese Generation |- !McCrindle !Pew !Strauss-Howe ! colspan="2" |Summary ! |- |1433-1460 | rowspan="23" |N/A | rowspan="25" |N/A |Arthurian | colspan="2" |Arthurian | rowspan="18" |N/A |- |1461-1482 |Humanist | colspan="2" |Humanist |- |1483-1511 |Reformation | colspan="2" |Reformation |- |1512-1540 |Reprisal | colspan="2" |Reprisal |- |1541-1565 |Elizabethan | colspan="2" |Elizabethan |- |1566-1587 |Parliamentary | colspan="2" |Parliamentary |- |1588-1617 |Puritan | colspan="2" |Puritan |- |1618-1647 |Cavalier | colspan="2" |Cavalier |- |1648-1673 |Glorious | colspan="2" |Glorious |- |1674-1700 |Enlightenment | colspan="2" |Enlightenment |- |1701-1723 |Awakening | colspan="2" |Awakening |- |1724-1741 |Liberty | colspan="2" |Liberty |- |1742-1766 |Republican | colspan="2" |Republican |- |1767-1791 |Compromise | colspan="2" |Compromise |- |1792-1821 |Transcendental | colspan="2" |Transcendental |- |1822-1842 |Gilded | colspan="2" |Gilded |- |1843-1859 |Progressive | colspan="2" |Progressive |- |1860-1867 | rowspan="3" |Missionary | colspan="2" rowspan="3" |Missionary |- |1868-1877 |明治一桁世代 (Meiji Hitoketa Sedai) |- |1878-1882 | rowspan="3" |明治二桁世代 (Meiji Futaketa Sedai) |- |1883-1900 |Lost | colspan="2" |Lost |- |1901-1911 | rowspan="2" |G.I. | colspan="2" rowspan="2" |G.I |- |1912-1924 | rowspan="2" |大正世代 (Taisho Sedai) |- |1925 | rowspan="6" |Builder | rowspan="5" |Silent | rowspan="2" |G.I ! rowspan="2" |Silent |- |1926-1927 | rowspan="2" |昭和一桁世代 (Showa Hitoketa Sedai) |- |1928-1934 | rowspan="4" |Silent | colspan="2" rowspan="3" |Silent |- |1935 |昭和一桁世代 (Showa Hitoketa Sedai) / 焼け跡世代 (Yakeato Sedai) |- |1936-1942 | rowspan="3" |焼け跡世代 (Yakeato Sedai) |- |1943-1945 | rowspan="4" |Baby Boom !Silent |Baby Boom |- |1946 | rowspan="4" |Baby Boom | rowspan="4" |Baby Boom | colspan="2" rowspan="3" |Baby Boom |- |1947-1950 |団塊世代 (Dankai "Boomer" Sedai) |- |1951-1960 | rowspan="2" |しらけ世代 (Shirake Sedai) |- |1961-1963 | rowspan="4" |Generation X !Baby Boom |Generation X |- |1964-1970 | rowspan="2" |Generation X | rowspan="3" |Generation X | colspan="2" rowspan="2" |Generation X |バブル世代 (Baburu "Bubble" Sedai) |- |1971-1979 | rowspan="2" |氷河期世代* (Hyougakki "Ice Age" Sedai) |- |1980-1981 | rowspan="3" |Generation Y !Generation X |Millennial |- |1982-1986 | rowspan="3" |Millennial | rowspan="4" |Millennial | colspan="2" rowspan="2" |Millennial |プレッシャー世代 (Puresshaa "Pressure" Sedai) |- |1987-1994 | rowspan="2" |ゆとり世代 (Yutori Sedai) |- |1995-1996 | rowspan="3" |Generation Z !Millennial |Generation Z |- |1997-2005 | rowspan="3" |Generation Z |Millennial !Generation Z |脱ゆとり・さとり世代 (Datsu Yutori / Satori Sedai) |- |2006-2009 | rowspan="4" |Homeland !Generation Z | | |- |2010-2011 | rowspan="2" |Generation Alpha |Generation Z !Generation Alpha | |- |2012-2024 | rowspan="3" |TBD | colspan="2" |Generation Alpha | |- |2025-2029 | rowspan="2" |Generation Beta | colspan="2" rowspan="2" |TBD | |- |2030-2039 |TBD | |} {| class="wikitable" !Generation !Strictest !Probable !Broadest |- |Arthurian |1433-1460 (28) |1433-1460 (28) |1433-1460 (28) |- |Humanist |1461-1482 (22) |1461-1482 (22) |1461-1482 (22) |- |Reformation |1483-1511 (29) |1483-1511 (29) |1483-1511 (29) |- |Reprisal |1512-1540 (29) |1512-1540 (29) |1512-1540 (29) |- |Elizabethan |1541-1565 (25) |1541-1565 (25) |1541-1565 (25) |- |Parliamentary |1566-1587 (22) |1566-1587 (22) |1566-1587 (22) |- |Puritan |1588-1617 (30) |1588-1617 (30) |1588-1617 (30) |- |Cavalier |1618-1647 (30) |1618-1647 (30) |1618-1647 (30) |- |Glorious |1648-1673 (26) |1648-1673 (26) |1648-1673 (26) |- |Enlightenment |1674-1700 (27) |1674-1700 (27) |1674-1700 (27) |- |Awakening |1701-1723 (23) |1701-1723 (23) |1701-1723 (23) |- |Liberty |1724-1741 (18) |1724-1741 (18) |1724-1741 (18) |- |Republican |1742-1766 (25) |1742-1766 (25) |1742-1766 (25) |- |Compromise |1767-1791 (25) |1767-1791 (25) |1767-1791 (25) |- |Transcendental |1792-1821 (30) |1792-1821 (30) |1792-1821 (30) |- |Gilded |1822-1842 (21) |1822-1842 (21) |1822-1842 (21) |- |Progressive |1843-1859 (17) |1843-1859 (17) |1843-1859 (17) |- |Missionary |1860-1882 (23) |1860-1882 (23) |1860-1882 (23) |- |Lost |1883-1900 (18) |1883-1900 (18) |1883-1900 (18) |- |G.I. |1901-1924 (24) |1901-1924 (24) |1901-1927 (27) |- |Silent |1925-1945 (21) |1925-1945 (21) |1928-1945 (18) |- |Baby Boom |1946-1963 (18) |1946-1963 (18) |1946-1963 (18) |- |Generation X |1964-1979 (16) |1964-1979 (16) |1964-1981 (18) |- |Millennial |1980-1994 (15) |1980-1995 (16) |1982-1996 (15) |- |Generation Z |1995-2009 (15) |1996-2011 (16) |1997-2011 (15) |- |Generation Alpha |2010-2024 (15) |2012-2024 (13) |2012-2024 (13) |- |Generation Beta |2025-2039 (15) |2025-? |2025-? |} == Notes == [a] Mccrindle's 'Builders' align best with other models' Silent Generation [b] Mccrindle's 'Generation Y' aligns best with other models' Millennial Generation [c] Whilst not explicit, any direct successor of Generation Z proposed by Pew Research Center must align best with other Mccrindle's 'Gen Alpha' and S&H's 'Homeland Generation' [d] S&H's 'Homeland Generation' aligns best with Mccrindle's Generation Alpha == References == https://mccrindle.com.au/article/topic/demographics/the-generations-defined/ https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2019/01/17/where-millennials-end-and-generation-z-begins/ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strauss%E2%80%93Howe_generational_theory https://www.genwhy.com/_files/ugd/5ccc25_695074dbc5724d76ae103635b5d9ab5d.pdf ocui25qpjv4ljeohqqyyirb2w9t644k 2835698 2835696 2026-10-03T16:07:09Z ~2026-53155-18 3112031 /* */ 2835698 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Dynamic List}} {| class="wikitable" !Generation !Mccrindle !Pew !Strauss-Howe !Japanese Traditional Generations !GenWHY |- |Arthurian | rowspan="19" |N/A | rowspan="19" |N/A |1433-1460 (28) | | |- |Humanist |1461-1482 (22) | | |- |Reformation |1483-1511 (29) | | |- |Reprisal |1512-1540 (29) | | |- |Elizabethan |1541-1565 (25) | | |- |Parliamentary |1566-1587 (22) | | |- |Puritan |1588-1617 (30) | | |- |Cavalier |1618-1647 (30) | | |- |Glorious |1648-1673 (26) | | |- |Enlightenment |1674-1700 (27) | | |- |Awakening |1701-1723 (23) | | |- |Liberty |1724-1741 (18) | | |- |Republican |1742-1766 (25) | | |- |Compromise |1767-1791 (25) | | |- |Transcendental |1792-1821 (30) | | |- |Gilded |1822-1842 (21) | | |- |Progressive |1843-1859 (17) | | |- |Missionary |1860-1882 (23) |明治一桁世代 (Meiji Hitoketa Sedai) 1868-1877 (10) | |- |Lost |1883-1900 (18) |明治二桁世代 (Meiji Futaketa Sedai) 1878-1911 (34) | |- |G.I. |?-1924 |?-1927 |1901-1924 (24) |大正世代 (Taisho Sedai) 1912-1925 (13) | |- |Silent |1925-1945 (21) |1928-1945 (18) |1925-1942 (18) |昭和一桁世代 (Showa Hitoketa Sedai) 1926-1935 (10) 焼け跡世代 (Yakeato Sedai) 1935-1946 (12) |1924-1943 (20) |- |Baby Boom |1946-1963 (18) |1946-1963 (18) |1943-1960 (18) |団塊世代 (Dankai "Boomer" Sedai) 1947-1950 (4) - cusp しらけ世代 (Shirake Sedai) 1951-1963 (13) |1944-1963 (20) |- |Generation X |1964-1979 (16) |1964-1981 (18) |1961-1981 (21) |バブル世代 (Baburu "Bubble" Sedai) 1964-1970 (7) - cusp 氷河期世代* (Hyougakki "Ice Age" Sedai) 1971-1981 (11) |1964-1983 (20) |- |Millennial |1980-1994 (15) |1982-1996 (15) |1982-2005 (24) |プレッシャー世代 (Puresshaa "Pressure" Sedai) 1982-1986 (5) - cusp ゆとり世代 (Yutori Sedai) 1987-1996 (10) |1984-2003 (20) |- |Generation Z |1995-2009 (15) |1997-2011 (15) |N/A |脱ゆとり・さとり世代 (Datsu Yutori / Satori Sedai) 1997-2005 (9) - cusp コロナ世代** (Korona "COVID" Sedai) 2001-2014 (14) |N/A |- |Generation Alpha |2010-2024 (15) |2012-? |2006-2029 (24) |TBD |2004-2023 (20) |- |Generation Beta |2025-2039 (15) |TBD |2030-? |TBD |TBD |} <nowiki>*</nowiki> = This can further be divided up into 団塊ジュニア世代 (Dankai Jr. "Boomer Jr." Sedai) (early 1970s) and the rest ポスト団塊ジュニア世代 (Post Dankai Jr. Sedai) (late 1970s-1981) <nowiki>**</nowiki> = (As of 2024) it is generally accepted as someone who was 5 (turning 6) to 19 years old in 2020 (start of COVID-19 pandemic), which likely affected their school years (K-12 and university). According to a 2022 survey from Japanese high school students, they considered themselves as コロナ世代. (However, it won't be confirmed until c. 2032 when all of them are 18 or older to see if this name stays). In the context of working, however, it can be defined as 1998-2006 (age 18-26 in 2024). This is because during the COVID pandemic (2020-2024), they became adults and were in university during part or all of this time period. There is also a chance that this could be the last Japanese traditional generation name because Japanese people are beginning to use the English generation names (e.g., Z世代・α世代). {| class="wikitable" ! rowspan="2" |Birth year range ! colspan="5" |English Generation !Japanese Generation |- !McCrindle !Pew !Strauss-Howe ! colspan="2" |Summary ! |- |1433-1460 | rowspan="23" |N/A | rowspan="25" |N/A |Arthurian | colspan="2" |Arthurian | rowspan="18" |N/A |- |1461-1482 |Humanist | colspan="2" |Humanist |- |1483-1511 |Reformation | colspan="2" |Reformation |- |1512-1540 |Reprisal | colspan="2" |Reprisal |- |1541-1565 |Elizabethan | colspan="2" |Elizabethan |- |1566-1587 |Parliamentary | colspan="2" |Parliamentary |- |1588-1617 |Puritan | colspan="2" |Puritan |- |1618-1647 |Cavalier | colspan="2" |Cavalier |- |1648-1673 |Glorious | colspan="2" |Glorious |- |1674-1700 |Enlightenment | colspan="2" |Enlightenment |- |1701-1723 |Awakening | colspan="2" |Awakening |- |1724-1741 |Liberty | colspan="2" |Liberty |- |1742-1766 |Republican | colspan="2" |Republican |- |1767-1791 |Compromise | colspan="2" |Compromise |- |1792-1821 |Transcendental | colspan="2" |Transcendental |- |1822-1842 |Gilded | colspan="2" |Gilded |- |1843-1859 |Progressive | colspan="2" |Progressive |- |1860-1867 | rowspan="3" |Missionary | colspan="2" rowspan="3" |Missionary |- |1868-1877 |明治一桁世代 (Meiji Hitoketa Sedai) |- |1878-1882 | rowspan="3" |明治二桁世代 (Meiji Futaketa Sedai) |- |1883-1900 |Lost | colspan="2" |Lost |- |1901-1911 | rowspan="2" |G.I. | colspan="2" rowspan="2" |G.I |- |1912-1924 | rowspan="2" |大正世代 (Taisho Sedai) |- |1925 | rowspan="6" |Builder | rowspan="5" |Silent | rowspan="2" |G.I ! rowspan="2" |Silent |- |1926-1927 | rowspan="2" |昭和一桁世代 (Showa Hitoketa Sedai) |- |1928-1934 | rowspan="4" |Silent | colspan="2" rowspan="3" |Silent |- |1935 |昭和一桁世代 (Showa Hitoketa Sedai) / 焼け跡世代 (Yakeato Sedai) |- |1936-1942 | rowspan="3" |焼け跡世代 (Yakeato Sedai) |- |1943-1945 | rowspan="4" |Baby Boom !Silent |Baby Boom |- |1946 | rowspan="4" |Baby Boom | rowspan="4" |Baby Boom | colspan="2" rowspan="3" |Baby Boom |- |1947-1950 |団塊世代 (Dankai "Boomer" Sedai) |- |1951-1960 | rowspan="2" |しらけ世代 (Shirake Sedai) |- |1961-1963 | rowspan="4" |Generation X !Baby Boom |Generation X |- |1964-1970 | rowspan="2" |Generation X | rowspan="3" |Generation X | colspan="2" rowspan="2" |Generation X |バブル世代 (Baburu "Bubble" Sedai) |- |1971-1979 | rowspan="2" |氷河期世代* (Hyougakki "Ice Age" Sedai) |- |1980-1981 | rowspan="3" |Generation Y !Generation X |Millennial |- |1982-1986 | rowspan="3" |Millennial | rowspan="4" |Millennial | colspan="2" rowspan="2" |Millennial |プレッシャー世代 (Puresshaa "Pressure" Sedai) |- |1987-1994 | rowspan="2" |ゆとり世代 (Yutori Sedai) |- |1995-1996 | rowspan="3" |Generation Z !Millennial |Generation Z |- |1997-2005 | rowspan="3" |Generation Z |Millennial !Generation Z |脱ゆとり・さとり世代 (Datsu Yutori / Satori Sedai) |- |2006-2009 | rowspan="4" |Homeland !Generation Z | | |- |2010-2011 | rowspan="2" |Generation Alpha |Generation Z !Generation Alpha | |- |2012-2024 | rowspan="3" |TBD | colspan="2" |Generation Alpha | |- |2025-2029 | rowspan="2" |Generation Beta | colspan="2" rowspan="2" |TBD | |- |2030-2039 |TBD | |} {| class="wikitable" !Generation !Strictest !Probable !Broadest |- |Arthurian |1433-1460 (28) |1433-1460 (28) |1433-1460 (28) |- |Humanist |1461-1482 (22) |1461-1482 (22) |1461-1482 (22) |- |Reformation |1483-1511 (29) |1483-1511 (29) |1483-1511 (29) |- |Reprisal |1512-1540 (29) |1512-1540 (29) |1512-1540 (29) |- |Elizabethan |1541-1565 (25) |1541-1565 (25) |1541-1565 (25) |- |Parliamentary |1566-1587 (22) |1566-1587 (22) |1566-1587 (22) |- |Puritan |1588-1617 (30) |1588-1617 (30) |1588-1617 (30) |- |Cavalier |1618-1647 (30) |1618-1647 (30) |1618-1647 (30) |- |Glorious |1648-1673 (26) |1648-1673 (26) |1648-1673 (26) |- |Enlightenment |1674-1700 (27) |1674-1700 (27) |1674-1700 (27) |- |Awakening |1701-1723 (23) |1701-1723 (23) |1701-1723 (23) |- |Liberty |1724-1741 (18) |1724-1741 (18) |1724-1741 (18) |- |Republican |1742-1766 (25) |1742-1766 (25) |1742-1766 (25) |- |Compromise |1767-1791 (25) |1767-1791 (25) |1767-1791 (25) |- |Transcendental |1792-1821 (30) |1792-1821 (30) |1792-1821 (30) |- |Gilded |1822-1842 (21) |1822-1842 (21) |1822-1842 (21) |- |Progressive |1843-1859 (17) |1843-1859 (17) |1843-1859 (17) |- |Missionary |1860-1882 (23) |1860-1882 (23) |1860-1882 (23) |- |Lost |1883-1900 (18) |1883-1900 (18) |1883-1900 (18) |- |G.I. |1901-1924 (24) |1901-1924 (24) |1901-1927 (27) |- |Silent |1925-1945 (21) |1925-1945 (21) |1928-1945 (18) |- |Baby Boom |1946-1963 (18) |1946-1963 (18) |1946-1963 (18) |- |Generation X |1964-1979 (16) |1964-1979 (16) |1964-1981 (18) |- |Millennial |1980-1994 (15) |1980-1995 (16) |1982-1996 (15) |- |Generation Z |1995-2009 (15) |1996-2011 (16) |1997-2011 (15) |- |Generation Alpha |2010-2024 (15) |2012-2024 (13) |2012-2024 (13) |- |Generation Beta |2025-2039 (15) |2025-? |2025-? |} == Notes == [a] Mccrindle's 'Builders' align best with other models' Silent Generation [b] Mccrindle's 'Generation Y' aligns best with other models' Millennial Generation [c] Whilst not explicit, any direct successor of Generation Z proposed by Pew Research Center must align best with other Mccrindle's 'Gen Alpha' and S&H's 'Homeland Generation' [d] S&H's 'Homeland Generation' aligns best with Mccrindle's Generation Alpha == References == https://mccrindle.com.au/article/topic/demographics/the-generations-defined/ https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2019/01/17/where-millennials-end-and-generation-z-begins/ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strauss%E2%80%93Howe_generational_theory https://www.genwhy.com/_files/ugd/5ccc25_695074dbc5724d76ae103635b5d9ab5d.pdf c2cbsj7m2qlcrmc2u4tfj8q37jhuo1t 2835701 2835698 2026-10-03T16:27:06Z ~2026-53155-18 3112031 /* */ 2835701 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Dynamic List}} {| class="wikitable" !Generation !Mccrindle !Pew !Strauss-Howe !Japanese Traditional Generations !GenWHY |- |Arthurian | rowspan="19" |N/A | rowspan="19" |N/A |1433-1460 (28) | | |- |Humanist |1461-1482 (22) | | |- |Reformation |1483-1511 (29) | | |- |Reprisal |1512-1540 (29) | | |- |Elizabethan |1541-1565 (25) | | |- |Parliamentary |1566-1587 (22) | | |- |Puritan |1588-1617 (30) | | |- |Cavalier |1618-1647 (30) | | |- |Glorious |1648-1673 (26) | | |- |Enlightenment |1674-1700 (27) | | |- |Awakening |1701-1723 (23) | | |- |Liberty |1724-1741 (18) | | |- |Republican |1742-1766 (25) | | |- |Compromise |1767-1791 (25) | | |- |Transcendental |1792-1821 (30) | | |- |Gilded |1822-1842 (21) | | |- |Progressive |1843-1859 (17) | | |- |Missionary |1860-1882 (23) |明治一桁世代 (Meiji Hitoketa Sedai) 1868-1877 (10) | |- |Lost |1883-1900 (18) |明治二桁世代 (Meiji Futaketa Sedai) 1878-1911 (34) | |- |G.I. |?-1924 |?-1927 |1901-1924 (24) |大正世代 (Taisho Sedai) 1912-1925 (13) | |- |Silent |1925-1945 (21) |1928-1945 (18) |1925-1942 (18) |昭和一桁世代 (Showa Hitoketa Sedai) 1926-1935 (10) 焼け跡世代 (Yakeato Sedai) 1935-1946 (12) |1924-1943 (20) |- |Baby Boom |1946-1963 (18) |1946-1963 (18) |1943-1960 (18) |団塊世代 (Dankai "Boomer" Sedai) 1947-1950 (4) - cusp しらけ世代 (Shirake Sedai) 1951-1963 (13) |1944-1963 (20) |- |Generation X |1964-1979 (16) |1964-1981 (18) |1961-1981 (21) |バブル世代 (Baburu "Bubble" Sedai) 1964-1970 (7) - cusp 氷河期世代* (Hyougakki "Ice Age" Sedai) 1971-1981 (11) |1964-1983 (20) |- |Millennial |1980-1994 (15) |1982-1996 (15) |1982-2005 (24) |プレッシャー世代 (Puresshaa "Pressure" Sedai) 1982-1986 (5) - cusp ゆとり世代 (Yutori Sedai) 1987-1996 (10) |1984-2003 (20) |- |Generation Z |1995-2009 (15) |1997-2011 (15) |N/A |脱ゆとり・さとり世代 (Datsu Yutori / Satori Sedai) 1997-2005 (9) - cusp コロナ世代** (Korona "COVID" Sedai) 2001-2014 (14) |N/A |- |Generation Alpha |2010-2024 (15) |2012-? |2006-2029 (24) |TBD |2004-2023 (20) |- |Generation Beta |2025-2039 (15) |TBD |2030-? |TBD |TBD |} <nowiki>*</nowiki> = This can further be divided up into 団塊ジュニア世代 (Dankai Jr. "Boomer Jr." Sedai) (early 1970s) and the rest ポスト団塊ジュニア世代 (Post Dankai Jr. Sedai) (late 1970s-1981) <nowiki>**</nowiki> = (As of 2024) it is generally accepted as someone who was 5 (turning 6) to 19 years old in 2020 (start of COVID-19 pandemic), which likely affected their school years (K-12 and university). According to a 2022 survey from Japanese high school students, they considered themselves as コロナ世代. (However, it won't be confirmed until c. 2032 when all of them are 18 or older to see if this name stays). In the context of working, however, it can be defined as 1998-2006 (age 18-26 in 2024). This is because during the COVID pandemic (2020-2024), they became adults and were in university during part or all of this time period. There is also a chance that this could be the last Japanese traditional generation name because Japanese people are beginning to use the English generation names (e.g., Z世代・α世代). {| class="wikitable" ! rowspan="2" |Birth year range ! colspan="5" |English Generation !Japanese Generation |- !McCrindle !Pew !Strauss-Howe ! colspan="2" |Summary ! |- |1433-1460 | rowspan="23" |N/A | rowspan="25" |N/A |Arthurian | colspan="2" |Arthurian | rowspan="18" |N/A |- |1461-1482 |Humanist | colspan="2" |Humanist |- |1483-1511 |Reformation | colspan="2" |Reformation |- |1512-1540 |Reprisal | colspan="2" |Reprisal |- |1541-1565 |Elizabethan | colspan="2" |Elizabethan |- |1566-1587 |Parliamentary | colspan="2" |Parliamentary |- |1588-1617 |Puritan | colspan="2" |Puritan |- |1618-1647 |Cavalier | colspan="2" |Cavalier |- |1648-1673 |Glorious | colspan="2" |Glorious |- |1674-1700 |Enlightenment | colspan="2" |Enlightenment |- |1701-1723 |Awakening | colspan="2" |Awakening |- |1724-1741 |Liberty | colspan="2" |Liberty |- |1742-1766 |Republican | colspan="2" |Republican |- |1767-1791 |Compromise | colspan="2" |Compromise |- |1792-1821 |Transcendental | colspan="2" |Transcendental |- |1822-1842 |Gilded | colspan="2" |Gilded |- |1843-1859 |Progressive | colspan="2" |Progressive |- |1860-1867 | rowspan="3" |Missionary | colspan="2" rowspan="3" |Missionary |- |1868-1877 |明治一桁世代 (Meiji Hitoketa Sedai) |- |1878-1882 | rowspan="3" |明治二桁世代 (Meiji Futaketa Sedai) |- |1883-1900 |Lost | colspan="2" |Lost |- |1901-1911 | rowspan="2" |G.I. | colspan="2" rowspan="2" |G.I |- |1912-1924 | rowspan="2" |大正世代 (Taisho Sedai) |- |1925 | rowspan="6" |Builder | rowspan="5" |Silent | rowspan="2" |G.I ! rowspan="2" |Silent |- |1926-1927 | rowspan="2" |昭和一桁世代 (Showa Hitoketa Sedai) |- |1928-1934 | rowspan="4" |Silent | colspan="2" rowspan="3" |Silent |- |1935 |昭和一桁世代 (Showa Hitoketa Sedai) / 焼け跡世代 (Yakeato Sedai) |- |1936-1942 | rowspan="3" |焼け跡世代 (Yakeato Sedai) |- |1943-1945 | rowspan="4" |Baby Boom !Silent |Baby Boom |- |1946 | rowspan="4" |Baby Boom | rowspan="4" |Baby Boom | colspan="2" rowspan="3" |Baby Boom |- |1947-1950 |団塊世代 (Dankai "Boomer" Sedai) |- |1951-1960 | rowspan="2" |しらけ世代 (Shirake Sedai) |- |1961-1963 | rowspan="4" |Generation X !Baby Boom |Generation X |- |1964-1970 | rowspan="2" |Generation X | rowspan="3" |Generation X | colspan="2" rowspan="2" |Generation X |バブル世代 (Baburu "Bubble" Sedai) |- |1971-1979 | rowspan="2" |氷河期世代* (Hyougakki "Ice Age" Sedai) |- |1980-1981 | rowspan="3" |Generation Y !Generation X |Millennial |- |1982-1986 | rowspan="3" |Millennial | rowspan="4" |Millennial | colspan="2" rowspan="2" |Millennial |プレッシャー世代 (Puresshaa "Pressure" Sedai) |- |1987-1994 | rowspan="2" |ゆとり世代 (Yutori Sedai) |- |1995-1996 | rowspan="3" |Generation Z !Millennial |Generation Z |- |1997-2005 | rowspan="3" |Generation Z |Millennial !Generation Z |脱ゆとり・さとり世代 (Datsu Yutori / Satori Sedai) |- |2006-2009 | rowspan="4" |Homeland !Generation Z | | |- |2010-2011 | rowspan="2" |Generation Alpha |Generation Z !Generation Alpha | |- |2012-2024 | rowspan="3" |TBD | colspan="2" |Generation Alpha | |- |2025-2029 | rowspan="2" |Generation Beta | colspan="2" rowspan="2" |TBD | |- |2030-2039 |TBD | |} {| class="wikitable" !Generation !Strictest !Probable !Broadest |- |Arthurian |1433-1460 (28) |1433-1460 (28) |1433-1460 (28) |- |Humanist |1461-1482 (22) |1461-1482 (22) |1461-1482 (22) |- |Reformation |1483-1511 (29) |1483-1511 (29) |1483-1511 (29) |- |Reprisal |1512-1540 (29) |1512-1540 (29) |1512-1540 (29) |- |Elizabethan |1541-1565 (25) |1541-1565 (25) |1541-1565 (25) |- |Parliamentary |1566-1587 (22) |1566-1587 (22) |1566-1587 (22) |- |Puritan |1588-1617 (30) |1588-1617 (30) |1588-1617 (30) |- |Cavalier |1618-1647 (30) |1618-1647 (30) |1618-1647 (30) |- |Glorious |1648-1673 (26) |1648-1673 (26) |1648-1673 (26) |- |Enlightenment |1674-1700 (27) |1674-1700 (27) |1674-1700 (27) |- |Awakening |1701-1723 (23) |1701-1723 (23) |1701-1723 (23) |- |Liberty |1724-1741 (18) |1724-1741 (18) |1724-1741 (18) |- |Republican |1742-1766 (25) |1742-1766 (25) |1742-1766 (25) |- |Compromise |1767-1791 (25) |1767-1791 (25) |1767-1791 (25) |- |Transcendental |1792-1821 (30) |1792-1821 (30) |1792-1821 (30) |- |Gilded |1822-1842 (21) |1822-1842 (21) |1822-1842 (21) |- |Progressive |1843-1859 (17) |1843-1859 (17) |1843-1859 (17) |- |Missionary |1860-1882 (23) |1860-1882 (23) |1860-1882 (23) |- |Lost |1883-1900 (18) |1883-1900 (18) |1883-1900 (18) |- |G.I. |1901-1924 (24) |1901-1924 (24) |1901-1927 (27) |- |Silent |1925-1945 (21) |1925-1945 (21) |1928-1945 (18) |- |Baby Boom |1946-1963 (18) |1946-1963 (18) |1946-1963 (18) |- |Generation X |1964-1979 (16) |1964-1979 (16) |1964-1981 (18) |- |Millennial |1980-1994 (15) |1980-1995 (16) |1982-1996 (15) |- |Generation Z |1995-2009 (15) |1996-2011 (16) |1997-2011 (15) |- |Generation Alpha |2010-2024 (15) |2012-2024 (13) |2012-2024 (13) |- |Generation Beta |2025-2039 (15) |2025-2039 (15) |2025-2039 (15) |} == Notes == [a] Mccrindle's 'Builders' align best with other models' Silent Generation [b] Mccrindle's 'Generation Y' aligns best with other models' Millennial Generation [c] Whilst not explicit, any direct successor of Generation Z proposed by Pew Research Center must align best with other Mccrindle's 'Gen Alpha' and S&H's 'Homeland Generation' [d] S&H's 'Homeland Generation' aligns best with Mccrindle's Generation Alpha == References == https://mccrindle.com.au/article/topic/demographics/the-generations-defined/ https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2019/01/17/where-millennials-end-and-generation-z-begins/ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strauss%E2%80%93Howe_generational_theory https://www.genwhy.com/_files/ugd/5ccc25_695074dbc5724d76ae103635b5d9ab5d.pdf bycji69z41xg4cbo8bd2zzrg1jawu25 2835705 2835701 2026-10-03T18:48:04Z ~2026-53165-90 3112060 2835705 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Dynamic List}} {| class="wikitable" !Generation !Mccrindle !Pew !Strauss-Howe !Japanese Traditional Generations !GenWHY |- |B**** mother f***** generation | rowspan="19" |N/A | rowspan="19" |N/A |1433-1460 (28) | | |- Humanity the worst generation |1461-1482 (22) | | |- |Reformation |1483-1511 (29) | | |- |Reprisal |1512-1540 (29) | | |- |Elizabeth nah rather internet is the worst |1541-1565 (25) | | |- |More like you got themjdjdkdmd da |1566-1587 (22) | | |- |Puritan |158 | | |- |Cava |1618-4 (23000000000000000) | | |- |Unglorious |1648-1673 (26) | | |- |Enlig48382 |1674-12248484949392928934941(493) | | |- | |1701-1723 (23) | | |- |Liberty is offline |1724-1741 (18) | | |- |Republican joined the chat |1742-1766 (25) | |1843-1859 (17) | | |- |Missionary |1860-1882 (23) |明治一桁世代 (Meiji Hitoketa Sedai) 1868-1877 (10) | |- |Lost |1883-1900 (18) |明治二桁世代 (Meiji Futaketa Sedai) 1878-1911 (34) | |- |G.I. |?-1924 |?-1927 |1901-1924 (24) |大正世代 (Taisho Sedai) 1912-1925 (13) | |- |Silent |1925-1945 (21) |1928-1945 (18) |1925-1942 (18) |昭和一桁世代 (Showa Hitoketa Sedai) 1926-1935 (10) 焼け跡世代 (Yakeato Sedai) 1935-1946 (12) |1924-1943 (20) |- |Baby Boom |1946-1963 (18) |1946-1963 (18) |1943-1960 (18) |団塊世代 (Dankai "Boomer" Sedai) 1947-1950 (4) - cusp しらけ世代 (Shirake Sedai) 1951-1963 (13) |1944-1963 (20) |- |Generation X |1964-1979 (16) |1964-1981 (18) |1961-1981 (21) |バブル世代 (Baburu "Bubble" Sedai) 1964-1970 (7) - cusp 氷河期世代* (Hyougakki "Ice Age" Sedai) 1971-1981 (11) |1964-1983 (20) |- |Millennial |1980-1994 (15) |1982-1996 (15) |1982-2005 (24) |プレッシャー世代 (Puresshaa "Pressure" Sedai) 1982-1986 (5) - cusp ゆとり世代 (Yutori Sedai) 1987-1996 (10) |1984-2003 (20) |- |Generation z |1995-2009 (15) |1997-2011 (15) |N/A |脱ゆとり・さとり世代 (Datsu Yutori / Satori Sedai) 1997-2005 (9) - cusp コロナ世代** (Korona "COVID" Sedai) 2001-2014 (14) |N/A |- |Generation brainrot iPad skippity toilet |2010-2024 (15) |2012-? |2006-2029 (24) |TBD |2004-2023 (20) |- |Generation Superior |2025-2039 (15) |TBD |2030-? |TBD |TBD |} <nowiki>*</nowiki> = This can further be divided up into 団塊ジュニア世代 (Dankai Jr. "Boomer Jr." Sedai) (early 1970s) and the rest ポスト団塊ジュニア世代 (Post Dankai Jr. Sedai) (late 1970s-1981) <nowiki>**</nowiki> = (As of 2024) it is generally accepted as someone who was 5 (turning 6) to 19 years old in 2020 (start of COVID-19 pandemic), which likely affected their hell (K-12 and university). According to a 2022 survey from American hell students, they considered themselves as コロナ世代. (However, it won't be confirmed until c. 2032 when all of them are 18 or older to see if this name stays). In the context of working, however, it can be defined as cretaceous generation (age 18-26 in 2024). This is because during the consumerism (2020-2024), they became adults and were in university during part or all of this time period. There is also a chance that this could be the last Japanese traditional generation name because Japanese people are beginning to use the English generation memes (e.g., Z世代・α世代). {| class="wikitable" ! rowspan="2" |Birth year range ! colspan="5" |English Generation !Japanese Generation |- !McCrindle !Pew !Strauss-Howe ! colspan="2" |Summary ! |- |1433-1460 | rowspan="23" |N/A | rowspan="25" |N/A |Arthurian | colspan="2" |Arthurian | rowspan="18" |N/A |- |1461-1482 |Humanist | colspan="2" |Humanist |- |1483-1511 |Reformation | colspan="2" |Reformation |- |1512-1540 |Reprisal | colspan="2" |Reprisal |- |1541-1565 |Elizabethan | colspan="2" |Elizabethan |- |1566-1587 |Parliamentary | colspan="2" |Parliamentary |- |1588-1617 |Puritan | colspan="2" |Puritan |- |1618-1647 |Cavalier | colspan="2" |Cavalier |- |1648-1673 |Glorious | colspan="2" |Glorious |- |1674-1700 |Enlightenment | colspan="2" |Enlightenment |- |1701-1723 |Awakening | colspan="2" |Awakening |- |1724-1741 |Liberty | colspan="2" |Liberty |- |1742-1766 |Republican | colspan="2" |Republican |- |1767-1791 |Compromise | colspan="2" |Compromise |- |1792-1821 |Transcendental | colspan="2" |Transcendental |- |1822-1842 |Gilded | colspan="2" |Gilded |- |1843-1859 |Progressive | colspan="2" |Progressive |- |1860-1867 | rowspan="3" |Missionary | colspan="2" rowspan="3" |Missionary |- |1868-1877 |明治一桁世代 (Meiji Hitoketa Sedai) |- |1878-1882 | rowspan="3" |明治二桁世代 (Meiji Futaketa Sedai) |- |1883-1900 |Lost | colspan="2" |Lost |- |1901-1911 | rowspan="2" |G.I. | colspan="2" rowspan="2" |G.I |- |1912-1924 | rowspan="2" |大正世代 (Taisho Sedai) |- |1925 | rowspan="6" |Builder | rowspan="5" |Silent | rowspan="2" |G.I ! rowspan="2" |Silent |- |1926-1927 | rowspan="2" |昭和一桁世代 (Showa Hitoketa Sedai) |- |1928-1934 | rowspan="4" |Silent | colspan="2" rowspan="3" |Silent |- |1935 |昭和一桁世代 (Showa Hitoketa Sedai) / 焼け跡世代 (Yakeato Sedai) |- |1936-1942 | rowspan="3" |焼け跡世代 (Yakeato Sedai) |- |1943-1945 | rowspan="4" |Baby Boom !Silent |Baby Boom |- |1946 | rowspan="4" |Baby Boom | rowspan="4" |Baby Boom | colspan="2" rowspan="3" |Baby Boom |- |1947-1950 |団塊世代 (Dankai "Boomer" Sedai) |- |1951-1960 | rowspan="2" |しらけ世代 (Shirake Sedai) |- |1961-1963 | rowspan="4" |Generation 488392929248848484848483984281128488484848484 !Baby Boom |Generation X |- |1964-1970 | rowspan="2" |Generation X | rowspan="3" |Generation X | colsn="2" ro |- |1971-1979 | rowspan="2" |氷河期世代* (Hyougakki "IidAgedai) |- |1980-1981 | rowspan="3" |Generation Y !Generation X |Millennial |-100 |1982-1986 | rowspan="3" |Millennial | rowspan="4" |Millennial | colspan="2" rowspan="2" |Millennial |プレッシャー世代 (Puresshaa "Pressure" Sedai) |- |1987-1994 | rowspan="2" |ゆとり世代 (Yutori Sedai) |- |1995-1996 | rowspan="3" |Generation Z !Millennial |Generation Z |- |1997-2005 | rowspan="3" |Generation y |Millennial !Generation Z |脱ゆとり・さとり世代 (Datsu Yutori / Satori Sedai) |- |2006-2009 | rowspan="4" |Homeland !Generation Z | | |- |2010-2011 | rowspan="2" |Generation Alpha |Generation Z !Generation Alpha | |- |2012-2024 | rowspan="3" |TBD | colspan="2" |Generation Alpha | |- |2025-2029 | rowspan="2" |Generation Beta | colspan="2" rowspan="2" |TBD | |- |2030-2039 |TBD | |} {| class="wikitable" !Generation !Strictest !Probable !Broadest |- |Arthurian |1433-1460 (28) |1433-1460 (28) |1433-1460 (28) |- |Humanist |1461-1482 (22) |1461-1482 (22) |1461-1482 (22) |- |Reformation |1483-1511 (29) |1483-1511 (29) |1483-1511 (29) |- |Reprisal |1512-1540 (29) |1512-1540 (29) |1512-1540 (29) |- |Elizabethan |1541-1565 (25) |1541-1565 (25) |1541-1565 (25) |- |Parliamentary |1566-1587 (22) |1566-1587 (22) |1566-1587 (22) |- |Puritan |1588-1617 (30) |1588-1617 (30) |1588-1617 (30) |- |Cavalier |1618-1647 (30) |1618-1647 (30) |1618-1647 (30) |- |Glorious |1648-1673 (26) |1648-1673 (26) |1648-1673 (26) |- |Enlightenment |1674-1700 (27) |1674-1700 (27) |1674-1700 (27) |- |Awakening |1701-1723 (23) |1701-1723 (23) |1701-1723 (23) |- |Liberty |1724-1741 (18) |1724-1741 (18) |1724-1741 (18) |- |Republican |1742-1766 (25) |1742-1766 (25) |1742-1766 (25) |- |Compromise |1767-1791 (25) |1767-1791 (25) |1767-1791 (25) |- |Transcendental |1792-1821 (30) |1792-1821 (30) |1792-1821 (30) |- |Gilded |1822-1842 (21) |1822-1842 (21) |1822-1842 (21) |- |Progressive |1843-1859 (17) |1843-1859 (17) |1843-1859 (17) |- |Missionary |1860-1882 (23) |1860-1882 (23) |1860-1882 (23) |- |Lost |1883-1900 (18) |1883-1900 (18) |1883-1900 (18) |- |G.I. |1901-1924 (24) |1901-1924 (24) |1901-1927 (27) |- |Silent |1925-1945 (21) |1925-1945 (21) |1928-1945 (18) |- |Baby Boom |1946-1963 (18) |1946-1963 (18) |1946-1963 (18) |- |Generation X |1964-1979 (16) |1964-1979 (16) |1964-1981 (18) |- |Millennial |1980-1994 (15) |1980-1995 (16) |1982-1996 (15) |- |Generation Z |1995-2009 (15) |1996-2011 (16) |1997-2011 (15) |- |Generation Alpha |2010-2024 (15) |2012-2024 (13) |2012-2024 (13) |- |Generation Beta |2025-2039 (15) |2025-2039 (15) |2025-2039 (15) |} == Notes == [a] Mccrindle's 'Builders' align best with other models' Silent Generation [b] Mccrindle's 'Generation Y' aligns best with other models' Millennial Generation [c] Whilst not explicit, any direct successor of Generation Z proposed by Pew Research Center must align best with other Mccrindle's 'Gen Alpha' and S&H's 'Homeland Generation' [d] S&H's 'Homeland Generation' Mccrindle's Generation Alpha == References == https://mccrindle.com./the-generations-defined/ https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2019/01/17/where-millennials-end-and-generation-z-begins/ htt https://www.genwhy.com/_files/ugd/5ccc25_695074dbc5 s1uovmjfwdrgi244poe0znzb73vlx99 2835706 2835705 2026-10-03T18:48:32Z NDG 3006541 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contribs/~2026-53165-90|~2026-53165-90]] ([[User talk:~2026-53165-90|talk]]) to last version by ~2026-53155-18: reverting vandalism 2835701 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Dynamic List}} {| class="wikitable" !Generation !Mccrindle !Pew !Strauss-Howe !Japanese Traditional Generations !GenWHY |- |Arthurian | rowspan="19" |N/A | rowspan="19" |N/A |1433-1460 (28) | | |- |Humanist |1461-1482 (22) | | |- |Reformation |1483-1511 (29) | | |- |Reprisal |1512-1540 (29) | | |- |Elizabethan |1541-1565 (25) | | |- |Parliamentary |1566-1587 (22) | | |- |Puritan |1588-1617 (30) | | |- |Cavalier |1618-1647 (30) | | |- |Glorious |1648-1673 (26) | | |- |Enlightenment |1674-1700 (27) | | |- |Awakening |1701-1723 (23) | | |- |Liberty |1724-1741 (18) | | |- |Republican |1742-1766 (25) | | |- |Compromise |1767-1791 (25) | | |- |Transcendental |1792-1821 (30) | | |- |Gilded |1822-1842 (21) | | |- |Progressive |1843-1859 (17) | | |- |Missionary |1860-1882 (23) |明治一桁世代 (Meiji Hitoketa Sedai) 1868-1877 (10) | |- |Lost |1883-1900 (18) |明治二桁世代 (Meiji Futaketa Sedai) 1878-1911 (34) | |- |G.I. |?-1924 |?-1927 |1901-1924 (24) |大正世代 (Taisho Sedai) 1912-1925 (13) | |- |Silent |1925-1945 (21) |1928-1945 (18) |1925-1942 (18) |昭和一桁世代 (Showa Hitoketa Sedai) 1926-1935 (10) 焼け跡世代 (Yakeato Sedai) 1935-1946 (12) |1924-1943 (20) |- |Baby Boom |1946-1963 (18) |1946-1963 (18) |1943-1960 (18) |団塊世代 (Dankai "Boomer" Sedai) 1947-1950 (4) - cusp しらけ世代 (Shirake Sedai) 1951-1963 (13) |1944-1963 (20) |- |Generation X |1964-1979 (16) |1964-1981 (18) |1961-1981 (21) |バブル世代 (Baburu "Bubble" Sedai) 1964-1970 (7) - cusp 氷河期世代* (Hyougakki "Ice Age" Sedai) 1971-1981 (11) |1964-1983 (20) |- |Millennial |1980-1994 (15) |1982-1996 (15) |1982-2005 (24) |プレッシャー世代 (Puresshaa "Pressure" Sedai) 1982-1986 (5) - cusp ゆとり世代 (Yutori Sedai) 1987-1996 (10) |1984-2003 (20) |- |Generation Z |1995-2009 (15) |1997-2011 (15) |N/A |脱ゆとり・さとり世代 (Datsu Yutori / Satori Sedai) 1997-2005 (9) - cusp コロナ世代** (Korona "COVID" Sedai) 2001-2014 (14) |N/A |- |Generation Alpha |2010-2024 (15) |2012-? |2006-2029 (24) |TBD |2004-2023 (20) |- |Generation Beta |2025-2039 (15) |TBD |2030-? |TBD |TBD |} <nowiki>*</nowiki> = This can further be divided up into 団塊ジュニア世代 (Dankai Jr. "Boomer Jr." Sedai) (early 1970s) and the rest ポスト団塊ジュニア世代 (Post Dankai Jr. Sedai) (late 1970s-1981) <nowiki>**</nowiki> = (As of 2024) it is generally accepted as someone who was 5 (turning 6) to 19 years old in 2020 (start of COVID-19 pandemic), which likely affected their school years (K-12 and university). According to a 2022 survey from Japanese high school students, they considered themselves as コロナ世代. (However, it won't be confirmed until c. 2032 when all of them are 18 or older to see if this name stays). In the context of working, however, it can be defined as 1998-2006 (age 18-26 in 2024). This is because during the COVID pandemic (2020-2024), they became adults and were in university during part or all of this time period. There is also a chance that this could be the last Japanese traditional generation name because Japanese people are beginning to use the English generation names (e.g., Z世代・α世代). {| class="wikitable" ! rowspan="2" |Birth year range ! colspan="5" |English Generation !Japanese Generation |- !McCrindle !Pew !Strauss-Howe ! colspan="2" |Summary ! |- |1433-1460 | rowspan="23" |N/A | rowspan="25" |N/A |Arthurian | colspan="2" |Arthurian | rowspan="18" |N/A |- |1461-1482 |Humanist | colspan="2" |Humanist |- |1483-1511 |Reformation | colspan="2" |Reformation |- |1512-1540 |Reprisal | colspan="2" |Reprisal |- |1541-1565 |Elizabethan | colspan="2" |Elizabethan |- |1566-1587 |Parliamentary | colspan="2" |Parliamentary |- |1588-1617 |Puritan | colspan="2" |Puritan |- |1618-1647 |Cavalier | colspan="2" |Cavalier |- |1648-1673 |Glorious | colspan="2" |Glorious |- |1674-1700 |Enlightenment | colspan="2" |Enlightenment |- |1701-1723 |Awakening | colspan="2" |Awakening |- |1724-1741 |Liberty | colspan="2" |Liberty |- |1742-1766 |Republican | colspan="2" |Republican |- |1767-1791 |Compromise | colspan="2" |Compromise |- |1792-1821 |Transcendental | colspan="2" |Transcendental |- |1822-1842 |Gilded | colspan="2" |Gilded |- |1843-1859 |Progressive | colspan="2" |Progressive |- |1860-1867 | rowspan="3" |Missionary | colspan="2" rowspan="3" |Missionary |- |1868-1877 |明治一桁世代 (Meiji Hitoketa Sedai) |- |1878-1882 | rowspan="3" |明治二桁世代 (Meiji Futaketa Sedai) |- |1883-1900 |Lost | colspan="2" |Lost |- |1901-1911 | rowspan="2" |G.I. | colspan="2" rowspan="2" |G.I |- |1912-1924 | rowspan="2" |大正世代 (Taisho Sedai) |- |1925 | rowspan="6" |Builder | rowspan="5" |Silent | rowspan="2" |G.I ! rowspan="2" |Silent |- |1926-1927 | rowspan="2" |昭和一桁世代 (Showa Hitoketa Sedai) |- |1928-1934 | rowspan="4" |Silent | colspan="2" rowspan="3" |Silent |- |1935 |昭和一桁世代 (Showa Hitoketa Sedai) / 焼け跡世代 (Yakeato Sedai) |- |1936-1942 | rowspan="3" |焼け跡世代 (Yakeato Sedai) |- |1943-1945 | rowspan="4" |Baby Boom !Silent |Baby Boom |- |1946 | rowspan="4" |Baby Boom | rowspan="4" |Baby Boom | colspan="2" rowspan="3" |Baby Boom |- |1947-1950 |団塊世代 (Dankai "Boomer" Sedai) |- |1951-1960 | rowspan="2" |しらけ世代 (Shirake Sedai) |- |1961-1963 | rowspan="4" |Generation X !Baby Boom |Generation X |- |1964-1970 | rowspan="2" |Generation X | rowspan="3" |Generation X | colspan="2" rowspan="2" |Generation X |バブル世代 (Baburu "Bubble" Sedai) |- |1971-1979 | rowspan="2" |氷河期世代* (Hyougakki "Ice Age" Sedai) |- |1980-1981 | rowspan="3" |Generation Y !Generation X |Millennial |- |1982-1986 | rowspan="3" |Millennial | rowspan="4" |Millennial | colspan="2" rowspan="2" |Millennial |プレッシャー世代 (Puresshaa "Pressure" Sedai) |- |1987-1994 | rowspan="2" |ゆとり世代 (Yutori Sedai) |- |1995-1996 | rowspan="3" |Generation Z !Millennial |Generation Z |- |1997-2005 | rowspan="3" |Generation Z |Millennial !Generation Z |脱ゆとり・さとり世代 (Datsu Yutori / Satori Sedai) |- |2006-2009 | rowspan="4" |Homeland !Generation Z | | |- |2010-2011 | rowspan="2" |Generation Alpha |Generation Z !Generation Alpha | |- |2012-2024 | rowspan="3" |TBD | colspan="2" |Generation Alpha | |- |2025-2029 | rowspan="2" |Generation Beta | colspan="2" rowspan="2" |TBD | |- |2030-2039 |TBD | |} {| class="wikitable" !Generation !Strictest !Probable !Broadest |- |Arthurian |1433-1460 (28) |1433-1460 (28) |1433-1460 (28) |- |Humanist |1461-1482 (22) |1461-1482 (22) |1461-1482 (22) |- |Reformation |1483-1511 (29) |1483-1511 (29) |1483-1511 (29) |- |Reprisal |1512-1540 (29) |1512-1540 (29) |1512-1540 (29) |- |Elizabethan |1541-1565 (25) |1541-1565 (25) |1541-1565 (25) |- |Parliamentary |1566-1587 (22) |1566-1587 (22) |1566-1587 (22) |- |Puritan |1588-1617 (30) |1588-1617 (30) |1588-1617 (30) |- |Cavalier |1618-1647 (30) |1618-1647 (30) |1618-1647 (30) |- |Glorious |1648-1673 (26) |1648-1673 (26) |1648-1673 (26) |- |Enlightenment |1674-1700 (27) |1674-1700 (27) |1674-1700 (27) |- |Awakening |1701-1723 (23) |1701-1723 (23) |1701-1723 (23) |- |Liberty |1724-1741 (18) |1724-1741 (18) |1724-1741 (18) |- |Republican |1742-1766 (25) |1742-1766 (25) |1742-1766 (25) |- |Compromise |1767-1791 (25) |1767-1791 (25) |1767-1791 (25) |- |Transcendental |1792-1821 (30) |1792-1821 (30) |1792-1821 (30) |- |Gilded |1822-1842 (21) |1822-1842 (21) |1822-1842 (21) |- |Progressive |1843-1859 (17) |1843-1859 (17) |1843-1859 (17) |- |Missionary |1860-1882 (23) |1860-1882 (23) |1860-1882 (23) |- |Lost |1883-1900 (18) |1883-1900 (18) |1883-1900 (18) |- |G.I. |1901-1924 (24) |1901-1924 (24) |1901-1927 (27) |- |Silent |1925-1945 (21) |1925-1945 (21) |1928-1945 (18) |- |Baby Boom |1946-1963 (18) |1946-1963 (18) |1946-1963 (18) |- |Generation X |1964-1979 (16) |1964-1979 (16) |1964-1981 (18) |- |Millennial |1980-1994 (15) |1980-1995 (16) |1982-1996 (15) |- |Generation Z |1995-2009 (15) |1996-2011 (16) |1997-2011 (15) |- |Generation Alpha |2010-2024 (15) |2012-2024 (13) |2012-2024 (13) |- |Generation Beta |2025-2039 (15) |2025-2039 (15) |2025-2039 (15) |} == Notes == [a] Mccrindle's 'Builders' align best with other models' Silent Generation [b] Mccrindle's 'Generation Y' aligns best with other models' Millennial Generation [c] Whilst not explicit, any direct successor of Generation Z proposed by Pew Research Center must align best with other Mccrindle's 'Gen Alpha' and S&H's 'Homeland Generation' [d] S&H's 'Homeland Generation' aligns best with Mccrindle's Generation Alpha == References == https://mccrindle.com.au/article/topic/demographics/the-generations-defined/ https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2019/01/17/where-millennials-end-and-generation-z-begins/ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strauss%E2%80%93Howe_generational_theory https://www.genwhy.com/_files/ugd/5ccc25_695074dbc5724d76ae103635b5d9ab5d.pdf bycji69z41xg4cbo8bd2zzrg1jawu25 0 322801 2835775 2771141 2026-10-04T09:14:07Z StretchBeyond 3105744 Improved grammar and syntax throughout the chapter. There are a number of sections where it is not clear what the author intended, so paragraphs have not been changed (e.g., the conclusion statement. 2835775 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Defensive avoidance and goal pursuit:<br>What is defensive avoidance and how does it impact goal pursuit?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {{robelbox|theme=6|title=Imagine this ...}} <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> [[File:Rigging azure load chain hoist sky beam-5728491.jpg|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1.''' the persistence of machinery (an industrial crane) under great amounts of weight and stress{{ic|Explain how this image relates to the scenario}}]] You have been tasked with giving a 12-minute presentation in front of a university class of 200 students in the next 3 weeks. It would be easy to believe that anyone would become anxious at the thought of that, but understand that developing confident public speaking skills would aid in a future public speaking career. As many people do, you procrastinate and stall on the development of your presentation because the thought of public speaking is terrifying. You employ all kinds of psychological and physical avoidance techniques, for example, distraction with less important tasks, avoiding talking about it, or being driven away from progressing in order to avoid the discomfort of anxiety. However, you also understand the significance of such an opportunity and the weight it would bring to your psyche if performed successfully. You now decide to set goals for finishing the slides and practicing the presentation and, as a result, you start to feel more motivated and confident with the coming task through persistence despite the discomfort it may bring. </div> {{Robelbox/close}} Defensive [[wikipedia:Avoidance|avoidance]] is a reactive psychological mechanism used to cope with or dismiss anxiety-inducing thoughts, feelings or situations. Defensive avoidance can arise when individuals perceive a threat to their mental or physical well-being. Defensive avoidance of disapproval occurs primarily in contexts that involve [[wikipedia:Interpersonal communication|interpersonal interaction]] and [[wikipedia:Reactivity_(psychology)|reaction]] - and involves attempts to minismise social discomfort. Such defensive responses may involve suppressing emotional distress, something that has been associated with poorer health outcomes (Jorgensen & Thibodeau, 2007). The reactive mechanism of avoidance is something everyone deals with, much like [[wikipedia:Procrastination|procrastination]]; it does, however, become a problem when interfering with vital situations that would support future development. [[wikipedia:Goal pursuit|Goal pursuit]] is the motivational drive and process of working towards a realised potential future outcome or state of being. The process of pursuing a goal of interest consists of setting the desired end-state, development of plans for achieving it, and maintaining recorded progress towards achieving that desired outcome. Core motivational drivers for the pursuit of goals include approach-oriented and avoidance-oriented motives - where actions are taken to either achieve planned outcomes or to avoid negative results, the regulation of [[wikipedia:Anxiety|anxiety]] and [[Stress (psychological)|stress]] is required for the avoidance of [[pain]] or [[wikipedia:Failure|failure]] (Robson et al., 2023). The need for emotional and psychological regulation during the process of goal pursuit becomes an important factor when dealing with the possibilities of unwanted stress or [[wikipedia:Grief|grief]]. {{RoundBoxTop}} '''Focus questions''': * What is defensive avoidance and goal pursuit? * What are the psychological mechanisms driving the approach and avoidance of goals? * How do social and environmental factors influence these behaviours? * What psychological theories form the framework of defensive avoidance and goal pursuit mechanisms? * What criticisms and alternative understandings are leveled at already accepted frameworks of approach and avoidance of goals? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == What is defensive avoidance and goal pursuit? == Defensive avoidance and goal pursuit are distinct [[wikipedia:Mental_state|psychological states]] that can combine into powerful tools of [[motivation]]. Defensive avoidance is the reaction to potential outcomes of social discomfort, or perceived threats to an individual during interpersonal [[wikipedia:Communication|communication,]] while goal pursuit is the motivational drive to work and achieve a set end-state (Jorgensen & Thibodeau, 2007) & (Robson et al., 2023). To understand this dynamic further will require a deeper explanation of the presence of physiological and environmental drivers, and how these processes can support one another. === The human drive for pursuing realised objectives === Human [[wikipedia:Behavior|behaviour]] is often goal directed, with individuals motivated to pursue a desired outcome or endstate (see Figure 2). [[wikipedia:Self-regulation_theory|Self-regulation theory]], helps explain this process by explaining how people will monitor progress and adjust behaviour as they work towards a goal. Progress towards a desired outcome can influence both an individual's motivation and emotional experience, which demonstrated how closely the emotional and motivational processes are during goal pursuit (Rodebaugh, 2007). [[Satisfaction]] and motivation are therefore interconnected, rather than mutually exclusive. The desire to avoid an undesirable or negative outcome, can also be associated with motivating goal directed behaviour (Robson et al., 2023). [[File:Regulationtheory.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' self-regulation model of goal pursuit, showing feedback of strategies, motivations, and outcomes]] === Why do we use defensive behaviour? === Defensive avoidance, when pursued for desired outcomes, serves as a protective mechanism. Individuals often avoid social information about others performing similar tasks or sharing their goals. This avoidance stems from a desire to avoid comparison or perceived threats posed by those who seem to be outperforming them. (Huang, 2018). The idea that defensive behaviour is not a human flaw, but a natural innate reaction hardwired into our behavioural and [[wikipedia:Psychology|psychological processes,]] provides a deeper insight into the behaviours prevalent in the world today - here fundamental criteria are established concerning the presence of reactive and motivational characteristics (see Table 1) (Bradley & Lang, 2013). Defensive behaviour is an adaptation and developed characteristic within the [[wikipedia:Physiology|physiological processes]] of all people; it is not an act of retreat but a reactive course correction mechanism. '''Table 1.''' Key Aspects When Considering the Origin and Mechanism of Defensive Behaviour During Objective Seeking. {| class="wikitable" |+ !Aspects !Explanation |- |Function of evolution |Defensive behaviours such as an avoidant response to threatening or stressful stimuli provides a protective mechanism to preserve the individual or objective as a tool of survival. |- |Similarity of mechanisms |Approaches of avoidance and persistence to goals or threats employ relevant cognitive and emotional processes when perceiving a threat or achievement (i.e., arousal or attention). |- |Response and adaptation of avoidance |The development of defensive behaviour can be an adaptive or proactive response interested in preservation and continuation - not exclusively used as a failure response. |} [[File:Politician stress.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 3.''' politician avoiding decisions|left]] {{Robelbox|width=30|theme= {{{theme|3}}}|title=Case study}} <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> In Janis & Mann's (1977) decision making: a psychological analysis of conflict, choice, and commitment, the authors report analysed real-world examples of defensive avoidance. The presented material describes situations where political figureheads and business leaders are found most often employing defensive avoidance mechanisms (see Figure 3) - these include often downplaying potential risks, the delegation of decisions during critical moments to others, or procrastinating on important tasks. (e.g., the escalation of events leading to the Vietnam War). The subsequent findings of the report presented tendencies for people who work in high-stress environments to often avoid making critical decisions when a lack of control over the situation is perceived to reduce immediate anxiety, even at the expense of long-term success. </div> {{Robelbox/close}} == Psychological mechanisms == The psychological mechanisms driving the motivational states of defensive avoidance and goal pursuit can vary when understanding the context and situations such these psychological states are utilised. Fear and anxiety responses, reduction of cognitive dissonance, avoidance conditioning and threat appraisal are all distinct mechanisms that contribute to the defence and pursuit of objectives. === Fear and anxiety responses === Responses of [[wikipedia:Fear|fear]] and anxiety are both natural and common reactive measures taken by people when a physical ([[wikipedia:Survival|survival]]) or social threat ([[wikipedia:Social_status|social standing]]) is perceived. The arousal of fear and states of anxiety act for the narrowing of [[wikipedia:Attention|attention]], the disruption of [[wikipedia:Deliberation|deliberation]], or elevation of urgency - noting that the function of fear being a feedback response to the unwarranted build up of anxiety, allowing for defensive avoidance (i.e., states of [[wikipedia:Denial|denial]] or procrastination) to allocate adequate emotional resources for the reduction of [[wikipedia:Distress_(medicine)|distress]] (Irving & Mann, 1977). Other contributing factors to fear and anxiety responses include reactive styles like defensive avoidance. This is a similar strategy used in interpersonal contexts to [[wikipedia:Thought_suppression|suppress]] anxiety and protect [[wikipedia:Self-perception_theory|self-perception]]. It involves consciously choosing feigned [[wikipedia:Confidence|confidence]] while burying any remaining emotional or psychological stressors (Jorgensen & Thibodeau, 2007). === Reduction of cognitive dissonance === [[wikipedia:Cognitive_dissonance|Cognitive dissonance]] refers to the psychological discomfort experienced when conflicting [[wikipedia:Cognitive_psychology|cognitive processes]] occur simultaenuously. This can involve goals, behaviours or [[wikipedia:Belief|beliefs]]. The discomfort arises when an individuals displayed behaviour [[wikipedia:Emotional_conflict|conflicts]] with or is inconsistent with their personal beliefs. The reduction of cognitive dissonance is a protective psychological mechanism to preserve mental stability in the face of threatening or stressful circumstances to maintain goal clarity. [[wikipedia:Aversion_therapy|Psychological aversion]] to perceived threats is the most common motivator for individuals to enact a reduction of cognitive dissonance - these means provide instances of [[wikipedia:Selective_exposure_theory|selective exposure]], composition of justifications against potential conflict, and the modification of cognition/behaviour for the resolution of inconsistency (Festinger, 1957). The psychological processes of cognitive dissonance have direct links to the [[wikipedia:Gray's_biopsychological_theory_of_personality|Behavioural Inhibition System (BIS),]] which determines the nature of threats to emotional [[wikipedia:Well-being|wellbeing]] and directs adequate defences to counter said threats, allowing for a reduction of cognitive dissonance for defensively reducing anxiety - essentially shutting down any beliefs that would work against a desired outcome (Jonas et al, 2014). === Avoidance conditioning === [[wikipedia:Avoidance_learning|Avoidance conditioning]] is a [[wikipedia:Coping|coping mechanism]] that can become habitual via maintained [[wikipedia:Reinforcement|reinforcement]]. Avoidance conditioning is utilised to avoid situations or decisions that may bring about stressful conditions - a reactionary prioritization of short-term [[wikipedia:Relief_(emotion)|relief]] for the evasion of long-term problems, most notably this psychological mechanism can develop to become a negative reinforcement if avoidance patterns are maintained (Irving & Mann, 1977). [[wikipedia:Self-preservation|Self-preservation]] through defensive reactions of avoidance are behaviours which can be driven with the anticipation of negative social or physical outcomes. Such behaviours can be [[wikipedia:Classical_conditioning|conditioned]] and reinforced for the purpose of emotional and psychological relief, both protecting an individual's objectives or motivation while hampering attempts at outcome progression (Huang, 2018) (see Figure 4). [[File:4-reinforcement-contingencies-flowchart-1024x494.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 4.''' behavioural conditioning framework of learned and adapted behaviour to positive and negative behavioural stimuli]] === Threat appraisal === The [[wikipedia:Protection_motivation_theory|threat appraisal]] response to fear and anxiety is a negative emotional reaction to perceived threats, both physical and social, except when [[wikipedia:Anger|anger]] is present. It is a psychological mechanism dedicated to [[wikipedia:Evaluation|evaluating]] whether an interpersonal encounter could negatively impact personal wellbeing. This adaptive coping style determines whether an acknowledged threat should be met with proactive, [[wikipedia:Anticipation|anticipatory]] or [[wikipedia:Defence_mechanism|defensive measures]] (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). The response to perceived physical and social threats manifests through emotional reactions like anxiety and fear, as well as motivational systems such as the [[wikipedia:Behavioral_activation|behavioural activation system (BAS)]]. These systems utilising transactional models of stress and coping, being anticipatory and proactive in nature (Jonas et al, 2014). == Social and environmental factors == The occurrence of defensive avoidance during the process of goal pursuit is environmentally and contextually dependent. These independent factors can include the environment, or social situations that individuals must overcome to attain the desired outcome despite the challenges that follow. Environmental stability, social support, and resource availability shape subsequent psychological mechanisms and resulting outcomes. === Environmental stability === Environmental conditions can influence both defensive avoidance and goal pursuit. Environmental contexts that evoke such responses and actions fall under two categories of personal threat - a threat to physical wellbeing or social standing. The [[wikipedia:Appraisal_theory|psychological appraisal]] of situations as either a threat or challenge to personal stability is emphasised through models of stress and coping - a transactional perspective which estimates environmental controllability, the resources present, and the [[wikipedia:Predictability|predictability]] of potential outcomes (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). The establishment of correlations between factors of environmental stability and individual shifts from defensive avoidance into approach-oriented strategies, as presented in the review from Jonas et al. (2014), suggests that the provision of clear structures and resources can reframe challenges and allow for higher levels of personal adaptability. === Social support === [[wikipedia:Social_support|Social support]] or the social settings an individual finds themselves in is arguably the most important factor among other environmentally critical elements that contribute towards the attainment of set goals or the degree to which individuals partake in defensive avoidance. The level of support or socially dependant settings can, by themselves, act as both aids and stressors, either [[wikipedia:Social_inhibition|inhibiting]] or supporting the process of goal pursuit and the stress responses displayed in interpersonal interactions (Rodebaugh, 2007). Social support and emotion regulation in interpersonal settings present findings suggesting that individuals who possess higher levels of social support suffer less emotional strain in the process of pursuing goals (Robson et al., 2023). === Resource availability === Resource availability refers to the psychological capacity (resources) that an individual can put towards processes of goal attainment, or the increased chances of falling into reactive defensive avoidance mechanisms. The possession of psychological resources has direct correlations towards the tendency for an individual to use defensive avoidance mechanisms and the amount of [[wikipedia:Emotional_self-regulation|self-regulation]] they can express, showing that the avoidance of measures for goal attainment can result in the depletion of resources for self-regulation (Oertig et al, 2012). Further research highlights strategies of social information avoidance as response mechanisms when resources are strained, through the avoidance of information on others' performances, where individuals can reduce emotional and cognitive resources for other personal matters (Huang, 2018). {{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Quiz}} <quiz display=simple> {How does environmental stability contribute to defensive avoidance? |type="()"} - Increasing social support - Disincentivizing goal pursuit + Through the emphasis of potential threats to physical or social wellbeing - Reducing threat perception by providing clear environmental conditions </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} == Theoretical background == Defensive avoidance and goal pursuit can be understood using regulatory focus theory, self-determination theory, self-regulation theory, goal setting theory, and avoidance learning. These frameworks explain how regulation, determination, avoidance, and the setting of goals can influence the making of decisions, ultimately deciding if individuals progress or stagnate. === Regulatory focus theory === [[wikipedia:Regulatory_focus_theory|Regulatory focus theory (RFT),]] developed by [[wikipedia:E._Tory_Higgins|E. Tory Higgins]] (1997), presents a reframed motivation theory from the display of how people pursue goals differently, i.e., the maximisation of [[wikipedia:Pleasure|pleasure]] with the minimisation of [[wikipedia:Pain|pain]]. RFT subsequently possesses direct links to defensive avoidance and goal pursuit, this being through prevention-focused goal pursuit models. Avoiding resource depletion leads to avoidance-oriented goal pursuit. This reduces well-being and increases the likelihood of avoidance mechanisms.  Consequently, it manages stress and anxiety (Oertig et al, 2012). === Self-determination theory === [[wikipedia:Self-determination_theory|Self-determination theory (SDT)]], developed in the 1970s by[[wikipedia:Richard_M._Ryan|Richard M. Ryan]] & [[wikipedia:Edward_L._Deci|Edward L. Deci]] is a psychological framework that explains motivation and [[wikipedia:Personality|personality]]. It focuses on why people act, and how motivation influences personal well-being, performance and coping. SDT is the promotion of some motivating factors over others, presenting a dependence on motivations that are autonomous or controlled. In the use of SDT, the pursuit of intrinsic goals is pursued for personal satisfaction, e.g., [[wikipedia:Learning|learning]] and personal growth, where extrinsic goals are driven by external pressures and rewards, e.g., approval and grades (Elliot, 2010). === Self-regulation theory === [[wikipedia:Self-regulation_theory|Self-regulation theory (SRT),]] first developed in concept from [[wikipedia:Karl_von_Frisch|Karl von Frisch]] (1914) and then derived from [[wikipedia:Kurt_Lewin|Kurt Lewin's]] (1935) [[wikipedia:Field_theory_(psychology)|field theory]], is the psychological framework that seeks to understand how people [[wikipedia:Control_(management)|control]] and direct behaviours, [[wikipedia:Thought|thoughts]], and [[wikipedia:Emotion|emotions]] in the pursuit of goals. SRT is a theory on the control and direction of behaviours, thoughts, and emotions that people utilise for the achievement of goals. In relation to fundamental motivational systems of approach and avoidance, these directing behaviours help [[wikipedia:Social_control|regulate]] and [[wikipedia:Social_influence|influence]] the pursuit of goals. The act of self-regulation falls under key aspects, i.e., resource management, self-control, adjustment, and feedback, the presence of systems that help to maintain the process of goal attainment and momentum for motivation being core elements for SRT (Bradley & Lang, 2013). === Avoidance learning === [[wikipedia:Avoidance_learning|Avoidance learning]] is the psychological process where individuals learn and adapt behaviours for purpose of responding to, preventing, or escaping from [[wikipedia:Stimulus_(psychology)|stimuli]] or outcomes that could present unpleasantness. The explanation of avoidant learning behaviours falls under the learning processes of [[wikipedia:Classical_conditioning|classical]] and [[wikipedia:Operant_conditioning|operant conditioning]]. These fundamental psychological mechanisms, through the use of Pavlovian learning and instrumental learning, allow for the acquisition and maintenance of avoidant operations. Underlying motivational systems promoting avoidance learning through their mediation and adaptation to threats allow actions to be directed to, or avoid an outcome depending on context (Bradley & Lang, 2013). The use of avoidance learning shifts focus away from failure and negativity, towards new, extrinsically-framed goals such as performance or image. This provides short-term relief at the cost of long-term goal pursuit and inhibits development of intrinsic goals such as learning, affiliation and growth (Elliot, 2010). === Goal setting theory === [[wikipedia:Goal_theory|Goal setting theory (GST)]] is a motivational theory developed and built upon by [[wikipedia:Edwin_Locke|Edwin A. Locke]] and Gary P. Latham (1968) that explains how set goals can [[wikipedia:Manipulation_(psychology)|manipulate]] performance, [[wikipedia:Persistence_(psychology)|persistence]], and behaviour. The baseline of GST is the fact that the [[wikipedia:Consciousness|conscious]] setting of goals helps to enhance psychological factors of commitment, performance, and other appropriate mental resources - the distinguishment between learning goals (those being a focus on personal growth) and performance goals (a focus on goal outcome) where the setting of difficult goals, i.e., vague or imposed, can result in defensive avoidance, allowing for the presentation of factors that can inspire pursuit or those that promote avoidance (Locke & Latham, 2013). The relationship of the listed motivational models (see Figure 5) further illustrates directional pathways affecting theories of goal setting and avoidance. [[File:Overview-of-hierarchical-model-of-achievement-motivation-813x500.png|thumb|'''Figure 5.''' diagram showing the functions of goal pursuit processes ]] == Critiques and alternative understandings == Defensive avoidance and goal pursuit have suffered criticisms due to the theory being overly threat-oriented and most often disregarding the motivational characteristics that aid in the facilitation of avoidance and pursuit mechanisms. Alternative understandings and perspectives in direct contrast suggest more emphasis is placed on psychological mechanisms of dissonance, frustration, coping, and the maintenance of resources. === Overemphasis on individual cognition === The over-reliance on internal workings, [[wikipedia:Bias|biases]], and beliefs in the processes of defensive avoidance and goal pursuit is represented at the cost of context, emotional, and social external factors. Leading theories in relation to avoidance and goal pursuit focus almost exclusively on internal mechanisms, their conflicts, and their need for consistency (the reduction of dissonance) while neglecting external contexts, emotions, and interpersonal actions (Festinger, 1957). Other criticisms leveled at present theories concern the preference for internal cognition over motivation and other emotion-regulating strategies, i.e., the achievement of [[wikipedia:Autonomy|autonomy]] and [[wikipedia:Self-sustainability|self-sustainability]] (Irving & Mann, 1977). This overemphasis on individual cognition and loss of focus on social, environmental, or emotional factors contributing towards motivational behaviours of avoidance and goal pursuit continues to neglect key models that promote the behaviour. [[File:Fpsyg-12-628004-g001.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 6.''' achievement goal model|left]] {{Robelbox|width=30|theme= {{{theme|3}}}|title=Case study}} <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> Studies from (Ebert et al., 2024) present through the exploration of work-avoidance goal orientation (WA GO) which being the minimization of effort and hard work for similar rewards in German workplace settings. Duel outcomes of 'dark' and 'bright' were highlighted, where 'dark outcomes' of employees being negative performance and engagement because of low effort and investment, while 'bright outcomes' of employees engaging in work-avoidance goals in response to demanding or high stress roles as coping mechanisms (see Figure 6). </div> {{Robelbox/close}} === Alternative understandings === * [https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opportunity_cost Opportunity cost perception] - The psychological process involved in evaluating interpreting and choosing alternative options during decision-making or goal pursuit encompasses making trade-offs and potentially losing value. (Oertig, 2012). This interpretation of information at hand can produce hidden [[wikipedia:Opportunity_cost|opportunity costs]] when the missing out on important resources occurs, i.e., motivation or guidance] that could contribute towards goal attainment (Huang, 2018). * [[wikipedia:Interpersonal_emotion_regulation|Emotion regulation strategies]] - The ability to exericse management and influence over emotions and how they are expressed. The action of defensive avoidance can provide short-term relief but can also be a costly methodology (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). {{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Quiz}} <quiz display=simple> {Considering self-regulation theory, what factor helps in maintaining goal pursuit? |type="()"} + The management of resources, feedback, and self-control - The presence of external rewards - The disregard for feedback in cases of distraction avoidance - Behavioural mechanisms of motivation </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} == Conclusion == Defensive avoidance and goal pursuit are the culmination of reactive psychological mechanisms and motivational drive processes for maintaining and achieving goals. Driven by feelings of anxiety, stress, and the realisation of outcome, individuals who exhibit psychological mechanisms of avoidant or obsessive behaviours towards a desired personal goal may have experienced the {{what}} listed states of mind. The psychological mechanisms and environmental contexts contributing towards the development of avoidant or pursuit methodology, like fear and anxiety responses, reduction of cognitive dissonance, avoidance conditioning, threat appraisal, environment stability, social support, or resource availability, provide frameworks and settings behind this response. Theories of regulatory focus, self-determination, self-regulation, goal setting, and avoidance learning present explanations of motivational and emotional reactions to environmental or psychological triggers. From taking into account the criticisms and alternative perspectives, the frameworks and theories continue to provide relevant explanations of the motivation and psychological resilience promoting the behaviour. Through the understanding of these dynamic contexts and mechanisms can behaviours and motivations for defensive avoidance and goal pursuit can be recognised by their adaptive and protective nature in response to unfavourable situations. == See also == * [https://academic.oup.com/edited-volume/34541/chapter-abstract/293006596 Motivation and Goal Pursuit: Integration Across the Social/Personality Divide] (Book chapter, 2012) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Goal sharing and goal pursuit|Goal sharing and goal pursuit]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Disgust and disease avoidance motivation|Disgust and disease avoidance motivation]] (Book chapter, 2020) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Fear of failure|Fear of failure]] (Book chapter, 2013) * [[wikipedia:Avoidance coping|Avoidance coping]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Goal pursuit|Goal pursuit]] (Wikipedia) == References == {{Hanging indent|1= Bradley, M., & Lang, P. (2013). Appetitive and defensive motivation: goal-directed or goal-determined? International Society for Research on Emotion, 5(3). https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073913477511 Elliot, A. (2010). Approach and avoidance motivation and achievement goals. Educational Psychologist, 34(3), 169-189. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15326985ep3403_3 Festinger, L. (1957). A theory of cognitive dissonance. Stanford University Press. https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1993-97948-000 Higgins, T., Kruglanski, A., & Van Lange, P. (1997). The Handbook of Theories of Social Psychology. Sage Publications, 1. https://www.torrossa.com/en/resources/an/5017496#page=504 Huang, S. (2018). Social information avoidance: when, why, and how it is costly in goal pursuit. Journal of Marketing Research, 55(3). https://doi.org/10.1509/jmr.16.0268 Irving, J., & Mann, L. (1977). Decision making: a psychological analysis of conflict, choice, and commitment. The Free Press, 24-445. https://archive.org/details/decisionmakingps00janirich/page/10/mode/2up Jonas, E., McGregor, I., Klackl, J., Agroskin, D., Fritsche, I., Holbrook, C., Nash, K., Proulx, T., & Quirin, M. (2014). Chapter Four - Threat and Defense: From Anxiety to Approach. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 49, 219-286. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128000526000044 Jorgensen, R., & Thibodeau, R. (2007). Defensive avoidance of disapproval: the relationship of a defensive style to physical and mental health. National Library of Medicine, 15(1), 9-17. https://doi.org/10.1080/10673220601183923 Lazarus, R., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, Appraisal, and Coping. Springer Publishing Company. https://www.academia.edu/39838289/STRESS_APPRAISAL_AND_COPING Locke, E., & Latham, G. (2013). New Developments in Goal Setting and Task Performance. Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group, 688. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203082744 Oertig, D., Schüler, J., Schnelle, J., Brandstätter, V., Roskes, M., & Elliot, A. (2012). Avoidance goal pursuit depletes self-regulatory resources. Journal of Personality, 81(4), 365-375. https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12019 Robson, B., Preece, D., & Dickson, J. (2023). Goal motives in depression and anxiety: the mediating role of emotion regulation difficulties. Australian Psychologist, 58(4), 284-293. https://doi.org/10.1080/00050067.2022.2162809 Rodebaugh, T. (2007). The effects of different types of goal pursuit on experience and performance during a stressful social task. National Library of Medicine, 45(5), 951-963. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2006.08.003 Ryan, R., & Desi, E. (2000). Self-Determination Theory and the Facilitation of Intrinsic Motivation, Social Development, and Well-Being. University of Rechester, 68-78. https://selfdeterminationtheory.org/SDT/documents/2000_RyanDeci_SDT.pdf Weiner, B. (1985). Kurt Lewin's Field Theory. Human Motivation, 141-178. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4612-5092-0_4 }} ==External links== * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AFwuxpe0qiY What's beneath goals? Approach and avoidance motivation] (Youtube) * [[iarchive:decisionmakingps00janirich/page/n5/mode/2up|Decision making: A Psychological Analysis of Conflict, Choice, and Commitment]] (Archive) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=t1F7EEGPQwo&t=3115s The Science of Setting & Achieving Goals] (Youtube) * [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17014825/ The effects of different types of goal pursuit on experience and performance during a stressful social task] (PubMed) * [https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0001691824002683 The effect of approach and avoidance motivation on self-perception] (ScienceDirect) * [https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/organizational-psychology/articles/10.3389/forgp.2024.1445014/full The dark and potentially bright sides of work-avoidance goal orientation] (Frontiers) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Defence mechanisms]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Goal pursuit]] 2gdzgkeiibt6d6h65mzpxc5pkiwe99a 0 330073 2835759 2835030 2026-10-04T07:48:51Z KB3250298 3105557 /* Drive theory (Hull, 1943) */ 2835759 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Emotion regulation through exercise:<br>How do people use exercise to regulate their emotional states?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Case study''' [[File:Laptop and girl biting pencil-pixabay.jpg|thumb|200px|'''Figure 1'''. Sarah feeling very unregulated with too much going on in her life.]] Sarah stayed up late last night studying as she has three assignments due in the same week. When her alarm goes off at 6am for work she feels exhausted so crawls to the shower to wake herself up. Sarahs house mate bangs on the door yelling to hurry up as they need to use the bathroom. Sarah is already sick of this day but gets dressed and rushes off to her part-time work at a before school care center. Her boss grumbles at her for being 10 minutes late and the children are complaining and fighting about the breakfast they served today. Sarah pushes though her shift, and when it's over, she gets back to her car and sits in it for a moment, She feels tired, grumpy and so frustrated with so many people right now she feels like she might explode. Sarah knows she should go for a run because she hasn't exercised all week, but she is just too tired. Maybe she will get Macca's on the way home and go to her couch to scroll on her phone while she is peacefully at home by herself. What should Sarah do to help regulate her rising emotions: Go for a run or home to scroll? {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[Emotion|Emotions]] are a part of what makes us human and affect us all differently (Izard, 2013). Emotions effect the entirety of a person including their body, perception, cognition, their actions, personality and even their relationships (Izard, 2013). Emotions alert us to sensory information that needs our attention to keep us safe and healthy mentally and physically and steers our actions in these times. Although emotions are very helpful and necessary, they can also have negative impact when they become maladaptive or last too long. This is when we need to regulate our emotions. Emotion regulation is a helpful and important process for humans to function effectively day to day (''Emotion regulation: Conceptual foundations'', 2007). [[File:Plutchik-wheel.svg|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Plutchik's wheel of emotions {{ic|Explain relevance to the topic}}]] Emotions can be negative or positive to a person and can be triggered by a range of situations in our lives, some we can't control, but some we can. So what we do to keep our emotions from becoming too much? {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Focus questions''' * What is emotion regulation? * How can exercise help regulate emotions? * What exercise is best to help regulate emotions? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == What is emotion regulation? == [https://www.paulekman.com/universal-emotions/ Universal emotions] were identified by Paul Ekman, that we ''all'' feel, despite we speak different languages, live in different place regional, have different cultural, and ethnic differences (Ekman et al., 1999). He included happiness/enjoyment, anger, fear, disgust, sadness, surprise and then later added contempt. Plutchik went on to create a wheel of emotions to help visually explain these different emotions and show further breakdown ("The emotions," 1991). Emotions can also become dysregulated. [https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/symptoms/25065-emotional-dysregulation Emotional dysregulation] is when your emotions feel too big and too strong and a person loses the ability to control their behaviour. Emotional dysregulation is the inability to be aware of, accept, regulate, and modify emotional reactions and subsequent behaviours (Gratz & Roemer, 2004). It can look and feel like irritability, anger, mood swings, outbursts, feeling numb or detached, shutting down. Or in more extreme cases aggressive behaviors, stained relationships and connections and verbals shouting and crying<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/symptoms/25065-emotional-dysregulation|title=Cleveland Clinic: Emotional-dysregulation}}</ref>. The goal of emotion regulation is often explained as down-regulating (reducing) the sensation and/or duration of negative emotions such as feeling sad, angry or anxious (Gross et al., 2006). People can also try to up-regulate and increase the intensity or duration of positive emotions (Quoidbach et al., 2010). Emotion regulation is a very important skill of which children typically struggle with and some this can follow into adolescents and adulthood for some. == How can exercise help to regulate emotions? == Exercise is an essential part of humans everyday lives. It's recommended by [https://www.health.gov.au/topics/physical-activity/24-hour-movement-guidelines-for-all-australians The Department of Health, Disability and Aging to move most days].  {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}'''Department of Health, Disability and Aging recommended physical activity for adults''' -Moderate to vigorous physical activities for at least 30 minutes on most days. -Muscle-strengthening activities at least twice per week. -Functional activities targeting mobility, balance, and coordination on 3 or more days per week. -Several hours of light-intensity physical activity daily. {{RoundBoxBottom}} === Physiological effects === Exercise positively attributes to well emotional regulation by changing brain chemistry, strengthening brain networks, and reducing stress hormones. Exercise has been proven to reduce cortisol levels and increase dopamine and other endorphins which are hormones responsible for the feelings of calm and comfort. Simply said, exercise puts the brain in a state where it is better able to regulate emotions! (reference) * '''Reduces cortisol and increases dopamine''': Meaning emotional regulation is much easier. (reference) * '''Improve sleep:''' Exercise promotes better sleep as physical exertion regulates stress, lowers stress hormones and reduces muscle tension. === Psychological effects === Psychological benefits of exercise have continued to be support in many ways such as: * '''Mindfulness:''' Exercise can give people oppotunities to be present in their movements and have a healthy break from negative of challenging mental strains. * '''Connection:''' Exercise can be a fantastic way to connect with others and creat social support networks. Walking with friends or family is a perfect way to end a tough day. * '''Building self-efficacy and self-belief:''' Setting and reaching fitness goals can build personal xonfidence, build resilitience and give you a sense of control over your daily structure. Building self-efficacy and self-esteem through exercise is an important and healthy way to cope with daily challenges. * '''Improved mental health:''' Exercise has been proven to improve mental health. == Psychological theories == Many psychological theories can be applied to exercise and emotional regulation however here we will cover the process model of emotion regulation, [[w:Self determination theory|self-determination theory]] (SDT), [[cognitive evaluation theory]] (CET), [[drive theory|drive theory/ Conservation of Resources (COR) Theory]] and xxxxxxx. === Process model of emotion regulation (Gross, 19XX) === Gross's (19XX) Process model of emotion regulation in one of the most influential frameworks for understanding how emotions arise and how we can regulate them. === Self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985) === The [[self-determination theory]] focuses on fulfilling three core psychological needs, autonomy, competency and relatedness (need reference??). The SDT can be applied to exercise thanks to the metadata review by Teixeira et al., 2012. # <u>Autonomy:</u> Studies have consistently supported SDT aspects showing a positive relationship between more autonomous types of motivation and exercise. Autonomous motivation in terms of exercise, means exercising because you ''want'' to, not because you have to. Autonomous motivation towards exercise is a key mindset for consistency to develop. Individuals need to feel in control of their own actions, choices and so should choose their own exercise that suits them personally. The individual should be in charge of implementing structures and routines that work for them. # <u>Competence:</u> Competence satisfaction predicts better exercise participation (Teixeira et al., 2012). People are more likely to exercise if they experience competence satisfaction and feel like they are good at what they are doing. Individuals need to feel competent, can master challenging situations and feel as though they are improving and feel able to reach their own goals. This can be applied to fitness goals. # <u>Relatedness:</u> Relatedness is the need to experience a sense of belonging, connection, and care for others. People want to feel accepted, included and a part of a group. Relatedness is the desire to feel connected and interpersonally involved in warm, caring, reciprocal relationships. Exercise is a fantastic way to not just get the physical benefit of moving your body, but also the social and connection of doing so, alongside others with a common health goal. Joining a run club, aqua aerobics or tai chi class can help make social connections whilst moving your body. ==== Cognitive evaluation theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985) ==== Cognitive evaluation theory is a sub-theory of self-determination theory that explains how external events influence intrinsic motivation by affecting individual <u>perceived</u> competence and autonomy. Edward L. Deci and Richard M. Ryan develop CET in 1985, with the focus on the interplay between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. In short, what drives human motivation. CET examines how external factors—such as rewards, feedback, deadlines, or social pressures—can either enhance or undermine a person’s natural drive to engage in an activity for its own sake. The theory emphasizes that intrinsic motivation is not fixed but highly sensitive to environmental cues. In an sports or exercise context, individuals or coaches can use CET principles to encourage skill development and enjoyment rather than relying solely on external rewards such as first place trophies. Types of motivation from cognitive evaluation theory: * '''Intrinsic motivation:''' Doing an activity purely for its satisfaction, enjoyment, or interest predicts better exercise participation of long-term exercise adherence. A trend towards identified regulation (exercising because you see value in doing so) was found to predict participation more strongly than intrinsic motivation in the short term. * '''Extrinsic motivation:''' Doing an activity for external rewards, pressures, or avoidance of consequences, which can range from controlled (forced) to autonomous (internalised values). This is a good way to start exercising however intrinsic motives are better for long-term exercise habits. Extrinsic motives include winning a medal, gaining respect and praise or losing weight. * '''Amotivation:''' Amotivation is complete lack of intent or drive to take action. Three aspects attribute to feeling amotivative: Low competence, low autonomy, and low relatedness. The amotivated state is a predictor of poor performance and poor functioning. === Drive theory (Hull, 1943) === The [[drive theory]] proposes that humans are motivated to reduces pressures and stress and discomfort. Hull (1943) suggests that as a individuals arousal level increase, performance will also increase. Alternatively, if an individual's arousal levels decrease, then the performance would also decrease. Although this is not a primary motivational theory in the modern time, it still gives a good overview on what modern individuals often do not choose to exercise in time of emotional dysregulation. People are unconsciously looking to preserve energy and reduce stresses in the short term. What makes drive theory a learning theory, not just a motivation theory, is the feedback loop. When a particular behavior successfully reduces a drive, the connection between the situation and that behavior gets stronger. Hull called this “habit strength.” This is another point that is related for modern day people, we need to consciously turn to strengthen healthy habits and weaken maladaptive automatic responses. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''So how can the self-determination theory be applied to Sarah?''' Autonomy: Sarah hates running, but she loves dancing. Zumba classes at 7:30pm twice a week might suit Sarah better after she has a quick tea and a rest straight after work. Competency: Sarah hasn't even done dance classes before, but she does feel confident in showing off her moves. Zumba classes could motivate her to move her body while building more range in her dance move repertoire. Relatedness: Sarah is a very social person, and some of her friends might even like to join the Zumba classes too. Intrinsic motivators: Sarah should focus on aerobic exercises that are enjoyable to her. Looking for external motivators like weight loss or looking a sort of way, will not help Sarah stick to her movement long-term.{{RoundBoxBottom}} # == What exercise is best to help regulate emotions? == Australian adults should be active daily, undertaking a variety of physical activities at different intensities, which can include<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.health.gov.au/topics/physical-activity/24-hour-movement-guidelines-for-all-australians/recommendations-for-adults-18-to-64-years?language=en|title=Physical Activity Recommendations for Australian adults|date=|last=Australian Government}}</ref>: * moderate- to vigorous-intensity physical activities for 30 minutes or more on most days * muscle-strengthening activities on 2 or more days per week * functional activities targeting mobility, balance, and coordination on 3 or more days per week * several hours of light-intensity physical activity daily. Any movement is beneficial to individuals but to regulate your emotions the most ideal exercise looks like this: Anaerobic exercise (also known as resistance training) has benefits on emotion regulation such as....... Aerobic exercise<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/articles/7050-aerobic-exercise|title=Aerobic Exercise|last=Cleveland Clinic}}</ref> is when you continuously use oxygen as your fuel. Aerobic exercise promotes emotion regulation (Wang et al., 2024). And what is more important to note is that there are <u>immediate</u> results on mood. * {| class="wikitable" |+'''Table 1:''' Optimal exercise for each age category, with supporting studies. !Age !Exercise !Intensity/ Frequency !Study |- |Children |A variety of exercise such as running, soccer, dancing, tips, games and anything else that sustains interest and fun of the child. |60 minutes daily minimum Moderate–vigorous |Chaput et al., 2020 |- |Adolesence |A range of aerobic and strength exercise which can include sports, gym, HIT sessions, weights or running. |60 minutes daily Moderate–vigorous |Salvan et al., 2021 Parrish et al., 2020 |- |Adults |Walking, riding, swimming, running, zumba or sports. Begin with short, low-intensity walking and gradually increase duration and intensity |30 minutes or more, most days Moderate–vigorous strength twice a week |Ligeza et al., 2023, Mizzi et al., 2022 |- |Older Adults |Walking, exercise bike or water aerobics |Set depending on exercise ability and history |Erickson et al., 2011 |} ;Test yourself<quiz display="simple"> {High intensity running is best for older adults to help manager their emotions: |type="()"} + True - False {Children should take part in more frequent exercise than adults and it should be more varied: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ** ==Conclusion== In conclusion, physical activity has physical, and psychological benefits and is beneficial in times of emotional dysregulation. Using exercise as a preventative mechanism is also important. '''Useful takeaways:''' * One session of aerobic exercise can significantly boost positive mood and alleviate stress responses. It is recommended for use as an immediate mood regulation strategy. * Any movement can be used such as walking, dancing or sport. *Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Key messages * Start by moving your body for 30 minutes in any way you enjoy. Positive effects on mood starts immediately. What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Chaput, J. P., Willumsen, J., Bull, F., Chou, R., Ekelund, U., Firth, J., Jago, R., Ortega, F. B., & Katzmarzyk, P. T. (2020). 2020 WHO guidelines on physical activity and sedentary behaviour for children and adolescents aged 5-17 years: summary of the evidence. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act, 17(1), 141. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12966-020-01037-z Erickson, K. I., Voss, M. W., Prakash, R. S., Basak, C., Szabo, A., Chaddock, L., Kim, J. S., Heo, S., Alves, H., White, S. M., Wojcicki, T. R., Mailey, E., Vieira, V. J., Martin, S. A., Pence, B. D., Woods, J. A., McAuley, E., & Kramer, A. F. (2011). Exercise training increases size of hippocampus and improves memory. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 108(7), 3017-3022. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1015950108 Gratz, K. L., & Roemer, L. (2004). Multidimensional Assessment of Emotion Regulation and Dysregulation: Development, Factor Structure, and Initial Validation of the Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 26(1), 41-54. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:JOBA.0000007455.08539.94 Izard, C. E. (2013). Human emotions. Springer Science & Business Media. Ligeza, T. S., Maciejczyk, M., Wyczesany, M., & Junghofer, M. (2023). The effects of a single aerobic exercise session on mood and neural emotional reactivity in depressed and healthy young adults: A late positive potential study. Psychophysiology, 60(1), e14137. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/psyp.14137 Mizzi, A. L., McKinnon, M. C., & Becker, S. (2022). The Impact of Aerobic Exercise on Mood Symptoms in Trauma-Exposed Young Adults: A Pilot Study [Original Research]. Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience, Volume 16 - 2022. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnbeh.2022.829571 Parrish, A.-M., Tremblay, M. S., Carson, S., Veldman, S. L., Cliff, D., Vella, S., Chong, K. H., Nacher, M., del Pozo Cruz, B., & Ellis, Y. (2020). Comparing and assessing physical activity guidelines for children and adolescents: a systematic literature review and analysis. International journal of behavioral nutrition and physical activity, 17(1), 16. Salvan, P., Wassenaar, T., Wheatley, C., Beale, N., Cottaar, M., Papp, D., Bastiani, M., Fitzgibbon, S., Duff, E., Andersson, J., Winkler, A. M., Douaud, G., Nichols, T. E., Smith, S., Dawes, H., & Johansen-Berg, H. (2021). Multimodal Imaging Brain Markers in Early Adolescence Are Linked with a Physically Active Lifestyle. The Journal of Neuroscience, 41(5), 1092. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1260-20.2020 Teixeira, P. J., Carraça, E. V., Markland, D., Silva, M. N., & Ryan, R. M. (2012). Exercise, physical activity, and self-determination theory: a systematic review. International journal of behavioral nutrition and physical activity, 9(1), 78. Wang, X., Liu, T., Jin, X., & Zhou, C. (2024). Aerobic exercise promotes emotion regulation: a narrative review. Experimental Brain Research, 242(4), 783-796. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1007/s00221-024-06791-1 }} == External links == External relevant resources: * [https://www.paulekman.com/universal-emotions/ Universal Emotions | What are Emotions? | Paul Ekman Group] * [https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/symptoms/25065-emotional-dysregulation Emotional Dysregulation: What It Is, Causes & Treatment] * [https://www.health.gov.au/topics/physical-activity/24-hour-movement-guidelines-for-all-australians 24-hour movement guidelines for all Australians | Australian Government Department of Health, Disability and Ageing] {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Emotion regulation through exercise|Emotion regulation through exercise]] (Book chapter, 2025) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotional self-regulation]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Exercise]] <noinclude> <hr> __TOC__ [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book]] tffv5qzshje1cz56828mwmz7xr8ubtw 2835767 2835759 2026-10-04T08:06:30Z KB3250298 3105557 /* Process model of emotion regulation (Gross, 19XX) */ 2835767 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Emotion regulation through exercise:<br>How do people use exercise to regulate their emotional states?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Case study''' [[File:Laptop and girl biting pencil-pixabay.jpg|thumb|200px|'''Figure 1'''. Sarah feeling very unregulated with too much going on in her life.]] Sarah stayed up late last night studying as she has three assignments due in the same week. When her alarm goes off at 6am for work she feels exhausted so crawls to the shower to wake herself up. Sarahs house mate bangs on the door yelling to hurry up as they need to use the bathroom. Sarah is already sick of this day but gets dressed and rushes off to her part-time work at a before school care center. Her boss grumbles at her for being 10 minutes late and the children are complaining and fighting about the breakfast they served today. Sarah pushes though her shift, and when it's over, she gets back to her car and sits in it for a moment, She feels tired, grumpy and so frustrated with so many people right now she feels like she might explode. Sarah knows she should go for a run because she hasn't exercised all week, but she is just too tired. Maybe she will get Macca's on the way home and go to her couch to scroll on her phone while she is peacefully at home by herself. What should Sarah do to help regulate her rising emotions: Go for a run or home to scroll? {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[Emotion|Emotions]] are a part of what makes us human and affect us all differently (Izard, 2013). Emotions effect the entirety of a person including their body, perception, cognition, their actions, personality and even their relationships (Izard, 2013). Emotions alert us to sensory information that needs our attention to keep us safe and healthy mentally and physically and steers our actions in these times. Although emotions are very helpful and necessary, they can also have negative impact when they become maladaptive or last too long. This is when we need to regulate our emotions. Emotion regulation is a helpful and important process for humans to function effectively day to day (''Emotion regulation: Conceptual foundations'', 2007). [[File:Plutchik-wheel.svg|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Plutchik's wheel of emotions {{ic|Explain relevance to the topic}}]] Emotions can be negative or positive to a person and can be triggered by a range of situations in our lives, some we can't control, but some we can. So what we do to keep our emotions from becoming too much? {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Focus questions''' * What is emotion regulation? * How can exercise help regulate emotions? * What exercise is best to help regulate emotions? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == What is emotion regulation? == [https://www.paulekman.com/universal-emotions/ Universal emotions] were identified by Paul Ekman, that we ''all'' feel, despite we speak different languages, live in different place regional, have different cultural, and ethnic differences (Ekman et al., 1999). He included happiness/enjoyment, anger, fear, disgust, sadness, surprise and then later added contempt. Plutchik went on to create a wheel of emotions to help visually explain these different emotions and show further breakdown ("The emotions," 1991). Emotions can also become dysregulated. [https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/symptoms/25065-emotional-dysregulation Emotional dysregulation] is when your emotions feel too big and too strong and a person loses the ability to control their behaviour. Emotional dysregulation is the inability to be aware of, accept, regulate, and modify emotional reactions and subsequent behaviours (Gratz & Roemer, 2004). It can look and feel like irritability, anger, mood swings, outbursts, feeling numb or detached, shutting down. Or in more extreme cases aggressive behaviors, stained relationships and connections and verbals shouting and crying<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/symptoms/25065-emotional-dysregulation|title=Cleveland Clinic: Emotional-dysregulation}}</ref>. The goal of emotion regulation is often explained as down-regulating (reducing) the sensation and/or duration of negative emotions such as feeling sad, angry or anxious (Gross et al., 2006). People can also try to up-regulate and increase the intensity or duration of positive emotions (Quoidbach et al., 2010). Emotion regulation is a very important skill of which children typically struggle with and some this can follow into adolescents and adulthood for some. == How can exercise help to regulate emotions? == Exercise is an essential part of humans everyday lives. It's recommended by [https://www.health.gov.au/topics/physical-activity/24-hour-movement-guidelines-for-all-australians The Department of Health, Disability and Aging to move most days].  {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}'''Department of Health, Disability and Aging recommended physical activity for adults''' -Moderate to vigorous physical activities for at least 30 minutes on most days. -Muscle-strengthening activities at least twice per week. -Functional activities targeting mobility, balance, and coordination on 3 or more days per week. -Several hours of light-intensity physical activity daily. {{RoundBoxBottom}} === Physiological effects === Exercise positively attributes to well emotional regulation by changing brain chemistry, strengthening brain networks, and reducing stress hormones. Exercise has been proven to reduce cortisol levels and increase dopamine and other endorphins which are hormones responsible for the feelings of calm and comfort. Simply said, exercise puts the brain in a state where it is better able to regulate emotions! (reference) * '''Reduces cortisol and increases dopamine''': Meaning emotional regulation is much easier. (reference) * '''Improve sleep:''' Exercise promotes better sleep as physical exertion regulates stress, lowers stress hormones and reduces muscle tension. === Psychological effects === Psychological benefits of exercise have continued to be support in many ways such as: * '''Mindfulness:''' Exercise can give people opportunities to be present in their movements and have a healthy break from negative of challenging mental strains. * '''Connection:''' Exercise can be a fantastic way to connect with others and create social support networks. Walking with friends or family is a perfect way to end a tough day. * '''Building self-efficacy and self-belief:''' Setting and reaching fitness goals can build personal confidence, build resilience and give you a sense of control over your daily structure. Building self-efficacy and self-esteem through exercise is an important and healthy way to cope with daily challenges. * '''Improved mental health:''' Exercise has been proven to improve mental health. == Psychological theories == Many psychological theories can be applied to exercise and emotional regulation however here we will cover the process model of emotion regulation, [[w:Self determination theory|self-determination theory]] (SDT), [[cognitive evaluation theory]] (CET), [[drive theory|drive theory/ Conservation of Resources (COR) Theory]] and xxxxxxx. === Process model of emotion regulation (Gross, 1998, 2002) === Gross's process model of emotion regulation in one of the most influential frameworks for understanding how emotions arise and how we can regulate them. This model identifies five emotion regulation strategies that occur during different time points in the emotion experience: situation selection, situation modification, attentional deployment, cognitive change, and response modulation. "Figure 2:" Gross's process model of emotion regulation [[File:Gross (2007) Process Model of Emotion Regulation.png]] Gross further divides these strategies into antecedent-focused and response-focused.  Antecedent-focused regulation occurs before or during the emotional response. Response-focused regulation occurs after the emotion has completely developed.  In the response-focused point, a person has already “responded or reacted” to the triggering event and then have experienced all the emotion component changes.  Within response-focused, people can regulate their emotions by trying to change any of the emotion components.  They might change their facial expressions, tone of voice, suppress their thoughts, increase or decrease their physiological arousal, and even change their subjective feelings. === Self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985) === The [[self-determination theory]] focuses on fulfilling three core psychological needs, autonomy, competency and relatedness (need reference??). The SDT can be applied to exercise thanks to the metadata review by Teixeira et al., 2012. # <u>Autonomy:</u> Studies have consistently supported SDT aspects showing a positive relationship between more autonomous types of motivation and exercise. Autonomous motivation in terms of exercise, means exercising because you ''want'' to, not because you have to. Autonomous motivation towards exercise is a key mindset for consistency to develop. Individuals need to feel in control of their own actions, choices and so should choose their own exercise that suits them personally. The individual should be in charge of implementing structures and routines that work for them. # <u>Competence:</u> Competence satisfaction predicts better exercise participation (Teixeira et al., 2012). People are more likely to exercise if they experience competence satisfaction and feel like they are good at what they are doing. Individuals need to feel competent, can master challenging situations and feel as though they are improving and feel able to reach their own goals. This can be applied to fitness goals. # <u>Relatedness:</u> Relatedness is the need to experience a sense of belonging, connection, and care for others. People want to feel accepted, included and a part of a group. Relatedness is the desire to feel connected and interpersonally involved in warm, caring, reciprocal relationships. Exercise is a fantastic way to not just get the physical benefit of moving your body, but also the social and connection of doing so, alongside others with a common health goal. Joining a run club, aqua aerobics or tai chi class can help make social connections whilst moving your body. ==== Cognitive evaluation theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985) ==== Cognitive evaluation theory is a sub-theory of self-determination theory that explains how external events influence intrinsic motivation by affecting individual <u>perceived</u> competence and autonomy. Edward L. Deci and Richard M. Ryan develop CET in 1985, with the focus on the interplay between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. In short, what drives human motivation. CET examines how external factors—such as rewards, feedback, deadlines, or social pressures—can either enhance or undermine a person’s natural drive to engage in an activity for its own sake. The theory emphasizes that intrinsic motivation is not fixed but highly sensitive to environmental cues. In an sports or exercise context, individuals or coaches can use CET principles to encourage skill development and enjoyment rather than relying solely on external rewards such as first place trophies. Types of motivation from cognitive evaluation theory: * '''Intrinsic motivation:''' Doing an activity purely for its satisfaction, enjoyment, or interest predicts better exercise participation of long-term exercise adherence. A trend towards identified regulation (exercising because you see value in doing so) was found to predict participation more strongly than intrinsic motivation in the short term. * '''Extrinsic motivation:''' Doing an activity for external rewards, pressures, or avoidance of consequences, which can range from controlled (forced) to autonomous (internalised values). This is a good way to start exercising however intrinsic motives are better for long-term exercise habits. Extrinsic motives include winning a medal, gaining respect and praise or losing weight. * '''Amotivation:''' Amotivation is complete lack of intent or drive to take action. Three aspects attribute to feeling amotivative: Low competence, low autonomy, and low relatedness. The amotivated state is a predictor of poor performance and poor functioning. === Drive theory (Hull, 1943) === The [[drive theory]] proposes that humans are motivated to reduces pressures and stress and discomfort. Hull (1943) suggests that as a individuals arousal level increase, performance will also increase. Alternatively, if an individual's arousal levels decrease, then the performance would also decrease. Although this is not a primary motivational theory in the modern time, it still gives a good overview on what modern individuals often do not choose to exercise in time of emotional dysregulation. People are unconsciously looking to preserve energy and reduce stresses in the short term. What makes drive theory a learning theory, not just a motivation theory, is the feedback loop. When a particular behavior successfully reduces a drive, the connection between the situation and that behavior gets stronger. Hull called this “habit strength.” This is another point that is related for modern day people, we need to consciously turn to strengthen healthy habits and weaken maladaptive automatic responses. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''So how can the self-determination theory be applied to Sarah?''' Autonomy: Sarah hates running, but she loves dancing. Zumba classes at 7:30pm twice a week might suit Sarah better after she has a quick tea and a rest straight after work. Competency: Sarah hasn't even done dance classes before, but she does feel confident in showing off her moves. Zumba classes could motivate her to move her body while building more range in her dance move repertoire. Relatedness: Sarah is a very social person, and some of her friends might even like to join the Zumba classes too. Intrinsic motivators: Sarah should focus on aerobic exercises that are enjoyable to her. Looking for external motivators like weight loss or looking a sort of way, will not help Sarah stick to her movement long-term.{{RoundBoxBottom}} # == What exercise is best to help regulate emotions? == Australian adults should be active daily, undertaking a variety of physical activities at different intensities, which can include<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.health.gov.au/topics/physical-activity/24-hour-movement-guidelines-for-all-australians/recommendations-for-adults-18-to-64-years?language=en|title=Physical Activity Recommendations for Australian adults|date=|last=Australian Government}}</ref>: * moderate- to vigorous-intensity physical activities for 30 minutes or more on most days * muscle-strengthening activities on 2 or more days per week * functional activities targeting mobility, balance, and coordination on 3 or more days per week * several hours of light-intensity physical activity daily. Any movement is beneficial to individuals but to regulate your emotions the most ideal exercise looks like this: Anaerobic exercise (also known as resistance training) has benefits on emotion regulation such as....... Aerobic exercise<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/articles/7050-aerobic-exercise|title=Aerobic Exercise|last=Cleveland Clinic}}</ref> is when you continuously use oxygen as your fuel. Aerobic exercise promotes emotion regulation (Wang et al., 2024). And what is more important to note is that there are <u>immediate</u> results on mood. * {| class="wikitable" |+'''Table 1:''' Optimal exercise for each age category, with supporting studies. !Age !Exercise !Intensity/ Frequency !Study |- |Children |A variety of exercise such as running, soccer, dancing, tips, games and anything else that sustains interest and fun of the child. |60 minutes daily minimum Moderate–vigorous |Chaput et al., 2020 |- |Adolesence |A range of aerobic and strength exercise which can include sports, gym, HIT sessions, weights or running. |60 minutes daily Moderate–vigorous |Salvan et al., 2021 Parrish et al., 2020 |- |Adults |Walking, riding, swimming, running, zumba or sports. Begin with short, low-intensity walking and gradually increase duration and intensity |30 minutes or more, most days Moderate–vigorous strength twice a week |Ligeza et al., 2023, Mizzi et al., 2022 |- |Older Adults |Walking, exercise bike or water aerobics |Set depending on exercise ability and history |Erickson et al., 2011 |} ;Test yourself<quiz display="simple"> {High intensity running is best for older adults to help manager their emotions: |type="()"} + True - False {Children should take part in more frequent exercise than adults and it should be more varied: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ** ==Conclusion== In conclusion, physical activity has physical, and psychological benefits and is beneficial in times of emotional dysregulation. Using exercise as a preventative mechanism is also important. '''Useful takeaways:''' * One session of aerobic exercise can significantly boost positive mood and alleviate stress responses. It is recommended for use as an immediate mood regulation strategy. * Any movement can be used such as walking, dancing or sport. *Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Key messages * Start by moving your body for 30 minutes in any way you enjoy. Positive effects on mood starts immediately. What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Chaput, J. P., Willumsen, J., Bull, F., Chou, R., Ekelund, U., Firth, J., Jago, R., Ortega, F. B., & Katzmarzyk, P. T. (2020). 2020 WHO guidelines on physical activity and sedentary behaviour for children and adolescents aged 5-17 years: summary of the evidence. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act, 17(1), 141. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12966-020-01037-z Erickson, K. I., Voss, M. W., Prakash, R. S., Basak, C., Szabo, A., Chaddock, L., Kim, J. S., Heo, S., Alves, H., White, S. M., Wojcicki, T. R., Mailey, E., Vieira, V. J., Martin, S. A., Pence, B. D., Woods, J. A., McAuley, E., & Kramer, A. F. (2011). Exercise training increases size of hippocampus and improves memory. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 108(7), 3017-3022. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1015950108 Gratz, K. L., & Roemer, L. (2004). Multidimensional Assessment of Emotion Regulation and Dysregulation: Development, Factor Structure, and Initial Validation of the Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 26(1), 41-54. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:JOBA.0000007455.08539.94 Izard, C. E. (2013). Human emotions. Springer Science & Business Media. Ligeza, T. S., Maciejczyk, M., Wyczesany, M., & Junghofer, M. (2023). The effects of a single aerobic exercise session on mood and neural emotional reactivity in depressed and healthy young adults: A late positive potential study. Psychophysiology, 60(1), e14137. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/psyp.14137 Mizzi, A. L., McKinnon, M. C., & Becker, S. (2022). The Impact of Aerobic Exercise on Mood Symptoms in Trauma-Exposed Young Adults: A Pilot Study [Original Research]. Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience, Volume 16 - 2022. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnbeh.2022.829571 Parrish, A.-M., Tremblay, M. S., Carson, S., Veldman, S. L., Cliff, D., Vella, S., Chong, K. H., Nacher, M., del Pozo Cruz, B., & Ellis, Y. (2020). Comparing and assessing physical activity guidelines for children and adolescents: a systematic literature review and analysis. International journal of behavioral nutrition and physical activity, 17(1), 16. Salvan, P., Wassenaar, T., Wheatley, C., Beale, N., Cottaar, M., Papp, D., Bastiani, M., Fitzgibbon, S., Duff, E., Andersson, J., Winkler, A. M., Douaud, G., Nichols, T. E., Smith, S., Dawes, H., & Johansen-Berg, H. (2021). Multimodal Imaging Brain Markers in Early Adolescence Are Linked with a Physically Active Lifestyle. The Journal of Neuroscience, 41(5), 1092. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1260-20.2020 Teixeira, P. J., Carraça, E. V., Markland, D., Silva, M. N., & Ryan, R. M. (2012). Exercise, physical activity, and self-determination theory: a systematic review. International journal of behavioral nutrition and physical activity, 9(1), 78. Wang, X., Liu, T., Jin, X., & Zhou, C. (2024). Aerobic exercise promotes emotion regulation: a narrative review. Experimental Brain Research, 242(4), 783-796. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1007/s00221-024-06791-1 }} == External links == External relevant resources: * [https://www.paulekman.com/universal-emotions/ Universal Emotions | What are Emotions? | Paul Ekman Group] * [https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/symptoms/25065-emotional-dysregulation Emotional Dysregulation: What It Is, Causes & Treatment] * [https://www.health.gov.au/topics/physical-activity/24-hour-movement-guidelines-for-all-australians 24-hour movement guidelines for all Australians | Australian Government Department of Health, Disability and Ageing] {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Emotion regulation through exercise|Emotion regulation through exercise]] (Book chapter, 2025) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotional self-regulation]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Exercise]] <noinclude> <hr> __TOC__ [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book]] 0rgtvz7bwdp7o33y8ij0ch7g8oz2a6c 2835768 2835767 2026-10-04T08:08:09Z KB3250298 3105557 /* References */ 2835768 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Emotion regulation through exercise:<br>How do people use exercise to regulate their emotional states?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Case study''' [[File:Laptop and girl biting pencil-pixabay.jpg|thumb|200px|'''Figure 1'''. Sarah feeling very unregulated with too much going on in her life.]] Sarah stayed up late last night studying as she has three assignments due in the same week. When her alarm goes off at 6am for work she feels exhausted so crawls to the shower to wake herself up. Sarahs house mate bangs on the door yelling to hurry up as they need to use the bathroom. Sarah is already sick of this day but gets dressed and rushes off to her part-time work at a before school care center. Her boss grumbles at her for being 10 minutes late and the children are complaining and fighting about the breakfast they served today. Sarah pushes though her shift, and when it's over, she gets back to her car and sits in it for a moment, She feels tired, grumpy and so frustrated with so many people right now she feels like she might explode. Sarah knows she should go for a run because she hasn't exercised all week, but she is just too tired. Maybe she will get Macca's on the way home and go to her couch to scroll on her phone while she is peacefully at home by herself. What should Sarah do to help regulate her rising emotions: Go for a run or home to scroll? {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[Emotion|Emotions]] are a part of what makes us human and affect us all differently (Izard, 2013). Emotions effect the entirety of a person including their body, perception, cognition, their actions, personality and even their relationships (Izard, 2013). Emotions alert us to sensory information that needs our attention to keep us safe and healthy mentally and physically and steers our actions in these times. Although emotions are very helpful and necessary, they can also have negative impact when they become maladaptive or last too long. This is when we need to regulate our emotions. Emotion regulation is a helpful and important process for humans to function effectively day to day (''Emotion regulation: Conceptual foundations'', 2007). [[File:Plutchik-wheel.svg|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Plutchik's wheel of emotions {{ic|Explain relevance to the topic}}]] Emotions can be negative or positive to a person and can be triggered by a range of situations in our lives, some we can't control, but some we can. So what we do to keep our emotions from becoming too much? {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Focus questions''' * What is emotion regulation? * How can exercise help regulate emotions? * What exercise is best to help regulate emotions? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == What is emotion regulation? == [https://www.paulekman.com/universal-emotions/ Universal emotions] were identified by Paul Ekman, that we ''all'' feel, despite we speak different languages, live in different place regional, have different cultural, and ethnic differences (Ekman et al., 1999). He included happiness/enjoyment, anger, fear, disgust, sadness, surprise and then later added contempt. Plutchik went on to create a wheel of emotions to help visually explain these different emotions and show further breakdown ("The emotions," 1991). Emotions can also become dysregulated. [https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/symptoms/25065-emotional-dysregulation Emotional dysregulation] is when your emotions feel too big and too strong and a person loses the ability to control their behaviour. Emotional dysregulation is the inability to be aware of, accept, regulate, and modify emotional reactions and subsequent behaviours (Gratz & Roemer, 2004). It can look and feel like irritability, anger, mood swings, outbursts, feeling numb or detached, shutting down. Or in more extreme cases aggressive behaviors, stained relationships and connections and verbals shouting and crying<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/symptoms/25065-emotional-dysregulation|title=Cleveland Clinic: Emotional-dysregulation}}</ref>. The goal of emotion regulation is often explained as down-regulating (reducing) the sensation and/or duration of negative emotions such as feeling sad, angry or anxious (Gross et al., 2006). People can also try to up-regulate and increase the intensity or duration of positive emotions (Quoidbach et al., 2010). Emotion regulation is a very important skill of which children typically struggle with and some this can follow into adolescents and adulthood for some. == How can exercise help to regulate emotions? == Exercise is an essential part of humans everyday lives. It's recommended by [https://www.health.gov.au/topics/physical-activity/24-hour-movement-guidelines-for-all-australians The Department of Health, Disability and Aging to move most days].  {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}'''Department of Health, Disability and Aging recommended physical activity for adults''' -Moderate to vigorous physical activities for at least 30 minutes on most days. -Muscle-strengthening activities at least twice per week. -Functional activities targeting mobility, balance, and coordination on 3 or more days per week. -Several hours of light-intensity physical activity daily. {{RoundBoxBottom}} === Physiological effects === Exercise positively attributes to well emotional regulation by changing brain chemistry, strengthening brain networks, and reducing stress hormones. Exercise has been proven to reduce cortisol levels and increase dopamine and other endorphins which are hormones responsible for the feelings of calm and comfort. Simply said, exercise puts the brain in a state where it is better able to regulate emotions! (reference) * '''Reduces cortisol and increases dopamine''': Meaning emotional regulation is much easier. (reference) * '''Improve sleep:''' Exercise promotes better sleep as physical exertion regulates stress, lowers stress hormones and reduces muscle tension. === Psychological effects === Psychological benefits of exercise have continued to be support in many ways such as: * '''Mindfulness:''' Exercise can give people opportunities to be present in their movements and have a healthy break from negative of challenging mental strains. * '''Connection:''' Exercise can be a fantastic way to connect with others and create social support networks. Walking with friends or family is a perfect way to end a tough day. * '''Building self-efficacy and self-belief:''' Setting and reaching fitness goals can build personal confidence, build resilience and give you a sense of control over your daily structure. Building self-efficacy and self-esteem through exercise is an important and healthy way to cope with daily challenges. * '''Improved mental health:''' Exercise has been proven to improve mental health. == Psychological theories == Many psychological theories can be applied to exercise and emotional regulation however here we will cover the process model of emotion regulation, [[w:Self determination theory|self-determination theory]] (SDT), [[cognitive evaluation theory]] (CET), [[drive theory|drive theory/ Conservation of Resources (COR) Theory]] and xxxxxxx. === Process model of emotion regulation (Gross, 1998, 2002) === Gross's process model of emotion regulation in one of the most influential frameworks for understanding how emotions arise and how we can regulate them. This model identifies five emotion regulation strategies that occur during different time points in the emotion experience: situation selection, situation modification, attentional deployment, cognitive change, and response modulation. "Figure 2:" Gross's process model of emotion regulation [[File:Gross (2007) Process Model of Emotion Regulation.png]] Gross further divides these strategies into antecedent-focused and response-focused.  Antecedent-focused regulation occurs before or during the emotional response. Response-focused regulation occurs after the emotion has completely developed.  In the response-focused point, a person has already “responded or reacted” to the triggering event and then have experienced all the emotion component changes.  Within response-focused, people can regulate their emotions by trying to change any of the emotion components.  They might change their facial expressions, tone of voice, suppress their thoughts, increase or decrease their physiological arousal, and even change their subjective feelings. === Self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985) === The [[self-determination theory]] focuses on fulfilling three core psychological needs, autonomy, competency and relatedness (need reference??). The SDT can be applied to exercise thanks to the metadata review by Teixeira et al., 2012. # <u>Autonomy:</u> Studies have consistently supported SDT aspects showing a positive relationship between more autonomous types of motivation and exercise. Autonomous motivation in terms of exercise, means exercising because you ''want'' to, not because you have to. Autonomous motivation towards exercise is a key mindset for consistency to develop. Individuals need to feel in control of their own actions, choices and so should choose their own exercise that suits them personally. The individual should be in charge of implementing structures and routines that work for them. # <u>Competence:</u> Competence satisfaction predicts better exercise participation (Teixeira et al., 2012). People are more likely to exercise if they experience competence satisfaction and feel like they are good at what they are doing. Individuals need to feel competent, can master challenging situations and feel as though they are improving and feel able to reach their own goals. This can be applied to fitness goals. # <u>Relatedness:</u> Relatedness is the need to experience a sense of belonging, connection, and care for others. People want to feel accepted, included and a part of a group. Relatedness is the desire to feel connected and interpersonally involved in warm, caring, reciprocal relationships. Exercise is a fantastic way to not just get the physical benefit of moving your body, but also the social and connection of doing so, alongside others with a common health goal. Joining a run club, aqua aerobics or tai chi class can help make social connections whilst moving your body. ==== Cognitive evaluation theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985) ==== Cognitive evaluation theory is a sub-theory of self-determination theory that explains how external events influence intrinsic motivation by affecting individual <u>perceived</u> competence and autonomy. Edward L. Deci and Richard M. Ryan develop CET in 1985, with the focus on the interplay between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. In short, what drives human motivation. CET examines how external factors—such as rewards, feedback, deadlines, or social pressures—can either enhance or undermine a person’s natural drive to engage in an activity for its own sake. The theory emphasizes that intrinsic motivation is not fixed but highly sensitive to environmental cues. In an sports or exercise context, individuals or coaches can use CET principles to encourage skill development and enjoyment rather than relying solely on external rewards such as first place trophies. Types of motivation from cognitive evaluation theory: * '''Intrinsic motivation:''' Doing an activity purely for its satisfaction, enjoyment, or interest predicts better exercise participation of long-term exercise adherence. A trend towards identified regulation (exercising because you see value in doing so) was found to predict participation more strongly than intrinsic motivation in the short term. * '''Extrinsic motivation:''' Doing an activity for external rewards, pressures, or avoidance of consequences, which can range from controlled (forced) to autonomous (internalised values). This is a good way to start exercising however intrinsic motives are better for long-term exercise habits. Extrinsic motives include winning a medal, gaining respect and praise or losing weight. * '''Amotivation:''' Amotivation is complete lack of intent or drive to take action. Three aspects attribute to feeling amotivative: Low competence, low autonomy, and low relatedness. The amotivated state is a predictor of poor performance and poor functioning. === Drive theory (Hull, 1943) === The [[drive theory]] proposes that humans are motivated to reduces pressures and stress and discomfort. Hull (1943) suggests that as a individuals arousal level increase, performance will also increase. Alternatively, if an individual's arousal levels decrease, then the performance would also decrease. Although this is not a primary motivational theory in the modern time, it still gives a good overview on what modern individuals often do not choose to exercise in time of emotional dysregulation. People are unconsciously looking to preserve energy and reduce stresses in the short term. What makes drive theory a learning theory, not just a motivation theory, is the feedback loop. When a particular behavior successfully reduces a drive, the connection between the situation and that behavior gets stronger. Hull called this “habit strength.” This is another point that is related for modern day people, we need to consciously turn to strengthen healthy habits and weaken maladaptive automatic responses. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''So how can the self-determination theory be applied to Sarah?''' Autonomy: Sarah hates running, but she loves dancing. Zumba classes at 7:30pm twice a week might suit Sarah better after she has a quick tea and a rest straight after work. Competency: Sarah hasn't even done dance classes before, but she does feel confident in showing off her moves. Zumba classes could motivate her to move her body while building more range in her dance move repertoire. Relatedness: Sarah is a very social person, and some of her friends might even like to join the Zumba classes too. Intrinsic motivators: Sarah should focus on aerobic exercises that are enjoyable to her. Looking for external motivators like weight loss or looking a sort of way, will not help Sarah stick to her movement long-term.{{RoundBoxBottom}} # == What exercise is best to help regulate emotions? == Australian adults should be active daily, undertaking a variety of physical activities at different intensities, which can include<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.health.gov.au/topics/physical-activity/24-hour-movement-guidelines-for-all-australians/recommendations-for-adults-18-to-64-years?language=en|title=Physical Activity Recommendations for Australian adults|date=|last=Australian Government}}</ref>: * moderate- to vigorous-intensity physical activities for 30 minutes or more on most days * muscle-strengthening activities on 2 or more days per week * functional activities targeting mobility, balance, and coordination on 3 or more days per week * several hours of light-intensity physical activity daily. Any movement is beneficial to individuals but to regulate your emotions the most ideal exercise looks like this: Anaerobic exercise (also known as resistance training) has benefits on emotion regulation such as....... Aerobic exercise<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/articles/7050-aerobic-exercise|title=Aerobic Exercise|last=Cleveland Clinic}}</ref> is when you continuously use oxygen as your fuel. Aerobic exercise promotes emotion regulation (Wang et al., 2024). And what is more important to note is that there are <u>immediate</u> results on mood. * {| class="wikitable" |+'''Table 1:''' Optimal exercise for each age category, with supporting studies. !Age !Exercise !Intensity/ Frequency !Study |- |Children |A variety of exercise such as running, soccer, dancing, tips, games and anything else that sustains interest and fun of the child. |60 minutes daily minimum Moderate–vigorous |Chaput et al., 2020 |- |Adolesence |A range of aerobic and strength exercise which can include sports, gym, HIT sessions, weights or running. |60 minutes daily Moderate–vigorous |Salvan et al., 2021 Parrish et al., 2020 |- |Adults |Walking, riding, swimming, running, zumba or sports. Begin with short, low-intensity walking and gradually increase duration and intensity |30 minutes or more, most days Moderate–vigorous strength twice a week |Ligeza et al., 2023, Mizzi et al., 2022 |- |Older Adults |Walking, exercise bike or water aerobics |Set depending on exercise ability and history |Erickson et al., 2011 |} ;Test yourself<quiz display="simple"> {High intensity running is best for older adults to help manager their emotions: |type="()"} + True - False {Children should take part in more frequent exercise than adults and it should be more varied: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ** ==Conclusion== In conclusion, physical activity has physical, and psychological benefits and is beneficial in times of emotional dysregulation. Using exercise as a preventative mechanism is also important. '''Useful takeaways:''' * One session of aerobic exercise can significantly boost positive mood and alleviate stress responses. It is recommended for use as an immediate mood regulation strategy. * Any movement can be used such as walking, dancing or sport. *Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Key messages * Start by moving your body for 30 minutes in any way you enjoy. Positive effects on mood starts immediately. What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Chaput, J. P., Willumsen, J., Bull, F., Chou, R., Ekelund, U., Firth, J., Jago, R., Ortega, F. B., & Katzmarzyk, P. T. (2020). 2020 WHO guidelines on physical activity and sedentary behaviour for children and adolescents aged 5-17 years: summary of the evidence. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act, 17(1), 141. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12966-020-01037-z Erickson, K. I., Voss, M. W., Prakash, R. S., Basak, C., Szabo, A., Chaddock, L., Kim, J. S., Heo, S., Alves, H., White, S. M., Wojcicki, T. R., Mailey, E., Vieira, V. J., Martin, S. A., Pence, B. D., Woods, J. A., McAuley, E., & Kramer, A. F. (2011). Exercise training increases size of hippocampus and improves memory. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 108(7), 3017-3022. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1015950108 Gratz, K. L., & Roemer, L. (2004). Multidimensional Assessment of Emotion Regulation and Dysregulation: Development, Factor Structure, and Initial Validation of the Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 26(1), 41-54. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:JOBA.0000007455.08539.94 Gross, J. J. (1998). The emerging field of emotion regulation: An integrative review. Review of General Psychology, 2(3), 271–299. doi.org Izard, C. E. (2013). Human emotions. Springer Science & Business Media. Ligeza, T. S., Maciejczyk, M., Wyczesany, M., & Junghofer, M. (2023). The effects of a single aerobic exercise session on mood and neural emotional reactivity in depressed and healthy young adults: A late positive potential study. Psychophysiology, 60(1), e14137. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/psyp.14137 Mizzi, A. L., McKinnon, M. C., & Becker, S. (2022). The Impact of Aerobic Exercise on Mood Symptoms in Trauma-Exposed Young Adults: A Pilot Study [Original Research]. Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience, Volume 16 - 2022. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnbeh.2022.829571 Parrish, A.-M., Tremblay, M. S., Carson, S., Veldman, S. L., Cliff, D., Vella, S., Chong, K. H., Nacher, M., del Pozo Cruz, B., & Ellis, Y. (2020). Comparing and assessing physical activity guidelines for children and adolescents: a systematic literature review and analysis. International journal of behavioral nutrition and physical activity, 17(1), 16. Salvan, P., Wassenaar, T., Wheatley, C., Beale, N., Cottaar, M., Papp, D., Bastiani, M., Fitzgibbon, S., Duff, E., Andersson, J., Winkler, A. M., Douaud, G., Nichols, T. E., Smith, S., Dawes, H., & Johansen-Berg, H. (2021). Multimodal Imaging Brain Markers in Early Adolescence Are Linked with a Physically Active Lifestyle. The Journal of Neuroscience, 41(5), 1092. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1260-20.2020 Teixeira, P. J., Carraça, E. V., Markland, D., Silva, M. N., & Ryan, R. M. (2012). Exercise, physical activity, and self-determination theory: a systematic review. International journal of behavioral nutrition and physical activity, 9(1), 78. Wang, X., Liu, T., Jin, X., & Zhou, C. (2024). Aerobic exercise promotes emotion regulation: a narrative review. Experimental Brain Research, 242(4), 783-796. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1007/s00221-024-06791-1 }} == External links == External relevant resources: * [https://www.paulekman.com/universal-emotions/ Universal Emotions | What are Emotions? | Paul Ekman Group] * [https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/symptoms/25065-emotional-dysregulation Emotional Dysregulation: What It Is, Causes & Treatment] * [https://www.health.gov.au/topics/physical-activity/24-hour-movement-guidelines-for-all-australians 24-hour movement guidelines for all Australians | Australian Government Department of Health, Disability and Ageing] {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Emotion regulation through exercise|Emotion regulation through exercise]] (Book chapter, 2025) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotional self-regulation]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Exercise]] <noinclude> <hr> __TOC__ [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book]] 4vxywhbuc626z6tunkpypsog43gnxxa 2835779 2835768 2026-10-04T09:48:49Z KB3250298 3105557 /* What exercise is best to help regulate emotions? */ 2835779 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Emotion regulation through exercise:<br>How do people use exercise to regulate their emotional states?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Case study''' [[File:Laptop and girl biting pencil-pixabay.jpg|thumb|200px|'''Figure 1'''. Sarah feeling very unregulated with too much going on in her life.]] Sarah stayed up late last night studying as she has three assignments due in the same week. When her alarm goes off at 6am for work she feels exhausted so crawls to the shower to wake herself up. Sarahs house mate bangs on the door yelling to hurry up as they need to use the bathroom. Sarah is already sick of this day but gets dressed and rushes off to her part-time work at a before school care center. Her boss grumbles at her for being 10 minutes late and the children are complaining and fighting about the breakfast they served today. Sarah pushes though her shift, and when it's over, she gets back to her car and sits in it for a moment, She feels tired, grumpy and so frustrated with so many people right now she feels like she might explode. Sarah knows she should go for a run because she hasn't exercised all week, but she is just too tired. Maybe she will get Macca's on the way home and go to her couch to scroll on her phone while she is peacefully at home by herself. What should Sarah do to help regulate her rising emotions: Go for a run or home to scroll? {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[Emotion|Emotions]] are a part of what makes us human and affect us all differently (Izard, 2013). Emotions effect the entirety of a person including their body, perception, cognition, their actions, personality and even their relationships (Izard, 2013). Emotions alert us to sensory information that needs our attention to keep us safe and healthy mentally and physically and steers our actions in these times. Although emotions are very helpful and necessary, they can also have negative impact when they become maladaptive or last too long. This is when we need to regulate our emotions. Emotion regulation is a helpful and important process for humans to function effectively day to day (''Emotion regulation: Conceptual foundations'', 2007). [[File:Plutchik-wheel.svg|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Plutchik's wheel of emotions {{ic|Explain relevance to the topic}}]] Emotions can be negative or positive to a person and can be triggered by a range of situations in our lives, some we can't control, but some we can. So what we do to keep our emotions from becoming too much? {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Focus questions''' * What is emotion regulation? * How can exercise help regulate emotions? * What exercise is best to help regulate emotions? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == What is emotion regulation? == [https://www.paulekman.com/universal-emotions/ Universal emotions] were identified by Paul Ekman, that we ''all'' feel, despite we speak different languages, live in different place regional, have different cultural, and ethnic differences (Ekman et al., 1999). He included happiness/enjoyment, anger, fear, disgust, sadness, surprise and then later added contempt. Plutchik went on to create a wheel of emotions to help visually explain these different emotions and show further breakdown ("The emotions," 1991). Emotions can also become dysregulated. [https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/symptoms/25065-emotional-dysregulation Emotional dysregulation] is when your emotions feel too big and too strong and a person loses the ability to control their behaviour. Emotional dysregulation is the inability to be aware of, accept, regulate, and modify emotional reactions and subsequent behaviours (Gratz & Roemer, 2004). It can look and feel like irritability, anger, mood swings, outbursts, feeling numb or detached, shutting down. Or in more extreme cases aggressive behaviors, stained relationships and connections and verbals shouting and crying<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/symptoms/25065-emotional-dysregulation|title=Cleveland Clinic: Emotional-dysregulation}}</ref>. The goal of emotion regulation is often explained as down-regulating (reducing) the sensation and/or duration of negative emotions such as feeling sad, angry or anxious (Gross et al., 2006). People can also try to up-regulate and increase the intensity or duration of positive emotions (Quoidbach et al., 2010). Emotion regulation is a very important skill of which children typically struggle with and some this can follow into adolescents and adulthood for some. == How can exercise help to regulate emotions? == Exercise is an essential part of humans everyday lives. It's recommended by [https://www.health.gov.au/topics/physical-activity/24-hour-movement-guidelines-for-all-australians The Department of Health, Disability and Aging to move most days].  {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}'''Department of Health, Disability and Aging recommended physical activity for adults''' -Moderate to vigorous physical activities for at least 30 minutes on most days. -Muscle-strengthening activities at least twice per week. -Functional activities targeting mobility, balance, and coordination on 3 or more days per week. -Several hours of light-intensity physical activity daily. {{RoundBoxBottom}} === Physiological effects === Exercise positively attributes to well emotional regulation by changing brain chemistry, strengthening brain networks, and reducing stress hormones. Exercise has been proven to reduce cortisol levels and increase dopamine and other endorphins which are hormones responsible for the feelings of calm and comfort. Simply said, exercise puts the brain in a state where it is better able to regulate emotions! (reference) * '''Reduces cortisol and increases dopamine''': Meaning emotional regulation is much easier. (reference) * '''Improve sleep:''' Exercise promotes better sleep as physical exertion regulates stress, lowers stress hormones and reduces muscle tension. === Psychological effects === Psychological benefits of exercise have continued to be support in many ways such as: * '''Mindfulness:''' Exercise can give people opportunities to be present in their movements and have a healthy break from negative of challenging mental strains. * '''Connection:''' Exercise can be a fantastic way to connect with others and create social support networks. Walking with friends or family is a perfect way to end a tough day. * '''Building self-efficacy and self-belief:''' Setting and reaching fitness goals can build personal confidence, build resilience and give you a sense of control over your daily structure. Building self-efficacy and self-esteem through exercise is an important and healthy way to cope with daily challenges. * '''Improved mental health:''' Exercise has been proven to improve mental health. == Psychological theories == Many psychological theories can be applied to exercise and emotional regulation however here we will cover the process model of emotion regulation, [[w:Self determination theory|self-determination theory]] (SDT), [[cognitive evaluation theory]] (CET), [[drive theory|drive theory/ Conservation of Resources (COR) Theory]] and xxxxxxx. === Process model of emotion regulation (Gross, 1998, 2002) === Gross's process model of emotion regulation in one of the most influential frameworks for understanding how emotions arise and how we can regulate them. This model identifies five emotion regulation strategies that occur during different time points in the emotion experience: situation selection, situation modification, attentional deployment, cognitive change, and response modulation. "Figure 2:" Gross's process model of emotion regulation [[File:Gross (2007) Process Model of Emotion Regulation.png]] Gross further divides these strategies into antecedent-focused and response-focused.  Antecedent-focused regulation occurs before or during the emotional response. Response-focused regulation occurs after the emotion has completely developed.  In the response-focused point, a person has already “responded or reacted” to the triggering event and then have experienced all the emotion component changes.  Within response-focused, people can regulate their emotions by trying to change any of the emotion components.  They might change their facial expressions, tone of voice, suppress their thoughts, increase or decrease their physiological arousal, and even change their subjective feelings. === Self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985) === The [[self-determination theory]] focuses on fulfilling three core psychological needs, autonomy, competency and relatedness (need reference??). The SDT can be applied to exercise thanks to the metadata review by Teixeira et al., 2012. # <u>Autonomy:</u> Studies have consistently supported SDT aspects showing a positive relationship between more autonomous types of motivation and exercise. Autonomous motivation in terms of exercise, means exercising because you ''want'' to, not because you have to. Autonomous motivation towards exercise is a key mindset for consistency to develop. Individuals need to feel in control of their own actions, choices and so should choose their own exercise that suits them personally. The individual should be in charge of implementing structures and routines that work for them. # <u>Competence:</u> Competence satisfaction predicts better exercise participation (Teixeira et al., 2012). People are more likely to exercise if they experience competence satisfaction and feel like they are good at what they are doing. Individuals need to feel competent, can master challenging situations and feel as though they are improving and feel able to reach their own goals. This can be applied to fitness goals. # <u>Relatedness:</u> Relatedness is the need to experience a sense of belonging, connection, and care for others. People want to feel accepted, included and a part of a group. Relatedness is the desire to feel connected and interpersonally involved in warm, caring, reciprocal relationships. Exercise is a fantastic way to not just get the physical benefit of moving your body, but also the social and connection of doing so, alongside others with a common health goal. Joining a run club, aqua aerobics or tai chi class can help make social connections whilst moving your body. ==== Cognitive evaluation theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985) ==== Cognitive evaluation theory is a sub-theory of self-determination theory that explains how external events influence intrinsic motivation by affecting individual <u>perceived</u> competence and autonomy. Edward L. Deci and Richard M. Ryan develop CET in 1985, with the focus on the interplay between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. In short, what drives human motivation. CET examines how external factors—such as rewards, feedback, deadlines, or social pressures—can either enhance or undermine a person’s natural drive to engage in an activity for its own sake. The theory emphasizes that intrinsic motivation is not fixed but highly sensitive to environmental cues. In an sports or exercise context, individuals or coaches can use CET principles to encourage skill development and enjoyment rather than relying solely on external rewards such as first place trophies. Types of motivation from cognitive evaluation theory: * '''Intrinsic motivation:''' Doing an activity purely for its satisfaction, enjoyment, or interest predicts better exercise participation of long-term exercise adherence. A trend towards identified regulation (exercising because you see value in doing so) was found to predict participation more strongly than intrinsic motivation in the short term. * '''Extrinsic motivation:''' Doing an activity for external rewards, pressures, or avoidance of consequences, which can range from controlled (forced) to autonomous (internalised values). This is a good way to start exercising however intrinsic motives are better for long-term exercise habits. Extrinsic motives include winning a medal, gaining respect and praise or losing weight. * '''Amotivation:''' Amotivation is complete lack of intent or drive to take action. Three aspects attribute to feeling amotivative: Low competence, low autonomy, and low relatedness. The amotivated state is a predictor of poor performance and poor functioning. === Drive theory (Hull, 1943) === The [[drive theory]] proposes that humans are motivated to reduces pressures and stress and discomfort. Hull (1943) suggests that as a individuals arousal level increase, performance will also increase. Alternatively, if an individual's arousal levels decrease, then the performance would also decrease. Although this is not a primary motivational theory in the modern time, it still gives a good overview on what modern individuals often do not choose to exercise in time of emotional dysregulation. People are unconsciously looking to preserve energy and reduce stresses in the short term. What makes drive theory a learning theory, not just a motivation theory, is the feedback loop. When a particular behavior successfully reduces a drive, the connection between the situation and that behavior gets stronger. Hull called this “habit strength.” This is another point that is related for modern day people, we need to consciously turn to strengthen healthy habits and weaken maladaptive automatic responses. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''So how can the self-determination theory be applied to Sarah?''' Autonomy: Sarah hates running, but she loves dancing. Zumba classes at 7:30pm twice a week might suit Sarah better after she has a quick tea and a rest straight after work. Competency: Sarah hasn't even done dance classes before, but she does feel confident in showing off her moves. Zumba classes could motivate her to move her body while building more range in her dance move repertoire. Relatedness: Sarah is a very social person, and some of her friends might even like to join the Zumba classes too. Intrinsic motivators: Sarah should focus on aerobic exercises that are enjoyable to her. Looking for external motivators like weight loss or looking a sort of way, will not help Sarah stick to her movement long-term.{{RoundBoxBottom}} # == What exercise is best to help regulate emotions? == Australian adults should be active daily, undertaking a variety of physical activities at different intensities, which can include<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.health.gov.au/topics/physical-activity/24-hour-movement-guidelines-for-all-australians/recommendations-for-adults-18-to-64-years?language=en|title=Physical Activity Recommendations for Australian adults|date=|last=Australian Government}}</ref>: * moderate- to vigorous-intensity physical activities for 30 minutes or more on most days * muscle-strengthening activities on 2 or more days per week * functional activities targeting mobility, balance, and coordination on 3 or more days per week * several hours of light-intensity physical activity daily. Any movement is beneficial to individuals but to regulate your emotions although a meta-analysis by Song et al. (2025) found exercise programs featuring mixed modalities, longer duration, moderate to high frequencies, shorter duration, and low intensity yielded the most significant improvements in emotional regulation. Anaerobic exercise (also known as resistance training) has benefits on emotion regulation such as....... Aerobic exercise<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/articles/7050-aerobic-exercise|title=Aerobic Exercise|last=Cleveland Clinic}}</ref> is when you continuously use oxygen as your fuel. Aerobic exercise promotes emotion regulation (Wang et al., 2024). And what is more important to note is that there are <u>immediate</u> results on mood. * {| class="wikitable" |+'''Table 1:''' Optimal exercise for each age category, with supporting studies. !Age !Exercise !Intensity/ Frequency !Study |- |Children |A variety of exercise such as running, soccer, dancing, tips, games and anything else that sustains interest and fun of the child. |60 minutes daily minimum Moderate–vigorous |Chaput et al., 2020 |- |Adolesence |A range of aerobic and strength exercise which can include sports, gym, HIT sessions, weights or running. |60 minutes daily Moderate–vigorous |Salvan et al., 2021 Parrish et al., 2020 |- |Adults |Walking, riding, swimming, running, zumba or sports. Begin with short, low-intensity walking and gradually increase duration and intensity |30 minutes or more, most days Moderate–vigorous strength twice a week |Ligeza et al., 2023, Mizzi et al., 2022 |- |Older Adults |Walking, exercise bike or water aerobics |Set depending on exercise ability and history |Erickson et al., 2011 |} ;Test yourself<quiz display="simple"> {High intensity running is best for older adults to help manager their emotions: |type="()"} + True - False {Children should take part in more frequent exercise than adults and it should be more varied: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ** ==Conclusion== In conclusion, physical activity has physical, and psychological benefits and is beneficial in times of emotional dysregulation. Using exercise as a preventative mechanism is also important. '''Useful takeaways:''' * One session of aerobic exercise can significantly boost positive mood and alleviate stress responses. It is recommended for use as an immediate mood regulation strategy. * Any movement can be used such as walking, dancing or sport. *Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Key messages * Start by moving your body for 30 minutes in any way you enjoy. Positive effects on mood starts immediately. What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Chaput, J. P., Willumsen, J., Bull, F., Chou, R., Ekelund, U., Firth, J., Jago, R., Ortega, F. B., & Katzmarzyk, P. T. (2020). 2020 WHO guidelines on physical activity and sedentary behaviour for children and adolescents aged 5-17 years: summary of the evidence. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act, 17(1), 141. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12966-020-01037-z Erickson, K. I., Voss, M. W., Prakash, R. S., Basak, C., Szabo, A., Chaddock, L., Kim, J. S., Heo, S., Alves, H., White, S. M., Wojcicki, T. R., Mailey, E., Vieira, V. J., Martin, S. A., Pence, B. D., Woods, J. A., McAuley, E., & Kramer, A. F. (2011). Exercise training increases size of hippocampus and improves memory. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 108(7), 3017-3022. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1015950108 Gratz, K. L., & Roemer, L. (2004). Multidimensional Assessment of Emotion Regulation and Dysregulation: Development, Factor Structure, and Initial Validation of the Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 26(1), 41-54. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:JOBA.0000007455.08539.94 Gross, J. J. (1998). The emerging field of emotion regulation: An integrative review. Review of General Psychology, 2(3), 271–299. doi.org Izard, C. E. (2013). Human emotions. Springer Science & Business Media. Ligeza, T. S., Maciejczyk, M., Wyczesany, M., & Junghofer, M. (2023). The effects of a single aerobic exercise session on mood and neural emotional reactivity in depressed and healthy young adults: A late positive potential study. Psychophysiology, 60(1), e14137. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/psyp.14137 Mizzi, A. L., McKinnon, M. C., & Becker, S. (2022). The Impact of Aerobic Exercise on Mood Symptoms in Trauma-Exposed Young Adults: A Pilot Study [Original Research]. Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience, Volume 16 - 2022. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnbeh.2022.829571 Parrish, A.-M., Tremblay, M. S., Carson, S., Veldman, S. L., Cliff, D., Vella, S., Chong, K. H., Nacher, M., del Pozo Cruz, B., & Ellis, Y. (2020). Comparing and assessing physical activity guidelines for children and adolescents: a systematic literature review and analysis. International journal of behavioral nutrition and physical activity, 17(1), 16. Salvan, P., Wassenaar, T., Wheatley, C., Beale, N., Cottaar, M., Papp, D., Bastiani, M., Fitzgibbon, S., Duff, E., Andersson, J., Winkler, A. M., Douaud, G., Nichols, T. E., Smith, S., Dawes, H., & Johansen-Berg, H. (2021). Multimodal Imaging Brain Markers in Early Adolescence Are Linked with a Physically Active Lifestyle. The Journal of Neuroscience, 41(5), 1092. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1260-20.2020 Song Y, Jia S, Wang X, Wang A, Ma T, Li S, Chen J, Guo Z, Ding F, Ren Y and Qin M (2025) Effects of physical exercise on anxiety depression and emotion regulation in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Front. Pediatr. 12:1479615. doi: 10.3389/fped.2024.1479615 Teixeira, P. J., Carraça, E. V., Markland, D., Silva, M. N., & Ryan, R. M. (2012). Exercise, physical activity, and self-determination theory: a systematic review. International journal of behavioral nutrition and physical activity, 9(1), 78. Wang, X., Liu, T., Jin, X., & Zhou, C. (2024). Aerobic exercise promotes emotion regulation: a narrative review. Experimental Brain Research, 242(4), 783-796. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1007/s00221-024-06791-1 }} == External links == External relevant resources: * [https://www.paulekman.com/universal-emotions/ Universal Emotions | What are Emotions? | Paul Ekman Group] * [https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/symptoms/25065-emotional-dysregulation Emotional Dysregulation: What It Is, Causes & Treatment] * [https://www.health.gov.au/topics/physical-activity/24-hour-movement-guidelines-for-all-australians 24-hour movement guidelines for all Australians | Australian Government Department of Health, Disability and Ageing] {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Emotion regulation through exercise|Emotion regulation through exercise]] (Book chapter, 2025) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotional self-regulation]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Exercise]] <noinclude> <hr> __TOC__ [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book]] 77gv27i34a2xspurh12g4xcnna1mmmi 0 330084 2835784 2830058 2026-10-04T10:59:09Z Pinkk47 3109655 /* Overview */ 2835784 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Self-stigma and Emotion:<br>How does self-stigma impact emotional well-being? }} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Basteibrücke morgens.jpg|thumb|Basteibrücke morgens {{ic|Add a meaningful APA style caption}}]] ;Scenario Imagine Mia, a 21-year-old university student who has recently been diagnosed with anxiety. Before her diagnosis, Mia viewed herself as highly independent, outgoing and capable. She quite enjoyed attending University, spending time with her friends and felt confident in her ability to manage stressful situations. After her diagnosis, Mia became increasingly concerned about what other people might think of her anxiety. She has previously heard people describe about mental health problems as being “attention seeking”, “dramatic” or a sign of being “weak”. Although none of her friends never said this about her, she decided to not tell them about her diagnosis. As time went by, the stereotypes begin to influence how Mia sees herself. The belief that “People with mental health illness are weak” gradually becomes “I am weak because I have a mental illness”. When she struggles with a University assignment, instead of seeing it as a challenge, she thinks “Maybe I can’t do this like everyone else can”. She also withdraws from social occasions and previous opportunities she enjoyed. Importantly, Mia’s friends never changed their behaviour towards Mia. What changed was Mia’s perception of herself. A negative stereotype that exists within her social environment has been internalised into her own self-beliefs. Mia’s experience demonstrates the central problem explored in this book chapter: How does a social stereotype become an emotional burden carried by the individual? {{RoundBoxBottom}} This chapter explores how self-stigma can impact emotional well-being, particularly when negative social stereotypes about mental illness become internalised, shaping how individuals think and feel about themselves. It examines how self-stigma develops, its effects on emotions such as shame and hopelessness, most influentially how changes in self-esteem and self-efficacy can influence motivation and behaviour. Psychological theories explain these processes and how to break the cycle of self-stigma. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} ;Focus questions {{ic|Use bullet-points as shown in Tutorial 2}} What is self stigma and how does it develop from public stigma? How does self-stigma influence shame, self-esteem, hope and emotional distress? Which psychological theories explain the relationship between self-stigma and emotional wellbeing? How can emotional consequences of self-stigma influence motivation and behaviour? What factors can help people resist or reduce self-stigma? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Understanding self-stigma== {{ic|What are the key psychological theory/theories that help to understand self-stigma?}} This section will establish exactly what self-stigma is, distinguish it from related forms of stigma, and explain how external stereotypes can become incorporated into self-concept. *Self-stigma occurs when a person becomes aware of negative stereotypes about a group they identify with, agrees with those stereotypes, and applies them to (Corrigan & Rao, 2012) *Self-stigma is particularly important to emotional well-being because negative social beliefs can become negative self-beliefs, influencing self-esteem, hope, shame, psychological distress and quality of life (Lasalvia et al., 2025) *Public stigma vs self-stigma (compare the two) *Describe how stigma becomes internalised – Awareness, agreement and application '''Include Figure 2. Explaining the transition from external stigma to internal emotional thoughts and feelings''' == Emotional consequences of self stigma == {{ic|What is the key empirical evidence about the effect of SS on E?}} This section will address the chapters subtitle through examining emotional messages when stigma is internalised. * Mental health stigma related to self-esteem and quality of life (Lasalvia et al., 2025) * Shame and negative self-evaluation * Self stigma can transform an experience such as “I have a mental health condition” into an identity judgement such as “There is nothing wrong with me” * Self esteem, self worth and value can influence “who am I?” but also “what future is possible for me?” (Ackerman, 2018) * Internalising beliefs leads to greater depressive symptoms {| class="wikitable" |+Table 3. Emotional pathway of self-stigma – reduced quality of life !Self Belief !Possible Emotional consequence |- |"There is something wrong with me" |Shame |- |"I am not good enough" |Reduced self-esteem |- |"Things will never get better" |Hopelessness |- |"Others will reject me" |Anxiety or Fear |- |"I have a limited future" |Sadness/Depressive effect |} == Why does self-stigma effect emotion{{g}} == This section will move beyond describing correlations and explain '''why''' self-stigma affects emotional well-being. * Corrigan and Bink (2016) propose that self-stigma can reduce self-esteem “I am not worthy” and self-efficacy “I am not capable”. * This creates what Corrigan and Bink (2016) call the "why try" effect: “Why should I try to achieve something if I believe I am incapable or undeserving?” * Self-discrepancy theory proposes that people hold different self-images, including their actual self, ideal self and ought self (Higgins, 1989) * Examples may include not applying for employment, withdrawing from university activities, avoiding relationships, or disengaging from treatment because negative self-beliefs make success appear unlikely. ;Case study - Sabrina Sabrina has recently started a new job and has been diagnosed with anxiety disorder. While on her lunch break, she hears someone describe a person who had a panic attack as “dramatic”. Sabrina initially thinks that “they probably believe people with anxiety are dramatic too”. A few weeks later this negative thought turned into “maybe I am dramatic”. Before a team bonding session, Sabrina worries that someone will notice her anxiety and decides she does not belong in her new job. She tells her supervisor she is unwell and goes home. '''Reflection questions:''' {{ic|Use a numbered listed or bullet-points as shown in Tutorial 2}} 1.     Where does public stigma appear in Sabrina's experience? 2.     At what point does it become self-stigma? 3.     What emotional consequences might Sabrina experience? 4.     How do these emotions influence her motivation? 5. Why might avoiding the presentation strengthen rather than resolve the self-stigma cycle? == Breaking the cycle == This section will prevent the chapter from presenting self-stigma as inevitable or irreversible. * Narrative Enhancement and Cognitive Therapy (NECT) - (Roe, 2013) * Stigma resistance involves rejecting or resisting the personal relevance of negative stereotypes * Psychological intervention and social support * Self-stigma should not be framed only as a problem of an individual's thinking because the stereotypes being internalised originate within the broader social environment (Roe, 2013). Quick Knowledge check – QUIZ – Which example best represents stigma resistance? A. “People probably know my limitations better than I do.” B. “My diagnosis means I should lower my expectations.” C. “The stereotype exists, but it does not determine my individual abilities.” D. “If I hide my diagnosis completely, stigma cannot affect me.” Correct answer: C ==Conclusion== * Self-stigma occurs when socially held stereotypes are internalised and incorporated into self-concept, turning external judgement into negative self-evaluation. * The chapter will argue that the emotional effects of self-stigma are best understood as a process, rather than as a simple list of outcomes. * Importantly, self-stigma is not inevitable. Stigma resistance, psychological interventions such as NECT, supportive social environments and broader efforts to reduce public stigma may interrupt the process. * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Self-concept clarity|Self-concept clarity]] (Book chapter, 2019) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Self-efficacy and motivation|Self-efficacy and motivation]] (Book chapter, 2014) ==References== Provide the references for all citations in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. Alternatively, you can use wiki style (as used on Wikipedia), as long as the information is complete and the formatting is consistent. {{Hanging indent|1= Ackerman, C. (2018, May 23). What is self-esteem? A psychologist explains. PositivePsychology.Com. https://positivepsychology.com/self-esteem/ {{ic|Move to external links - not an academic source}} Corrigan, P. W., & Bink, A. B. (2016). What is the impact of self-stigma? Loss of self-respect and the “why try” effect. Journal of Mental Health, 25(1), 10–15. https://doi.org/10.3109/09638237.2015.1021902 Corrigan, P. W., & Rao, D. (2012). On the self-stigma of mental illness: Stages, disclosure, and strategies for change. The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 57(8), 464–469. https://doi.org/10.1177/070674371205700804 Higgins, E. T. (1989). Self-discrepancy theory: What patterns of self-beliefs cause people to suffer? Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 22(1), 93–136. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0065-2601(08)60306-8 Lasalvia, A., Bonetto, C., & Van Bortel, T. (2025). The impact of self-stigma on empowerment in major depressive disorder: The mediating role of self-esteem and the moderating effects of socioeconomic and cultural context in an international multi-site study. Journal of Affective Disorders, 390, 119802. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2025.119802 Roe, D. (2013). Narrative enhancement and cognitive therapy (NECT) effectiveness: A quasi-experimental study. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 70(4), 303–312. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.22050 }} ==External links== [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Stigma]] n200yyirdtnkulawa9dod3fjnsplyoy 2835785 2835784 2026-10-04T11:01:12Z Pinkk47 3109655 /* Overview */ 2835785 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Self-stigma and Emotion:<br>How does self-stigma impact emotional well-being? }} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Basteibrücke morgens.jpg|thumb|Basteibrücke morgens {{ic|Add a meaningful APA style caption}}]] ;Scenario Imagine Mia, a 21-year-old university student who has recently been diagnosed with anxiety. Before her diagnosis, Mia viewed herself as highly independent, outgoing and capable. She quite enjoyed attending University, spending time with her friends and felt confident in her ability to manage stressful situations. After her diagnosis, Mia became increasingly concerned about what other people might think of her anxiety. She has previously heard people describe about mental health problems as being “attention seeking”, “dramatic” or a sign of being “weak”. Although none of her friends never said this about her, she decided to not tell them about her diagnosis. As time went by, the stereotypes begin to influence how Mia sees herself. The belief that “People with mental health illness are weak” gradually becomes “I am weak because I have a mental illness”. When she struggles with a University assignment, instead of seeing it as a challenge, she thinks “Maybe I can’t do this like everyone else can”. She also withdraws from social occasions and previous opportunities she enjoyed. Importantly, Mia’s friends never changed their behaviour towards Mia. What changed was Mia’s perception of herself. A negative stereotype that exists within her social environment has been internalised into her own self-beliefs. Mia’s experience demonstrates the central problem explored in this book chapter: How does a social stereotype become an emotional burden carried by the individual? {{RoundBoxBottom}} This chapter explores how self-stigma can impact emotional well-being, particularly when negative social stereotypes about mental illness become internalised, shaping how individuals think and feel about themselves. It examines how self-stigma develops, its effects on emotions such as shame and hopelessness, most influentially how changes in self-esteem and self-efficacy can influence motivation and behaviour. Psychological theories explain these processes and how to break the cycle of self-stigma. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} ;Focus questions {{ic|}}• What is self stigma and how does it develop from public stigma? • How does self-stigma influence shame, self-esteem, hope and emotional distress? • Which psychological theories explain the relationship between self-stigma and emotional wellbeing? • How can emotional consequences of self-stigma influence motivation and behaviour? • What factors can help people resist or reduce self-stigma? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Understanding self-stigma== {{ic|What are the key psychological theory/theories that help to understand self-stigma?}} This section will establish exactly what self-stigma is, distinguish it from related forms of stigma, and explain how external stereotypes can become incorporated into self-concept. *Self-stigma occurs when a person becomes aware of negative stereotypes about a group they identify with, agrees with those stereotypes, and applies them to (Corrigan & Rao, 2012) *Self-stigma is particularly important to emotional well-being because negative social beliefs can become negative self-beliefs, influencing self-esteem, hope, shame, psychological distress and quality of life (Lasalvia et al., 2025) *Public stigma vs self-stigma (compare the two) *Describe how stigma becomes internalised – Awareness, agreement and application '''Include Figure 2. Explaining the transition from external stigma to internal emotional thoughts and feelings''' == Emotional consequences of self stigma == {{ic|What is the key empirical evidence about the effect of SS on E?}} This section will address the chapters subtitle through examining emotional messages when stigma is internalised. * Mental health stigma related to self-esteem and quality of life (Lasalvia et al., 2025) * Shame and negative self-evaluation * Self stigma can transform an experience such as “I have a mental health condition” into an identity judgement such as “There is nothing wrong with me” * Self esteem, self worth and value can influence “who am I?” but also “what future is possible for me?” (Ackerman, 2018) * Internalising beliefs leads to greater depressive symptoms {| class="wikitable" |+Table 3. Emotional pathway of self-stigma – reduced quality of life !Self Belief !Possible Emotional consequence |- |"There is something wrong with me" |Shame |- |"I am not good enough" |Reduced self-esteem |- |"Things will never get better" |Hopelessness |- |"Others will reject me" |Anxiety or Fear |- |"I have a limited future" |Sadness/Depressive effect |} == Why does self-stigma effect emotion{{g}} == This section will move beyond describing correlations and explain '''why''' self-stigma affects emotional well-being. * Corrigan and Bink (2016) propose that self-stigma can reduce self-esteem “I am not worthy” and self-efficacy “I am not capable”. * This creates what Corrigan and Bink (2016) call the "why try" effect: “Why should I try to achieve something if I believe I am incapable or undeserving?” * Self-discrepancy theory proposes that people hold different self-images, including their actual self, ideal self and ought self (Higgins, 1989) * Examples may include not applying for employment, withdrawing from university activities, avoiding relationships, or disengaging from treatment because negative self-beliefs make success appear unlikely. ;Case study - Sabrina Sabrina has recently started a new job and has been diagnosed with anxiety disorder. While on her lunch break, she hears someone describe a person who had a panic attack as “dramatic”. Sabrina initially thinks that “they probably believe people with anxiety are dramatic too”. A few weeks later this negative thought turned into “maybe I am dramatic”. Before a team bonding session, Sabrina worries that someone will notice her anxiety and decides she does not belong in her new job. She tells her supervisor she is unwell and goes home. '''Reflection questions:''' {{ic|Use a numbered listed or bullet-points as shown in Tutorial 2}} 1.     Where does public stigma appear in Sabrina's experience? 2.     At what point does it become self-stigma? 3.     What emotional consequences might Sabrina experience? 4.     How do these emotions influence her motivation? 5. Why might avoiding the presentation strengthen rather than resolve the self-stigma cycle? == Breaking the cycle == This section will prevent the chapter from presenting self-stigma as inevitable or irreversible. * Narrative Enhancement and Cognitive Therapy (NECT) - (Roe, 2013) * Stigma resistance involves rejecting or resisting the personal relevance of negative stereotypes * Psychological intervention and social support * Self-stigma should not be framed only as a problem of an individual's thinking because the stereotypes being internalised originate within the broader social environment (Roe, 2013). Quick Knowledge check – QUIZ – Which example best represents stigma resistance? A. “People probably know my limitations better than I do.” B. “My diagnosis means I should lower my expectations.” C. “The stereotype exists, but it does not determine my individual abilities.” D. “If I hide my diagnosis completely, stigma cannot affect me.” Correct answer: C ==Conclusion== * Self-stigma occurs when socially held stereotypes are internalised and incorporated into self-concept, turning external judgement into negative self-evaluation. * The chapter will argue that the emotional effects of self-stigma are best understood as a process, rather than as a simple list of outcomes. * Importantly, self-stigma is not inevitable. Stigma resistance, psychological interventions such as NECT, supportive social environments and broader efforts to reduce public stigma may interrupt the process. * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Self-concept clarity|Self-concept clarity]] (Book chapter, 2019) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Self-efficacy and motivation|Self-efficacy and motivation]] (Book chapter, 2014) ==References== Provide the references for all citations in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. Alternatively, you can use wiki style (as used on Wikipedia), as long as the information is complete and the formatting is consistent. {{Hanging indent|1= Ackerman, C. (2018, May 23). What is self-esteem? A psychologist explains. PositivePsychology.Com. https://positivepsychology.com/self-esteem/ {{ic|Move to external links - not an academic source}} Corrigan, P. W., & Bink, A. B. (2016). What is the impact of self-stigma? Loss of self-respect and the “why try” effect. Journal of Mental Health, 25(1), 10–15. https://doi.org/10.3109/09638237.2015.1021902 Corrigan, P. W., & Rao, D. (2012). On the self-stigma of mental illness: Stages, disclosure, and strategies for change. The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 57(8), 464–469. https://doi.org/10.1177/070674371205700804 Higgins, E. T. (1989). Self-discrepancy theory: What patterns of self-beliefs cause people to suffer? Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 22(1), 93–136. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0065-2601(08)60306-8 Lasalvia, A., Bonetto, C., & Van Bortel, T. (2025). The impact of self-stigma on empowerment in major depressive disorder: The mediating role of self-esteem and the moderating effects of socioeconomic and cultural context in an international multi-site study. Journal of Affective Disorders, 390, 119802. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2025.119802 Roe, D. (2013). Narrative enhancement and cognitive therapy (NECT) effectiveness: A quasi-experimental study. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 70(4), 303–312. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.22050 }} ==External links== [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Stigma]] m0xosipva4zvs2x4tcyg0wr5havt04j 2835786 2835785 2026-10-04T11:02:27Z Pinkk47 3109655 2835786 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Self-stigma and Emotion:<br>How does self-stigma impact emotional well-being? }} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Basteibrücke morgens.jpg|thumb|Basteibrücke morgens {{ic|Add a meaningful APA style caption}}]] ;Scenario Imagine Mia, a 21-year-old university student who has recently been diagnosed with anxiety. Before her diagnosis, Mia viewed herself as highly independent, outgoing and capable. She quite enjoyed attending University, spending time with her friends and felt confident in her ability to manage stressful situations. After her diagnosis, Mia became increasingly concerned about what other people might think of her anxiety. She has previously heard people describe about mental health problems as being “attention seeking”, “dramatic” or a sign of being “weak”. Although none of her friends never said this about her, she decided to not tell them about her diagnosis. As time went by, the stereotypes begin to influence how Mia sees herself. The belief that “People with mental health illness are weak” gradually becomes “I am weak because I have a mental illness”. When she struggles with a University assignment, instead of seeing it as a challenge, she thinks “Maybe I can’t do this like everyone else can”. She also withdraws from social occasions and previous opportunities she enjoyed. Importantly, Mia’s friends never changed their behaviour towards Mia. What changed was Mia’s perception of herself. A negative stereotype that exists within her social environment has been internalised into her own self-beliefs. Mia’s experience demonstrates the central problem explored in this book chapter: How does a social stereotype become an emotional burden carried by the individual? {{RoundBoxBottom}} This chapter will explore how self-stigma can impact emotional well-being, particularly when negative social stereotypes about mental illness become internalised, shaping how individuals think and feel about themselves. It examines how self-stigma develops, its effects on emotions such as shame and hopelessness, most influentially how changes in self-esteem and self-efficacy can influence motivation and behaviour. Psychological theories will also explain these processes and how to break the cycle of self-stigma. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} ;Focus questions {{ic|}}• What is self stigma and how does it develop from public stigma? • How does self-stigma influence shame, self-esteem, hope and emotional distress? • Which psychological theories explain the relationship between self-stigma and emotional wellbeing? • How can emotional consequences of self-stigma influence motivation and behaviour? • What factors can help people resist or reduce self-stigma? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Understanding self-stigma== {{ic|What are the key psychological theory/theories that help to understand self-stigma?}} This section will establish exactly what self-stigma is, distinguish it from related forms of stigma, and explain how external stereotypes can become incorporated into self-concept. *Self-stigma occurs when a person becomes aware of negative stereotypes about a group they identify with, agrees with those stereotypes, and applies them to (Corrigan & Rao, 2012) *Self-stigma is particularly important to emotional well-being because negative social beliefs can become negative self-beliefs, influencing self-esteem, hope, shame, psychological distress and quality of life (Lasalvia et al., 2025) *Public stigma vs self-stigma (compare the two) *Describe how stigma becomes internalised – Awareness, agreement and application '''Include Figure 2. Explaining the transition from external stigma to internal emotional thoughts and feelings''' == Emotional consequences of self stigma == {{ic|What is the key empirical evidence about the effect of SS on E?}} This section will address the chapters subtitle through examining emotional messages when stigma is internalised. * Mental health stigma related to self-esteem and quality of life (Lasalvia et al., 2025) * Shame and negative self-evaluation * Self stigma can transform an experience such as “I have a mental health condition” into an identity judgement such as “There is nothing wrong with me” * Self esteem, self worth and value can influence “who am I?” but also “what future is possible for me?” (Ackerman, 2018) * Internalising beliefs leads to greater depressive symptoms {| class="wikitable" |+Table 3. Emotional pathway of self-stigma – reduced quality of life !Self Belief !Possible Emotional consequence |- |"There is something wrong with me" |Shame |- |"I am not good enough" |Reduced self-esteem |- |"Things will never get better" |Hopelessness |- |"Others will reject me" |Anxiety or Fear |- |"I have a limited future" |Sadness/Depressive effect |} == Why does self-stigma effect emotion{{g}} == This section will move beyond describing correlations and explain '''why''' self-stigma affects emotional well-being. * Corrigan and Bink (2016) propose that self-stigma can reduce self-esteem “I am not worthy” and self-efficacy “I am not capable”. * This creates what Corrigan and Bink (2016) call the "why try" effect: “Why should I try to achieve something if I believe I am incapable or undeserving?” * Self-discrepancy theory proposes that people hold different self-images, including their actual self, ideal self and ought self (Higgins, 1989) * Examples may include not applying for employment, withdrawing from university activities, avoiding relationships, or disengaging from treatment because negative self-beliefs make success appear unlikely. ;Case study - Sabrina Sabrina has recently started a new job and has been diagnosed with anxiety disorder. While on her lunch break, she hears someone describe a person who had a panic attack as “dramatic”. Sabrina initially thinks that “they probably believe people with anxiety are dramatic too”. A few weeks later this negative thought turned into “maybe I am dramatic”. Before a team bonding session, Sabrina worries that someone will notice her anxiety and decides she does not belong in her new job. She tells her supervisor she is unwell and goes home. '''Reflection questions:''' {{ic|Use a numbered listed or bullet-points as shown in Tutorial 2}} 1.     Where does public stigma appear in Sabrina's experience? 2.     At what point does it become self-stigma? 3.     What emotional consequences might Sabrina experience? 4.     How do these emotions influence her motivation? 5. Why might avoiding the presentation strengthen rather than resolve the self-stigma cycle? == Breaking the cycle == This section will prevent the chapter from presenting self-stigma as inevitable or irreversible. * Narrative Enhancement and Cognitive Therapy (NECT) - (Roe, 2013) * Stigma resistance involves rejecting or resisting the personal relevance of negative stereotypes * Psychological intervention and social support * Self-stigma should not be framed only as a problem of an individual's thinking because the stereotypes being internalised originate within the broader social environment (Roe, 2013). Quick Knowledge check – QUIZ – Which example best represents stigma resistance? A. “People probably know my limitations better than I do.” B. “My diagnosis means I should lower my expectations.” C. “The stereotype exists, but it does not determine my individual abilities.” D. “If I hide my diagnosis completely, stigma cannot affect me.” Correct answer: C ==Conclusion== * Self-stigma occurs when socially held stereotypes are internalised and incorporated into self-concept, turning external judgement into negative self-evaluation. * The chapter will argue that the emotional effects of self-stigma are best understood as a process, rather than as a simple list of outcomes. * Importantly, self-stigma is not inevitable. Stigma resistance, psychological interventions such as NECT, supportive social environments and broader efforts to reduce public stigma may interrupt the process. * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Self-concept clarity|Self-concept clarity]] (Book chapter, 2019) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Self-efficacy and motivation|Self-efficacy and motivation]] (Book chapter, 2014) ==References== Provide the references for all citations in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. Alternatively, you can use wiki style (as used on Wikipedia), as long as the information is complete and the formatting is consistent. {{Hanging indent|1= Ackerman, C. (2018, May 23). What is self-esteem? A psychologist explains. PositivePsychology.Com. https://positivepsychology.com/self-esteem/ {{ic|Move to external links - not an academic source}} Corrigan, P. W., & Bink, A. B. (2016). What is the impact of self-stigma? Loss of self-respect and the “why try” effect. Journal of Mental Health, 25(1), 10–15. https://doi.org/10.3109/09638237.2015.1021902 Corrigan, P. W., & Rao, D. (2012). On the self-stigma of mental illness: Stages, disclosure, and strategies for change. The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 57(8), 464–469. https://doi.org/10.1177/070674371205700804 Higgins, E. T. (1989). Self-discrepancy theory: What patterns of self-beliefs cause people to suffer? Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 22(1), 93–136. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0065-2601(08)60306-8 Lasalvia, A., Bonetto, C., & Van Bortel, T. (2025). The impact of self-stigma on empowerment in major depressive disorder: The mediating role of self-esteem and the moderating effects of socioeconomic and cultural context in an international multi-site study. Journal of Affective Disorders, 390, 119802. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2025.119802 Roe, D. (2013). Narrative enhancement and cognitive therapy (NECT) effectiveness: A quasi-experimental study. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 70(4), 303–312. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.22050 }} ==External links== [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Stigma]] tem8x75tz7dl150wptgl04o181a0eos 0 330408 2835702 2820458 2026-10-03T18:32:43Z Marcos Batistella 3065939 2835702 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Prod|is this part of an actual course that will be offered?}} == '''About''' == Course offered by the Graduate Programs in Mechanical Engineering (PPGEM) and Smart and Sustainable Cities (PPGCIS) at Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Paraná (PUCPR). '''Areas of Interest''': Engineering, Data Science, Computer Science, Architecture and Urban Planning, and other fields. '''Course instructors''': Nathan Mendes, Walter Mazuroski, Luciano Ayres de Mello, and Marcos Batistella Lopes. == '''Course Description''' == This course explores the physical principles governing heat, air, moisture, and energy processes in buildings, emphasizing their role in building performance, energy efficiency, indoor air quality (IAQ), renewable energy integration, and sustainability. The course introduces integrated simulation approaches for analyzing the interactions among building components, HVAC (Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning) systems, occupants, and the surrounding environment. Special emphasis is placed on co-simulation and interoperable modeling using the Functional Mock-up Interface (FMI) standard, enabling the integration of multiple simulation tools and domains. Applications extend from individual buildings to districts and urban energy systems, providing the foundations for advanced research in sustainable buildings, energy transition, and future Digital Twin applications. The course combines theoretical foundations, computational modeling, hands-on simulation, and current research challenges in building performance and sustainable cities. == '''Place and Time''' == '''Location''': To be determined (hybrid classes). '''When''': 2026 2nd semester <u>Wednesday</u>, from 3pm to 5pm (BRT), on the following dates: * August: 12, 19, and 26 * September: 02, 09, 16, and 23 * October: 07, 14, 21, and 28 * November: 04, 11, and 18 <u>Saturday</u>, from 9am to 12pm (BRT), on the following dates: * October: 03 * October: 10 == '''Workload''' == 45 hours (3 credits) == '''Objectives''' == * Understand the physical principles governing integrated building performance; * Develop and apply simulation and co-simulation models using interoperable computational tools; * Assess building performance in terms of energy efficiency, indoor environmental quality, and moisture-related phenomena; * Apply computational modeling to support the design, operation, and optimizazion. == '''Tentative Topics of Study''' == Topics may be adjusted according to the interests of the students, ongoing research projects, and the expertise of participants. '''Fundamentals (Nathan Mendes)''' * Building physics fundamentals, including heat, air and moisture transfer processes * Mass and energy balances in buildings and urban systems '''Energy and Thermal Performance and Simulation (Nathan Mendes)''' * Building envelope performance * HVAC systems modeling and performance * Thermal comfort * Moisture-related risks * Building energy performance evaluation '''Co-Simulation and Interoperability (Walter Mazuroski)''' * Co-simulation concepts and frameworks * Functional Mock-up Interface (FMI) and Functional Mock-up Units (FMUs) * Data exchange and interoperability * Applications: Integration of building, HVAC, urban climate, and energy system models '''IAQ and Co-simulation for assessment of contaminants (Marcos Batistella Lopes)''' * Fundamentals of Indoor Air Quality * Smart ventilation * Contam * Indoor air quality assessment * Domus-Contam Co-Simulation '''Emerging Research topics, Applications and Case Studies (All lecturers)''' * Co-Simulation BPS-CFD * High-performance buildings * Net-zero and positive-energy buildings * Urban Heat Island mitigation strategies * Energy efficiency * Energy transition in the city scale * Anthropogenic heat emissions * Positive Energy Districts * Urban energy transition scenarios * Climate change adaptation strategies * Digital Twins for buildings, districts, and cities == '''Simulation Tools''' == * '''DOMUS/EnergyPlus''' - building energy simulation * '''CONTAM''' – airflow and indoor air quality analysis * '''Python / MATLAB''' – data processing, model integration, parametric studies, and optimization * Additional simulation, co-simulation platforms according to project requirements == '''Evaluation''' == * 30% Computer assignments, simulations, projects, and exercises * 15% Seminar presentation * 35% Scientific article * 20% Examination Additional evaluation methods may be adopted depending on class size and course dynamics. == '''References''' == # Hagentoft, C.-E. Introduction to Building Physics. Studentlitteratur, Lund, 2001. # Hens, H. Building Physics: Heat, Air and Moisture – Fundamentals and Engineering Methods with Examples and Exercises. Ernst & Sohn, 3rd Edition, 2017. # Mendes, N.; Chhay, M.; Berger, J.; Dutykh, D. Numerical Methods for Diffusion Phenomena in Building Physics: A Practical Introduction. Springer, 2019. # ASHRAE Handbook Fundamentals. Latest Edition. # Selected journal papers on Building Performance Simulation, Heat and Moisture Transfer, Urban Energy Systems, Positive Energy Districts, Digital Twins, and Sustainable Cities. # Ongoing international collaborative research projects. 6gci63z5x1ak4i27ujmf9ew860dohk8 0 331046 2835721 2835640 2026-10-04T00:23:21Z U3253363 3106362 /* Overview */ Minor copy edits. 2835721 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Self-concept and motivation:<br>How does self-concept relate to motivation?}} == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Sinclair Swimming.JPG|right|thumb|180px|'''Figure 1'''. Ash is a competitive swimmer and swims daily.]] ;Scenario Ash is a swimmer training for a national competition. Being "a swimmer" is the first thing Ash thinks of when she’s asked to describe herself and she’s eager to succeed in the upcoming competition. Ash wakes up at 4:00 a.m. every morning to swim four kilometres (see Figure 1). Her friend Riley is always surprised by how Ash wakes up so early and swims so much. Why is Ash able to do this when many would find this a struggle? {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Self-concept|Self-concept]] is an individual's understanding of who they are and how they feel about themselves (Wehrle & Fasbender, 2018). This includes a complex system of attitudes, beliefs, and judgements about oneself. Self-concept guides people in answering the question “who am I?”. But its importance extends beyond that. Self-concept influences thinking, feelings, and behaviour. Consider self-concept an internal compass which motivates and guides how people navigate the world. This chapter explores how the understanding of oneself influences what people are motivated to do and examines how motivated behaviour shapes self-concept. Understanding this reciprocal relationship can help people develop motivation around meaningful identities while reducing the risk that failure becomes a threat to personal worth. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=12}} '''Focus questions''' *What is self-concept? *How does self-concept influence motivation? *How does motivation shape self-concept?{{RoundBoxBottom}} == What is self-concept? == Self-concept is a cognitive framework containing a system of self-knowledge (Wehrle & Fasbender, 2018). It is related, but unique to many of the popular “self-” constructs like [[self-esteem]], [[w:Self-efficacy|self-efficacy]], and [[w:Self-image|self-image]]. Although each self-concept-relevant theory approaches the construct differently, several common properties emerge and provide the foundation for understanding its motivational effects (see Table 1). [[wikipedia:William_James|James]] (1892) conceptualised the self as having two separate parts: “I”, the subjective thinker and “knower”, and “me”, the material, social, and “known” self. Cooley's (1902) [[wikipedia:Looking-glass_self|looking-glass self theory]] later emphasised people as social beings, theorising that self-concept is a reflection of other peoples' responses and evaluations. Identity-based motivation theory (Oyserman, 2024) and the multidimensional model (Marsh et al., 1992) further develop that self-concept is multifaceted and dynamic, with different parts of the self influencing different behaviours. Together, these theories explain several mechanisms linking self-concept and motivation (see Table 1). '''Table 1''' ''Self-Concept Properties and Their Significance for Motivation'' {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" !Property !Theory !Significance for motivation |- |'''Descriptive  ''' |James |Identity beliefs influence goals and expectations |- |'''Socially developed''' |The looking glass self, James |Social feedback influences which behaviours are pursued |- |'''Dynamic''' |Multidimensional model, identity-based motivation theory |Self-concept changes situationally and with experience |- |'''Multidimensional''' |Multidimensional model |Different aspects of the self motivate different behaviours |- |'''Hierarchical  ''' |Multidimensional model |General and specific domains of the self influence each other and different behaviours |} == How does self-concept influence motivation? == Like self-concept, motivation is multidimensional and central to human behaviour (Bandhu et al., 2024). This creates an interesting intersection of properties; self-concept and motivation both influence which goals people pursue and responses to difficulty. This section explores how self-concept influences motivation.   === How the self directs and energises behaviour === Higgins' (1987) [[w:Self-discrepancy_theory|self-discrepancy theory]] proposes that people have three representations of the self: the actual (who one is), ideal (who one wants to become), and ought self (who one believes others want them to be; see Table 2). Ideal and ought selves set standards for one to strive toward, laying a framework for goal direction. Discrepancies between parts of the self cause emotional vulnerabilities which also generate motivation (Table 2). Actual/ideal self-discrepancies result in dejection-related emotions (e.g. frustration, dissatisfaction; Higgins, 1987). Actual/ought self-discrepancies result in agitation-related emotions (e.g. anxiety, guilt). The greater the discrepancy, the greater the emotional discomfort and thus motivation to reduce the discrepancy (Higgins, 1989). Meta-analytic findings support that greater discrepancies result in more negative emotions (Mason et al., 2019). However, Mason et al. (2019) found that actual/ideal and actual/ought self-discrepancies both correlated with dejection- and agitation-related emotions, contrary to self-discrepancy theory's proposition. Further, while the negative emotions resulting from discrepancies are proposed to motivate people to change behaviour and reduce discrepancies, MacIntyre and Vincze (2017) suggest positive emotions have greater motivating strength than negative emotions. This suggests that while self-concepts provide frameworks for goal selection and energise behaviour, self-discrepancies may not be the most significant emotional sources of motivation. '''Table 2''' ''Dimensions of the Self and Emotional Effects of Discrepancies'' {| class="wikitable" !Self dimension !Examples !Emotional effect of discrepancy with actual self |- |Actual |Daily behaviours, beliefs | - |- |Ideal |Dreams, aspirations |Dejection-related emotions |- |Ought |Duties, obligations |Agitation-related emotions |}[[w:Regulatory_focus_theory|Regulatory focus theory]] (Higgins, 1997) expands self-discrepancy theory to suggest different self-representations produce different motivational orientations. Ideal-self goals create a promotion focus, whereby one is motivated to seek positive outcomes (see Table 3). Ought-self goals create a prevention focus, whereby one is motivated to avoid negative outcomes. These regulatory focuses both positively correlated with intrinsic motivation in Wang et al.'s (2021) study of adolescent task engagement. However, promotion focuses positively correlated with creativity and an innovative cognitive style, whereas prevention focuses negatively correlated with an innovative cognitive style and was characterised by error avoidance. This shows that while both promotion and prevention orientations generate self-sustained motivation, they result in different approaches to tasks. '''Table 3''' ''Self-concept's Motivational Mechanisms'' {| class="wikitable" |+ !Self-discrepancy !Motivational focus !Motivational mechanism !Task approach |- |Actual-ideal |Promotion |Seek positive outcomes |Creativity, innovation |- |Actual-ought |Prevention |Avoid negative outcomes |Reduced innovation, error avoidance |} Oyserman’s (2024) [[wikipedia:Identity_based_motivation|identity-based motivation theory]] provides an alternative explanation to how self-concept directs behaviour. The theory proposes that situations influence which aspects of self-concept are active. Active identities change interpretations of difficulty and thus influence motivation. When behaviour is congruent with one’s active identity, challenges in completing that behaviour are interpreted as evidence the behaviour is important (Oyserman, 2015). This is because identity-congruent behaviours provide information about who one is and who one wants to become, making difficulty meaningful rather than discouraging (Oyserman, 2024). Incongruent actions that have the same challenges are interpreted as pointless. Together, this means that identities mediate motivation and help goal selection through the process of difficulty interpretation (Oyserman, 2024). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Case study comprehension check''' Ash is finding her long training sessions for the upcoming swimming competition difficult. However, when she's training, her future-self-identity as an Olympic swimmer is active and helps her interpret this as a meaningful challenge. For her non-swimmer friend, Riley, these difficulties may be interpreted as evidence swimming is not for them.{{RoundBoxBottom}} Illustrating the motivating role of the self-concept within this framework, Nurra and Oyserman (2018) found that motivation to pursue future identity-relevant goals in school children, and subsequent achievement, was influenced by how children thought about their future selves. Students were exposed to prompts that helped them think of their adult self as either near or far. Students in the adult-self-is-near group achieved significantly higher final grades than the adult-self-is-far group. These findings indicate that closely identifying with one’s future self and viewing that future self as attainable can motivate goal attainment. Together, these results support identity-based motivation theory and detail that self-concept drives behaviour by defining desirable outcomes and shaping how challenges and opportunities are interpreted. Together, self-discrepancy, regulatory focus, and identity-based motivation theories suggest that a person's perceived distance from a valued self can create motivational pressure to change and active identities influence interpretations of challenges. These states modify goal engagement and motivation. In all three theories, self-concept is central to motivation, driving goal selection as well as goal engagement. Thus, what motivates each person, and how they subsequently behave, are shaped by their self-concept. === How self-concept can undermine motivation === The theories and research discussed so far optimistically show how self-concept facilitates motivation. However, self-concept can also undermine motivation through self-worth contingencies. [[wikipedia:Contingent_self-esteem#Self-esteem_and_contingent_self-worth|Self-worth contingencies]] refer to the standards one feels they must meet to have value as a person (Showers et al., 2015). For individuals who have highly contingent self-worth, goal attainment is closely tied to their self-concept, meaning failure threatens their self-concept. Contingent self-worth motivates pursuit of success for domains that are important for one's self-worth but can result in avoidant behaviour and strong responses to failure. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} <quiz display=simple> '''What are self-worth contingencies?''' |type="()"} - How people feel about themselves + Standards people feel they must meet to have value - How people compare themselves to others </quiz>{{RoundBoxBottom}} Lietz et al. (2026) qualitatively studied 17 participants' identity-shaped goals and found that failing to achieve these goals resulted in negative and severe emotional responses. Further, participants tended to attribute failure to personal shortcomings, because of how closely held the goal was to their self-concept. This resulted in reduced motivation to reattempt, or blind pursuit of the same goal without re-examining the approach. This is consistent with [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Attribution theory and emotion|attribution theory]] (Weiner, 1985), which suggests that causal thinking processes, whereby one attributes outcomes to stable, uncontrollable factors, result in low motivation. Attributional styles affect self-evaluations and thus can undermine motivation when failure is attributed to stable aspects of the self (Bandhu et al., 2024). This can cause maladaptive behaviours to emerge. One such response to the threat of failure is self-handicapping. [[w:Self-handicapping|Self-handicapping]] involves creating obstacles to one's own goal so that failure cannot be self-attributed (Török & Szabó, 2018). A handicap acts as a plausible external explanation for an outcome other than the self. This means that a handicapper is willing to increase the probability of failure to protect their self-concept (Coudevylle et al., 2020). Therefore, self-concept can impact motivation by hindering goal pursuit. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Case study comprehension check''' Ash cares a lot about succeeding in her swimming competition. To protect her self-concept as a successful swimmer, Ash may feign a mild illness at the competition so that any failure is attributed to her illness, rather than her competence. {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[File:Multidimensional_model_of_self-concept_diagram.png|thumb|536x536px|'''Figure 2.''' The hierarchical multidimensional model of self-concept (Marsh et al., 2019).]] Illustrating the causes of self-handicapping, Schwinger et al. (2022) found a medium negative correlation between general self-evaluations and self-handicapping and a medium positive correlation between fear of failure and self-handicapping. With more negative general self-evaluations and greater fear of failure, people are more likely to self-handicap, highlighting self-concept as an precursor to self-handicapping. However, in this study, general, rather than domain-specific measures were used. According to the multidimensional model, self-concept is a hierarchical, multi-faceted construct, and more specific self-concepts are more closely related to actual behaviour (see Figure 2; Marsh et al., 2019). Accordingly, future research should investigate domain-specific measures of self-concept and fear of failure to illustrate their direct influence on self-handicapping and task motivation. Self-handicapping demonstrates that self-concept-driven motivation is not always directed towards achieving valued outcomes. Protecting self-worth can become more important than goal engagement. Together, this research suggests self-concept can act both as a motivational resource, and a motivational vulnerability. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}'''Intervention application: Reduce self-threat''' Self-handicapping shows that holding success as a contingency for self-worth can be damaging (Showers et al., 2015). This means interventions should reduce how much self-worth depends on outcomes, by promoting self-compassion, diverse positive self-concepts, and growth-oriented interpretations of failure to improve motivation and wellbeing.{{RoundBoxBottom}} == How does motivation shape self-concept? == The research and theories discussed so far have detailed how self-concept directs and motivates behaviour. The following section explores how, and whether, this relationship works in reverse.   === How internalising motivation shapes self-concept === [[File:Self-determination theory psychological needs.jpg|thumb|450x450px|'''Figure 3.''' Self-determination theory proposes that autonomy, competence, and relatedness support autonomous motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2020).]][[Self-determination theory]] (Ryan & Deci, 2020) proposes motivation exists on a continuum of self-determination, ranging from externally to increasingly internally regulated behaviour. The continuum consists of external, introjected, identified, integrated, and intrinsic regulation (Table 4). These motivation types are influenced by three innate needs: competence, autonomy, and relatedness (see Figure 3; Ryan & Deci, 2020). Understanding the progression of these needs and motivation types can provide insight into how motivational processes influence self-concept. Intrinsic motivation refers to autonomous behaviours completed for enjoyment (see Table 4; Morris et al., 2022). Extrinsic motivation involves engaging in behaviour for an outcome separable from the activity itself (Morris et al., 2022). Its regulation ranges from externally controlled to personally valued and fully integrated. How self-determined people's motivations are depends on the extent to which one has internalised the values, beliefs and perceptions of the behaviour into their self-concept. Meeting the needs of competence, autonomy and relatedness supports motivations to become progressively internalised, and behaviour increasingly self-endorsed (Chiu, 2023). However, it should be noted that this process does not necessarily occur in a fixed sequence. This illustrates how self-concept and motivation reciprocally form one another. The degree to which one identifies with a behaviour shapes their motivation to engage with the behaviour; when needs are met, motivated behaviours and psychological processes shape the self-concept. This internalisation process helps explain how Ash came to identify as a swimmer (see Table 4).   '''Table 4''' ''Applying Self-Determination Theory to Ash's Motivation and Self-Concept Development'' {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" !Type of motivation !Ash's circumstances   !Mechanism |- |External regulation |Ash received a lollipop after swimming lessons.   |Non-self-determined drive.   |- |Introjected regulation |Ash wants her parents to think she is dedicated to swimming. |Partially internalised extrinsic motivation, low self-determination.   |- |Identified regulation |Swimming becomes important to Ash as she starts feeling like a good swimmer (competence) and drives herself to training (autonomy).   |More internalised and self-determined. |- |Integrated regulation |Ash starts to identify as a swimmer and with her swim team (relatedness).   |Fully integrated into self-concept. Highly self-determined but performed for valued outcome not enjoyment. |- |Intrinsic motivation |After the swimming competition, Ash continues swimming for the joy of it.   |Fully integrated into self-concept. Fully autonomous motivation for enjoyment. |} Chiu (2023) provided compelling evidence for how motivation shapes self-concept within the context of self-determination theory. In their study, 342 Hong Kong high school students completed STEM activities taught using a standard teaching approach or a self-determination theory teaching method, focusing on supporting needs of autonomy, competence and relatedness (see Figure 3). Self-report measures reflected that the needs-supporting teaching approach increased students' feelings of autonomy, competence and relatedness; and, consequently, increased STEM identity and interest. This supports that fulfilling core psychological needs promotes more autonomous motivation and develops one's identity. Further supporting this relationship, Yip et al.'s (2024) longitudinal study of 236 anti-poverty activists who completed self-reported social attitudes and personality measures at two timepoints found that increases in self-determined motivations positively correlated with group identification. However, non-self-determined motivations, such as external regulation, did not correlate with group identification. This suggests that self-determined motivation facilitates the incorporation of behaviour and group membership into one's self-concept.   Together, self-determination theory suggests self-concepts develop as values and behaviours are progressively internalised. Ash was not initially motivated because she identified as a swimmer. Her repeated engagement in swimming and fulfilment of psychological needs gradually transformed swimming into part of her identity. This demonstrates that motivation can be a mechanism through which self-concept develops and is not simply a motivating force. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11|title=Quiz}} <quiz display=simple> '''Which statement best reflects how motivation shapes self-concept?''' |type="()"} - People are only motivated to engage in behaviours that are part of their self-concept. - Self-concept does not change through motivational processes. + Repeated engagement with a behaviour and satisfaction of psychological needs gradually makes a behaviour part of one's self-concept. </quiz>{{RoundBoxBottom}} === The cyclical process of motivation and self-concept development === The reciprocal effects model proposes that self-concept and achievement reinforce one another over time (Marsh et al., 2018). People with stronger self-concepts tend to achieve more highly, while achievement experiences subsequently shape self-concept. Motivation plays an important role in this process, influencing how people behave toward achievement experiences. There is a growing body of research investigating this model. For example, Sewasew et al.'s (2018) longitudinal study with 2,342 German high schoolers demonstrated mathematics self-concept was positively correlated with mathematics achievement. Their study highlighted a mutually dependent relationship between academic self-concept and achievement, each mediated by motivation. However, Garn and Shen's (2015) longitudinal study of 329 participants' self-concept and motivation for exercise found that the psychological needs posited by self-determination theory (Ryan & Deci, 2022) did not predict physical self-concept at follow-ups. Physical self-concept was only shown to shape, rather than be shaped by exercise motivation. This result conflicts with the reciprocal effects model and Sewasew et al.'s (2018) results, which may be a reflection of the different self-concept domains examined, mathematics versus physical self-concept. This may indicate that reciprocal effects are domain specific; the multidimensional model suggests academic and physical self-concepts function independently, meaning findings from one domain may not generalise to another (Marsh et al., 2019). Thus, future research should directly compare the reciprocal relationship between self-concept and motivation within different domains. Similarly, Sorjonen et al. (2024) reanalysed meta-analytic results which had provided evidence for the reciprocal effects model. Sorjonen et al. (2024) found that conclusions about the longitudinal relationship between achievement and academic self-concept changed depending on the statistical model used. Hübner et al.'s (2023) support for the reciprocal effects model was also inconsistent between statistical models. This may indicate a spurious correlation that undermines the credibility of the reciprocal effects model. Taken together, these findings suggest that achievement can shape self-concept, but the strength and direction of this relationship may depend on the domain being examined and the methodological approach used. Although the reciprocal effects model remains influential, current evidence indicates that the relationship between motivation, achievement, and self-concept is more complex than originally proposed. == Conclusion == Self-concept is a multidimensional and socially developed framework of beliefs about oneself which acts as a guiding compass. Self-concept shapes motivation by determining which goals feel meaningful, attainable, and identity-consistent through processes of self-discrepancy, difficulty interpretation and self-worth contingencies. Self-discrepancy theory explains how distance from valued selves can create motivational pressure for change. Identity-based motivation theory explains how active identities change the meaning of difficulty. Whereas self-worth contingencies can undermine motivation. Together, these theories detail that self-concept influences goal direction and engagement through social, emotional and cognitive processes. These theories provide insight that motivation-improving interventions should consider targeting how people understand themselves rather than solely targeting behaviours. Motivation may also influence self-concept. Self-determination theory details that motivation and subsequent behaviours form self-concept through internalisation processes when psychological needs are met. However, inconsistent support for the reciprocal effects model indicates that the extent to which motivation reshapes self-concept may vary across domains and statistical models. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Take-home message''' With self-concept and motivation inherently linked, who people believe they are shapes the goals they pursue, while motivations, behaviours, and experiences continually reshape who people become. {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11|title=Quiz}}<quiz display=simple> {'''Chapter comprehension check quiz:''' Ash wakes up at 4:00 a.m. each day to train because being a swimmer is a central part of her identity. According to the chapter, what best explains Ash's motivation? |type="()"} +Self-concept acts as an internal compass that guides goals and behaviour. -Motivation is caused only by external rewards and punishment. -Self-concept remains fixed and has little influence on actions. </quiz> {{RoundBoxBottom}} == See also == * [[wikipedia:Self-concept|Self-concept]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Self-concept clarity|Self-concept clarity]] (Book chapter, 2019) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Self-efficacy and motivation|Self-efficacy and motivation]] (Book chapter, 2014) == References == {{Hanging indent|Bandhu, D., Mohan, M. M., Nittala, N. A. P., Jadhav, P., Bhadauria, A., & Saxena, K. K. (2024). Theories of motivation: A comprehensive analysis of human behavior drivers. ''Acta Psychologica, 244'', 104177. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2024.104177 Chiu, T.K. (2023). Using self-determination theory (SDT) to explain student STEM interest and identity development. 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Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-69909-7_2630-2 Schwinger, M., Trautner, M., Pütz, N., Fabianek, S., Lemmer, G., Lauermann, F., & Wirthwein, L. (2022). Why do students use strategies that hurt their chances of academic success? A meta-analysis of antecedents of academic self-handicapping. ''Journal of Educational Psychology, 114''(3), 576–596. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000706 Seaton, M., Parker, P., Marsh, H. W., Craven, R. G., & Yeung, A. S. (2014). The reciprocal relations between self-concept, motivation and achievement: Juxtaposing academic self-concept and achievement goal orientations for mathematics success. ''Educational Psychology, 34''(1), 49–72. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2013.825232 Sewasew, D., Schroeders, U., Schiefer, I. M., Weirich, S., & Artelt, C. (2018). Development of sex differences in math achievement, self-concept, and interest from grade 5 to 7. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology, 54'', 55–65. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2018.05.003 Showers, C. J., Ditzfeld, C. P., & Zeigler-Hill, V. (2015). Self-concept structure and the quality of self-knowledge. ''Journal of Personality, 83''(5), 535-551. https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12130 Sorjonen, K., Ingre, M., Melin, B., & Nilsonne, G. (2024). Questioning the reciprocal effects model of academic self-concept and achievement: A reanalysis of a meta-analysis of longitudinal studies and a simulation. ''Sage Open, 14''(4). https://doi.org/10.1177/21582440241292826 Török, L., & Szabó, Z. P. (2018). The theory of self-handicapping: Forms, influencing factors and measurement. ''Ceskoslovenska Psychologie, 62''(2), 173-188. Wang, L., Cui, Y., Wang, X., Wang, J., Du, K., & Luo, Z. (2021). Regulatory focus, motivation, and their relationship with creativity among adolescents. ''Frontiers in Psychology, 12'', 666071. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.666071 Wehrle, K., & Fasbender, U. (2018). Self-concept. In Zeigler-Hill, V., & Shackelford, T. (Eds.), ''Encyclopedia of personality and individual differences'' (pp. 1–5). Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-28099-8_2001-1 Weiner, B. (1985). An attributional theory of achievement motivation and emotion. ''Psychological Review, 92''(4), 548–573. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.92.4.548 Yip, L., Thomas, E. F., Amiot, C., Louis, W. R., & McGarty, C. (2024). Autonomous motives foster sustained commitment to action: Integrating self-determination theory and the social identity approach. ''Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 50''(5), 750–765. https://doi.org/10.1177/01461672221148396 }} == External links == * [https://rickhanson.com/being-well-podcast-self-concept-the-secret-to-changing-who-you-are/ Being well podcast: Self-concept: The secret to changing WHO you are] (Being Well Podcast) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Nck7lP-6C2g Unlocking success: The power of self-efficacy and self-concept] (TEDx Talks) * [https://www.ted.com/talks/anil_ananthaswamy_where_does_your_sense_of_self_come_from_a_scientific_look Where does your sense of self come from? A scientific look] (TEDx Talks) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self-concept]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Motivation]] fj08zpr6rp13mhxpxvyqgcxrx8mbkuq 2835725 2835721 2026-10-04T00:58:09Z U3253363 3106362 /* Overview */ Minor rewording edits to reduce word count. Asked Gemini for support with this by requesting feedback on readability and where to remove words https://gemini.google.com/app/920ef366d7600b5a?hl=en-AU 2835725 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Self-concept and motivation:<br>How does self-concept relate to motivation?}} == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Sinclair Swimming.JPG|right|thumb|180px|'''Figure 1'''. Ash is a competitive swimmer and swims daily.]] ;Scenario Ash is a swimmer training for a national competition. When asked to describe herself, being "a swimmer" is the first word Ash uses. She is eager to succeed at the upcoming swimming competition. Every morning, she wakes up at 4:00 a.m to swim four kilometres (see Figure 1). Her friend Riley struggles to understand how Ash maintains this demanding schedule. Why is Ash able to do this when many would find this difficult? {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Self-concept|Self-concept]] is an individual's understanding of who they are and how they feel about themselves (Wehrle & Fasbender, 2018). This includes a complex system of self-knowledge, attitudes, beliefs, and judgements about oneself. Beyond answering “who am I?”, self-concept acts as an internal compass that influences thinking, feelings, and behaviour. This chapter explores the reciprocal relationship between self-concept and motivation; how self-understanding influences motivated behaviour, and how motivated behaviour progressively shapes self-concept. Understanding this reciprocal relationship can help people develop motivation around meaningful identities while reducing the risk that failure becomes a threat to personal worth. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=12}} '''Focus questions''' *What is self-concept? *How does self-concept influence motivation? *How does motivation shape self-concept?{{RoundBoxBottom}} == What is self-concept? == Self-concept is a cognitive framework of self-knowledge (Wehrle & Fasbender, 2018). It is related, but unique to many of the popular “self-” constructs like [[self-esteem]], [[w:Self-efficacy|self-efficacy]], and [[w:Self-image|self-image]]. Each self-concept-relevant theory approaches the construct differently, but several common properties emerge and provide the foundation for understanding its motivational effects (see Table 1). Foundationally, [[wikipedia:William_James|James]] (1892) conceptualised the self as having two parts: “I”, the subjective thinker, and “me”, the material and social self. Cooley (1902) added the [[wikipedia:Looking-glass_self|looking-glass self]], proposing that self-concept develops through perceived social evaluations. Modern frameworks, including identity-based motivation theory (Oyserman, 2024) and the multidimensional model (Marsh et al., 1992) suggest self-concept is hierarchical, multifaceted, and dynamic. '''Table 1''' ''Self-Concept Properties and Their Significance for Motivation'' {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" !Property !Key theory !Significance for motivation |- |'''Descriptive  ''' |James |Identity beliefs influence set standards and expectations |- |'''Socially developed''' |Looking glass self |Social feedback influences which behaviours are pursued |- |'''Dynamic''' |Identity-based motivation theory |Self-concept shifts situationally |- |'''Multidimensional''' |Multidimensional model |Domain-specific self-concepts motivate distinct behaviours |- |'''Hierarchical  ''' |Multidimensional model |General and specific domains of the self influence each other and different behaviours |} == How does self-concept influence motivation? == Like self-concept, motivation is multidimensional and central to human behaviour (Bandhu et al., 2024). This creates an interesting intersection of properties; self-concept and motivation both influence which goals people pursue and responses to difficulty. This section explores how self-concept influences motivation.   === How the self directs and energises behaviour === [[w:Self-discrepancy_theory|Self-discrepancy theory]] proposes people have three representations of the self: the actual (who one is), ideal (who one wants to become), and ought self (who one believes others want them to be; see Table 2; Higgins, 1987). Ideal and ought selves set standards for one to strive toward, laying a framework for goal direction. Discrepancies between actual and ideal or ought selves also generate emotional vulnerabilities (Table 2). Actual/ideal self-discrepancies result in dejection-related emotions (e.g. frustration, dissatisfaction; Higgins, 1987). Actual/ought self-discrepancies result in agitation-related emotions (e.g. anxiety, guilt). Greater discrepancies result in greater emotional discomfort and generate greater motivation to close the gap (Higgins, 1989). Meta-analytic findings support that greater discrepancies result in more negative emotions (Mason et al., 2019). However, Mason et al. (2019) found that actual/ideal and actual/ought self-discrepancies both correlated with dejection- and agitation-related emotions. This contrasts with self-discrepancy theory's proposition. Further, while the negative emotions resulting from discrepancies are proposed to motivate people to reduce discrepancies, MacIntyre and Vincze (2017) suggest positive emotions have greater motivating strength than negative emotions. This suggests that while self-concepts provide frameworks for goal selection and energise behaviour, self-discrepancies may not be the most powerful emotional source of motivation. '''Table 2''' ''Dimensions of the Self and Emotional Effects of Discrepancies'' {| class="wikitable" !Self dimension !Examples !Emotional effect of discrepancy with actual self |- |Actual |Daily behaviours, beliefs | - |- |Ideal |Dreams, aspirations |Dejection-related emotions |- |Ought |Duties, obligations |Agitation-related emotions |}[[w:Regulatory_focus_theory|Regulatory focus theory]] (Higgins, 1997) expands self-discrepancy theory to suggest different self-representations produce different motivational orientations. Ideal-self goals create a promotion focus, whereby one is motivated to seek positive outcomes (see Table 3). Ought-self goals create a prevention focus, whereby one is motivated to avoid negative outcomes. These regulatory focuses both positively correlated with intrinsic motivation in Wang et al.'s (2021) study of adolescent task engagement. However, promotion focuses positively correlated with creativity and an innovative cognitive style, whereas prevention focuses negatively correlated with an innovative cognitive style and was characterised by error avoidance. This shows that while both promotion and prevention orientations generate self-sustained motivation, they result in different approaches to tasks. '''Table 3''' ''Self-concept's Motivational Mechanisms'' {| class="wikitable" |+ !Self-discrepancy !Motivational focus !Motivational mechanism !Task approach |- |Actual-ideal |Promotion |Seek positive outcomes |Creativity, innovation |- |Actual-ought |Prevention |Avoid negative outcomes |Reduced innovation, error avoidance |} Oyserman’s (2024) [[wikipedia:Identity_based_motivation|identity-based motivation theory]] provides an alternative explanation to how self-concept directs behaviour. The theory proposes that situations influence which aspects of self-concept are active. Active identities change interpretations of difficulty and thus influence motivation. When behaviour is congruent with one’s active identity, challenges in completing that behaviour are interpreted as evidence the behaviour is important (Oyserman, 2015). This is because identity-congruent behaviours provide information about who one is and who one wants to become, making difficulty meaningful rather than discouraging (Oyserman, 2024). Incongruent actions that have the same challenges are interpreted as pointless. Together, this means that identities mediate motivation and help goal selection through the process of difficulty interpretation (Oyserman, 2024). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Case study comprehension check''' Ash is finding her long training sessions for the upcoming swimming competition difficult. However, when she's training, her future-self-identity as an Olympic swimmer is active and helps her interpret this as a meaningful challenge. For her non-swimmer friend, Riley, these difficulties may be interpreted as evidence swimming is not for them.{{RoundBoxBottom}} Illustrating the motivating role of the self-concept within this framework, Nurra and Oyserman (2018) found that motivation to pursue future identity-relevant goals in school children, and subsequent achievement, was influenced by how children thought about their future selves. Students were exposed to prompts that helped them think of their adult self as either near or far. Students in the adult-self-is-near group achieved significantly higher final grades than the adult-self-is-far group. These findings indicate that closely identifying with one’s future self and viewing that future self as attainable can motivate goal attainment. Together, these results support identity-based motivation theory and detail that self-concept drives behaviour by defining desirable outcomes and shaping how challenges and opportunities are interpreted. Together, self-discrepancy, regulatory focus, and identity-based motivation theories suggest that a person's perceived distance from a valued self can create motivational pressure to change and active identities influence interpretations of challenges. These states modify goal engagement and motivation. In all three theories, self-concept is central to motivation, driving goal selection as well as goal engagement. Thus, what motivates each person, and how they subsequently behave, are shaped by their self-concept. === How self-concept can undermine motivation === The theories and research discussed so far optimistically show how self-concept facilitates motivation. However, self-concept can also undermine motivation through self-worth contingencies. [[wikipedia:Contingent_self-esteem#Self-esteem_and_contingent_self-worth|Self-worth contingencies]] refer to the standards one feels they must meet to have value as a person (Showers et al., 2015). For individuals who have highly contingent self-worth, goal attainment is closely tied to their self-concept, meaning failure threatens their self-concept. Contingent self-worth motivates pursuit of success for domains that are important for one's self-worth but can result in avoidant behaviour and strong responses to failure. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} <quiz display=simple> '''What are self-worth contingencies?''' |type="()"} - How people feel about themselves + Standards people feel they must meet to have value - How people compare themselves to others </quiz>{{RoundBoxBottom}} Lietz et al. (2026) qualitatively studied 17 participants' identity-shaped goals and found that failing to achieve these goals resulted in negative and severe emotional responses. Further, participants tended to attribute failure to personal shortcomings, because of how closely held the goal was to their self-concept. This resulted in reduced motivation to reattempt, or blind pursuit of the same goal without re-examining the approach. This is consistent with [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Attribution theory and emotion|attribution theory]] (Weiner, 1985), which suggests that causal thinking processes, whereby one attributes outcomes to stable, uncontrollable factors, result in low motivation. Attributional styles affect self-evaluations and thus can undermine motivation when failure is attributed to stable aspects of the self (Bandhu et al., 2024). This can cause maladaptive behaviours to emerge. One such response to the threat of failure is self-handicapping. [[w:Self-handicapping|Self-handicapping]] involves creating obstacles to one's own goal so that failure cannot be self-attributed (Török & Szabó, 2018). A handicap acts as a plausible external explanation for an outcome other than the self. This means that a handicapper is willing to increase the probability of failure to protect their self-concept (Coudevylle et al., 2020). Therefore, self-concept can impact motivation by hindering goal pursuit. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Case study comprehension check''' Ash cares a lot about succeeding in her swimming competition. To protect her self-concept as a successful swimmer, Ash may feign a mild illness at the competition so that any failure is attributed to her illness, rather than her competence. {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[File:Multidimensional_model_of_self-concept_diagram.png|thumb|536x536px|'''Figure 2.''' The hierarchical multidimensional model of self-concept (Marsh et al., 2019).]] Illustrating the causes of self-handicapping, Schwinger et al. (2022) found a medium negative correlation between general self-evaluations and self-handicapping and a medium positive correlation between fear of failure and self-handicapping. With more negative general self-evaluations and greater fear of failure, people are more likely to self-handicap, highlighting self-concept as an precursor to self-handicapping. However, in this study, general, rather than domain-specific measures were used. According to the multidimensional model, self-concept is a hierarchical, multi-faceted construct, and more specific self-concepts are more closely related to actual behaviour (see Figure 2; Marsh et al., 2019). Accordingly, future research should investigate domain-specific measures of self-concept and fear of failure to illustrate their direct influence on self-handicapping and task motivation. Self-handicapping demonstrates that self-concept-driven motivation is not always directed towards achieving valued outcomes. Protecting self-worth can become more important than goal engagement. Together, this research suggests self-concept can act both as a motivational resource, and a motivational vulnerability. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}'''Intervention application: Reduce self-threat''' Self-handicapping shows that holding success as a contingency for self-worth can be damaging (Showers et al., 2015). This means interventions should reduce how much self-worth depends on outcomes, by promoting self-compassion, diverse positive self-concepts, and growth-oriented interpretations of failure to improve motivation and wellbeing.{{RoundBoxBottom}} == How does motivation shape self-concept? == The research and theories discussed so far have detailed how self-concept directs and motivates behaviour. The following section explores how, and whether, this relationship works in reverse.   === How internalising motivation shapes self-concept === [[File:Self-determination theory psychological needs.jpg|thumb|450x450px|'''Figure 3.''' Self-determination theory proposes that autonomy, competence, and relatedness support autonomous motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2020).]][[Self-determination theory]] (Ryan & Deci, 2020) proposes motivation exists on a continuum of self-determination, ranging from externally to increasingly internally regulated behaviour. The continuum consists of external, introjected, identified, integrated, and intrinsic regulation (Table 4). These motivation types are influenced by three innate needs: competence, autonomy, and relatedness (see Figure 3; Ryan & Deci, 2020). Understanding the progression of these needs and motivation types can provide insight into how motivational processes influence self-concept. Intrinsic motivation refers to autonomous behaviours completed for enjoyment (see Table 4; Morris et al., 2022). Extrinsic motivation involves engaging in behaviour for an outcome separable from the activity itself (Morris et al., 2022). Its regulation ranges from externally controlled to personally valued and fully integrated. How self-determined people's motivations are depends on the extent to which one has internalised the values, beliefs and perceptions of the behaviour into their self-concept. Meeting the needs of competence, autonomy and relatedness supports motivations to become progressively internalised, and behaviour increasingly self-endorsed (Chiu, 2023). However, it should be noted that this process does not necessarily occur in a fixed sequence. This illustrates how self-concept and motivation reciprocally form one another. The degree to which one identifies with a behaviour shapes their motivation to engage with the behaviour; when needs are met, motivated behaviours and psychological processes shape the self-concept. This internalisation process helps explain how Ash came to identify as a swimmer (see Table 4).   '''Table 4''' ''Applying Self-Determination Theory to Ash's Motivation and Self-Concept Development'' {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" !Type of motivation !Ash's circumstances   !Mechanism |- |External regulation |Ash received a lollipop after swimming lessons.   |Non-self-determined drive.   |- |Introjected regulation |Ash wants her parents to think she is dedicated to swimming. |Partially internalised extrinsic motivation, low self-determination.   |- |Identified regulation |Swimming becomes important to Ash as she starts feeling like a good swimmer (competence) and drives herself to training (autonomy).   |More internalised and self-determined. |- |Integrated regulation |Ash starts to identify as a swimmer and with her swim team (relatedness).   |Fully integrated into self-concept. Highly self-determined but performed for valued outcome not enjoyment. |- |Intrinsic motivation |After the swimming competition, Ash continues swimming for the joy of it.   |Fully integrated into self-concept. Fully autonomous motivation for enjoyment. |} Chiu (2023) provided compelling evidence for how motivation shapes self-concept within the context of self-determination theory. In their study, 342 Hong Kong high school students completed STEM activities taught using a standard teaching approach or a self-determination theory teaching method, focusing on supporting needs of autonomy, competence and relatedness (see Figure 3). Self-report measures reflected that the needs-supporting teaching approach increased students' feelings of autonomy, competence and relatedness; and, consequently, increased STEM identity and interest. This supports that fulfilling core psychological needs promotes more autonomous motivation and develops one's identity. Further supporting this relationship, Yip et al.'s (2024) longitudinal study of 236 anti-poverty activists who completed self-reported social attitudes and personality measures at two timepoints found that increases in self-determined motivations positively correlated with group identification. However, non-self-determined motivations, such as external regulation, did not correlate with group identification. This suggests that self-determined motivation facilitates the incorporation of behaviour and group membership into one's self-concept.   Together, self-determination theory suggests self-concepts develop as values and behaviours are progressively internalised. Ash was not initially motivated because she identified as a swimmer. Her repeated engagement in swimming and fulfilment of psychological needs gradually transformed swimming into part of her identity. This demonstrates that motivation can be a mechanism through which self-concept develops and is not simply a motivating force. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11|title=Quiz}} <quiz display=simple> '''Which statement best reflects how motivation shapes self-concept?''' |type="()"} - People are only motivated to engage in behaviours that are part of their self-concept. - Self-concept does not change through motivational processes. + Repeated engagement with a behaviour and satisfaction of psychological needs gradually makes a behaviour part of one's self-concept. </quiz>{{RoundBoxBottom}} === The cyclical process of motivation and self-concept development === The reciprocal effects model proposes that self-concept and achievement reinforce one another over time (Marsh et al., 2018). People with stronger self-concepts tend to achieve more highly, while achievement experiences subsequently shape self-concept. Motivation plays an important role in this process, influencing how people behave toward achievement experiences. There is a growing body of research investigating this model. For example, Sewasew et al.'s (2018) longitudinal study with 2,342 German high schoolers demonstrated mathematics self-concept was positively correlated with mathematics achievement. Their study highlighted a mutually dependent relationship between academic self-concept and achievement, each mediated by motivation. However, Garn and Shen's (2015) longitudinal study of 329 participants' self-concept and motivation for exercise found that the psychological needs posited by self-determination theory (Ryan & Deci, 2022) did not predict physical self-concept at follow-ups. Physical self-concept was only shown to shape, rather than be shaped by exercise motivation. This result conflicts with the reciprocal effects model and Sewasew et al.'s (2018) results, which may be a reflection of the different self-concept domains examined, mathematics versus physical self-concept. This may indicate that reciprocal effects are domain specific; the multidimensional model suggests academic and physical self-concepts function independently, meaning findings from one domain may not generalise to another (Marsh et al., 2019). Thus, future research should directly compare the reciprocal relationship between self-concept and motivation within different domains. Similarly, Sorjonen et al. (2024) reanalysed meta-analytic results which had provided evidence for the reciprocal effects model. Sorjonen et al. (2024) found that conclusions about the longitudinal relationship between achievement and academic self-concept changed depending on the statistical model used. Hübner et al.'s (2023) support for the reciprocal effects model was also inconsistent between statistical models. This may indicate a spurious correlation that undermines the credibility of the reciprocal effects model. Taken together, these findings suggest that achievement can shape self-concept, but the strength and direction of this relationship may depend on the domain being examined and the methodological approach used. Although the reciprocal effects model remains influential, current evidence indicates that the relationship between motivation, achievement, and self-concept is more complex than originally proposed. == Conclusion == Self-concept is a multidimensional and socially developed framework of beliefs about oneself which acts as a guiding compass. Self-concept shapes motivation by determining which goals feel meaningful, attainable, and identity-consistent through processes of self-discrepancy, difficulty interpretation and self-worth contingencies. Self-discrepancy theory explains how distance from valued selves can create motivational pressure for change. Identity-based motivation theory explains how active identities change the meaning of difficulty. Whereas self-worth contingencies can undermine motivation. Together, these theories detail that self-concept influences goal direction and engagement through social, emotional and cognitive processes. These theories provide insight that motivation-improving interventions should consider targeting how people understand themselves rather than solely targeting behaviours. Motivation may also influence self-concept. Self-determination theory details that motivation and subsequent behaviours form self-concept through internalisation processes when psychological needs are met. However, inconsistent support for the reciprocal effects model indicates that the extent to which motivation reshapes self-concept may vary across domains and statistical models. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Take-home message''' With self-concept and motivation inherently linked, who people believe they are shapes the goals they pursue, while motivations, behaviours, and experiences continually reshape who people become. {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11|title=Quiz}}<quiz display=simple> {'''Chapter comprehension check quiz:''' Ash wakes up at 4:00 a.m. each day to train because being a swimmer is a central part of her identity. According to the chapter, what best explains Ash's motivation? |type="()"} +Self-concept acts as an internal compass that guides goals and behaviour. -Motivation is caused only by external rewards and punishment. -Self-concept remains fixed and has little influence on actions. </quiz> {{RoundBoxBottom}} == See also == * [[wikipedia:Self-concept|Self-concept]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Self-concept clarity|Self-concept clarity]] (Book chapter, 2019) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Self-efficacy and motivation|Self-efficacy and motivation]] (Book chapter, 2014) == References == {{Hanging indent|Bandhu, D., Mohan, M. M., Nittala, N. A. P., Jadhav, P., Bhadauria, A., & Saxena, K. K. (2024). Theories of motivation: A comprehensive analysis of human behavior drivers. ''Acta Psychologica, 244'', 104177. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2024.104177 Chiu, T.K. (2023). Using self-determination theory (SDT) to explain student STEM interest and identity development. 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Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-69909-7_2630-2 Schwinger, M., Trautner, M., Pütz, N., Fabianek, S., Lemmer, G., Lauermann, F., & Wirthwein, L. (2022). Why do students use strategies that hurt their chances of academic success? A meta-analysis of antecedents of academic self-handicapping. ''Journal of Educational Psychology, 114''(3), 576–596. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000706 Seaton, M., Parker, P., Marsh, H. W., Craven, R. G., & Yeung, A. S. (2014). The reciprocal relations between self-concept, motivation and achievement: Juxtaposing academic self-concept and achievement goal orientations for mathematics success. ''Educational Psychology, 34''(1), 49–72. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2013.825232 Sewasew, D., Schroeders, U., Schiefer, I. M., Weirich, S., & Artelt, C. (2018). Development of sex differences in math achievement, self-concept, and interest from grade 5 to 7. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology, 54'', 55–65. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2018.05.003 Showers, C. J., Ditzfeld, C. P., & Zeigler-Hill, V. (2015). Self-concept structure and the quality of self-knowledge. ''Journal of Personality, 83''(5), 535-551. https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12130 Sorjonen, K., Ingre, M., Melin, B., & Nilsonne, G. (2024). Questioning the reciprocal effects model of academic self-concept and achievement: A reanalysis of a meta-analysis of longitudinal studies and a simulation. ''Sage Open, 14''(4). https://doi.org/10.1177/21582440241292826 Török, L., & Szabó, Z. P. (2018). The theory of self-handicapping: Forms, influencing factors and measurement. ''Ceskoslovenska Psychologie, 62''(2), 173-188. Wang, L., Cui, Y., Wang, X., Wang, J., Du, K., & Luo, Z. (2021). Regulatory focus, motivation, and their relationship with creativity among adolescents. ''Frontiers in Psychology, 12'', 666071. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.666071 Wehrle, K., & Fasbender, U. (2018). Self-concept. In Zeigler-Hill, V., & Shackelford, T. (Eds.), ''Encyclopedia of personality and individual differences'' (pp. 1–5). Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-28099-8_2001-1 Weiner, B. (1985). An attributional theory of achievement motivation and emotion. ''Psychological Review, 92''(4), 548–573. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.92.4.548 Yip, L., Thomas, E. F., Amiot, C., Louis, W. R., & McGarty, C. (2024). Autonomous motives foster sustained commitment to action: Integrating self-determination theory and the social identity approach. ''Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 50''(5), 750–765. https://doi.org/10.1177/01461672221148396 }} == External links == * [https://rickhanson.com/being-well-podcast-self-concept-the-secret-to-changing-who-you-are/ Being well podcast: Self-concept: The secret to changing WHO you are] (Being Well Podcast) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Nck7lP-6C2g Unlocking success: The power of self-efficacy and self-concept] (TEDx Talks) * [https://www.ted.com/talks/anil_ananthaswamy_where_does_your_sense_of_self_come_from_a_scientific_look Where does your sense of self come from? A scientific look] (TEDx Talks) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self-concept]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Motivation]] heinjmofkb5cqkwtrnc4bbty667jbxh 2835728 2835725 2026-10-04T01:15:47Z U3253363 3106362 /* How the self directs and energises behaviour */ A few copy edits, as supported by the Gemini suggestions linked in the previous edit 2835728 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Self-concept and motivation:<br>How does self-concept relate to motivation?}} == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Sinclair Swimming.JPG|right|thumb|180px|'''Figure 1'''. Ash is a competitive swimmer and swims daily.]] ;Scenario Ash is a swimmer training for a national competition. When asked to describe herself, being "a swimmer" is the first word Ash uses. She is eager to succeed at the upcoming swimming competition. Every morning, she wakes up at 4:00 a.m to swim four kilometres (see Figure 1). Her friend Riley struggles to understand how Ash maintains this demanding schedule. Why is Ash able to do this when many would find this difficult? {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Self-concept|Self-concept]] is an individual's understanding of who they are and how they feel about themselves (Wehrle & Fasbender, 2018). This includes a complex system of self-knowledge, attitudes, beliefs, and judgements about oneself. Beyond answering “who am I?”, self-concept acts as an internal compass that influences thinking, feelings, and behaviour. This chapter explores the reciprocal relationship between self-concept and motivation; how self-understanding influences motivated behaviour, and how motivated behaviour progressively shapes self-concept. Understanding this reciprocal relationship can help people develop motivation around meaningful identities while reducing the risk that failure becomes a threat to personal worth. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=12}} '''Focus questions''' *What is self-concept? *How does self-concept influence motivation? *How does motivation shape self-concept?{{RoundBoxBottom}} == What is self-concept? == Self-concept is a cognitive framework of self-knowledge (Wehrle & Fasbender, 2018). It is related, but unique to many of the popular “self-” constructs like [[self-esteem]], [[w:Self-efficacy|self-efficacy]], and [[w:Self-image|self-image]]. Each self-concept-relevant theory approaches the construct differently, but several common properties emerge and provide the foundation for understanding its motivational effects (see Table 1). Foundationally, [[wikipedia:William_James|James]] (1892) conceptualised the self as having two parts: “I”, the subjective thinker, and “me”, the material and social self. Cooley (1902) added the [[wikipedia:Looking-glass_self|looking-glass self]], proposing that self-concept develops through perceived social evaluations. Modern frameworks, including identity-based motivation theory (Oyserman, 2024) and the multidimensional model (Marsh et al., 1992) suggest self-concept is hierarchical, multifaceted, and dynamic. '''Table 1''' ''Self-Concept Properties and Their Significance for Motivation'' {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" !Property !Key theory !Significance for motivation |- |'''Descriptive  ''' |James |Identity beliefs influence set standards and expectations |- |'''Socially developed''' |Looking glass self |Social feedback influences which behaviours are pursued |- |'''Dynamic''' |Identity-based motivation theory |Self-concept shifts situationally |- |'''Multidimensional''' |Multidimensional model |Domain-specific self-concepts motivate distinct behaviours |- |'''Hierarchical  ''' |Multidimensional model |General and specific domains of the self influence each other and different behaviours |} == How does self-concept influence motivation? == Like self-concept, motivation is multidimensional and central to human behaviour (Bandhu et al., 2024). This creates an interesting intersection of properties; self-concept and motivation both influence which goals people pursue and responses to difficulty. This section explores how self-concept influences motivation.   === How the self directs and energises behaviour === [[w:Self-discrepancy_theory|Self-discrepancy theory]] proposes people have three representations of the self: the actual (who one is), ideal (who one wants to become), and ought self (who one believes others want them to be; see Table 2; Higgins, 1987). Ideal and ought selves set standards for one to strive toward, laying a framework for goal direction. Discrepancies between actual and ideal or ought selves also generate emotional vulnerabilities (Table 2). Actual/ideal self-discrepancies result in dejection-related emotions (e.g. frustration, dissatisfaction; Higgins, 1987). Actual/ought self-discrepancies result in agitation-related emotions (e.g. anxiety, guilt). Greater discrepancies result in greater emotional discomfort and generate greater motivation to close the gap (Higgins, 1989). Meta-analytic findings support that greater discrepancies result in more negative emotions (Mason et al., 2019). However, Mason et al. (2019) found that actual/ideal and actual/ought self-discrepancies both correlated with dejection- and agitation-related emotions. This contrasts with self-discrepancy theory's proposition. Further, while the negative emotions resulting from discrepancies are proposed to motivate people to reduce discrepancies, MacIntyre and Vincze (2017) suggest positive emotions have greater motivating strength than negative emotions. This suggests that while self-concepts provide frameworks for goal selection and energise behaviour, self-discrepancies may not be the most powerful emotional source of motivation. '''Table 2''' ''Dimensions of the Self and Emotional Effects of Discrepancies'' {| class="wikitable" !Self dimension !Examples !Emotional effect of discrepancy with actual self |- |Actual |Daily behaviours, beliefs | - |- |Ideal |Dreams, aspirations |Dejection-related emotions |- |Ought |Duties, obligations |Agitation-related emotions |}[[w:Regulatory_focus_theory|Regulatory focus theory]] (Higgins, 1997) expands self-discrepancy theory to suggest different self-representations produce different motivational orientations. Ideal-self goals create a promotion focus, where people are motivated to seek positive outcomes (see Table 3). Ought-self goals create a prevention focus, where people are motivated to avoid negative outcomes. These regulatory focuses both positively correlated with intrinsic motivation in Wang et al.'s (2021) study of adolescent task engagement. However, promotion focuses positively correlated with creativity and an innovative cognitive style, whereas prevention focuses negatively correlated with an innovative cognitive style and was characterised by error avoidance. This shows that while both promotion and prevention orientations generate self-sustained motivation, they result in different approaches to tasks. '''Table 3''' ''Self-concept's Motivational Mechanisms'' {| class="wikitable" |+ !Self-discrepancy !Motivational focus !Motivational mechanism !Task approach |- |Actual-ideal |Promotion |Seek positive outcomes |Creativity, innovation |- |Actual-ought |Prevention |Avoid negative outcomes |Reduced innovation, error avoidance |} [[wikipedia:Identity_based_motivation|Identity-based motivation theory]] (Oyserman, 2024) provides an alternative explanation to how self-concept directs behaviour. The theory proposes that situations influence which aspects of self-concept are active. Active identities change interpretations of difficulty, which influences motivation. When behaviour aligns with an active identity, people interpret difficulties in completing that behaviour as evidence the behaviour is important (Oyserman, 2015). This is because identity-congruent behaviours provide information about who one is and who one wants to become, making difficulty meaningful rather than discouraging (Oyserman, 2024). Conversely, identity-incongruent actions that have the same challenges are interpreted as pointless. This means that identities mediate motivation and help goal selection and persistence through the process of difficulty interpretation. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Case study comprehension check''' When Ash feels physically exhausted during her early morning swim sets, her identity as an elite athlete is active. This helps her interpret exhaustion as a meaningful challenge. For her non-swimmer friend, Riley, this exhaustion would be interpreted as evidence swimming is not for them.{{RoundBoxBottom}} Illustrating the motivating role of the self-concept within this framework, Nurra and Oyserman (2018) found that motivation to pursue future identity-relevant goals in school children, and subsequent achievement, was influenced by how children thought about their future selves. Students were exposed to prompts that helped them think of their adult self as either near or far. Students in the adult-self-is-near group achieved significantly higher final grades than the adult-self-is-far group. These findings indicate that closely identifying with future selves and viewing future selves as attainable can motivate goal pursual. Together, these results support identity-based motivation theory and detail that self-concept drives behaviour by defining desirable outcomes and shaping how challenges and opportunities are interpreted. Together, self-discrepancy, regulatory focus, and identity-based motivation theories suggest that a person's perceived distance from a valued self can create motivational pressure to change and active identities influence interpretations of challenges. These states modify goal engagement and motivation. In all three theories, self-concept is central to motivation, driving goal selection and engagement. Thus, what motivates each person, and how they subsequently behave, is shaped by self-concept. === How self-concept can undermine motivation === The theories and research discussed so far optimistically show how self-concept facilitates motivation. However, self-concept can also undermine motivation through self-worth contingencies. [[wikipedia:Contingent_self-esteem#Self-esteem_and_contingent_self-worth|Self-worth contingencies]] refer to the standards one feels they must meet to have value as a person (Showers et al., 2015). For individuals who have highly contingent self-worth, goal attainment is closely tied to their self-concept, meaning failure threatens their self-concept. Contingent self-worth motivates pursuit of success for domains that are important for one's self-worth but can result in avoidant behaviour and strong responses to failure. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} <quiz display=simple> '''What are self-worth contingencies?''' |type="()"} - How people feel about themselves + Standards people feel they must meet to have value - How people compare themselves to others </quiz>{{RoundBoxBottom}} Lietz et al. (2026) qualitatively studied 17 participants' identity-shaped goals and found that failing to achieve these goals resulted in negative and severe emotional responses. Further, participants tended to attribute failure to personal shortcomings, because of how closely held the goal was to their self-concept. This resulted in reduced motivation to reattempt, or blind pursuit of the same goal without re-examining the approach. This is consistent with [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Attribution theory and emotion|attribution theory]] (Weiner, 1985), which suggests that causal thinking processes, whereby one attributes outcomes to stable, uncontrollable factors, result in low motivation. Attributional styles affect self-evaluations and thus can undermine motivation when failure is attributed to stable aspects of the self (Bandhu et al., 2024). This can cause maladaptive behaviours to emerge. One such response to the threat of failure is self-handicapping. [[w:Self-handicapping|Self-handicapping]] involves creating obstacles to one's own goal so that failure cannot be self-attributed (Török & Szabó, 2018). A handicap acts as a plausible external explanation for an outcome other than the self. This means that a handicapper is willing to increase the probability of failure to protect their self-concept (Coudevylle et al., 2020). Therefore, self-concept can impact motivation by hindering goal pursuit. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Case study comprehension check''' Ash cares a lot about succeeding in her swimming competition. To protect her self-concept as a successful swimmer, Ash may feign a mild illness at the competition so that any failure is attributed to her illness, rather than her competence. {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[File:Multidimensional_model_of_self-concept_diagram.png|thumb|536x536px|'''Figure 2.''' The hierarchical multidimensional model of self-concept (Marsh et al., 2019).]] Illustrating the causes of self-handicapping, Schwinger et al. (2022) found a medium negative correlation between general self-evaluations and self-handicapping and a medium positive correlation between fear of failure and self-handicapping. With more negative general self-evaluations and greater fear of failure, people are more likely to self-handicap, highlighting self-concept as an precursor to self-handicapping. However, in this study, general, rather than domain-specific measures were used. According to the multidimensional model, self-concept is a hierarchical, multi-faceted construct, and more specific self-concepts are more closely related to actual behaviour (see Figure 2; Marsh et al., 2019). Accordingly, future research should investigate domain-specific measures of self-concept and fear of failure to illustrate their direct influence on self-handicapping and task motivation. Self-handicapping demonstrates that self-concept-driven motivation is not always directed towards achieving valued outcomes. Protecting self-worth can become more important than goal engagement. Together, this research suggests self-concept can act both as a motivational resource, and a motivational vulnerability. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}'''Intervention application: Reduce self-threat''' Self-handicapping shows that holding success as a contingency for self-worth can be damaging (Showers et al., 2015). This means interventions should reduce how much self-worth depends on outcomes, by promoting self-compassion, diverse positive self-concepts, and growth-oriented interpretations of failure to improve motivation and wellbeing.{{RoundBoxBottom}} == How does motivation shape self-concept? == The research and theories discussed so far have detailed how self-concept directs and motivates behaviour. The following section explores how, and whether, this relationship works in reverse.   === How internalising motivation shapes self-concept === [[File:Self-determination theory psychological needs.jpg|thumb|450x450px|'''Figure 3.''' Self-determination theory proposes that autonomy, competence, and relatedness support autonomous motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2020).]][[Self-determination theory]] (Ryan & Deci, 2020) proposes motivation exists on a continuum of self-determination, ranging from externally to increasingly internally regulated behaviour. The continuum consists of external, introjected, identified, integrated, and intrinsic regulation (Table 4). These motivation types are influenced by three innate needs: competence, autonomy, and relatedness (see Figure 3; Ryan & Deci, 2020). Understanding the progression of these needs and motivation types can provide insight into how motivational processes influence self-concept. Intrinsic motivation refers to autonomous behaviours completed for enjoyment (see Table 4; Morris et al., 2022). Extrinsic motivation involves engaging in behaviour for an outcome separable from the activity itself (Morris et al., 2022). Its regulation ranges from externally controlled to personally valued and fully integrated. How self-determined people's motivations are depends on the extent to which one has internalised the values, beliefs and perceptions of the behaviour into their self-concept. Meeting the needs of competence, autonomy and relatedness supports motivations to become progressively internalised, and behaviour increasingly self-endorsed (Chiu, 2023). However, it should be noted that this process does not necessarily occur in a fixed sequence. This illustrates how self-concept and motivation reciprocally form one another. The degree to which one identifies with a behaviour shapes their motivation to engage with the behaviour; when needs are met, motivated behaviours and psychological processes shape the self-concept. This internalisation process helps explain how Ash came to identify as a swimmer (see Table 4).   '''Table 4''' ''Applying Self-Determination Theory to Ash's Motivation and Self-Concept Development'' {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" !Type of motivation !Ash's circumstances   !Mechanism |- |External regulation |Ash received a lollipop after swimming lessons.   |Non-self-determined drive.   |- |Introjected regulation |Ash wants her parents to think she is dedicated to swimming. |Partially internalised extrinsic motivation, low self-determination.   |- |Identified regulation |Swimming becomes important to Ash as she starts feeling like a good swimmer (competence) and drives herself to training (autonomy).   |More internalised and self-determined. |- |Integrated regulation |Ash starts to identify as a swimmer and with her swim team (relatedness).   |Fully integrated into self-concept. Highly self-determined but performed for valued outcome not enjoyment. |- |Intrinsic motivation |After the swimming competition, Ash continues swimming for the joy of it.   |Fully integrated into self-concept. Fully autonomous motivation for enjoyment. |} Chiu (2023) provided compelling evidence for how motivation shapes self-concept within the context of self-determination theory. In their study, 342 Hong Kong high school students completed STEM activities taught using a standard teaching approach or a self-determination theory teaching method, focusing on supporting needs of autonomy, competence and relatedness (see Figure 3). Self-report measures reflected that the needs-supporting teaching approach increased students' feelings of autonomy, competence and relatedness; and, consequently, increased STEM identity and interest. This supports that fulfilling core psychological needs promotes more autonomous motivation and develops one's identity. Further supporting this relationship, Yip et al.'s (2024) longitudinal study of 236 anti-poverty activists who completed self-reported social attitudes and personality measures at two timepoints found that increases in self-determined motivations positively correlated with group identification. However, non-self-determined motivations, such as external regulation, did not correlate with group identification. This suggests that self-determined motivation facilitates the incorporation of behaviour and group membership into one's self-concept.   Together, self-determination theory suggests self-concepts develop as values and behaviours are progressively internalised. Ash was not initially motivated because she identified as a swimmer. Her repeated engagement in swimming and fulfilment of psychological needs gradually transformed swimming into part of her identity. This demonstrates that motivation can be a mechanism through which self-concept develops and is not simply a motivating force. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11|title=Quiz}} <quiz display=simple> '''Which statement best reflects how motivation shapes self-concept?''' |type="()"} - People are only motivated to engage in behaviours that are part of their self-concept. - Self-concept does not change through motivational processes. + Repeated engagement with a behaviour and satisfaction of psychological needs gradually makes a behaviour part of one's self-concept. </quiz>{{RoundBoxBottom}} === The cyclical process of motivation and self-concept development === The reciprocal effects model proposes that self-concept and achievement reinforce one another over time (Marsh et al., 2018). People with stronger self-concepts tend to achieve more highly, while achievement experiences subsequently shape self-concept. Motivation plays an important role in this process, influencing how people behave toward achievement experiences. There is a growing body of research investigating this model. For example, Sewasew et al.'s (2018) longitudinal study with 2,342 German high schoolers demonstrated mathematics self-concept was positively correlated with mathematics achievement. Their study highlighted a mutually dependent relationship between academic self-concept and achievement, each mediated by motivation. However, Garn and Shen's (2015) longitudinal study of 329 participants' self-concept and motivation for exercise found that the psychological needs posited by self-determination theory (Ryan & Deci, 2022) did not predict physical self-concept at follow-ups. Physical self-concept was only shown to shape, rather than be shaped by exercise motivation. This result conflicts with the reciprocal effects model and Sewasew et al.'s (2018) results, which may be a reflection of the different self-concept domains examined, mathematics versus physical self-concept. This may indicate that reciprocal effects are domain specific; the multidimensional model suggests academic and physical self-concepts function independently, meaning findings from one domain may not generalise to another (Marsh et al., 2019). Thus, future research should directly compare the reciprocal relationship between self-concept and motivation within different domains. Similarly, Sorjonen et al. (2024) reanalysed meta-analytic results which had provided evidence for the reciprocal effects model. Sorjonen et al. (2024) found that conclusions about the longitudinal relationship between achievement and academic self-concept changed depending on the statistical model used. Hübner et al.'s (2023) support for the reciprocal effects model was also inconsistent between statistical models. This may indicate a spurious correlation that undermines the credibility of the reciprocal effects model. Taken together, these findings suggest that achievement can shape self-concept, but the strength and direction of this relationship may depend on the domain being examined and the methodological approach used. Although the reciprocal effects model remains influential, current evidence indicates that the relationship between motivation, achievement, and self-concept is more complex than originally proposed. == Conclusion == Self-concept is a multidimensional and socially developed framework of beliefs about oneself which acts as a guiding compass. Self-concept shapes motivation by determining which goals feel meaningful, attainable, and identity-consistent through processes of self-discrepancy, difficulty interpretation and self-worth contingencies. Self-discrepancy theory explains how distance from valued selves can create motivational pressure for change. Identity-based motivation theory explains how active identities change the meaning of difficulty. Whereas self-worth contingencies can undermine motivation. Together, these theories detail that self-concept influences goal direction and engagement through social, emotional and cognitive processes. These theories provide insight that motivation-improving interventions should consider targeting how people understand themselves rather than solely targeting behaviours. Motivation may also influence self-concept. Self-determination theory details that motivation and subsequent behaviours form self-concept through internalisation processes when psychological needs are met. However, inconsistent support for the reciprocal effects model indicates that the extent to which motivation reshapes self-concept may vary across domains and statistical models. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Take-home message''' With self-concept and motivation inherently linked, who people believe they are shapes the goals they pursue, while motivations, behaviours, and experiences continually reshape who people become. {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11|title=Quiz}}<quiz display=simple> {'''Chapter comprehension check quiz:''' Ash wakes up at 4:00 a.m. each day to train because being a swimmer is a central part of her identity. According to the chapter, what best explains Ash's motivation? |type="()"} +Self-concept acts as an internal compass that guides goals and behaviour. -Motivation is caused only by external rewards and punishment. -Self-concept remains fixed and has little influence on actions. </quiz> {{RoundBoxBottom}} == See also == * [[wikipedia:Self-concept|Self-concept]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Self-concept clarity|Self-concept clarity]] (Book chapter, 2019) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Self-efficacy and motivation|Self-efficacy and motivation]] (Book chapter, 2014) == References == {{Hanging indent|Bandhu, D., Mohan, M. M., Nittala, N. A. P., Jadhav, P., Bhadauria, A., & Saxena, K. K. (2024). Theories of motivation: A comprehensive analysis of human behavior drivers. ''Acta Psychologica, 244'', 104177. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2024.104177 Chiu, T.K. (2023). Using self-determination theory (SDT) to explain student STEM interest and identity development. ''Instructional Science, 52'', 89–107. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11251-023-09642-8 Cooley, C. H. (1902). The looking-glass self. ''The production of reality: Essays and readings on social interaction, 6''(1902), 126–28. Coudevylle, G. R., Boulley-Escriva, G., Finez, L., Eugène, K., & Robin, N. (2020). An experimental investigation of claimed self-handicapping strategies across motivational climates based on achievement goal and self-determination theories. ''Educational Psychology, 40''(8), 1002–1021. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2020.1746237 Garn, A., & Shen, B. (2015). Physical self-concept and basic psychological needs in exercise: Are there reciprocal effects? ''International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 13''(2), 169–181. https://doi.org/10.1080/1612197X.2014.940994 Higgins, E. T. (1987). Self-discrepancy: A theory relating self and affect. ''Psychological Review, 94''(3), 319. Higgins, E. T. (1989). 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(2026). ‘It meant something about who I am’: What the lived experience of failure teaches us about designing for goal setting. ''Behaviour & Information Technology,'' 1–27. https://doi.org/10.1080/0144929X.2026.2711023 MacIntyre, P. D., & Vincze, L. (2017). Positive and negative emotions in motivation for second language learning. ''Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching, 7''(1), 61–88. https://doi.org/10.14746/ssllt.2017.7.1.4 Marsh, H. W., Byrne, B. M., & Shavelson, R. J. (1992). A multidimensional, hierarchical self-concept. In T. M. Brinthaupt & R. P. Lipka (Eds.), ''The self: Definitional and methodological issues'' (pp. 44–95). State University of New York Press. Marsh, H. W., Martin, A. J., Yeung, A. S., & Craven, R. G. (2018). Chapter 6: Competence self-perceptions. In A. J. Elliot, C. S. Dweck, & D. S. Yeager (Eds.), ''Handbook of competence and motivation: Theory and application'' (pp. 85–115). Guilford Publications. Marsh, H. W., Seaton, M., Dicke, T., Parker, P. D., & Horwood, M. S. (2019). The centrality of academic self-concept to motivation and learning. In K. A. Renninger, & S. E. Hidi (Eds.), ''The Cambridge handbook of motivation and learning'' (pp. 36–62). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781316823279.004 Mason, T. B., Smith, K. E., Engwall, A., Lass, A., Mead, M., Sorby, M., Bjorlie, K., Strauman, T. J., & Wonderlich, S. (2019). Self-discrepancy theory as a transdiagnostic framework: A meta-analysis of self-discrepancy and psychopathology. ''Psychological Bulletin, 145''(4), 372–389. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000186 Morris, L. S., Grehl, M. M., Rutter, S. B., Mehta, M., & Westwater, M. L. (2022). On what motivates us: A detailed review of intrinsic v. extrinsic motivation. ''Psychological Medicine, 52''(10), 1801–1816. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291722001611 Nurra, C., & Oyserman, D. (2018). From future self to current action: An identity-based motivation perspective. ''Self and Identity, 17''(3), 343-364. https://doi.org/10.1080/15298868.2017.1375003 Oyserman, D. (2015). Identity-based motivation. ''Emerging Trends in the Social and Behavioral Sciences, 38'', 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118900772.etrds0171 Oyserman, D. (2024), Identity-based motivation and the motivational consequences of difficulty. ''Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 18'', e70028. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.70028 Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2020). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation from a self-determination theory perspective: Definitions, theory, practices, and future directions. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology, 61'', 101860. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101860 Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2022). Self-determination theory. In F. Maggino (Ed.), ''Encyclopedia of quality of life and well-being research'' (pp. 1–7). Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-69909-7_2630-2 Schwinger, M., Trautner, M., Pütz, N., Fabianek, S., Lemmer, G., Lauermann, F., & Wirthwein, L. (2022). Why do students use strategies that hurt their chances of academic success? A meta-analysis of antecedents of academic self-handicapping. ''Journal of Educational Psychology, 114''(3), 576–596. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000706 Seaton, M., Parker, P., Marsh, H. W., Craven, R. G., & Yeung, A. S. (2014). The reciprocal relations between self-concept, motivation and achievement: Juxtaposing academic self-concept and achievement goal orientations for mathematics success. ''Educational Psychology, 34''(1), 49–72. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2013.825232 Sewasew, D., Schroeders, U., Schiefer, I. M., Weirich, S., & Artelt, C. (2018). Development of sex differences in math achievement, self-concept, and interest from grade 5 to 7. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology, 54'', 55–65. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2018.05.003 Showers, C. J., Ditzfeld, C. P., & Zeigler-Hill, V. (2015). Self-concept structure and the quality of self-knowledge. ''Journal of Personality, 83''(5), 535-551. https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12130 Sorjonen, K., Ingre, M., Melin, B., & Nilsonne, G. (2024). Questioning the reciprocal effects model of academic self-concept and achievement: A reanalysis of a meta-analysis of longitudinal studies and a simulation. ''Sage Open, 14''(4). https://doi.org/10.1177/21582440241292826 Török, L., & Szabó, Z. P. (2018). The theory of self-handicapping: Forms, influencing factors and measurement. ''Ceskoslovenska Psychologie, 62''(2), 173-188. Wang, L., Cui, Y., Wang, X., Wang, J., Du, K., & Luo, Z. (2021). Regulatory focus, motivation, and their relationship with creativity among adolescents. ''Frontiers in Psychology, 12'', 666071. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.666071 Wehrle, K., & Fasbender, U. (2018). Self-concept. In Zeigler-Hill, V., & Shackelford, T. (Eds.), ''Encyclopedia of personality and individual differences'' (pp. 1–5). Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-28099-8_2001-1 Weiner, B. (1985). An attributional theory of achievement motivation and emotion. ''Psychological Review, 92''(4), 548–573. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.92.4.548 Yip, L., Thomas, E. F., Amiot, C., Louis, W. R., & McGarty, C. (2024). Autonomous motives foster sustained commitment to action: Integrating self-determination theory and the social identity approach. ''Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 50''(5), 750–765. https://doi.org/10.1177/01461672221148396 }} == External links == * [https://rickhanson.com/being-well-podcast-self-concept-the-secret-to-changing-who-you-are/ Being well podcast: Self-concept: The secret to changing WHO you are] (Being Well Podcast) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Nck7lP-6C2g Unlocking success: The power of self-efficacy and self-concept] (TEDx Talks) * [https://www.ted.com/talks/anil_ananthaswamy_where_does_your_sense_of_self_come_from_a_scientific_look Where does your sense of self come from? A scientific look] (TEDx Talks) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self-concept]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Motivation]] cz2a0dq2bbexqwblxp9d6r8q8mgwgup 2835730 2835728 2026-10-04T02:01:06Z U3253363 3106362 /* How self-concept can undermine motivation */ Further edits to reduce word count. Supported by asking Gemini to make suggestions about where to reduce word count and improve readability. https://gemini.google.com/app/920ef366d7600b5a?hl=en-AU 2835730 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Self-concept and motivation:<br>How does self-concept relate to motivation?}} == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Sinclair Swimming.JPG|right|thumb|180px|'''Figure 1'''. Ash is a competitive swimmer and swims daily.]] ;Scenario Ash is a swimmer training for a national competition. When asked to describe herself, being "a swimmer" is the first word Ash uses. She is eager to succeed at the upcoming swimming competition. Every morning, she wakes up at 4:00 a.m to swim four kilometres (see Figure 1). Her friend Riley struggles to understand how Ash maintains this demanding schedule. Why is Ash able to do this when many would find this difficult? {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Self-concept|Self-concept]] is an individual's understanding of who they are and how they feel about themselves (Wehrle & Fasbender, 2018). This includes a complex system of self-knowledge, attitudes, beliefs, and judgements about oneself. Beyond answering “who am I?”, self-concept acts as an internal compass that influences thinking, feelings, and behaviour. This chapter explores the reciprocal relationship between self-concept and motivation; how self-understanding influences motivated behaviour, and how motivated behaviour progressively shapes self-concept. Understanding this reciprocal relationship can help people develop motivation around meaningful identities while reducing the risk that failure becomes a threat to personal worth. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=12}} '''Focus questions''' *What is self-concept? *How does self-concept influence motivation? *How does motivation shape self-concept?{{RoundBoxBottom}} == What is self-concept? == Self-concept is a cognitive framework of self-knowledge (Wehrle & Fasbender, 2018). It is related, but unique to many of the popular “self-” constructs like [[self-esteem]], [[w:Self-efficacy|self-efficacy]], and [[w:Self-image|self-image]]. Each self-concept-relevant theory approaches the construct differently, but several common properties emerge and provide the foundation for understanding its motivational effects (see Table 1). Foundationally, [[wikipedia:William_James|James]] (1892) conceptualised the self as having two parts: “I”, the subjective thinker, and “me”, the material and social self. Cooley (1902) added the [[wikipedia:Looking-glass_self|looking-glass self]], proposing that self-concept develops through perceived social evaluations. Modern frameworks, including identity-based motivation theory (Oyserman, 2024) and the multidimensional model (Marsh et al., 1992) suggest self-concept is hierarchical, multifaceted, and dynamic. '''Table 1''' ''Self-Concept Properties and Their Significance for Motivation'' {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" !Property !Key theory !Significance for motivation |- |'''Descriptive  ''' |James |Identity beliefs influence set standards and expectations |- |'''Socially developed''' |Looking glass self |Social feedback influences which behaviours are pursued |- |'''Dynamic''' |Identity-based motivation theory |Self-concept shifts situationally |- |'''Multidimensional''' |Multidimensional model |Domain-specific self-concepts motivate distinct behaviours |- |'''Hierarchical  ''' |Multidimensional model |General and specific domains of the self influence each other and different behaviours |} == How does self-concept influence motivation? == Like self-concept, motivation is multidimensional and central to human behaviour (Bandhu et al., 2024). This creates an interesting intersection of properties; self-concept and motivation both influence which goals people pursue and responses to difficulty. This section explores how self-concept influences motivation.   === How the self directs and energises behaviour === [[w:Self-discrepancy_theory|Self-discrepancy theory]] proposes people have three representations of the self: the actual (who one is), ideal (who one wants to become), and ought self (who one believes others want them to be; see Table 2; Higgins, 1987). Ideal and ought selves set standards for one to strive toward, laying a framework for goal direction. Discrepancies between actual and ideal or ought selves also generate emotional vulnerabilities (Table 2). Actual/ideal self-discrepancies result in dejection-related emotions (e.g. frustration, dissatisfaction; Higgins, 1987). Actual/ought self-discrepancies result in agitation-related emotions (e.g. anxiety, guilt). Greater discrepancies result in greater emotional discomfort and generate greater motivation to close the gap (Higgins, 1989). Meta-analytic findings support that greater discrepancies result in more negative emotions (Mason et al., 2019). However, Mason et al. (2019) found that actual/ideal and actual/ought self-discrepancies both correlated with dejection- and agitation-related emotions. This contrasts with self-discrepancy theory's proposition. Further, while the negative emotions resulting from discrepancies are proposed to motivate people to reduce discrepancies, MacIntyre and Vincze (2017) suggest positive emotions have greater motivating strength than negative emotions. This suggests that while self-concepts provide frameworks for goal selection and energise behaviour, self-discrepancies may not be the most powerful emotional source of motivation. '''Table 2''' ''Dimensions of the Self and Emotional Effects of Discrepancies'' {| class="wikitable" !Self dimension !Examples !Emotional effect of discrepancy with actual self |- |Actual |Daily behaviours, beliefs | - |- |Ideal |Dreams, aspirations |Dejection-related emotions |- |Ought |Duties, obligations |Agitation-related emotions |}[[w:Regulatory_focus_theory|Regulatory focus theory]] (Higgins, 1997) expands self-discrepancy theory to suggest different self-representations produce different motivational orientations. Ideal-self goals create a promotion focus, where people are motivated to seek positive outcomes (see Table 3). Ought-self goals create a prevention focus, where people are motivated to avoid negative outcomes. These regulatory focuses both positively correlated with intrinsic motivation in Wang et al.'s (2021) study of adolescent task engagement. However, promotion focuses positively correlated with creativity and an innovative cognitive style, whereas prevention focuses negatively correlated with an innovative cognitive style and was characterised by error avoidance. This shows that while both promotion and prevention orientations generate self-sustained motivation, they result in different approaches to tasks. '''Table 3''' ''Self-concept's Motivational Mechanisms'' {| class="wikitable" |+ !Self-discrepancy !Motivational focus !Motivational mechanism !Task approach |- |Actual-ideal |Promotion |Seek positive outcomes |Creativity, innovation |- |Actual-ought |Prevention |Avoid negative outcomes |Reduced innovation, error avoidance |} [[wikipedia:Identity_based_motivation|Identity-based motivation theory]] (Oyserman, 2024) provides an alternative explanation to how self-concept directs behaviour. The theory proposes that situations influence which aspects of self-concept are active. Active identities change interpretations of difficulty, which influences motivation. When behaviour aligns with an active identity, people interpret difficulties in completing that behaviour as evidence the behaviour is important (Oyserman, 2015). This is because identity-congruent behaviours provide information about who one is and who one wants to become, making difficulty meaningful rather than discouraging (Oyserman, 2024). Conversely, identity-incongruent actions that have the same challenges are interpreted as pointless. This means that identities mediate motivation and help goal selection and persistence through the process of difficulty interpretation. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Case study comprehension check''' When Ash feels physically exhausted during her early morning swim sets, her identity as an elite athlete is active. This helps her interpret exhaustion as a meaningful challenge. For her non-swimmer friend, Riley, this exhaustion would be interpreted as evidence swimming is not for them.{{RoundBoxBottom}} Illustrating the motivating role of the self-concept within this framework, Nurra and Oyserman (2018) found that motivation to pursue future identity-relevant goals in school children, and subsequent achievement, was influenced by how children thought about their future selves. Students were exposed to prompts that helped them think of their adult self as either near or far. Students in the adult-self-is-near group achieved significantly higher final grades than the adult-self-is-far group. These findings indicate that closely identifying with future selves and viewing future selves as attainable can motivate goal pursual. Together, these results support identity-based motivation theory and detail that self-concept drives behaviour by defining desirable outcomes and shaping how challenges and opportunities are interpreted. Together, self-discrepancy, regulatory focus, and identity-based motivation theories suggest that a person's perceived distance from a valued self can create motivational pressure to change and active identities influence interpretations of challenges. These states modify goal engagement and motivation. In all three theories, self-concept is central to motivation, driving goal selection and engagement. Thus, what motivates each person, and how they subsequently behave, is shaped by self-concept. === How self-concept can undermine motivation === While self-concept can energise and direct behaviour, it can also undermine motivation through self-worth contingencies. [[wikipedia:Contingent_self-esteem#Self-esteem_and_contingent_self-worth|Self-worth contingencies]] refer to the standards people feel they must meet to have personal value (Showers et al., 2015). When goals are tightly bound to self-worth, failure threatens self-concept. So, contingent self-worth can motivate the pursuit of self-concept-important goals, but can result in avoidant behaviour and strong responses to failure. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} <quiz display=simple> '''What are self-worth contingencies?''' |type="()"} - How people feel about themselves + Standards people feel they must meet to have value - How people compare themselves to others </quiz>{{RoundBoxBottom}} Lietz et al. (2026) qualitatively studied 17 participants' identity-shaped goals and found that failing to achieve these goals resulted in negative and severe emotional responses. Further, participants tended to attribute failure to personal shortcomings, because of how closely held the goal was to their self-concept. This resulted in reduced motivation to reattempt, or blind pursuit of the same goal without re-examining the approach. This is consistent with [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Attribution theory and emotion|attribution theory]] (Weiner, 1985), which suggests that causal thinking processes, where people attribute outcomes to stable, uncontrollable factors, result in low motivation. Attributional styles affect self-evaluations and thus can undermine motivation when failure is attributed to stable aspects of the self (Bandhu et al., 2024). This can cause maladaptive behaviours to emerge. One such response to the threat of failure is self-handicapping. [[w:Self-handicapping|Self-handicapping]] involves creating obstacles to one's own goal so that failure can be attributed to external, rather than personal factors (Török & Szabó, 2018). This means people may increase the probability of failure to protect their self-concept (Coudevylle et al., 2020). Therefore, self-concept can impact motivation by hindering goal pursuit. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Case study comprehension check''' Ash cares a lot about succeeding in her swimming competition. To protect her self-concept as a successful swimmer, Ash may fake a mild illness at the competition so that any failure can be attributed to her illness, rather than her competence. {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[File:Multidimensional_model_of_self-concept_diagram.png|thumb|536x536px|'''Figure 2.''' The hierarchical multidimensional model of self-concept (Marsh et al., 2019).]] Illustrating the causes of self-handicapping, Schwinger et al. (2022) found a medium negative correlation between general self-evaluations and self-handicapping and a medium positive correlation between fear of failure and self-handicapping. With more negative general self-evaluations and greater fear of failure, people are more likely to self-handicap, highlighting self-concept as an precursor to self-handicapping. However, in this study, general, rather than domain-specific measures were used. According to the multidimensional model, self-concept is a hierarchical, multi-faceted construct, and more specific self-concepts are more closely related to actual behaviour (see Figure 2; Marsh et al., 2019). Accordingly, future research should investigate domain-specific measures of self-concept and fear of failure to illustrate their direct influence on self-handicapping and task motivation. Self-handicapping demonstrates that self-concept-driven motivation is not always directed towards achieving valued outcomes. Protecting self-worth can become more important than goal engagement. Together, this research suggests self-concept can act both as a motivational resource, and a motivational vulnerability. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}'''Intervention application''' To reduce self-handicapping, interventions should support people to separate self-worth and performance outcomes by building self-compassion, diverse positive self-concepts, and growth-oriented mindsets.{{RoundBoxBottom}} == How does motivation shape self-concept? == The research and theories discussed so far have detailed how self-concept directs and motivates behaviour. The following section explores how, and whether, this relationship works in reverse.   === How internalising motivation shapes self-concept === [[File:Self-determination theory psychological needs.jpg|thumb|450x450px|'''Figure 3.''' Self-determination theory proposes that autonomy, competence, and relatedness support autonomous motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2020).]][[Self-determination theory]] (Ryan & Deci, 2020) proposes motivation exists on a continuum of self-determination, ranging from externally to increasingly internally regulated behaviour. The continuum consists of external, introjected, identified, integrated, and intrinsic regulation (Table 4). These motivation types are influenced by three innate needs: competence, autonomy, and relatedness (see Figure 3; Ryan & Deci, 2020). Understanding the progression of these needs and motivation types can provide insight into how motivational processes influence self-concept. Intrinsic motivation refers to autonomous behaviours completed for enjoyment (see Table 4; Morris et al., 2022). Extrinsic motivation involves engaging in behaviour for an outcome separable from the activity itself (Morris et al., 2022). Its regulation ranges from externally controlled to personally valued and fully integrated. How self-determined people's motivations are depends on the extent to which one has internalised the values, beliefs and perceptions of the behaviour into their self-concept. Meeting the needs of competence, autonomy and relatedness supports motivations to become progressively internalised, and behaviour increasingly self-endorsed (Chiu, 2023). However, it should be noted that this process does not necessarily occur in a fixed sequence. This illustrates how self-concept and motivation reciprocally form one another. The degree to which one identifies with a behaviour shapes their motivation to engage with the behaviour; when needs are met, motivated behaviours and psychological processes shape the self-concept. This internalisation process helps explain how Ash came to identify as a swimmer (see Table 4).   '''Table 4''' ''Applying Self-Determination Theory to Ash's Motivation and Self-Concept Development'' {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" !Type of motivation !Ash's circumstances   !Mechanism |- |External regulation |Ash received a lollipop after swimming lessons.   |Non-self-determined drive.   |- |Introjected regulation |Ash wants her parents to think she is dedicated to swimming. |Partially internalised extrinsic motivation, low self-determination.   |- |Identified regulation |Swimming becomes important to Ash as she starts feeling like a good swimmer (competence) and drives herself to training (autonomy).   |More internalised and self-determined. |- |Integrated regulation |Ash starts to identify as a swimmer and with her swim team (relatedness).   |Fully integrated into self-concept. Highly self-determined but performed for valued outcome not enjoyment. |- |Intrinsic motivation |After the swimming competition, Ash continues swimming for the joy of it.   |Fully integrated into self-concept. Fully autonomous motivation for enjoyment. |} Chiu (2023) provided compelling evidence for how motivation shapes self-concept within the context of self-determination theory. In their study, 342 Hong Kong high school students completed STEM activities taught using a standard teaching approach or a self-determination theory teaching method, focusing on supporting needs of autonomy, competence and relatedness (see Figure 3). Self-report measures reflected that the needs-supporting teaching approach increased students' feelings of autonomy, competence and relatedness; and, consequently, increased STEM identity and interest. This supports that fulfilling core psychological needs promotes more autonomous motivation and develops one's identity. Further supporting this relationship, Yip et al.'s (2024) longitudinal study of 236 anti-poverty activists who completed self-reported social attitudes and personality measures at two timepoints found that increases in self-determined motivations positively correlated with group identification. However, non-self-determined motivations, such as external regulation, did not correlate with group identification. This suggests that self-determined motivation facilitates the incorporation of behaviour and group membership into one's self-concept.   Together, self-determination theory suggests self-concepts develop as values and behaviours are progressively internalised. Ash was not initially motivated because she identified as a swimmer. Her repeated engagement in swimming and fulfilment of psychological needs gradually transformed swimming into part of her identity. This demonstrates that motivation can be a mechanism through which self-concept develops and is not simply a motivating force. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11|title=Quiz}} <quiz display=simple> '''Which statement best reflects how motivation shapes self-concept?''' |type="()"} - People are only motivated to engage in behaviours that are part of their self-concept. - Self-concept does not change through motivational processes. + Repeated engagement with a behaviour and satisfaction of psychological needs gradually makes a behaviour part of one's self-concept. </quiz>{{RoundBoxBottom}} === The cyclical process of motivation and self-concept development === The reciprocal effects model proposes that self-concept and achievement reinforce one another over time (Marsh et al., 2018). People with stronger self-concepts tend to achieve more highly, while achievement experiences subsequently shape self-concept. Motivation plays an important role in this process, influencing how people behave toward achievement experiences. There is a growing body of research investigating this model. For example, Sewasew et al.'s (2018) longitudinal study with 2,342 German high schoolers demonstrated mathematics self-concept was positively correlated with mathematics achievement. Their study highlighted a mutually dependent relationship between academic self-concept and achievement, each mediated by motivation. However, Garn and Shen's (2015) longitudinal study of 329 participants' self-concept and motivation for exercise found that the psychological needs posited by self-determination theory (Ryan & Deci, 2022) did not predict physical self-concept at follow-ups. Physical self-concept was only shown to shape, rather than be shaped by exercise motivation. This result conflicts with the reciprocal effects model and Sewasew et al.'s (2018) results, which may be a reflection of the different self-concept domains examined, mathematics versus physical self-concept. This may indicate that reciprocal effects are domain specific; the multidimensional model suggests academic and physical self-concepts function independently, meaning findings from one domain may not generalise to another (Marsh et al., 2019). Thus, future research should directly compare the reciprocal relationship between self-concept and motivation within different domains. Similarly, Sorjonen et al. (2024) reanalysed meta-analytic results which had provided evidence for the reciprocal effects model. Sorjonen et al. (2024) found that conclusions about the longitudinal relationship between achievement and academic self-concept changed depending on the statistical model used. Hübner et al.'s (2023) support for the reciprocal effects model was also inconsistent between statistical models. This may indicate a spurious correlation that undermines the credibility of the reciprocal effects model. Taken together, these findings suggest that achievement can shape self-concept, but the strength and direction of this relationship may depend on the domain being examined and the methodological approach used. Although the reciprocal effects model remains influential, current evidence indicates that the relationship between motivation, achievement, and self-concept is more complex than originally proposed. == Conclusion == Self-concept is a multidimensional and socially developed framework of beliefs about oneself which acts as a guiding compass. Self-concept shapes motivation by determining which goals feel meaningful, attainable, and identity-consistent through processes of self-discrepancy, difficulty interpretation and self-worth contingencies. Self-discrepancy theory explains how distance from valued selves can create motivational pressure for change. Identity-based motivation theory explains how active identities change the meaning of difficulty. Whereas self-worth contingencies can undermine motivation. Together, these theories detail that self-concept influences goal direction and engagement through social, emotional and cognitive processes. These theories provide insight that motivation-improving interventions should consider targeting how people understand themselves rather than solely targeting behaviours. Motivation may also influence self-concept. Self-determination theory details that motivation and subsequent behaviours form self-concept through internalisation processes when psychological needs are met. However, inconsistent support for the reciprocal effects model indicates that the extent to which motivation reshapes self-concept may vary across domains and statistical models. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Take-home message''' With self-concept and motivation inherently linked, who people believe they are shapes the goals they pursue, while motivations, behaviours, and experiences continually reshape who people become. {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11|title=Quiz}}<quiz display=simple> {'''Chapter comprehension check quiz:''' Ash wakes up at 4:00 a.m. each day to train because being a swimmer is a central part of her identity. According to the chapter, what best explains Ash's motivation? |type="()"} +Self-concept acts as an internal compass that guides goals and behaviour. -Motivation is caused only by external rewards and punishment. -Self-concept remains fixed and has little influence on actions. </quiz> {{RoundBoxBottom}} == See also == * [[wikipedia:Self-concept|Self-concept]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Self-concept clarity|Self-concept clarity]] (Book chapter, 2019) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Self-efficacy and motivation|Self-efficacy and motivation]] (Book chapter, 2014) == References == {{Hanging indent|Bandhu, D., Mohan, M. M., Nittala, N. A. P., Jadhav, P., Bhadauria, A., & Saxena, K. K. (2024). Theories of motivation: A comprehensive analysis of human behavior drivers. ''Acta Psychologica, 244'', 104177. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2024.104177 Chiu, T.K. (2023). Using self-determination theory (SDT) to explain student STEM interest and identity development. ''Instructional Science, 52'', 89–107. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11251-023-09642-8 Cooley, C. H. (1902). The looking-glass self. ''The production of reality: Essays and readings on social interaction, 6''(1902), 126–28. Coudevylle, G. R., Boulley-Escriva, G., Finez, L., Eugène, K., & Robin, N. (2020). An experimental investigation of claimed self-handicapping strategies across motivational climates based on achievement goal and self-determination theories. ''Educational Psychology, 40''(8), 1002–1021. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2020.1746237 Garn, A., & Shen, B. (2015). Physical self-concept and basic psychological needs in exercise: Are there reciprocal effects? ''International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 13''(2), 169–181. https://doi.org/10.1080/1612197X.2014.940994 Higgins, E. T. (1987). Self-discrepancy: A theory relating self and affect. ''Psychological Review, 94''(3), 319. Higgins, E. T. (1989). 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(2026). ‘It meant something about who I am’: What the lived experience of failure teaches us about designing for goal setting. ''Behaviour & Information Technology,'' 1–27. https://doi.org/10.1080/0144929X.2026.2711023 MacIntyre, P. D., & Vincze, L. (2017). Positive and negative emotions in motivation for second language learning. ''Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching, 7''(1), 61–88. https://doi.org/10.14746/ssllt.2017.7.1.4 Marsh, H. W., Byrne, B. M., & Shavelson, R. J. (1992). A multidimensional, hierarchical self-concept. In T. M. Brinthaupt & R. P. Lipka (Eds.), ''The self: Definitional and methodological issues'' (pp. 44–95). State University of New York Press. Marsh, H. W., Martin, A. J., Yeung, A. S., & Craven, R. G. (2018). Chapter 6: Competence self-perceptions. In A. J. Elliot, C. S. Dweck, & D. S. Yeager (Eds.), ''Handbook of competence and motivation: Theory and application'' (pp. 85–115). Guilford Publications. Marsh, H. W., Seaton, M., Dicke, T., Parker, P. D., & Horwood, M. S. (2019). The centrality of academic self-concept to motivation and learning. In K. A. Renninger, & S. E. Hidi (Eds.), ''The Cambridge handbook of motivation and learning'' (pp. 36–62). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781316823279.004 Mason, T. B., Smith, K. E., Engwall, A., Lass, A., Mead, M., Sorby, M., Bjorlie, K., Strauman, T. J., & Wonderlich, S. (2019). Self-discrepancy theory as a transdiagnostic framework: A meta-analysis of self-discrepancy and psychopathology. ''Psychological Bulletin, 145''(4), 372–389. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000186 Morris, L. S., Grehl, M. M., Rutter, S. B., Mehta, M., & Westwater, M. L. (2022). On what motivates us: A detailed review of intrinsic v. extrinsic motivation. ''Psychological Medicine, 52''(10), 1801–1816. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291722001611 Nurra, C., & Oyserman, D. (2018). From future self to current action: An identity-based motivation perspective. 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Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-69909-7_2630-2 Schwinger, M., Trautner, M., Pütz, N., Fabianek, S., Lemmer, G., Lauermann, F., & Wirthwein, L. (2022). Why do students use strategies that hurt their chances of academic success? A meta-analysis of antecedents of academic self-handicapping. ''Journal of Educational Psychology, 114''(3), 576–596. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000706 Seaton, M., Parker, P., Marsh, H. W., Craven, R. G., & Yeung, A. S. (2014). The reciprocal relations between self-concept, motivation and achievement: Juxtaposing academic self-concept and achievement goal orientations for mathematics success. ''Educational Psychology, 34''(1), 49–72. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2013.825232 Sewasew, D., Schroeders, U., Schiefer, I. M., Weirich, S., & Artelt, C. (2018). Development of sex differences in math achievement, self-concept, and interest from grade 5 to 7. 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(2018). Self-concept. In Zeigler-Hill, V., & Shackelford, T. (Eds.), ''Encyclopedia of personality and individual differences'' (pp. 1–5). Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-28099-8_2001-1 Weiner, B. (1985). An attributional theory of achievement motivation and emotion. ''Psychological Review, 92''(4), 548–573. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.92.4.548 Yip, L., Thomas, E. F., Amiot, C., Louis, W. R., & McGarty, C. (2024). Autonomous motives foster sustained commitment to action: Integrating self-determination theory and the social identity approach. ''Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 50''(5), 750–765. https://doi.org/10.1177/01461672221148396 }} == External links == * [https://rickhanson.com/being-well-podcast-self-concept-the-secret-to-changing-who-you-are/ Being well podcast: Self-concept: The secret to changing WHO you are] (Being Well Podcast) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Nck7lP-6C2g Unlocking success: The power of self-efficacy and self-concept] (TEDx Talks) * [https://www.ted.com/talks/anil_ananthaswamy_where_does_your_sense_of_self_come_from_a_scientific_look Where does your sense of self come from? A scientific look] (TEDx Talks) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self-concept]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Motivation]] pkc3s6wxomtqvymmx8xe7lce94lxkxf 2835731 2835730 2026-10-04T02:26:58Z U3253363 3106362 /* How internalising motivation shapes self-concept */ Refining SDT table to readability, using a few suggestions from Gemini https://gemini.google.com/app/920ef366d7600b5a?hl=en-AU 2835731 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Self-concept and motivation:<br>How does self-concept relate to motivation?}} == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Sinclair Swimming.JPG|right|thumb|180px|'''Figure 1'''. Ash is a competitive swimmer and swims daily.]] ;Scenario Ash is a swimmer training for a national competition. When asked to describe herself, being "a swimmer" is the first word Ash uses. She is eager to succeed at the upcoming swimming competition. Every morning, she wakes up at 4:00 a.m to swim four kilometres (see Figure 1). Her friend Riley struggles to understand how Ash maintains this demanding schedule. Why is Ash able to do this when many would find this difficult? {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Self-concept|Self-concept]] is an individual's understanding of who they are and how they feel about themselves (Wehrle & Fasbender, 2018). This includes a complex system of self-knowledge, attitudes, beliefs, and judgements about oneself. Beyond answering “who am I?”, self-concept acts as an internal compass that influences thinking, feelings, and behaviour. This chapter explores the reciprocal relationship between self-concept and motivation; how self-understanding influences motivated behaviour, and how motivated behaviour progressively shapes self-concept. Understanding this reciprocal relationship can help people develop motivation around meaningful identities while reducing the risk that failure becomes a threat to personal worth. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=12}} '''Focus questions''' *What is self-concept? *How does self-concept influence motivation? *How does motivation shape self-concept?{{RoundBoxBottom}} == What is self-concept? == Self-concept is a cognitive framework of self-knowledge (Wehrle & Fasbender, 2018). It is related, but unique to many of the popular “self-” constructs like [[self-esteem]], [[w:Self-efficacy|self-efficacy]], and [[w:Self-image|self-image]]. Each self-concept-relevant theory approaches the construct differently, but several common properties emerge and provide the foundation for understanding its motivational effects (see Table 1). Foundationally, [[wikipedia:William_James|James]] (1892) conceptualised the self as having two parts: “I”, the subjective thinker, and “me”, the material and social self. Cooley (1902) added the [[wikipedia:Looking-glass_self|looking-glass self]], proposing that self-concept develops through perceived social evaluations. Modern frameworks, including identity-based motivation theory (Oyserman, 2024) and the multidimensional model (Marsh et al., 1992) suggest self-concept is hierarchical, multifaceted, and dynamic. '''Table 1''' ''Self-Concept Properties and Their Significance for Motivation'' {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" !Property !Key theory !Significance for motivation |- |'''Descriptive  ''' |James |Identity beliefs influence set standards and expectations |- |'''Socially developed''' |Looking glass self |Social feedback influences which behaviours are pursued |- |'''Dynamic''' |Identity-based motivation theory |Self-concept shifts situationally |- |'''Multidimensional''' |Multidimensional model |Domain-specific self-concepts motivate distinct behaviours |- |'''Hierarchical  ''' |Multidimensional model |General and specific domains of the self influence each other and different behaviours |} == How does self-concept influence motivation? == Like self-concept, motivation is multidimensional and central to human behaviour (Bandhu et al., 2024). This creates an interesting intersection of properties; self-concept and motivation both influence which goals people pursue and responses to difficulty. This section explores how self-concept influences motivation.   === How the self directs and energises behaviour === [[w:Self-discrepancy_theory|Self-discrepancy theory]] proposes people have three representations of the self: the actual (who one is), ideal (who one wants to become), and ought self (who one believes others want them to be; see Table 2; Higgins, 1987). Ideal and ought selves set standards for one to strive toward, laying a framework for goal direction. Discrepancies between actual and ideal or ought selves also generate emotional vulnerabilities (Table 2). Actual/ideal self-discrepancies result in dejection-related emotions (e.g. frustration, dissatisfaction; Higgins, 1987). Actual/ought self-discrepancies result in agitation-related emotions (e.g. anxiety, guilt). Greater discrepancies result in greater emotional discomfort and generate greater motivation to close the gap (Higgins, 1989). Meta-analytic findings support that greater discrepancies result in more negative emotions (Mason et al., 2019). However, Mason et al. (2019) found that actual/ideal and actual/ought self-discrepancies both correlated with dejection- and agitation-related emotions. This contrasts with self-discrepancy theory's proposition. Further, while the negative emotions resulting from discrepancies are proposed to motivate people to reduce discrepancies, MacIntyre and Vincze (2017) suggest positive emotions have greater motivating strength than negative emotions. This suggests that while self-concepts provide frameworks for goal selection and energise behaviour, self-discrepancies may not be the most powerful emotional source of motivation. '''Table 2''' ''Dimensions of the Self and Emotional Effects of Discrepancies'' {| class="wikitable" !Self dimension !Examples !Emotional effect of discrepancy with actual self |- |Actual |Daily behaviours, beliefs | - |- |Ideal |Dreams, aspirations |Dejection-related emotions |- |Ought |Duties, obligations |Agitation-related emotions |}[[w:Regulatory_focus_theory|Regulatory focus theory]] (Higgins, 1997) expands self-discrepancy theory to suggest different self-representations produce different motivational orientations. Ideal-self goals create a promotion focus, where people are motivated to seek positive outcomes (see Table 3). Ought-self goals create a prevention focus, where people are motivated to avoid negative outcomes. These regulatory focuses both positively correlated with intrinsic motivation in Wang et al.'s (2021) study of adolescent task engagement. However, promotion focuses positively correlated with creativity and an innovative cognitive style, whereas prevention focuses negatively correlated with an innovative cognitive style and was characterised by error avoidance. This shows that while both promotion and prevention orientations generate self-sustained motivation, they result in different approaches to tasks. '''Table 3''' ''Self-concept's Motivational Mechanisms'' {| class="wikitable" |+ !Self-discrepancy !Motivational focus !Motivational mechanism !Task approach |- |Actual-ideal |Promotion |Seek positive outcomes |Creativity, innovation |- |Actual-ought |Prevention |Avoid negative outcomes |Reduced innovation, error avoidance |} [[wikipedia:Identity_based_motivation|Identity-based motivation theory]] (Oyserman, 2024) provides an alternative explanation to how self-concept directs behaviour. The theory proposes that situations influence which aspects of self-concept are active. Active identities change interpretations of difficulty, which influences motivation. When behaviour aligns with an active identity, people interpret difficulties in completing that behaviour as evidence the behaviour is important (Oyserman, 2015). This is because identity-congruent behaviours provide information about who one is and who one wants to become, making difficulty meaningful rather than discouraging (Oyserman, 2024). Conversely, identity-incongruent actions that have the same challenges are interpreted as pointless. This means that identities mediate motivation and help goal selection and persistence through the process of difficulty interpretation. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Case study comprehension check''' When Ash feels physically exhausted during her early morning swim sets, her identity as an elite athlete is active. This helps her interpret exhaustion as a meaningful challenge. For her non-swimmer friend, Riley, this exhaustion would be interpreted as evidence swimming is not for them.{{RoundBoxBottom}} Illustrating the motivating role of the self-concept within this framework, Nurra and Oyserman (2018) found that motivation to pursue future identity-relevant goals in school children, and subsequent achievement, was influenced by how children thought about their future selves. Students were exposed to prompts that helped them think of their adult self as either near or far. Students in the adult-self-is-near group achieved significantly higher final grades than the adult-self-is-far group. These findings indicate that closely identifying with future selves and viewing future selves as attainable can motivate goal pursual. Together, these results support identity-based motivation theory and detail that self-concept drives behaviour by defining desirable outcomes and shaping how challenges and opportunities are interpreted. Together, self-discrepancy, regulatory focus, and identity-based motivation theories suggest that a person's perceived distance from a valued self can create motivational pressure to change and active identities influence interpretations of challenges. These states modify goal engagement and motivation. In all three theories, self-concept is central to motivation, driving goal selection and engagement. Thus, what motivates each person, and how they subsequently behave, is shaped by self-concept. === How self-concept can undermine motivation === While self-concept can energise and direct behaviour, it can also undermine motivation through self-worth contingencies. [[wikipedia:Contingent_self-esteem#Self-esteem_and_contingent_self-worth|Self-worth contingencies]] refer to the standards people feel they must meet to have personal value (Showers et al., 2015). When goals are tightly bound to self-worth, failure threatens self-concept. So, contingent self-worth can motivate the pursuit of self-concept-important goals, but can result in avoidant behaviour and strong responses to failure. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} <quiz display=simple> '''What are self-worth contingencies?''' |type="()"} - How people feel about themselves + Standards people feel they must meet to have value - How people compare themselves to others </quiz>{{RoundBoxBottom}} Lietz et al. (2026) qualitatively studied 17 participants' identity-shaped goals and found that failing to achieve these goals resulted in negative and severe emotional responses. Further, participants tended to attribute failure to personal shortcomings, because of how closely held the goal was to their self-concept. This resulted in reduced motivation to reattempt, or blind pursuit of the same goal without re-examining the approach. This is consistent with [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Attribution theory and emotion|attribution theory]] (Weiner, 1985), which suggests that causal thinking processes, where people attribute outcomes to stable, uncontrollable factors, result in low motivation. Attributional styles affect self-evaluations and thus can undermine motivation when failure is attributed to stable aspects of the self (Bandhu et al., 2024). This can cause maladaptive behaviours to emerge. One such response to the threat of failure is self-handicapping. [[w:Self-handicapping|Self-handicapping]] involves creating obstacles to one's own goal so that failure can be attributed to external, rather than personal factors (Török & Szabó, 2018). This means people may increase the probability of failure to protect their self-concept (Coudevylle et al., 2020). Therefore, self-concept can impact motivation by hindering goal pursuit. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Case study comprehension check''' Ash cares a lot about succeeding in her swimming competition. To protect her self-concept as a successful swimmer, Ash may fake a mild illness at the competition so that any failure can be attributed to her illness, rather than her competence. {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[File:Multidimensional_model_of_self-concept_diagram.png|thumb|536x536px|'''Figure 2.''' The hierarchical multidimensional model of self-concept (Marsh et al., 2019).]] Illustrating the causes of self-handicapping, Schwinger et al. (2022) found a medium negative correlation between general self-evaluations and self-handicapping and a medium positive correlation between fear of failure and self-handicapping. With more negative general self-evaluations and greater fear of failure, people are more likely to self-handicap, highlighting self-concept as an precursor to self-handicapping. However, in this study, general, rather than domain-specific measures were used. According to the multidimensional model, self-concept is a hierarchical, multi-faceted construct, and more specific self-concepts are more closely related to actual behaviour (see Figure 2; Marsh et al., 2019). Accordingly, future research should investigate domain-specific measures of self-concept and fear of failure to illustrate their direct influence on self-handicapping and task motivation. Self-handicapping demonstrates that self-concept-driven motivation is not always directed towards achieving valued outcomes. Protecting self-worth can become more important than goal engagement. Together, this research suggests self-concept can act both as a motivational resource, and a motivational vulnerability. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}'''Intervention application''' To reduce self-handicapping, interventions should support people to separate self-worth and performance outcomes by building self-compassion, diverse positive self-concepts, and growth-oriented mindsets.{{RoundBoxBottom}} == How does motivation shape self-concept? == The research and theories discussed so far have detailed how self-concept directs and motivates behaviour. The following section explores how, and whether, this relationship works in reverse.   === How internalising motivation shapes self-concept === [[File:Self-determination theory psychological needs.jpg|thumb|450x450px|'''Figure 3.''' Self-determination theory proposes that autonomy, competence, and relatedness support autonomous motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2020).]][[Self-determination theory]] (Ryan & Deci, 2020) proposes motivation exists on a continuum of self-determination, ranging from externally to increasingly internally regulated behaviour. The continuum consists of external, introjected, identified, integrated, and intrinsic regulation (Table 4). These motivation types are influenced by three innate needs: competence, autonomy, and relatedness (see Figure 3; Ryan & Deci, 2020). Understanding the progression of these needs and motivation types can provide insight into how motivational processes influence self-concept. Intrinsic motivation refers to autonomous behaviours completed for enjoyment (see Table 4; Morris et al., 2022). Extrinsic motivation involves engaging in behaviour for an outcome separable from the activity itself (Morris et al., 2022). Its regulation ranges from externally controlled to personally valued and fully integrated. How self-determined people's motivations are depends on the extent to which one has internalised the values, beliefs and perceptions of the behaviour into their self-concept. Meeting the needs of competence, autonomy and relatedness supports motivations to become progressively internalised, and behaviour increasingly self-endorsed (Chiu, 2023). However, it should be noted that this process does not necessarily occur in a fixed sequence. This illustrates how self-concept and motivation reciprocally form one another. The degree to which one identifies with a behaviour shapes their motivation to engage with the behaviour; when needs are met, motivated behaviours and psychological processes shape the self-concept. This internalisation process helps explain how Ash came to identify as a swimmer (see Table 4).   '''Table 4''' ''Applying Self-Determination Theory to Ash's Motivation and Self-Concept Development'' {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" !Regulation type !Ash's self-concept and swimming progression example !Mechanism |- |External |Ash received a lollipop after swimming lessons.   |Rewards or punishments |- |Introjected |Ash wanted her parents to think she is dedicated to swimming. |Avoiding guilt |- |Identified |Ash continued swimming after recognising its health benefits. |Consciously value goal |- |Integrated |Ash starts to identify as a swimmer and with her swim team.   |Congruence with self-concept |- |Intrinsic |After the swimming competition, Ash continues swimming for the joy of it. |Inherent enjoyment |} Chiu (2023) provided compelling evidence for how motivation shapes self-concept within the context of self-determination theory. In their study, 342 Hong Kong high school students completed STEM activities taught using a standard teaching approach or a self-determination theory teaching method, focusing on supporting needs of autonomy, competence and relatedness (see Figure 3). Self-report measures reflected that the needs-supporting teaching approach increased students' feelings of autonomy, competence and relatedness; and, consequently, increased STEM identity and interest. This supports that fulfilling core psychological needs promotes more autonomous motivation and develops one's identity. Further supporting this relationship, Yip et al.'s (2024) longitudinal study of 236 anti-poverty activists who completed self-reported social attitudes and personality measures at two timepoints found that increases in self-determined motivations positively correlated with group identification. However, non-self-determined motivations, such as external regulation, did not correlate with group identification. This suggests that self-determined motivation facilitates the incorporation of behaviour and group membership into one's self-concept.   Together, self-determination theory suggests self-concepts develop as values and behaviours are progressively internalised. Ash was not initially motivated because she identified as a swimmer. Her repeated engagement in swimming and fulfilment of psychological needs gradually transformed swimming into part of her identity. This demonstrates that motivation can be a mechanism through which self-concept develops and is not simply a motivating force. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11|title=Quiz}} <quiz display=simple> '''Which statement best reflects how motivation shapes self-concept?''' |type="()"} - People are only motivated to engage in behaviours that are part of their self-concept. - Self-concept does not change through motivational processes. + Repeated engagement with a behaviour and satisfaction of psychological needs gradually makes a behaviour part of one's self-concept. </quiz>{{RoundBoxBottom}} === The cyclical process of motivation and self-concept development === The reciprocal effects model proposes that self-concept and achievement reinforce one another over time (Marsh et al., 2018). People with stronger self-concepts tend to achieve more highly, while achievement experiences subsequently shape self-concept. Motivation plays an important role in this process, influencing how people behave toward achievement experiences. There is a growing body of research investigating this model. For example, Sewasew et al.'s (2018) longitudinal study with 2,342 German high schoolers demonstrated mathematics self-concept was positively correlated with mathematics achievement. Their study highlighted a mutually dependent relationship between academic self-concept and achievement, each mediated by motivation. However, Garn and Shen's (2015) longitudinal study of 329 participants' self-concept and motivation for exercise found that the psychological needs posited by self-determination theory (Ryan & Deci, 2022) did not predict physical self-concept at follow-ups. Physical self-concept was only shown to shape, rather than be shaped by exercise motivation. This result conflicts with the reciprocal effects model and Sewasew et al.'s (2018) results, which may be a reflection of the different self-concept domains examined, mathematics versus physical self-concept. This may indicate that reciprocal effects are domain specific; the multidimensional model suggests academic and physical self-concepts function independently, meaning findings from one domain may not generalise to another (Marsh et al., 2019). Thus, future research should directly compare the reciprocal relationship between self-concept and motivation within different domains. Similarly, Sorjonen et al. (2024) reanalysed meta-analytic results which had provided evidence for the reciprocal effects model. Sorjonen et al. (2024) found that conclusions about the longitudinal relationship between achievement and academic self-concept changed depending on the statistical model used. Hübner et al.'s (2023) support for the reciprocal effects model was also inconsistent between statistical models. This may indicate a spurious correlation that undermines the credibility of the reciprocal effects model. Taken together, these findings suggest that achievement can shape self-concept, but the strength and direction of this relationship may depend on the domain being examined and the methodological approach used. Although the reciprocal effects model remains influential, current evidence indicates that the relationship between motivation, achievement, and self-concept is more complex than originally proposed. == Conclusion == Self-concept is a multidimensional and socially developed framework of beliefs about oneself which acts as a guiding compass. Self-concept shapes motivation by determining which goals feel meaningful, attainable, and identity-consistent through processes of self-discrepancy, difficulty interpretation and self-worth contingencies. Self-discrepancy theory explains how distance from valued selves can create motivational pressure for change. Identity-based motivation theory explains how active identities change the meaning of difficulty. Whereas self-worth contingencies can undermine motivation. Together, these theories detail that self-concept influences goal direction and engagement through social, emotional and cognitive processes. These theories provide insight that motivation-improving interventions should consider targeting how people understand themselves rather than solely targeting behaviours. Motivation may also influence self-concept. Self-determination theory details that motivation and subsequent behaviours form self-concept through internalisation processes when psychological needs are met. However, inconsistent support for the reciprocal effects model indicates that the extent to which motivation reshapes self-concept may vary across domains and statistical models. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Take-home message''' With self-concept and motivation inherently linked, who people believe they are shapes the goals they pursue, while motivations, behaviours, and experiences continually reshape who people become. {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11|title=Quiz}}<quiz display=simple> {'''Chapter comprehension check quiz:''' Ash wakes up at 4:00 a.m. each day to train because being a swimmer is a central part of her identity. According to the chapter, what best explains Ash's motivation? |type="()"} +Self-concept acts as an internal compass that guides goals and behaviour. -Motivation is caused only by external rewards and punishment. -Self-concept remains fixed and has little influence on actions. </quiz> {{RoundBoxBottom}} == See also == * [[wikipedia:Self-concept|Self-concept]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Self-concept clarity|Self-concept clarity]] (Book chapter, 2019) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Self-efficacy and motivation|Self-efficacy and motivation]] (Book chapter, 2014) == References == {{Hanging indent|Bandhu, D., Mohan, M. M., Nittala, N. A. P., Jadhav, P., Bhadauria, A., & Saxena, K. K. (2024). Theories of motivation: A comprehensive analysis of human behavior drivers. ''Acta Psychologica, 244'', 104177. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2024.104177 Chiu, T.K. (2023). Using self-determination theory (SDT) to explain student STEM interest and identity development. ''Instructional Science, 52'', 89–107. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11251-023-09642-8 Cooley, C. H. (1902). The looking-glass self. ''The production of reality: Essays and readings on social interaction, 6''(1902), 126–28. Coudevylle, G. R., Boulley-Escriva, G., Finez, L., Eugène, K., & Robin, N. (2020). An experimental investigation of claimed self-handicapping strategies across motivational climates based on achievement goal and self-determination theories. ''Educational Psychology, 40''(8), 1002–1021. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2020.1746237 Garn, A., & Shen, B. (2015). Physical self-concept and basic psychological needs in exercise: Are there reciprocal effects? ''International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 13''(2), 169–181. https://doi.org/10.1080/1612197X.2014.940994 Higgins, E. T. (1987). Self-discrepancy: A theory relating self and affect. ''Psychological Review, 94''(3), 319. Higgins, E. T. (1989). Self-discrepancy theory: What patterns of self-beliefs cause people to suffer?. In ''Advances in experimental social psychology'' (Vol. 22, pp. 93–136). Academic Press. Higgins, E. T., Shah, J., & Friedman, R. (1997). Emotional responses to goal attainment: Strength of regulatory focus as moderator. ''Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72''(3), 515–525. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.72.3.515 Hübner, N., Wagner, W., Zitzmann, S., & Nagengast, B. (2023). How strong is the evidence for a causal reciprocal effect? Contrasting traditional and new methods to investigate the reciprocal effects model of self-concept and achievement. ''Educational Psychology Review, 35'', 6. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-023-09724-6 James, W. (1892). The self. In W. James (Ed.), ''Psychology: Briefer course'' (pp. 176–216). Macmillan and Co. https://doi.org/10.1037/11630-012 Lietz, R., Whittaker, S., & Su, N. M. (2026). ‘It meant something about who I am’: What the lived experience of failure teaches us about designing for goal setting. ''Behaviour & Information Technology,'' 1–27. https://doi.org/10.1080/0144929X.2026.2711023 MacIntyre, P. D., & Vincze, L. (2017). Positive and negative emotions in motivation for second language learning. ''Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching, 7''(1), 61–88. https://doi.org/10.14746/ssllt.2017.7.1.4 Marsh, H. W., Byrne, B. M., & Shavelson, R. J. (1992). A multidimensional, hierarchical self-concept. In T. M. Brinthaupt & R. P. Lipka (Eds.), ''The self: Definitional and methodological issues'' (pp. 44–95). State University of New York Press. Marsh, H. W., Martin, A. J., Yeung, A. S., & Craven, R. G. (2018). Chapter 6: Competence self-perceptions. In A. J. Elliot, C. S. Dweck, & D. S. Yeager (Eds.), ''Handbook of competence and motivation: Theory and application'' (pp. 85–115). Guilford Publications. Marsh, H. W., Seaton, M., Dicke, T., Parker, P. D., & Horwood, M. S. (2019). The centrality of academic self-concept to motivation and learning. In K. A. Renninger, & S. E. Hidi (Eds.), ''The Cambridge handbook of motivation and learning'' (pp. 36–62). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781316823279.004 Mason, T. B., Smith, K. E., Engwall, A., Lass, A., Mead, M., Sorby, M., Bjorlie, K., Strauman, T. J., & Wonderlich, S. (2019). Self-discrepancy theory as a transdiagnostic framework: A meta-analysis of self-discrepancy and psychopathology. ''Psychological Bulletin, 145''(4), 372–389. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000186 Morris, L. S., Grehl, M. M., Rutter, S. B., Mehta, M., & Westwater, M. L. (2022). On what motivates us: A detailed review of intrinsic v. extrinsic motivation. ''Psychological Medicine, 52''(10), 1801–1816. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291722001611 Nurra, C., & Oyserman, D. (2018). From future self to current action: An identity-based motivation perspective. 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Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-69909-7_2630-2 Schwinger, M., Trautner, M., Pütz, N., Fabianek, S., Lemmer, G., Lauermann, F., & Wirthwein, L. (2022). Why do students use strategies that hurt their chances of academic success? A meta-analysis of antecedents of academic self-handicapping. ''Journal of Educational Psychology, 114''(3), 576–596. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000706 Seaton, M., Parker, P., Marsh, H. W., Craven, R. G., & Yeung, A. S. (2014). The reciprocal relations between self-concept, motivation and achievement: Juxtaposing academic self-concept and achievement goal orientations for mathematics success. ''Educational Psychology, 34''(1), 49–72. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2013.825232 Sewasew, D., Schroeders, U., Schiefer, I. M., Weirich, S., & Artelt, C. (2018). Development of sex differences in math achievement, self-concept, and interest from grade 5 to 7. 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(2018). Self-concept. In Zeigler-Hill, V., & Shackelford, T. (Eds.), ''Encyclopedia of personality and individual differences'' (pp. 1–5). Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-28099-8_2001-1 Weiner, B. (1985). An attributional theory of achievement motivation and emotion. ''Psychological Review, 92''(4), 548–573. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.92.4.548 Yip, L., Thomas, E. F., Amiot, C., Louis, W. R., & McGarty, C. (2024). Autonomous motives foster sustained commitment to action: Integrating self-determination theory and the social identity approach. ''Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 50''(5), 750–765. https://doi.org/10.1177/01461672221148396 }} == External links == * [https://rickhanson.com/being-well-podcast-self-concept-the-secret-to-changing-who-you-are/ Being well podcast: Self-concept: The secret to changing WHO you are] (Being Well Podcast) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Nck7lP-6C2g Unlocking success: The power of self-efficacy and self-concept] (TEDx Talks) * [https://www.ted.com/talks/anil_ananthaswamy_where_does_your_sense_of_self_come_from_a_scientific_look Where does your sense of self come from? A scientific look] (TEDx Talks) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self-concept]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Motivation]] pk1hj8365zhi7monmzgdchgjk845azx 2835732 2835731 2026-10-04T02:30:55Z U3253363 3106362 /* How internalising motivation shapes self-concept */ Minor copy edits 2835732 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Self-concept and motivation:<br>How does self-concept relate to motivation?}} == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Sinclair Swimming.JPG|right|thumb|180px|'''Figure 1'''. Ash is a competitive swimmer and swims daily.]] ;Scenario Ash is a swimmer training for a national competition. When asked to describe herself, being "a swimmer" is the first word Ash uses. She is eager to succeed at the upcoming swimming competition. Every morning, she wakes up at 4:00 a.m to swim four kilometres (see Figure 1). Her friend Riley struggles to understand how Ash maintains this demanding schedule. Why is Ash able to do this when many would find this difficult? {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Self-concept|Self-concept]] is an individual's understanding of who they are and how they feel about themselves (Wehrle & Fasbender, 2018). This includes a complex system of self-knowledge, attitudes, beliefs, and judgements about oneself. Beyond answering “who am I?”, self-concept acts as an internal compass that influences thinking, feelings, and behaviour. This chapter explores the reciprocal relationship between self-concept and motivation; how self-understanding influences motivated behaviour, and how motivated behaviour progressively shapes self-concept. Understanding this reciprocal relationship can help people develop motivation around meaningful identities while reducing the risk that failure becomes a threat to personal worth. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=12}} '''Focus questions''' *What is self-concept? *How does self-concept influence motivation? *How does motivation shape self-concept?{{RoundBoxBottom}} == What is self-concept? == Self-concept is a cognitive framework of self-knowledge (Wehrle & Fasbender, 2018). It is related, but unique to many of the popular “self-” constructs like [[self-esteem]], [[w:Self-efficacy|self-efficacy]], and [[w:Self-image|self-image]]. Each self-concept-relevant theory approaches the construct differently, but several common properties emerge and provide the foundation for understanding its motivational effects (see Table 1). Foundationally, [[wikipedia:William_James|James]] (1892) conceptualised the self as having two parts: “I”, the subjective thinker, and “me”, the material and social self. Cooley (1902) added the [[wikipedia:Looking-glass_self|looking-glass self]], proposing that self-concept develops through perceived social evaluations. Modern frameworks, including identity-based motivation theory (Oyserman, 2024) and the multidimensional model (Marsh et al., 1992) suggest self-concept is hierarchical, multifaceted, and dynamic. '''Table 1''' ''Self-Concept Properties and Their Significance for Motivation'' {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" !Property !Key theory !Significance for motivation |- |'''Descriptive  ''' |James |Identity beliefs influence set standards and expectations |- |'''Socially developed''' |Looking glass self |Social feedback influences which behaviours are pursued |- |'''Dynamic''' |Identity-based motivation theory |Self-concept shifts situationally |- |'''Multidimensional''' |Multidimensional model |Domain-specific self-concepts motivate distinct behaviours |- |'''Hierarchical  ''' |Multidimensional model |General and specific domains of the self influence each other and different behaviours |} == How does self-concept influence motivation? == Like self-concept, motivation is multidimensional and central to human behaviour (Bandhu et al., 2024). This creates an interesting intersection of properties; self-concept and motivation both influence which goals people pursue and responses to difficulty. This section explores how self-concept influences motivation.   === How the self directs and energises behaviour === [[w:Self-discrepancy_theory|Self-discrepancy theory]] proposes people have three representations of the self: the actual (who one is), ideal (who one wants to become), and ought self (who one believes others want them to be; see Table 2; Higgins, 1987). Ideal and ought selves set standards for one to strive toward, laying a framework for goal direction. Discrepancies between actual and ideal or ought selves also generate emotional vulnerabilities (Table 2). Actual/ideal self-discrepancies result in dejection-related emotions (e.g. frustration, dissatisfaction; Higgins, 1987). Actual/ought self-discrepancies result in agitation-related emotions (e.g. anxiety, guilt). Greater discrepancies result in greater emotional discomfort and generate greater motivation to close the gap (Higgins, 1989). Meta-analytic findings support that greater discrepancies result in more negative emotions (Mason et al., 2019). However, Mason et al. (2019) found that actual/ideal and actual/ought self-discrepancies both correlated with dejection- and agitation-related emotions. This contrasts with self-discrepancy theory's proposition. Further, while the negative emotions resulting from discrepancies are proposed to motivate people to reduce discrepancies, MacIntyre and Vincze (2017) suggest positive emotions have greater motivating strength than negative emotions. This suggests that while self-concepts provide frameworks for goal selection and energise behaviour, self-discrepancies may not be the most powerful emotional source of motivation. '''Table 2''' ''Dimensions of the Self and Emotional Effects of Discrepancies'' {| class="wikitable" !Self dimension !Examples !Emotional effect of discrepancy with actual self |- |Actual |Daily behaviours, beliefs | - |- |Ideal |Dreams, aspirations |Dejection-related emotions |- |Ought |Duties, obligations |Agitation-related emotions |}[[w:Regulatory_focus_theory|Regulatory focus theory]] (Higgins, 1997) expands self-discrepancy theory to suggest different self-representations produce different motivational orientations. Ideal-self goals create a promotion focus, where people are motivated to seek positive outcomes (see Table 3). Ought-self goals create a prevention focus, where people are motivated to avoid negative outcomes. These regulatory focuses both positively correlated with intrinsic motivation in Wang et al.'s (2021) study of adolescent task engagement. However, promotion focuses positively correlated with creativity and an innovative cognitive style, whereas prevention focuses negatively correlated with an innovative cognitive style and was characterised by error avoidance. This shows that while both promotion and prevention orientations generate self-sustained motivation, they result in different approaches to tasks. '''Table 3''' ''Self-concept's Motivational Mechanisms'' {| class="wikitable" |+ !Self-discrepancy !Motivational focus !Motivational mechanism !Task approach |- |Actual-ideal |Promotion |Seek positive outcomes |Creativity, innovation |- |Actual-ought |Prevention |Avoid negative outcomes |Reduced innovation, error avoidance |} [[wikipedia:Identity_based_motivation|Identity-based motivation theory]] (Oyserman, 2024) provides an alternative explanation to how self-concept directs behaviour. The theory proposes that situations influence which aspects of self-concept are active. Active identities change interpretations of difficulty, which influences motivation. When behaviour aligns with an active identity, people interpret difficulties in completing that behaviour as evidence the behaviour is important (Oyserman, 2015). This is because identity-congruent behaviours provide information about who one is and who one wants to become, making difficulty meaningful rather than discouraging (Oyserman, 2024). Conversely, identity-incongruent actions that have the same challenges are interpreted as pointless. This means that identities mediate motivation and help goal selection and persistence through the process of difficulty interpretation. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Case study comprehension check''' When Ash feels physically exhausted during her early morning swim sets, her identity as an elite athlete is active. This helps her interpret exhaustion as a meaningful challenge. For her non-swimmer friend, Riley, this exhaustion would be interpreted as evidence swimming is not for them.{{RoundBoxBottom}} Illustrating the motivating role of the self-concept within this framework, Nurra and Oyserman (2018) found that motivation to pursue future identity-relevant goals in school children, and subsequent achievement, was influenced by how children thought about their future selves. Students were exposed to prompts that helped them think of their adult self as either near or far. Students in the adult-self-is-near group achieved significantly higher final grades than the adult-self-is-far group. These findings indicate that closely identifying with future selves and viewing future selves as attainable can motivate goal pursual. Together, these results support identity-based motivation theory and detail that self-concept drives behaviour by defining desirable outcomes and shaping how challenges and opportunities are interpreted. Together, self-discrepancy, regulatory focus, and identity-based motivation theories suggest that a person's perceived distance from a valued self can create motivational pressure to change and active identities influence interpretations of challenges. These states modify goal engagement and motivation. In all three theories, self-concept is central to motivation, driving goal selection and engagement. Thus, what motivates each person, and how they subsequently behave, is shaped by self-concept. === How self-concept can undermine motivation === While self-concept can energise and direct behaviour, it can also undermine motivation through self-worth contingencies. [[wikipedia:Contingent_self-esteem#Self-esteem_and_contingent_self-worth|Self-worth contingencies]] refer to the standards people feel they must meet to have personal value (Showers et al., 2015). When goals are tightly bound to self-worth, failure threatens self-concept. So, contingent self-worth can motivate the pursuit of self-concept-important goals, but can result in avoidant behaviour and strong responses to failure. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} <quiz display=simple> '''What are self-worth contingencies?''' |type="()"} - How people feel about themselves + Standards people feel they must meet to have value - How people compare themselves to others </quiz>{{RoundBoxBottom}} Lietz et al. (2026) qualitatively studied 17 participants' identity-shaped goals and found that failing to achieve these goals resulted in negative and severe emotional responses. Further, participants tended to attribute failure to personal shortcomings, because of how closely held the goal was to their self-concept. This resulted in reduced motivation to reattempt, or blind pursuit of the same goal without re-examining the approach. This is consistent with [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Attribution theory and emotion|attribution theory]] (Weiner, 1985), which suggests that causal thinking processes, where people attribute outcomes to stable, uncontrollable factors, result in low motivation. Attributional styles affect self-evaluations and thus can undermine motivation when failure is attributed to stable aspects of the self (Bandhu et al., 2024). This can cause maladaptive behaviours to emerge. One such response to the threat of failure is self-handicapping. [[w:Self-handicapping|Self-handicapping]] involves creating obstacles to one's own goal so that failure can be attributed to external, rather than personal factors (Török & Szabó, 2018). This means people may increase the probability of failure to protect their self-concept (Coudevylle et al., 2020). Therefore, self-concept can impact motivation by hindering goal pursuit. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Case study comprehension check''' Ash cares a lot about succeeding in her swimming competition. To protect her self-concept as a successful swimmer, Ash may fake a mild illness at the competition so that any failure can be attributed to her illness, rather than her competence. {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[File:Multidimensional_model_of_self-concept_diagram.png|thumb|536x536px|'''Figure 2.''' The hierarchical multidimensional model of self-concept (Marsh et al., 2019).]] Illustrating the causes of self-handicapping, Schwinger et al. (2022) found a medium negative correlation between general self-evaluations and self-handicapping and a medium positive correlation between fear of failure and self-handicapping. With more negative general self-evaluations and greater fear of failure, people are more likely to self-handicap, highlighting self-concept as an precursor to self-handicapping. However, in this study, general, rather than domain-specific measures were used. According to the multidimensional model, self-concept is a hierarchical, multi-faceted construct, and more specific self-concepts are more closely related to actual behaviour (see Figure 2; Marsh et al., 2019). Accordingly, future research should investigate domain-specific measures of self-concept and fear of failure to illustrate their direct influence on self-handicapping and task motivation. Self-handicapping demonstrates that self-concept-driven motivation is not always directed towards achieving valued outcomes. Protecting self-worth can become more important than goal engagement. Together, this research suggests self-concept can act both as a motivational resource, and a motivational vulnerability. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}'''Intervention application''' To reduce self-handicapping, interventions should support people to separate self-worth and performance outcomes by building self-compassion, diverse positive self-concepts, and growth-oriented mindsets.{{RoundBoxBottom}} == How does motivation shape self-concept? == The research and theories discussed so far have detailed how self-concept directs and motivates behaviour. The following section explores how, and whether, this relationship works in reverse.   === How internalising motivation shapes self-concept === [[File:Self-determination theory psychological needs.jpg|thumb|450x450px|'''Figure 3.''' Self-determination theory proposes that autonomy, competence, and relatedness support autonomous motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2020).]][[Self-determination theory]] (Ryan & Deci, 2020) proposes motivation exists on a continuum of self-determination, ranging from externally to increasingly internally regulated behaviour. The continuum consists of external, introjected, identified, integrated, and intrinsic regulation (Table 4). These motivation types are influenced by three innate needs: competence, autonomy, and relatedness (see Figure 3; Ryan & Deci, 2020). Understanding the progression of these needs and motivation types can provide insight into how motivational processes influence self-concept. Intrinsic motivation refers to autonomous behaviours completed for enjoyment (see Table 4; Morris et al., 2022). Extrinsic motivation involves engaging in behaviour for an outcome separable from the activity itself (Morris et al., 2022). Its regulation ranges from externally controlled to personally valued and fully integrated. How self-determined people's motivations are depends on the extent to which one has internalised the values, beliefs and perceptions of the behaviour into their self-concept. Meeting the needs of competence, autonomy and relatedness supports motivations to become progressively internalised, and behaviour increasingly self-endorsed (Chiu, 2023). However, it should be noted that this process does not necessarily occur in a fixed sequence. This illustrates how self-concept and motivation reciprocally form one another. The degree to which one identifies with a behaviour shapes their motivation to engage with the behaviour; when needs are met, motivated behaviours and psychological processes shape the self-concept. This internalisation process helps explain how Ash came to identify as a swimmer (see Table 4).   '''Table 4''' ''Applying Self-Determination Theory to Ash's Motivation and Self-Concept Development'' {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" !Regulation type !Ash's self-concept and swimming progression example !Motivational mechanism |- |External |Ash received a lollipop after swimming lessons.   |Rewards or punishments |- |Introjected |Ash wanted her parents to think she is dedicated to swimming. |Avoiding guilt |- |Identified |Ash continued swimming after recognising its health benefits. |Consciously value goal |- |Integrated |Ash starts to identify as a swimmer and with her swim team.   |Congruence with self-concept |- |Intrinsic |After the swimming competition, Ash continues swimming for the joy of it. |Inherent enjoyment |} Chiu (2023) provided compelling evidence for how motivation shapes self-concept within the context of self-determination theory. In their study, 342 Hong Kong high school students completed STEM activities taught using a standard teaching approach or a self-determination theory teaching method, focusing on supporting needs of autonomy, competence and relatedness (see Figure 3). Self-report measures reflected that the needs-supporting teaching approach increased students' feelings of autonomy, competence and relatedness; and, consequently, increased STEM identity and interest. This supports that fulfilling core psychological needs promotes more autonomous motivation and develops identity. Further supporting this relationship, Yip et al.'s (2024) longitudinal study of 236 anti-poverty activists who completed self-reported social attitudes and personality measures at two timepoints found that increases in self-determined motivations positively correlated with group identification. However, non-self-determined motivations, such as external regulation, did not correlate with group identification. This suggests that self-determined motivation facilitates the incorporation of behaviour and group membership into one's self-concept.   Together, self-determination theory suggests self-concepts develop as values and behaviours are progressively internalised. Ash was not initially motivated because she identified as a swimmer. Her repeated engagement in swimming and fulfilment of psychological needs gradually transformed swimming into part of her identity. This demonstrates that motivation can be a mechanism through which self-concept develops and is not simply a motivating force. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11|title=Quiz}} <quiz display=simple> '''Which statement best reflects how motivation shapes self-concept?''' |type="()"} - People are only motivated to engage in behaviours that are part of their self-concept. - Self-concept does not change through motivational processes. + Repeated engagement with a behaviour and satisfaction of psychological needs gradually makes a behaviour part of one's self-concept. </quiz>{{RoundBoxBottom}} === The cyclical process of motivation and self-concept development === The reciprocal effects model proposes that self-concept and achievement reinforce one another over time (Marsh et al., 2018). People with stronger self-concepts tend to achieve more highly, while achievement experiences subsequently shape self-concept. Motivation plays an important role in this process, influencing how people behave toward achievement experiences. There is a growing body of research investigating this model. For example, Sewasew et al.'s (2018) longitudinal study with 2,342 German high schoolers demonstrated mathematics self-concept was positively correlated with mathematics achievement. Their study highlighted a mutually dependent relationship between academic self-concept and achievement, each mediated by motivation. However, Garn and Shen's (2015) longitudinal study of 329 participants' self-concept and motivation for exercise found that the psychological needs posited by self-determination theory (Ryan & Deci, 2022) did not predict physical self-concept at follow-ups. Physical self-concept was only shown to shape, rather than be shaped by exercise motivation. This result conflicts with the reciprocal effects model and Sewasew et al.'s (2018) results, which may reflect the different self-concept domains examined; mathematics versus physical self-concept. This may indicate that reciprocal effects are domain specific; the multidimensional model suggests academic and physical self-concepts function independently, meaning findings from one domain may not generalise to another (Marsh et al., 2019). Thus, future research should directly compare the reciprocal relationship between self-concept and motivation within different domains. Similarly, Sorjonen et al. (2024) reanalysed meta-analytic results which had provided evidence for the reciprocal effects model. Sorjonen et al. (2024) found that conclusions about the longitudinal relationship between achievement and academic self-concept changed depending on the statistical model used. Hübner et al.'s (2023) support for the reciprocal effects model was also inconsistent between statistical models. This may indicate a spurious correlation that undermines the credibility of the reciprocal effects model. Taken together, these findings suggest that achievement can shape self-concept, but the strength and direction of this relationship may depend on the domain being examined and the methodological approach used. Although the reciprocal effects model remains influential, current evidence indicates that the relationship between motivation, achievement, and self-concept is more complex than originally proposed. == Conclusion == Self-concept is a multidimensional and socially developed framework of beliefs about oneself which acts as a guiding compass. Self-concept shapes motivation by determining which goals feel meaningful, attainable, and identity-consistent through processes of self-discrepancy, difficulty interpretation and self-worth contingencies. Self-discrepancy theory explains how distance from valued selves can create motivational pressure for change. Identity-based motivation theory explains how active identities change the meaning of difficulty. Whereas self-worth contingencies can undermine motivation. Together, these theories detail that self-concept influences goal direction and engagement through social, emotional and cognitive processes. These theories provide insight that motivation-improving interventions should consider targeting how people understand themselves rather than solely targeting behaviours. Motivation may also influence self-concept. Self-determination theory details that motivation and subsequent behaviours form self-concept through internalisation processes when psychological needs are met. However, inconsistent support for the reciprocal effects model indicates that the extent to which motivation reshapes self-concept may vary across domains and statistical models. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Take-home message''' With self-concept and motivation inherently linked, who people believe they are shapes the goals they pursue, while motivations, behaviours, and experiences continually reshape who people become. {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11|title=Quiz}}<quiz display=simple> {'''Chapter comprehension check quiz:''' Ash wakes up at 4:00 a.m. each day to train because being a swimmer is a central part of her identity. According to the chapter, what best explains Ash's motivation? |type="()"} +Self-concept acts as an internal compass that guides goals and behaviour. -Motivation is caused only by external rewards and punishment. -Self-concept remains fixed and has little influence on actions. </quiz> {{RoundBoxBottom}} == See also == * [[wikipedia:Self-concept|Self-concept]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Self-concept clarity|Self-concept clarity]] (Book chapter, 2019) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Self-efficacy and motivation|Self-efficacy and motivation]] (Book chapter, 2014) == References == {{Hanging indent|Bandhu, D., Mohan, M. M., Nittala, N. A. P., Jadhav, P., Bhadauria, A., & Saxena, K. K. (2024). Theories of motivation: A comprehensive analysis of human behavior drivers. ''Acta Psychologica, 244'', 104177. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2024.104177 Chiu, T.K. (2023). Using self-determination theory (SDT) to explain student STEM interest and identity development. ''Instructional Science, 52'', 89–107. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11251-023-09642-8 Cooley, C. H. (1902). The looking-glass self. ''The production of reality: Essays and readings on social interaction, 6''(1902), 126–28. Coudevylle, G. R., Boulley-Escriva, G., Finez, L., Eugène, K., & Robin, N. (2020). An experimental investigation of claimed self-handicapping strategies across motivational climates based on achievement goal and self-determination theories. ''Educational Psychology, 40''(8), 1002–1021. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2020.1746237 Garn, A., & Shen, B. (2015). Physical self-concept and basic psychological needs in exercise: Are there reciprocal effects? ''International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 13''(2), 169–181. https://doi.org/10.1080/1612197X.2014.940994 Higgins, E. T. (1987). Self-discrepancy: A theory relating self and affect. ''Psychological Review, 94''(3), 319. Higgins, E. T. (1989). Self-discrepancy theory: What patterns of self-beliefs cause people to suffer?. In ''Advances in experimental social psychology'' (Vol. 22, pp. 93–136). Academic Press. Higgins, E. T., Shah, J., & Friedman, R. (1997). Emotional responses to goal attainment: Strength of regulatory focus as moderator. ''Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72''(3), 515–525. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.72.3.515 Hübner, N., Wagner, W., Zitzmann, S., & Nagengast, B. (2023). How strong is the evidence for a causal reciprocal effect? Contrasting traditional and new methods to investigate the reciprocal effects model of self-concept and achievement. ''Educational Psychology Review, 35'', 6. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-023-09724-6 James, W. (1892). The self. In W. James (Ed.), ''Psychology: Briefer course'' (pp. 176–216). Macmillan and Co. https://doi.org/10.1037/11630-012 Lietz, R., Whittaker, S., & Su, N. M. (2026). ‘It meant something about who I am’: What the lived experience of failure teaches us about designing for goal setting. ''Behaviour & Information Technology,'' 1–27. https://doi.org/10.1080/0144929X.2026.2711023 MacIntyre, P. D., & Vincze, L. (2017). Positive and negative emotions in motivation for second language learning. ''Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching, 7''(1), 61–88. https://doi.org/10.14746/ssllt.2017.7.1.4 Marsh, H. W., Byrne, B. M., & Shavelson, R. J. (1992). A multidimensional, hierarchical self-concept. In T. M. Brinthaupt & R. P. Lipka (Eds.), ''The self: Definitional and methodological issues'' (pp. 44–95). State University of New York Press. Marsh, H. W., Martin, A. J., Yeung, A. S., & Craven, R. G. (2018). Chapter 6: Competence self-perceptions. In A. J. Elliot, C. S. Dweck, & D. S. Yeager (Eds.), ''Handbook of competence and motivation: Theory and application'' (pp. 85–115). Guilford Publications. Marsh, H. W., Seaton, M., Dicke, T., Parker, P. D., & Horwood, M. S. (2019). The centrality of academic self-concept to motivation and learning. In K. A. Renninger, & S. E. Hidi (Eds.), ''The Cambridge handbook of motivation and learning'' (pp. 36–62). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781316823279.004 Mason, T. B., Smith, K. E., Engwall, A., Lass, A., Mead, M., Sorby, M., Bjorlie, K., Strauman, T. J., & Wonderlich, S. (2019). Self-discrepancy theory as a transdiagnostic framework: A meta-analysis of self-discrepancy and psychopathology. ''Psychological Bulletin, 145''(4), 372–389. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000186 Morris, L. S., Grehl, M. M., Rutter, S. B., Mehta, M., & Westwater, M. L. (2022). On what motivates us: A detailed review of intrinsic v. extrinsic motivation. ''Psychological Medicine, 52''(10), 1801–1816. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291722001611 Nurra, C., & Oyserman, D. (2018). From future self to current action: An identity-based motivation perspective. ''Self and Identity, 17''(3), 343-364. https://doi.org/10.1080/15298868.2017.1375003 Oyserman, D. (2015). Identity-based motivation. ''Emerging Trends in the Social and Behavioral Sciences, 38'', 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118900772.etrds0171 Oyserman, D. (2024), Identity-based motivation and the motivational consequences of difficulty. ''Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 18'', e70028. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.70028 Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2020). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation from a self-determination theory perspective: Definitions, theory, practices, and future directions. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology, 61'', 101860. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101860 Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2022). Self-determination theory. In F. Maggino (Ed.), ''Encyclopedia of quality of life and well-being research'' (pp. 1–7). Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-69909-7_2630-2 Schwinger, M., Trautner, M., Pütz, N., Fabianek, S., Lemmer, G., Lauermann, F., & Wirthwein, L. (2022). Why do students use strategies that hurt their chances of academic success? A meta-analysis of antecedents of academic self-handicapping. ''Journal of Educational Psychology, 114''(3), 576–596. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000706 Seaton, M., Parker, P., Marsh, H. W., Craven, R. G., & Yeung, A. S. (2014). The reciprocal relations between self-concept, motivation and achievement: Juxtaposing academic self-concept and achievement goal orientations for mathematics success. ''Educational Psychology, 34''(1), 49–72. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2013.825232 Sewasew, D., Schroeders, U., Schiefer, I. M., Weirich, S., & Artelt, C. (2018). Development of sex differences in math achievement, self-concept, and interest from grade 5 to 7. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology, 54'', 55–65. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2018.05.003 Showers, C. J., Ditzfeld, C. P., & Zeigler-Hill, V. (2015). Self-concept structure and the quality of self-knowledge. ''Journal of Personality, 83''(5), 535-551. https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12130 Sorjonen, K., Ingre, M., Melin, B., & Nilsonne, G. (2024). Questioning the reciprocal effects model of academic self-concept and achievement: A reanalysis of a meta-analysis of longitudinal studies and a simulation. ''Sage Open, 14''(4). https://doi.org/10.1177/21582440241292826 Török, L., & Szabó, Z. P. (2018). The theory of self-handicapping: Forms, influencing factors and measurement. ''Ceskoslovenska Psychologie, 62''(2), 173-188. Wang, L., Cui, Y., Wang, X., Wang, J., Du, K., & Luo, Z. (2021). Regulatory focus, motivation, and their relationship with creativity among adolescents. ''Frontiers in Psychology, 12'', 666071. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.666071 Wehrle, K., & Fasbender, U. (2018). Self-concept. In Zeigler-Hill, V., & Shackelford, T. (Eds.), ''Encyclopedia of personality and individual differences'' (pp. 1–5). Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-28099-8_2001-1 Weiner, B. (1985). An attributional theory of achievement motivation and emotion. ''Psychological Review, 92''(4), 548–573. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.92.4.548 Yip, L., Thomas, E. F., Amiot, C., Louis, W. R., & McGarty, C. (2024). Autonomous motives foster sustained commitment to action: Integrating self-determination theory and the social identity approach. ''Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 50''(5), 750–765. https://doi.org/10.1177/01461672221148396 }} == External links == * [https://rickhanson.com/being-well-podcast-self-concept-the-secret-to-changing-who-you-are/ Being well podcast: Self-concept: The secret to changing WHO you are] (Being Well Podcast) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Nck7lP-6C2g Unlocking success: The power of self-efficacy and self-concept] (TEDx Talks) * [https://www.ted.com/talks/anil_ananthaswamy_where_does_your_sense_of_self_come_from_a_scientific_look Where does your sense of self come from? A scientific look] (TEDx Talks) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self-concept]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Motivation]] 77lu4vz1xezn4v4phf8e50r4378ndoc 2835744 2835732 2026-10-04T04:45:01Z U3253363 3106362 /* Overview */ Trying to make the overview more engaging. 2835744 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Self-concept and motivation:<br>How does self-concept relate to motivation?}} == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Sinclair Swimming.JPG|right|thumb|180px|'''Figure 1'''. Ash is a competitive swimmer and swims daily.]] ;Scenario Ash is a swimmer training for a national competition. When asked to describe herself, being "a swimmer" is the first word Ash uses. She is eager to succeed at the upcoming swimming competition. Every morning, she wakes up at 4:00 a.m to swim four kilometres (see Figure 1). Her friend Riley struggles to understand how Ash maintains this demanding schedule. Why is Ash able to do this when many would find this difficult? {{RoundBoxBottom}} Why can some people sustain long-term commitment to challenging goals while others lose momentum or experience fear of failure? Many approaches to motivation focus on willpower, rewards, and needs. However, motivation is also influenced by [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Self-concept|self-concept]], an individual's understanding of who they are and how they feel about themselves (Wehrle & Fasbender, 2018). Beyond answering “who am I?”, self-concept acts as an internal compass that influences thinking, feelings, and behaviour. This chapter explores the reciprocal relationship between self-concept and motivation; how self-understanding influences motivated behaviour, and how motivated behaviour progressively shapes self-concept. Understanding this reciprocal relationship can help people develop motivation around meaningful identities while reducing the risk that failure becomes a threat to personal worth. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=12}} '''Focus questions''' *What is self-concept? *How does self-concept influence motivation? *How does motivation shape self-concept?{{RoundBoxBottom}} == What is self-concept? == Self-concept is a cognitive framework of self-knowledge including attitudes, beliefs, and judgements about oneself (Wehrle & Fasbender, 2018). It is related, but unique to many of the popular “self-” constructs like [[self-esteem]], [[w:Self-efficacy|self-efficacy]], and [[w:Self-image|self-image]]. Each self-concept-relevant theory approaches the construct differently, but several common properties emerge and provide the foundation for understanding its motivational effects (see Table 1). Foundationally, [[wikipedia:William_James|James]] (1892) conceptualised the self as having two parts: “I”, the subjective thinker, and “me”, the material and social self. Cooley (1902) added the [[wikipedia:Looking-glass_self|looking-glass self]], proposing that self-concept develops through perceived social evaluations. Modern frameworks, including identity-based motivation theory (Oyserman, 2024) and the multidimensional model (Marsh et al., 1992) suggest self-concept is hierarchical, multifaceted, and dynamic. '''Table 1''' ''Self-Concept Properties and Their Significance for Motivation'' {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" !Property !Key theory !Significance for motivation |- |'''Descriptive  ''' |James |Identity beliefs influence set standards and expectations |- |'''Socially developed''' |Looking glass self |Social feedback influences which behaviours are pursued |- |'''Dynamic''' |Identity-based motivation theory |Self-concept shifts situationally |- |'''Multidimensional''' |Multidimensional model |Domain-specific self-concepts motivate distinct behaviours |- |'''Hierarchical  ''' |Multidimensional model |General and specific domains of the self influence each other and different behaviours |} == How does self-concept influence motivation? == Like self-concept, motivation is multidimensional and central to human behaviour (Bandhu et al., 2024). This creates an interesting intersection of properties; self-concept and motivation both influence which goals people pursue and responses to difficulty. This section explores how self-concept influences motivation.   === How the self directs and energises behaviour === [[w:Self-discrepancy_theory|Self-discrepancy theory]] proposes people have three representations of the self: the actual (who one is), ideal (who one wants to become), and ought self (who one believes others want them to be; see Table 2; Higgins, 1987). Ideal and ought selves set standards for one to strive toward, laying a framework for goal direction. Discrepancies between actual and ideal or ought selves also generate emotional vulnerabilities (Table 2). Actual/ideal self-discrepancies result in dejection-related emotions (e.g. frustration, dissatisfaction; Higgins, 1987). Actual/ought self-discrepancies result in agitation-related emotions (e.g. anxiety, guilt). Greater discrepancies result in greater emotional discomfort and generate greater motivation to close the gap (Higgins, 1989). Meta-analytic findings support that greater discrepancies result in more negative emotions (Mason et al., 2019). However, Mason et al. (2019) found that actual/ideal and actual/ought self-discrepancies both correlated with dejection- and agitation-related emotions. This contrasts with self-discrepancy theory's proposition. Further, while the negative emotions resulting from discrepancies are proposed to motivate people to reduce discrepancies, MacIntyre and Vincze (2017) suggest positive emotions have greater motivating strength than negative emotions. This suggests that while self-concepts provide frameworks for goal selection and energise behaviour, self-discrepancies may not be the most powerful emotional source of motivation. '''Table 2''' ''Dimensions of the Self and Emotional Effects of Discrepancies'' {| class="wikitable" !Self dimension !Examples !Emotional effect of discrepancy with actual self |- |Actual |Daily behaviours, beliefs | - |- |Ideal |Dreams, aspirations |Dejection-related emotions |- |Ought |Duties, obligations |Agitation-related emotions |}[[w:Regulatory_focus_theory|Regulatory focus theory]] (Higgins, 1997) expands self-discrepancy theory to suggest different self-representations produce different motivational orientations. Ideal-self goals create a promotion focus, where people are motivated to seek positive outcomes (see Table 3). Ought-self goals create a prevention focus, where people are motivated to avoid negative outcomes. These regulatory focuses both positively correlated with intrinsic motivation in Wang et al.'s (2021) study of adolescent task engagement. However, promotion focuses positively correlated with creativity and an innovative cognitive style, whereas prevention focuses negatively correlated with an innovative cognitive style and was characterised by error avoidance. This shows that while both promotion and prevention orientations generate self-sustained motivation, they result in different approaches to tasks. '''Table 3''' ''Self-concept's Motivational Mechanisms'' {| class="wikitable" |+ !Self-discrepancy !Motivational focus !Motivational mechanism !Task approach |- |Actual-ideal |Promotion |Seek positive outcomes |Creativity, innovation |- |Actual-ought |Prevention |Avoid negative outcomes |Reduced innovation, error avoidance |} [[wikipedia:Identity_based_motivation|Identity-based motivation theory]] (Oyserman, 2024) provides an alternative explanation to how self-concept directs behaviour. The theory proposes that situations influence which aspects of self-concept are active. Active identities change interpretations of difficulty, which influences motivation. When behaviour aligns with an active identity, people interpret difficulties in completing that behaviour as evidence the behaviour is important (Oyserman, 2015). This is because identity-congruent behaviours provide information about who one is and who one wants to become, making difficulty meaningful rather than discouraging (Oyserman, 2024). Conversely, identity-incongruent actions that have the same challenges are interpreted as pointless. This means that identities mediate motivation and help goal selection and persistence through the process of difficulty interpretation. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Case study comprehension check''' When Ash feels physically exhausted during her early morning swim sets, her identity as an elite athlete is active. This helps her interpret exhaustion as a meaningful challenge. For her non-swimmer friend, Riley, this exhaustion would be interpreted as evidence swimming is not for them.{{RoundBoxBottom}} Illustrating the motivating role of the self-concept within this framework, Nurra and Oyserman (2018) found that motivation to pursue future identity-relevant goals in school children, and subsequent achievement, was influenced by how children thought about their future selves. Students were exposed to prompts that helped them think of their adult self as either near or far. Students in the adult-self-is-near group achieved significantly higher final grades than the adult-self-is-far group. These findings indicate that closely identifying with future selves and viewing future selves as attainable can motivate goal pursual. Together, these results support identity-based motivation theory and detail that self-concept drives behaviour by defining desirable outcomes and shaping how challenges and opportunities are interpreted. Together, self-discrepancy, regulatory focus, and identity-based motivation theories suggest that a person's perceived distance from a valued self can create motivational pressure to change and active identities influence interpretations of challenges. These states modify goal engagement and motivation. In all three theories, self-concept is central to motivation, driving goal selection and engagement. Thus, what motivates each person, and how they subsequently behave, is shaped by self-concept. === How self-concept can undermine motivation === While self-concept can energise and direct behaviour, it can also undermine motivation through self-worth contingencies. [[wikipedia:Contingent_self-esteem#Self-esteem_and_contingent_self-worth|Self-worth contingencies]] refer to the standards people feel they must meet to have personal value (Showers et al., 2015). When goals are tightly bound to self-worth, failure threatens self-concept. So, contingent self-worth can motivate the pursuit of self-concept-important goals, but can result in avoidant behaviour and strong responses to failure. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} <quiz display=simple> '''What are self-worth contingencies?''' |type="()"} - How people feel about themselves + Standards people feel they must meet to have value - How people compare themselves to others </quiz>{{RoundBoxBottom}} Lietz et al. (2026) qualitatively studied 17 participants' identity-shaped goals and found that failing to achieve these goals resulted in negative and severe emotional responses. Further, participants tended to attribute failure to personal shortcomings, because of how closely held the goal was to their self-concept. This resulted in reduced motivation to reattempt, or blind pursuit of the same goal without re-examining the approach. This is consistent with [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Attribution theory and emotion|attribution theory]] (Weiner, 1985), which suggests that causal thinking processes, where people attribute outcomes to stable, uncontrollable factors, result in low motivation. Attributional styles affect self-evaluations and thus can undermine motivation when failure is attributed to stable aspects of the self (Bandhu et al., 2024). This can cause maladaptive behaviours to emerge. One such response to the threat of failure is self-handicapping. [[w:Self-handicapping|Self-handicapping]] involves creating obstacles to one's own goal so that failure can be attributed to external, rather than personal factors (Török & Szabó, 2018). This means people may increase the probability of failure to protect their self-concept (Coudevylle et al., 2020). Therefore, self-concept can impact motivation by hindering goal pursuit. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Case study comprehension check''' Ash cares a lot about succeeding in her swimming competition. To protect her self-concept as a successful swimmer, Ash may fake a mild illness at the competition so that any failure can be attributed to her illness, rather than her competence. {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[File:Multidimensional_model_of_self-concept_diagram.png|thumb|536x536px|'''Figure 2.''' The hierarchical multidimensional model of self-concept (Marsh et al., 2019).]] Illustrating the causes of self-handicapping, Schwinger et al. (2022) found a medium negative correlation between general self-evaluations and self-handicapping and a medium positive correlation between fear of failure and self-handicapping. With more negative general self-evaluations and greater fear of failure, people are more likely to self-handicap, highlighting self-concept as an precursor to self-handicapping. However, in this study, general, rather than domain-specific measures were used. According to the multidimensional model, self-concept is a hierarchical, multi-faceted construct, and more specific self-concepts are more closely related to actual behaviour (see Figure 2; Marsh et al., 2019). Accordingly, future research should investigate domain-specific measures of self-concept and fear of failure to illustrate their direct influence on self-handicapping and task motivation. Self-handicapping demonstrates that self-concept-driven motivation is not always directed towards achieving valued outcomes. Protecting self-worth can become more important than goal engagement. Together, this research suggests self-concept can act both as a motivational resource, and a motivational vulnerability. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}'''Intervention application''' To reduce self-handicapping, interventions should support people to separate self-worth and performance outcomes by building self-compassion, diverse positive self-concepts, and growth-oriented mindsets.{{RoundBoxBottom}} == How does motivation shape self-concept? == The research and theories discussed so far have detailed how self-concept directs and motivates behaviour. The following section explores how, and whether, this relationship works in reverse.   === How internalising motivation shapes self-concept === [[File:Self-determination theory psychological needs.jpg|thumb|450x450px|'''Figure 3.''' Self-determination theory proposes that autonomy, competence, and relatedness support autonomous motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2020).]][[Self-determination theory]] (Ryan & Deci, 2020) proposes motivation exists on a continuum of self-determination, ranging from externally to increasingly internally regulated behaviour. The continuum consists of external, introjected, identified, integrated, and intrinsic regulation (Table 4). These motivation types are influenced by three innate needs: competence, autonomy, and relatedness (see Figure 3; Ryan & Deci, 2020). Understanding the progression of these needs and motivation types can provide insight into how motivational processes influence self-concept. Intrinsic motivation refers to autonomous behaviours completed for enjoyment (see Table 4; Morris et al., 2022). Extrinsic motivation involves engaging in behaviour for an outcome separable from the activity itself (Morris et al., 2022). Its regulation ranges from externally controlled to personally valued and fully integrated. How self-determined people's motivations are depends on the extent to which one has internalised the values, beliefs and perceptions of the behaviour into their self-concept. Meeting the needs of competence, autonomy and relatedness supports motivations to become progressively internalised, and behaviour increasingly self-endorsed (Chiu, 2023). However, it should be noted that this process does not necessarily occur in a fixed sequence. This illustrates how self-concept and motivation reciprocally form one another. The degree to which one identifies with a behaviour shapes their motivation to engage with the behaviour; when needs are met, motivated behaviours and psychological processes shape the self-concept. This internalisation process helps explain how Ash came to identify as a swimmer (see Table 4).   '''Table 4''' ''Applying Self-Determination Theory to Ash's Motivation and Self-Concept Development'' {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" !Regulation type !Ash's self-concept and swimming progression example !Motivational mechanism |- |External |Ash received a lollipop after swimming lessons.   |Rewards or punishments |- |Introjected |Ash wanted her parents to think she is dedicated to swimming. |Avoiding guilt |- |Identified |Ash continued swimming after recognising its health benefits. |Consciously value goal |- |Integrated |Ash starts to identify as a swimmer and with her swim team.   |Congruence with self-concept |- |Intrinsic |After the swimming competition, Ash continues swimming for the joy of it. |Inherent enjoyment |} Chiu (2023) provided compelling evidence for how motivation shapes self-concept within the context of self-determination theory. In their study, 342 Hong Kong high school students completed STEM activities taught using a standard teaching approach or a self-determination theory teaching method, focusing on supporting needs of autonomy, competence and relatedness (see Figure 3). Self-report measures reflected that the needs-supporting teaching approach increased students' feelings of autonomy, competence and relatedness; and, consequently, increased STEM identity and interest. This supports that fulfilling core psychological needs promotes more autonomous motivation and develops identity. Further supporting this relationship, Yip et al.'s (2024) longitudinal study of 236 anti-poverty activists who completed self-reported social attitudes and personality measures at two timepoints found that increases in self-determined motivations positively correlated with group identification. However, non-self-determined motivations, such as external regulation, did not correlate with group identification. This suggests that self-determined motivation facilitates the incorporation of behaviour and group membership into one's self-concept.   Together, self-determination theory suggests self-concepts develop as values and behaviours are progressively internalised. Ash was not initially motivated because she identified as a swimmer. Her repeated engagement in swimming and fulfilment of psychological needs gradually transformed swimming into part of her identity. This demonstrates that motivation can be a mechanism through which self-concept develops and is not simply a motivating force. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11|title=Quiz}} <quiz display=simple> '''Which statement best reflects how motivation shapes self-concept?''' |type="()"} - People are only motivated to engage in behaviours that are part of their self-concept. - Self-concept does not change through motivational processes. + Repeated engagement with a behaviour and satisfaction of psychological needs gradually makes a behaviour part of one's self-concept. </quiz>{{RoundBoxBottom}} === The cyclical process of motivation and self-concept development === The reciprocal effects model proposes that self-concept and achievement reinforce one another over time (Marsh et al., 2018). People with stronger self-concepts tend to achieve more highly, while achievement experiences subsequently shape self-concept. Motivation plays an important role in this process, influencing how people behave toward achievement experiences. There is a growing body of research investigating this model. For example, Sewasew et al.'s (2018) longitudinal study with 2,342 German high schoolers demonstrated mathematics self-concept was positively correlated with mathematics achievement. Their study highlighted a mutually dependent relationship between academic self-concept and achievement, each mediated by motivation. However, Garn and Shen's (2015) longitudinal study of 329 participants' self-concept and motivation for exercise found that the psychological needs posited by self-determination theory (Ryan & Deci, 2022) did not predict physical self-concept at follow-ups. Physical self-concept was only shown to shape, rather than be shaped by exercise motivation. This result conflicts with the reciprocal effects model and Sewasew et al.'s (2018) results, which may reflect the different self-concept domains examined; mathematics versus physical self-concept. This may indicate that reciprocal effects are domain specific; the multidimensional model suggests academic and physical self-concepts function independently, meaning findings from one domain may not generalise to another (Marsh et al., 2019). Thus, future research should directly compare the reciprocal relationship between self-concept and motivation within different domains. Similarly, Sorjonen et al. (2024) reanalysed meta-analytic results which had provided evidence for the reciprocal effects model. Sorjonen et al. (2024) found that conclusions about the longitudinal relationship between achievement and academic self-concept changed depending on the statistical model used. Hübner et al.'s (2023) support for the reciprocal effects model was also inconsistent between statistical models. This may indicate a spurious correlation that undermines the credibility of the reciprocal effects model. Taken together, these findings suggest that achievement can shape self-concept, but the strength and direction of this relationship may depend on the domain being examined and the methodological approach used. Although the reciprocal effects model remains influential, current evidence indicates that the relationship between motivation, achievement, and self-concept is more complex than originally proposed. == Conclusion == Self-concept is a multidimensional and socially developed framework of beliefs about oneself which acts as a guiding compass. Self-concept shapes motivation by determining which goals feel meaningful, attainable, and identity-consistent through processes of self-discrepancy, difficulty interpretation and self-worth contingencies. Self-discrepancy theory explains how distance from valued selves can create motivational pressure for change. Identity-based motivation theory explains how active identities change the meaning of difficulty. Whereas self-worth contingencies can undermine motivation. Together, these theories detail that self-concept influences goal direction and engagement through social, emotional and cognitive processes. These theories provide insight that motivation-improving interventions should consider targeting how people understand themselves rather than solely targeting behaviours. Motivation may also influence self-concept. Self-determination theory details that motivation and subsequent behaviours form self-concept through internalisation processes when psychological needs are met. However, inconsistent support for the reciprocal effects model indicates that the extent to which motivation reshapes self-concept may vary across domains and statistical models. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Take-home message''' With self-concept and motivation inherently linked, who people believe they are shapes the goals they pursue, while motivations, behaviours, and experiences continually reshape who people become. {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11|title=Quiz}}<quiz display=simple> {'''Chapter comprehension check quiz:''' Ash wakes up at 4:00 a.m. each day to train because being a swimmer is a central part of her identity. According to the chapter, what best explains Ash's motivation? |type="()"} +Self-concept acts as an internal compass that guides goals and behaviour. -Motivation is caused only by external rewards and punishment. -Self-concept remains fixed and has little influence on actions. </quiz> {{RoundBoxBottom}} == See also == * [[wikipedia:Self-concept|Self-concept]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Self-concept clarity|Self-concept clarity]] (Book chapter, 2019) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Self-efficacy and motivation|Self-efficacy and motivation]] (Book chapter, 2014) == References == {{Hanging indent|Bandhu, D., Mohan, M. M., Nittala, N. A. P., Jadhav, P., Bhadauria, A., & Saxena, K. K. (2024). Theories of motivation: A comprehensive analysis of human behavior drivers. ''Acta Psychologica, 244'', 104177. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2024.104177 Chiu, T.K. (2023). Using self-determination theory (SDT) to explain student STEM interest and identity development. ''Instructional Science, 52'', 89–107. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11251-023-09642-8 Cooley, C. H. (1902). The looking-glass self. ''The production of reality: Essays and readings on social interaction, 6''(1902), 126–28. Coudevylle, G. R., Boulley-Escriva, G., Finez, L., Eugène, K., & Robin, N. (2020). An experimental investigation of claimed self-handicapping strategies across motivational climates based on achievement goal and self-determination theories. ''Educational Psychology, 40''(8), 1002–1021. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2020.1746237 Garn, A., & Shen, B. (2015). Physical self-concept and basic psychological needs in exercise: Are there reciprocal effects? ''International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 13''(2), 169–181. https://doi.org/10.1080/1612197X.2014.940994 Higgins, E. T. (1987). Self-discrepancy: A theory relating self and affect. ''Psychological Review, 94''(3), 319. Higgins, E. T. (1989). Self-discrepancy theory: What patterns of self-beliefs cause people to suffer?. In ''Advances in experimental social psychology'' (Vol. 22, pp. 93–136). Academic Press. Higgins, E. T., Shah, J., & Friedman, R. (1997). Emotional responses to goal attainment: Strength of regulatory focus as moderator. ''Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72''(3), 515–525. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.72.3.515 Hübner, N., Wagner, W., Zitzmann, S., & Nagengast, B. (2023). How strong is the evidence for a causal reciprocal effect? Contrasting traditional and new methods to investigate the reciprocal effects model of self-concept and achievement. ''Educational Psychology Review, 35'', 6. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-023-09724-6 James, W. (1892). The self. In W. James (Ed.), ''Psychology: Briefer course'' (pp. 176–216). Macmillan and Co. https://doi.org/10.1037/11630-012 Lietz, R., Whittaker, S., & Su, N. M. 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D., & Horwood, M. S. (2019). The centrality of academic self-concept to motivation and learning. In K. A. Renninger, & S. E. Hidi (Eds.), ''The Cambridge handbook of motivation and learning'' (pp. 36–62). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781316823279.004 Mason, T. B., Smith, K. E., Engwall, A., Lass, A., Mead, M., Sorby, M., Bjorlie, K., Strauman, T. J., & Wonderlich, S. (2019). Self-discrepancy theory as a transdiagnostic framework: A meta-analysis of self-discrepancy and psychopathology. ''Psychological Bulletin, 145''(4), 372–389. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000186 Morris, L. S., Grehl, M. M., Rutter, S. B., Mehta, M., & Westwater, M. L. (2022). On what motivates us: A detailed review of intrinsic v. extrinsic motivation. ''Psychological Medicine, 52''(10), 1801–1816. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291722001611 Nurra, C., & Oyserman, D. (2018). From future self to current action: An identity-based motivation perspective. 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Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-69909-7_2630-2 Schwinger, M., Trautner, M., Pütz, N., Fabianek, S., Lemmer, G., Lauermann, F., & Wirthwein, L. (2022). Why do students use strategies that hurt their chances of academic success? A meta-analysis of antecedents of academic self-handicapping. ''Journal of Educational Psychology, 114''(3), 576–596. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000706 Seaton, M., Parker, P., Marsh, H. W., Craven, R. G., & Yeung, A. S. (2014). The reciprocal relations between self-concept, motivation and achievement: Juxtaposing academic self-concept and achievement goal orientations for mathematics success. ''Educational Psychology, 34''(1), 49–72. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2013.825232 Sewasew, D., Schroeders, U., Schiefer, I. M., Weirich, S., & Artelt, C. (2018). Development of sex differences in math achievement, self-concept, and interest from grade 5 to 7. 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(2018). Self-concept. In Zeigler-Hill, V., & Shackelford, T. (Eds.), ''Encyclopedia of personality and individual differences'' (pp. 1–5). Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-28099-8_2001-1 Weiner, B. (1985). An attributional theory of achievement motivation and emotion. ''Psychological Review, 92''(4), 548–573. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.92.4.548 Yip, L., Thomas, E. F., Amiot, C., Louis, W. R., & McGarty, C. (2024). Autonomous motives foster sustained commitment to action: Integrating self-determination theory and the social identity approach. ''Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 50''(5), 750–765. https://doi.org/10.1177/01461672221148396 }} == External links == * [https://rickhanson.com/being-well-podcast-self-concept-the-secret-to-changing-who-you-are/ Being well podcast: Self-concept: The secret to changing WHO you are] (Being Well Podcast) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Nck7lP-6C2g Unlocking success: The power of self-efficacy and self-concept] (TEDx Talks) * [https://www.ted.com/talks/anil_ananthaswamy_where_does_your_sense_of_self_come_from_a_scientific_look Where does your sense of self come from? A scientific look] (TEDx Talks) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self-concept]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Motivation]] 6qckiy11bejo1smr96c2hepteyjgn47 2835745 2835744 2026-10-04T04:49:37Z U3253363 3106362 /* Overview */ Added some inter-wiki links 2835745 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Self-concept and motivation:<br>How does self-concept relate to motivation?}} == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Sinclair Swimming.JPG|right|thumb|180px|'''Figure 1'''. Ash is a competitive swimmer and swims daily.]] ;Scenario Ash is a swimmer training for a national competition. When asked to describe herself, being "a swimmer" is the first word Ash uses. She is eager to succeed at the upcoming swimming competition. Every morning, she wakes up at 4:00 a.m to swim four kilometres (see Figure 1). Her friend Riley struggles to understand how Ash maintains this demanding schedule. Why is Ash able to do this when many would find this difficult? {{RoundBoxBottom}} Why can some people sustain long-term commitment to challenging goals while others lose momentum or experience fear of failure? Many popular explanations to motivation focus on [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2015/Willpower|willpower]], [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Rewards, punishments, and social cooperation|rewards]], and [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Needs|needs]]. However, motivation is also influenced by [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Self-concept|self-concept]], an individual's understanding of who they are and how they feel about themselves (Wehrle & Fasbender, 2018). Beyond answering “who am I?”, self-concept acts as an internal compass that influences thinking, feelings, and behaviour. This chapter explores the reciprocal relationship between self-concept and motivation; how self-understanding influences motivated behaviour, and how motivated behaviour progressively shapes self-concept. Understanding this reciprocal relationship can help people develop motivation around meaningful identities while reducing the risk that failure becomes a threat to personal worth. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=12}} '''Focus questions''' *What is self-concept? *How does self-concept influence motivation? *How does motivation shape self-concept?{{RoundBoxBottom}} == What is self-concept? == Self-concept is a cognitive framework of self-knowledge including attitudes, beliefs, and judgements about oneself (Wehrle & Fasbender, 2018). It is related, but unique to many of the popular “self-” constructs like [[self-esteem]], [[w:Self-efficacy|self-efficacy]], and [[w:Self-image|self-image]]. Each self-concept-relevant theory approaches the construct differently, but several common properties emerge and provide the foundation for understanding its motivational effects (see Table 1). Foundationally, [[wikipedia:William_James|James]] (1892) conceptualised the self as having two parts: “I”, the subjective thinker, and “me”, the material and social self. Cooley (1902) added the [[wikipedia:Looking-glass_self|looking-glass self]], proposing that self-concept develops through perceived social evaluations. Modern frameworks, including identity-based motivation theory (Oyserman, 2024) and the multidimensional model (Marsh et al., 1992) suggest self-concept is hierarchical, multifaceted, and dynamic. '''Table 1''' ''Self-Concept Properties and Their Significance for Motivation'' {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" !Property !Key theory !Significance for motivation |- |'''Descriptive  ''' |James |Identity beliefs influence set standards and expectations |- |'''Socially developed''' |Looking glass self |Social feedback influences which behaviours are pursued |- |'''Dynamic''' |Identity-based motivation theory |Self-concept shifts situationally |- |'''Multidimensional''' |Multidimensional model |Domain-specific self-concepts motivate distinct behaviours |- |'''Hierarchical  ''' |Multidimensional model |General and specific domains of the self influence each other and different behaviours |} == How does self-concept influence motivation? == Like self-concept, motivation is multidimensional and central to human behaviour (Bandhu et al., 2024). This creates an interesting intersection of properties; self-concept and motivation both influence which goals people pursue and responses to difficulty. This section explores how self-concept influences motivation.   === How the self directs and energises behaviour === [[w:Self-discrepancy_theory|Self-discrepancy theory]] proposes people have three representations of the self: the actual (who one is), ideal (who one wants to become), and ought self (who one believes others want them to be; see Table 2; Higgins, 1987). Ideal and ought selves set standards for one to strive toward, laying a framework for goal direction. Discrepancies between actual and ideal or ought selves also generate emotional vulnerabilities (Table 2). Actual/ideal self-discrepancies result in dejection-related emotions (e.g. frustration, dissatisfaction; Higgins, 1987). Actual/ought self-discrepancies result in agitation-related emotions (e.g. anxiety, guilt). Greater discrepancies result in greater emotional discomfort and generate greater motivation to close the gap (Higgins, 1989). Meta-analytic findings support that greater discrepancies result in more negative emotions (Mason et al., 2019). However, Mason et al. (2019) found that actual/ideal and actual/ought self-discrepancies both correlated with dejection- and agitation-related emotions. This contrasts with self-discrepancy theory's proposition. Further, while the negative emotions resulting from discrepancies are proposed to motivate people to reduce discrepancies, MacIntyre and Vincze (2017) suggest positive emotions have greater motivating strength than negative emotions. This suggests that while self-concepts provide frameworks for goal selection and energise behaviour, self-discrepancies may not be the most powerful emotional source of motivation. '''Table 2''' ''Dimensions of the Self and Emotional Effects of Discrepancies'' {| class="wikitable" !Self dimension !Examples !Emotional effect of discrepancy with actual self |- |Actual |Daily behaviours, beliefs | - |- |Ideal |Dreams, aspirations |Dejection-related emotions |- |Ought |Duties, obligations |Agitation-related emotions |}[[w:Regulatory_focus_theory|Regulatory focus theory]] (Higgins, 1997) expands self-discrepancy theory to suggest different self-representations produce different motivational orientations. Ideal-self goals create a promotion focus, where people are motivated to seek positive outcomes (see Table 3). Ought-self goals create a prevention focus, where people are motivated to avoid negative outcomes. These regulatory focuses both positively correlated with intrinsic motivation in Wang et al.'s (2021) study of adolescent task engagement. However, promotion focuses positively correlated with creativity and an innovative cognitive style, whereas prevention focuses negatively correlated with an innovative cognitive style and was characterised by error avoidance. This shows that while both promotion and prevention orientations generate self-sustained motivation, they result in different approaches to tasks. '''Table 3''' ''Self-concept's Motivational Mechanisms'' {| class="wikitable" |+ !Self-discrepancy !Motivational focus !Motivational mechanism !Task approach |- |Actual-ideal |Promotion |Seek positive outcomes |Creativity, innovation |- |Actual-ought |Prevention |Avoid negative outcomes |Reduced innovation, error avoidance |} [[wikipedia:Identity_based_motivation|Identity-based motivation theory]] (Oyserman, 2024) provides an alternative explanation to how self-concept directs behaviour. The theory proposes that situations influence which aspects of self-concept are active. Active identities change interpretations of difficulty, which influences motivation. When behaviour aligns with an active identity, people interpret difficulties in completing that behaviour as evidence the behaviour is important (Oyserman, 2015). This is because identity-congruent behaviours provide information about who one is and who one wants to become, making difficulty meaningful rather than discouraging (Oyserman, 2024). Conversely, identity-incongruent actions that have the same challenges are interpreted as pointless. This means that identities mediate motivation and help goal selection and persistence through the process of difficulty interpretation. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Case study comprehension check''' When Ash feels physically exhausted during her early morning swim sets, her identity as an elite athlete is active. This helps her interpret exhaustion as a meaningful challenge. For her non-swimmer friend, Riley, this exhaustion would be interpreted as evidence swimming is not for them.{{RoundBoxBottom}} Illustrating the motivating role of the self-concept within this framework, Nurra and Oyserman (2018) found that motivation to pursue future identity-relevant goals in school children, and subsequent achievement, was influenced by how children thought about their future selves. Students were exposed to prompts that helped them think of their adult self as either near or far. Students in the adult-self-is-near group achieved significantly higher final grades than the adult-self-is-far group. These findings indicate that closely identifying with future selves and viewing future selves as attainable can motivate goal pursual. Together, these results support identity-based motivation theory and detail that self-concept drives behaviour by defining desirable outcomes and shaping how challenges and opportunities are interpreted. Together, self-discrepancy, regulatory focus, and identity-based motivation theories suggest that a person's perceived distance from a valued self can create motivational pressure to change and active identities influence interpretations of challenges. These states modify goal engagement and motivation. In all three theories, self-concept is central to motivation, driving goal selection and engagement. Thus, what motivates each person, and how they subsequently behave, is shaped by self-concept. === How self-concept can undermine motivation === While self-concept can energise and direct behaviour, it can also undermine motivation through self-worth contingencies. [[wikipedia:Contingent_self-esteem#Self-esteem_and_contingent_self-worth|Self-worth contingencies]] refer to the standards people feel they must meet to have personal value (Showers et al., 2015). When goals are tightly bound to self-worth, failure threatens self-concept. So, contingent self-worth can motivate the pursuit of self-concept-important goals, but can result in avoidant behaviour and strong responses to failure. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} <quiz display=simple> '''What are self-worth contingencies?''' |type="()"} - How people feel about themselves + Standards people feel they must meet to have value - How people compare themselves to others </quiz>{{RoundBoxBottom}} Lietz et al. (2026) qualitatively studied 17 participants' identity-shaped goals and found that failing to achieve these goals resulted in negative and severe emotional responses. Further, participants tended to attribute failure to personal shortcomings, because of how closely held the goal was to their self-concept. This resulted in reduced motivation to reattempt, or blind pursuit of the same goal without re-examining the approach. This is consistent with [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Attribution theory and emotion|attribution theory]] (Weiner, 1985), which suggests that causal thinking processes, where people attribute outcomes to stable, uncontrollable factors, result in low motivation. Attributional styles affect self-evaluations and thus can undermine motivation when failure is attributed to stable aspects of the self (Bandhu et al., 2024). This can cause maladaptive behaviours to emerge. One such response to the threat of failure is self-handicapping. [[w:Self-handicapping|Self-handicapping]] involves creating obstacles to one's own goal so that failure can be attributed to external, rather than personal factors (Török & Szabó, 2018). This means people may increase the probability of failure to protect their self-concept (Coudevylle et al., 2020). Therefore, self-concept can impact motivation by hindering goal pursuit. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Case study comprehension check''' Ash cares a lot about succeeding in her swimming competition. To protect her self-concept as a successful swimmer, Ash may fake a mild illness at the competition so that any failure can be attributed to her illness, rather than her competence. {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[File:Multidimensional_model_of_self-concept_diagram.png|thumb|536x536px|'''Figure 2.''' The hierarchical multidimensional model of self-concept (Marsh et al., 2019).]] Illustrating the causes of self-handicapping, Schwinger et al. (2022) found a medium negative correlation between general self-evaluations and self-handicapping and a medium positive correlation between fear of failure and self-handicapping. With more negative general self-evaluations and greater fear of failure, people are more likely to self-handicap, highlighting self-concept as an precursor to self-handicapping. However, in this study, general, rather than domain-specific measures were used. According to the multidimensional model, self-concept is a hierarchical, multi-faceted construct, and more specific self-concepts are more closely related to actual behaviour (see Figure 2; Marsh et al., 2019). Accordingly, future research should investigate domain-specific measures of self-concept and fear of failure to illustrate their direct influence on self-handicapping and task motivation. Self-handicapping demonstrates that self-concept-driven motivation is not always directed towards achieving valued outcomes. Protecting self-worth can become more important than goal engagement. Together, this research suggests self-concept can act both as a motivational resource, and a motivational vulnerability. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}'''Intervention application''' To reduce self-handicapping, interventions should support people to separate self-worth and performance outcomes by building self-compassion, diverse positive self-concepts, and growth-oriented mindsets.{{RoundBoxBottom}} == How does motivation shape self-concept? == The research and theories discussed so far have detailed how self-concept directs and motivates behaviour. The following section explores how, and whether, this relationship works in reverse.   === How internalising motivation shapes self-concept === [[File:Self-determination theory psychological needs.jpg|thumb|450x450px|'''Figure 3.''' Self-determination theory proposes that autonomy, competence, and relatedness support autonomous motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2020).]][[Self-determination theory]] (Ryan & Deci, 2020) proposes motivation exists on a continuum of self-determination, ranging from externally to increasingly internally regulated behaviour. The continuum consists of external, introjected, identified, integrated, and intrinsic regulation (Table 4). These motivation types are influenced by three innate needs: competence, autonomy, and relatedness (see Figure 3; Ryan & Deci, 2020). Understanding the progression of these needs and motivation types can provide insight into how motivational processes influence self-concept. Intrinsic motivation refers to autonomous behaviours completed for enjoyment (see Table 4; Morris et al., 2022). Extrinsic motivation involves engaging in behaviour for an outcome separable from the activity itself (Morris et al., 2022). Its regulation ranges from externally controlled to personally valued and fully integrated. How self-determined people's motivations are depends on the extent to which one has internalised the values, beliefs and perceptions of the behaviour into their self-concept. Meeting the needs of competence, autonomy and relatedness supports motivations to become progressively internalised, and behaviour increasingly self-endorsed (Chiu, 2023). However, it should be noted that this process does not necessarily occur in a fixed sequence. This illustrates how self-concept and motivation reciprocally form one another. The degree to which one identifies with a behaviour shapes their motivation to engage with the behaviour; when needs are met, motivated behaviours and psychological processes shape the self-concept. This internalisation process helps explain how Ash came to identify as a swimmer (see Table 4).   '''Table 4''' ''Applying Self-Determination Theory to Ash's Motivation and Self-Concept Development'' {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" !Regulation type !Ash's self-concept and swimming progression example !Motivational mechanism |- |External |Ash received a lollipop after swimming lessons.   |Rewards or punishments |- |Introjected |Ash wanted her parents to think she is dedicated to swimming. |Avoiding guilt |- |Identified |Ash continued swimming after recognising its health benefits. |Consciously value goal |- |Integrated |Ash starts to identify as a swimmer and with her swim team.   |Congruence with self-concept |- |Intrinsic |After the swimming competition, Ash continues swimming for the joy of it. |Inherent enjoyment |} Chiu (2023) provided compelling evidence for how motivation shapes self-concept within the context of self-determination theory. In their study, 342 Hong Kong high school students completed STEM activities taught using a standard teaching approach or a self-determination theory teaching method, focusing on supporting needs of autonomy, competence and relatedness (see Figure 3). Self-report measures reflected that the needs-supporting teaching approach increased students' feelings of autonomy, competence and relatedness; and, consequently, increased STEM identity and interest. This supports that fulfilling core psychological needs promotes more autonomous motivation and develops identity. Further supporting this relationship, Yip et al.'s (2024) longitudinal study of 236 anti-poverty activists who completed self-reported social attitudes and personality measures at two timepoints found that increases in self-determined motivations positively correlated with group identification. However, non-self-determined motivations, such as external regulation, did not correlate with group identification. This suggests that self-determined motivation facilitates the incorporation of behaviour and group membership into one's self-concept.   Together, self-determination theory suggests self-concepts develop as values and behaviours are progressively internalised. Ash was not initially motivated because she identified as a swimmer. Her repeated engagement in swimming and fulfilment of psychological needs gradually transformed swimming into part of her identity. This demonstrates that motivation can be a mechanism through which self-concept develops and is not simply a motivating force. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11|title=Quiz}} <quiz display=simple> '''Which statement best reflects how motivation shapes self-concept?''' |type="()"} - People are only motivated to engage in behaviours that are part of their self-concept. - Self-concept does not change through motivational processes. + Repeated engagement with a behaviour and satisfaction of psychological needs gradually makes a behaviour part of one's self-concept. </quiz>{{RoundBoxBottom}} === The cyclical process of motivation and self-concept development === The reciprocal effects model proposes that self-concept and achievement reinforce one another over time (Marsh et al., 2018). People with stronger self-concepts tend to achieve more highly, while achievement experiences subsequently shape self-concept. Motivation plays an important role in this process, influencing how people behave toward achievement experiences. There is a growing body of research investigating this model. For example, Sewasew et al.'s (2018) longitudinal study with 2,342 German high schoolers demonstrated mathematics self-concept was positively correlated with mathematics achievement. Their study highlighted a mutually dependent relationship between academic self-concept and achievement, each mediated by motivation. However, Garn and Shen's (2015) longitudinal study of 329 participants' self-concept and motivation for exercise found that the psychological needs posited by self-determination theory (Ryan & Deci, 2022) did not predict physical self-concept at follow-ups. Physical self-concept was only shown to shape, rather than be shaped by exercise motivation. This result conflicts with the reciprocal effects model and Sewasew et al.'s (2018) results, which may reflect the different self-concept domains examined; mathematics versus physical self-concept. This may indicate that reciprocal effects are domain specific; the multidimensional model suggests academic and physical self-concepts function independently, meaning findings from one domain may not generalise to another (Marsh et al., 2019). Thus, future research should directly compare the reciprocal relationship between self-concept and motivation within different domains. Similarly, Sorjonen et al. (2024) reanalysed meta-analytic results which had provided evidence for the reciprocal effects model. Sorjonen et al. (2024) found that conclusions about the longitudinal relationship between achievement and academic self-concept changed depending on the statistical model used. Hübner et al.'s (2023) support for the reciprocal effects model was also inconsistent between statistical models. This may indicate a spurious correlation that undermines the credibility of the reciprocal effects model. Taken together, these findings suggest that achievement can shape self-concept, but the strength and direction of this relationship may depend on the domain being examined and the methodological approach used. Although the reciprocal effects model remains influential, current evidence indicates that the relationship between motivation, achievement, and self-concept is more complex than originally proposed. == Conclusion == Self-concept is a multidimensional and socially developed framework of beliefs about oneself which acts as a guiding compass. Self-concept shapes motivation by determining which goals feel meaningful, attainable, and identity-consistent through processes of self-discrepancy, difficulty interpretation and self-worth contingencies. Self-discrepancy theory explains how distance from valued selves can create motivational pressure for change. Identity-based motivation theory explains how active identities change the meaning of difficulty. Whereas self-worth contingencies can undermine motivation. Together, these theories detail that self-concept influences goal direction and engagement through social, emotional and cognitive processes. These theories provide insight that motivation-improving interventions should consider targeting how people understand themselves rather than solely targeting behaviours. Motivation may also influence self-concept. Self-determination theory details that motivation and subsequent behaviours form self-concept through internalisation processes when psychological needs are met. However, inconsistent support for the reciprocal effects model indicates that the extent to which motivation reshapes self-concept may vary across domains and statistical models. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Take-home message''' With self-concept and motivation inherently linked, who people believe they are shapes the goals they pursue, while motivations, behaviours, and experiences continually reshape who people become. {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11|title=Quiz}}<quiz display=simple> {'''Chapter comprehension check quiz:''' Ash wakes up at 4:00 a.m. each day to train because being a swimmer is a central part of her identity. According to the chapter, what best explains Ash's motivation? |type="()"} +Self-concept acts as an internal compass that guides goals and behaviour. -Motivation is caused only by external rewards and punishment. -Self-concept remains fixed and has little influence on actions. </quiz> {{RoundBoxBottom}} == See also == * [[wikipedia:Self-concept|Self-concept]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Self-concept clarity|Self-concept clarity]] (Book chapter, 2019) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Self-efficacy and motivation|Self-efficacy and motivation]] (Book chapter, 2014) == References == {{Hanging indent|Bandhu, D., Mohan, M. M., Nittala, N. A. P., Jadhav, P., Bhadauria, A., & Saxena, K. K. (2024). Theories of motivation: A comprehensive analysis of human behavior drivers. ''Acta Psychologica, 244'', 104177. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2024.104177 Chiu, T.K. (2023). Using self-determination theory (SDT) to explain student STEM interest and identity development. ''Instructional Science, 52'', 89–107. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11251-023-09642-8 Cooley, C. H. (1902). The looking-glass self. ''The production of reality: Essays and readings on social interaction, 6''(1902), 126–28. Coudevylle, G. R., Boulley-Escriva, G., Finez, L., Eugène, K., & Robin, N. (2020). An experimental investigation of claimed self-handicapping strategies across motivational climates based on achievement goal and self-determination theories. ''Educational Psychology, 40''(8), 1002–1021. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2020.1746237 Garn, A., & Shen, B. (2015). Physical self-concept and basic psychological needs in exercise: Are there reciprocal effects? ''International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 13''(2), 169–181. https://doi.org/10.1080/1612197X.2014.940994 Higgins, E. T. (1987). Self-discrepancy: A theory relating self and affect. ''Psychological Review, 94''(3), 319. Higgins, E. T. (1989). Self-discrepancy theory: What patterns of self-beliefs cause people to suffer?. In ''Advances in experimental social psychology'' (Vol. 22, pp. 93–136). Academic Press. Higgins, E. T., Shah, J., & Friedman, R. (1997). Emotional responses to goal attainment: Strength of regulatory focus as moderator. ''Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72''(3), 515–525. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.72.3.515 Hübner, N., Wagner, W., Zitzmann, S., & Nagengast, B. (2023). How strong is the evidence for a causal reciprocal effect? Contrasting traditional and new methods to investigate the reciprocal effects model of self-concept and achievement. ''Educational Psychology Review, 35'', 6. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-023-09724-6 James, W. (1892). The self. In W. James (Ed.), ''Psychology: Briefer course'' (pp. 176–216). Macmillan and Co. https://doi.org/10.1037/11630-012 Lietz, R., Whittaker, S., & Su, N. M. (2026). ‘It meant something about who I am’: What the lived experience of failure teaches us about designing for goal setting. ''Behaviour & Information Technology,'' 1–27. https://doi.org/10.1080/0144929X.2026.2711023 MacIntyre, P. D., & Vincze, L. (2017). Positive and negative emotions in motivation for second language learning. ''Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching, 7''(1), 61–88. https://doi.org/10.14746/ssllt.2017.7.1.4 Marsh, H. W., Byrne, B. M., & Shavelson, R. J. (1992). A multidimensional, hierarchical self-concept. In T. M. Brinthaupt & R. P. Lipka (Eds.), ''The self: Definitional and methodological issues'' (pp. 44–95). State University of New York Press. Marsh, H. W., Martin, A. J., Yeung, A. S., & Craven, R. G. (2018). Chapter 6: Competence self-perceptions. In A. J. Elliot, C. S. Dweck, & D. S. Yeager (Eds.), ''Handbook of competence and motivation: Theory and application'' (pp. 85–115). Guilford Publications. Marsh, H. W., Seaton, M., Dicke, T., Parker, P. D., & Horwood, M. S. (2019). The centrality of academic self-concept to motivation and learning. In K. A. Renninger, & S. E. Hidi (Eds.), ''The Cambridge handbook of motivation and learning'' (pp. 36–62). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781316823279.004 Mason, T. B., Smith, K. E., Engwall, A., Lass, A., Mead, M., Sorby, M., Bjorlie, K., Strauman, T. J., & Wonderlich, S. (2019). Self-discrepancy theory as a transdiagnostic framework: A meta-analysis of self-discrepancy and psychopathology. ''Psychological Bulletin, 145''(4), 372–389. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000186 Morris, L. S., Grehl, M. M., Rutter, S. B., Mehta, M., & Westwater, M. L. (2022). On what motivates us: A detailed review of intrinsic v. extrinsic motivation. ''Psychological Medicine, 52''(10), 1801–1816. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291722001611 Nurra, C., & Oyserman, D. (2018). From future self to current action: An identity-based motivation perspective. ''Self and Identity, 17''(3), 343-364. https://doi.org/10.1080/15298868.2017.1375003 Oyserman, D. (2015). Identity-based motivation. ''Emerging Trends in the Social and Behavioral Sciences, 38'', 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118900772.etrds0171 Oyserman, D. (2024), Identity-based motivation and the motivational consequences of difficulty. ''Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 18'', e70028. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.70028 Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2020). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation from a self-determination theory perspective: Definitions, theory, practices, and future directions. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology, 61'', 101860. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101860 Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2022). Self-determination theory. In F. Maggino (Ed.), ''Encyclopedia of quality of life and well-being research'' (pp. 1–7). Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-69909-7_2630-2 Schwinger, M., Trautner, M., Pütz, N., Fabianek, S., Lemmer, G., Lauermann, F., & Wirthwein, L. (2022). Why do students use strategies that hurt their chances of academic success? A meta-analysis of antecedents of academic self-handicapping. ''Journal of Educational Psychology, 114''(3), 576–596. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000706 Seaton, M., Parker, P., Marsh, H. W., Craven, R. G., & Yeung, A. S. (2014). The reciprocal relations between self-concept, motivation and achievement: Juxtaposing academic self-concept and achievement goal orientations for mathematics success. ''Educational Psychology, 34''(1), 49–72. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2013.825232 Sewasew, D., Schroeders, U., Schiefer, I. M., Weirich, S., & Artelt, C. (2018). Development of sex differences in math achievement, self-concept, and interest from grade 5 to 7. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology, 54'', 55–65. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2018.05.003 Showers, C. J., Ditzfeld, C. P., & Zeigler-Hill, V. (2015). Self-concept structure and the quality of self-knowledge. ''Journal of Personality, 83''(5), 535-551. https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12130 Sorjonen, K., Ingre, M., Melin, B., & Nilsonne, G. (2024). Questioning the reciprocal effects model of academic self-concept and achievement: A reanalysis of a meta-analysis of longitudinal studies and a simulation. ''Sage Open, 14''(4). https://doi.org/10.1177/21582440241292826 Török, L., & Szabó, Z. P. (2018). The theory of self-handicapping: Forms, influencing factors and measurement. ''Ceskoslovenska Psychologie, 62''(2), 173-188. Wang, L., Cui, Y., Wang, X., Wang, J., Du, K., & Luo, Z. (2021). Regulatory focus, motivation, and their relationship with creativity among adolescents. ''Frontiers in Psychology, 12'', 666071. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.666071 Wehrle, K., & Fasbender, U. (2018). Self-concept. In Zeigler-Hill, V., & Shackelford, T. (Eds.), ''Encyclopedia of personality and individual differences'' (pp. 1–5). Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-28099-8_2001-1 Weiner, B. (1985). An attributional theory of achievement motivation and emotion. ''Psychological Review, 92''(4), 548–573. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.92.4.548 Yip, L., Thomas, E. F., Amiot, C., Louis, W. R., & McGarty, C. (2024). Autonomous motives foster sustained commitment to action: Integrating self-determination theory and the social identity approach. ''Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 50''(5), 750–765. https://doi.org/10.1177/01461672221148396 }} == External links == * [https://rickhanson.com/being-well-podcast-self-concept-the-secret-to-changing-who-you-are/ Being well podcast: Self-concept: The secret to changing WHO you are] (Being Well Podcast) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Nck7lP-6C2g Unlocking success: The power of self-efficacy and self-concept] (TEDx Talks) * [https://www.ted.com/talks/anil_ananthaswamy_where_does_your_sense_of_self_come_from_a_scientific_look Where does your sense of self come from? A scientific look] (TEDx Talks) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self-concept]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Motivation]] k6w056nn10nokfus861fkhpqhhv4jhn 2835746 2835745 2026-10-04T04:58:39Z U3253363 3106362 /* Conclusion */ Added a summary of ash back in to the conclusion 2835746 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Self-concept and motivation:<br>How does self-concept relate to motivation?}} == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Sinclair Swimming.JPG|right|thumb|180px|'''Figure 1'''. Ash is a competitive swimmer and swims daily.]] ;Scenario Ash is a swimmer training for a national competition. When asked to describe herself, being "a swimmer" is the first word Ash uses. She is eager to succeed at the upcoming swimming competition. Every morning, she wakes up at 4:00 a.m to swim four kilometres (see Figure 1). Her friend Riley struggles to understand how Ash maintains this demanding schedule. Why is Ash able to do this when many would find this difficult? {{RoundBoxBottom}} Why can some people sustain long-term commitment to challenging goals while others lose momentum or experience fear of failure? Many popular explanations to motivation focus on [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2015/Willpower|willpower]], [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Rewards, punishments, and social cooperation|rewards]], and [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Needs|needs]]. However, motivation is also influenced by [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Self-concept|self-concept]], an individual's understanding of who they are and how they feel about themselves (Wehrle & Fasbender, 2018). Beyond answering “who am I?”, self-concept acts as an internal compass that influences thinking, feelings, and behaviour. This chapter explores the reciprocal relationship between self-concept and motivation; how self-understanding influences motivated behaviour, and how motivated behaviour progressively shapes self-concept. Understanding this reciprocal relationship can help people develop motivation around meaningful identities while reducing the risk that failure becomes a threat to personal worth. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=12}} '''Focus questions''' *What is self-concept? *How does self-concept influence motivation? *How does motivation shape self-concept?{{RoundBoxBottom}} == What is self-concept? == Self-concept is a cognitive framework of self-knowledge including attitudes, beliefs, and judgements about oneself (Wehrle & Fasbender, 2018). It is related, but unique to many of the popular “self-” constructs like [[self-esteem]], [[w:Self-efficacy|self-efficacy]], and [[w:Self-image|self-image]]. Each self-concept-relevant theory approaches the construct differently, but several common properties emerge and provide the foundation for understanding its motivational effects (see Table 1). Foundationally, [[wikipedia:William_James|James]] (1892) conceptualised the self as having two parts: “I”, the subjective thinker, and “me”, the material and social self. Cooley (1902) added the [[wikipedia:Looking-glass_self|looking-glass self]], proposing that self-concept develops through perceived social evaluations. Modern frameworks, including identity-based motivation theory (Oyserman, 2024) and the multidimensional model (Marsh et al., 1992) suggest self-concept is hierarchical, multifaceted, and dynamic. '''Table 1''' ''Self-Concept Properties and Their Significance for Motivation'' {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" !Property !Key theory !Significance for motivation |- |'''Descriptive  ''' |James |Identity beliefs influence set standards and expectations |- |'''Socially developed''' |Looking glass self |Social feedback influences which behaviours are pursued |- |'''Dynamic''' |Identity-based motivation theory |Self-concept shifts situationally |- |'''Multidimensional''' |Multidimensional model |Domain-specific self-concepts motivate distinct behaviours |- |'''Hierarchical  ''' |Multidimensional model |General and specific domains of the self influence each other and different behaviours |} == How does self-concept influence motivation? == Like self-concept, motivation is multidimensional and central to human behaviour (Bandhu et al., 2024). This creates an interesting intersection of properties; self-concept and motivation both influence which goals people pursue and responses to difficulty. This section explores how self-concept influences motivation.   === How the self directs and energises behaviour === [[w:Self-discrepancy_theory|Self-discrepancy theory]] proposes people have three representations of the self: the actual (who one is), ideal (who one wants to become), and ought self (who one believes others want them to be; see Table 2; Higgins, 1987). Ideal and ought selves set standards for one to strive toward, laying a framework for goal direction. Discrepancies between actual and ideal or ought selves also generate emotional vulnerabilities (Table 2). Actual/ideal self-discrepancies result in dejection-related emotions (e.g. frustration, dissatisfaction; Higgins, 1987). Actual/ought self-discrepancies result in agitation-related emotions (e.g. anxiety, guilt). Greater discrepancies result in greater emotional discomfort and generate greater motivation to close the gap (Higgins, 1989). Meta-analytic findings support that greater discrepancies result in more negative emotions (Mason et al., 2019). However, Mason et al. (2019) found that actual/ideal and actual/ought self-discrepancies both correlated with dejection- and agitation-related emotions. This contrasts with self-discrepancy theory's proposition. Further, while the negative emotions resulting from discrepancies are proposed to motivate people to reduce discrepancies, MacIntyre and Vincze (2017) suggest positive emotions have greater motivating strength than negative emotions. This suggests that while self-concepts provide frameworks for goal selection and energise behaviour, self-discrepancies may not be the most powerful emotional source of motivation. '''Table 2''' ''Dimensions of the Self and Emotional Effects of Discrepancies'' {| class="wikitable" !Self dimension !Examples !Emotional effect of discrepancy with actual self |- |Actual |Daily behaviours, beliefs | - |- |Ideal |Dreams, aspirations |Dejection-related emotions |- |Ought |Duties, obligations |Agitation-related emotions |}[[w:Regulatory_focus_theory|Regulatory focus theory]] (Higgins, 1997) expands self-discrepancy theory to suggest different self-representations produce different motivational orientations. Ideal-self goals create a promotion focus, where people are motivated to seek positive outcomes (see Table 3). Ought-self goals create a prevention focus, where people are motivated to avoid negative outcomes. These regulatory focuses both positively correlated with intrinsic motivation in Wang et al.'s (2021) study of adolescent task engagement. However, promotion focuses positively correlated with creativity and an innovative cognitive style, whereas prevention focuses negatively correlated with an innovative cognitive style and was characterised by error avoidance. This shows that while both promotion and prevention orientations generate self-sustained motivation, they result in different approaches to tasks. '''Table 3''' ''Self-concept's Motivational Mechanisms'' {| class="wikitable" |+ !Self-discrepancy !Motivational focus !Motivational mechanism !Task approach |- |Actual-ideal |Promotion |Seek positive outcomes |Creativity, innovation |- |Actual-ought |Prevention |Avoid negative outcomes |Reduced innovation, error avoidance |} [[wikipedia:Identity_based_motivation|Identity-based motivation theory]] (Oyserman, 2024) provides an alternative explanation to how self-concept directs behaviour. The theory proposes that situations influence which aspects of self-concept are active. Active identities change interpretations of difficulty, which influences motivation. When behaviour aligns with an active identity, people interpret difficulties in completing that behaviour as evidence the behaviour is important (Oyserman, 2015). This is because identity-congruent behaviours provide information about who one is and who one wants to become, making difficulty meaningful rather than discouraging (Oyserman, 2024). Conversely, identity-incongruent actions that have the same challenges are interpreted as pointless. This means that identities mediate motivation and help goal selection and persistence through the process of difficulty interpretation. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Case study comprehension check''' When Ash feels physically exhausted during her early morning swim sets, her identity as an elite athlete is active. This helps her interpret exhaustion as a meaningful challenge. For her non-swimmer friend, Riley, this exhaustion would be interpreted as evidence swimming is not for them.{{RoundBoxBottom}} Illustrating the motivating role of the self-concept within this framework, Nurra and Oyserman (2018) found that motivation to pursue future identity-relevant goals in school children, and subsequent achievement, was influenced by how children thought about their future selves. Students were exposed to prompts that helped them think of their adult self as either near or far. Students in the adult-self-is-near group achieved significantly higher final grades than the adult-self-is-far group. These findings indicate that closely identifying with future selves and viewing future selves as attainable can motivate goal pursual. Together, these results support identity-based motivation theory and detail that self-concept drives behaviour by defining desirable outcomes and shaping how challenges and opportunities are interpreted. Together, self-discrepancy, regulatory focus, and identity-based motivation theories suggest that a person's perceived distance from a valued self can create motivational pressure to change and active identities influence interpretations of challenges. These states modify goal engagement and motivation. In all three theories, self-concept is central to motivation, driving goal selection and engagement. Thus, what motivates each person, and how they subsequently behave, is shaped by self-concept. === How self-concept can undermine motivation === While self-concept can energise and direct behaviour, it can also undermine motivation through self-worth contingencies. [[wikipedia:Contingent_self-esteem#Self-esteem_and_contingent_self-worth|Self-worth contingencies]] refer to the standards people feel they must meet to have personal value (Showers et al., 2015). When goals are tightly bound to self-worth, failure threatens self-concept. So, contingent self-worth can motivate the pursuit of self-concept-important goals, but can result in avoidant behaviour and strong responses to failure. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} <quiz display=simple> '''What are self-worth contingencies?''' |type="()"} - How people feel about themselves + Standards people feel they must meet to have value - How people compare themselves to others </quiz>{{RoundBoxBottom}} Lietz et al. (2026) qualitatively studied 17 participants' identity-shaped goals and found that failing to achieve these goals resulted in negative and severe emotional responses. Further, participants tended to attribute failure to personal shortcomings, because of how closely held the goal was to their self-concept. This resulted in reduced motivation to reattempt, or blind pursuit of the same goal without re-examining the approach. This is consistent with [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Attribution theory and emotion|attribution theory]] (Weiner, 1985), which suggests that causal thinking processes, where people attribute outcomes to stable, uncontrollable factors, result in low motivation. Attributional styles affect self-evaluations and thus can undermine motivation when failure is attributed to stable aspects of the self (Bandhu et al., 2024). This can cause maladaptive behaviours to emerge. One such response to the threat of failure is self-handicapping. [[w:Self-handicapping|Self-handicapping]] involves creating obstacles to one's own goal so that failure can be attributed to external, rather than personal factors (Török & Szabó, 2018). This means people may increase the probability of failure to protect their self-concept (Coudevylle et al., 2020). Therefore, self-concept can impact motivation by hindering goal pursuit. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Case study comprehension check''' Ash cares a lot about succeeding in her swimming competition. To protect her self-concept as a successful swimmer, Ash may fake a mild illness at the competition so that any failure can be attributed to her illness, rather than her competence. {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[File:Multidimensional_model_of_self-concept_diagram.png|thumb|536x536px|'''Figure 2.''' The hierarchical multidimensional model of self-concept (Marsh et al., 2019).]] Illustrating the causes of self-handicapping, Schwinger et al. (2022) found a medium negative correlation between general self-evaluations and self-handicapping and a medium positive correlation between fear of failure and self-handicapping. With more negative general self-evaluations and greater fear of failure, people are more likely to self-handicap, highlighting self-concept as an precursor to self-handicapping. However, in this study, general, rather than domain-specific measures were used. According to the multidimensional model, self-concept is a hierarchical, multi-faceted construct, and more specific self-concepts are more closely related to actual behaviour (see Figure 2; Marsh et al., 2019). Accordingly, future research should investigate domain-specific measures of self-concept and fear of failure to illustrate their direct influence on self-handicapping and task motivation. Self-handicapping demonstrates that self-concept-driven motivation is not always directed towards achieving valued outcomes. Protecting self-worth can become more important than goal engagement. Together, this research suggests self-concept can act both as a motivational resource, and a motivational vulnerability. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}'''Intervention application''' To reduce self-handicapping, interventions should support people to separate self-worth and performance outcomes by building self-compassion, diverse positive self-concepts, and growth-oriented mindsets.{{RoundBoxBottom}} == How does motivation shape self-concept? == The research and theories discussed so far have detailed how self-concept directs and motivates behaviour. The following section explores how, and whether, this relationship works in reverse.   === How internalising motivation shapes self-concept === [[File:Self-determination theory psychological needs.jpg|thumb|450x450px|'''Figure 3.''' Self-determination theory proposes that autonomy, competence, and relatedness support autonomous motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2020).]][[Self-determination theory]] (Ryan & Deci, 2020) proposes motivation exists on a continuum of self-determination, ranging from externally to increasingly internally regulated behaviour. The continuum consists of external, introjected, identified, integrated, and intrinsic regulation (Table 4). These motivation types are influenced by three innate needs: competence, autonomy, and relatedness (see Figure 3; Ryan & Deci, 2020). Understanding the progression of these needs and motivation types can provide insight into how motivational processes influence self-concept. Intrinsic motivation refers to autonomous behaviours completed for enjoyment (see Table 4; Morris et al., 2022). Extrinsic motivation involves engaging in behaviour for an outcome separable from the activity itself (Morris et al., 2022). Its regulation ranges from externally controlled to personally valued and fully integrated. How self-determined people's motivations are depends on the extent to which one has internalised the values, beliefs and perceptions of the behaviour into their self-concept. Meeting the needs of competence, autonomy and relatedness supports motivations to become progressively internalised, and behaviour increasingly self-endorsed (Chiu, 2023). However, it should be noted that this process does not necessarily occur in a fixed sequence. This illustrates how self-concept and motivation reciprocally form one another. The degree to which one identifies with a behaviour shapes their motivation to engage with the behaviour; when needs are met, motivated behaviours and psychological processes shape the self-concept. This internalisation process helps explain how Ash came to identify as a swimmer (see Table 4).   '''Table 4''' ''Applying Self-Determination Theory to Ash's Motivation and Self-Concept Development'' {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" !Regulation type !Ash's self-concept and swimming progression example !Motivational mechanism |- |External |Ash received a lollipop after swimming lessons.   |Rewards or punishments |- |Introjected |Ash wanted her parents to think she is dedicated to swimming. |Avoiding guilt |- |Identified |Ash continued swimming after recognising its health benefits. |Consciously value goal |- |Integrated |Ash starts to identify as a swimmer and with her swim team.   |Congruence with self-concept |- |Intrinsic |After the swimming competition, Ash continues swimming for the joy of it. |Inherent enjoyment |} Chiu (2023) provided compelling evidence for how motivation shapes self-concept within the context of self-determination theory. In their study, 342 Hong Kong high school students completed STEM activities taught using a standard teaching approach or a self-determination theory teaching method, focusing on supporting needs of autonomy, competence and relatedness (see Figure 3). Self-report measures reflected that the needs-supporting teaching approach increased students' feelings of autonomy, competence and relatedness; and, consequently, increased STEM identity and interest. This supports that fulfilling core psychological needs promotes more autonomous motivation and develops identity. Further supporting this relationship, Yip et al.'s (2024) longitudinal study of 236 anti-poverty activists who completed self-reported social attitudes and personality measures at two timepoints found that increases in self-determined motivations positively correlated with group identification. However, non-self-determined motivations, such as external regulation, did not correlate with group identification. This suggests that self-determined motivation facilitates the incorporation of behaviour and group membership into one's self-concept.   Together, self-determination theory suggests self-concepts develop as values and behaviours are progressively internalised. Ash was not initially motivated because she identified as a swimmer. Her repeated engagement in swimming and fulfilment of psychological needs gradually transformed swimming into part of her identity. This demonstrates that motivation can be a mechanism through which self-concept develops and is not simply a motivating force. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11|title=Quiz}} <quiz display=simple> '''Which statement best reflects how motivation shapes self-concept?''' |type="()"} - People are only motivated to engage in behaviours that are part of their self-concept. - Self-concept does not change through motivational processes. + Repeated engagement with a behaviour and satisfaction of psychological needs gradually makes a behaviour part of one's self-concept. </quiz>{{RoundBoxBottom}} === The cyclical process of motivation and self-concept development === The reciprocal effects model proposes that self-concept and achievement reinforce one another over time (Marsh et al., 2018). People with stronger self-concepts tend to achieve more highly, while achievement experiences subsequently shape self-concept. Motivation plays an important role in this process, influencing how people behave toward achievement experiences. There is a growing body of research investigating this model. For example, Sewasew et al.'s (2018) longitudinal study with 2,342 German high schoolers demonstrated mathematics self-concept was positively correlated with mathematics achievement. Their study highlighted a mutually dependent relationship between academic self-concept and achievement, each mediated by motivation. However, Garn and Shen's (2015) longitudinal study of 329 participants' self-concept and motivation for exercise found that the psychological needs posited by self-determination theory (Ryan & Deci, 2022) did not predict physical self-concept at follow-ups. Physical self-concept was only shown to shape, rather than be shaped by exercise motivation. This result conflicts with the reciprocal effects model and Sewasew et al.'s (2018) results, which may reflect the different self-concept domains examined; mathematics versus physical self-concept. This may indicate that reciprocal effects are domain specific; the multidimensional model suggests academic and physical self-concepts function independently, meaning findings from one domain may not generalise to another (Marsh et al., 2019). Thus, future research should directly compare the reciprocal relationship between self-concept and motivation within different domains. Similarly, Sorjonen et al. (2024) reanalysed meta-analytic results which had provided evidence for the reciprocal effects model. Sorjonen et al. (2024) found that conclusions about the longitudinal relationship between achievement and academic self-concept changed depending on the statistical model used. Hübner et al.'s (2023) support for the reciprocal effects model was also inconsistent between statistical models. This may indicate a spurious correlation that undermines the credibility of the reciprocal effects model. Taken together, these findings suggest that achievement can shape self-concept, but the strength and direction of this relationship may depend on the domain being examined and the methodological approach used. Although the reciprocal effects model remains influential, current evidence indicates that the relationship between motivation, achievement, and self-concept is more complex than originally proposed. == Conclusion == Self-concept is a multidimensional and socially developed framework of beliefs about oneself which acts as a guiding compass. Self-concept shapes motivation by determining which goals feel meaningful, attainable, and identity-consistent through processes of self-discrepancy, difficulty interpretation and self-worth contingencies. Self-discrepancy theory explains how distance from valued selves can create motivational pressure for change. Identity-based motivation theory explains how active identities change the meaning of difficulty. Constrastingly, self-worth contingencies can undermine motivation by making failures feel threatening to personal value. Together, these theories detail that self-concept influences goal direction and engagement through social, emotional and cognitive processes. These theories provide insight that motivation-improving interventions should consider targeting how people understand themselves rather than solely targeting behaviours. Motivation may also influence self-concept. Self-determination theory details that motivation and subsequent behaviours form self-concept through internalisation processes when psychological needs are met. However, inconsistent support for the reciprocal effects model indicates that the extent to which motivation reshapes self-concept may vary across domains and statistical models. Nevertheless, findings suggest motivation and self-concept operate as a reciprocal system, continually shaping and reinforcing one another. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Take-home message''' With self-concept and motivation inherently linked, who people believe they are shapes the goals they pursue, while motivations, behaviours, and experiences continually reshape who people become. Ash's self-concept as a swimmer motivates her because swimming is identity-consistent and meaningful. Additionally, each time she swims, her identity as a swimmer is reinforced.{{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11|title=Quiz}}<quiz display=simple> {'''Chapter comprehension check quiz:''' Ash wakes up at 4:00 a.m. each day to train because being a swimmer is a central part of her identity. According to the chapter, what best explains Ash's motivation? |type="()"} +Self-concept acts as an internal compass that guides goals and behaviour. -Motivation is caused only by external rewards and punishment. -Self-concept remains fixed and has little influence on actions. </quiz> {{RoundBoxBottom}} == See also == * [[wikipedia:Self-concept|Self-concept]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Self-concept clarity|Self-concept clarity]] (Book chapter, 2019) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Self-efficacy and motivation|Self-efficacy and motivation]] (Book chapter, 2014) == References == {{Hanging indent|Bandhu, D., Mohan, M. M., Nittala, N. A. P., Jadhav, P., Bhadauria, A., & Saxena, K. K. (2024). Theories of motivation: A comprehensive analysis of human behavior drivers. ''Acta Psychologica, 244'', 104177. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2024.104177 Chiu, T.K. (2023). Using self-determination theory (SDT) to explain student STEM interest and identity development. ''Instructional Science, 52'', 89–107. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11251-023-09642-8 Cooley, C. H. (1902). The looking-glass self. ''The production of reality: Essays and readings on social interaction, 6''(1902), 126–28. Coudevylle, G. R., Boulley-Escriva, G., Finez, L., Eugène, K., & Robin, N. (2020). An experimental investigation of claimed self-handicapping strategies across motivational climates based on achievement goal and self-determination theories. ''Educational Psychology, 40''(8), 1002–1021. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2020.1746237 Garn, A., & Shen, B. (2015). Physical self-concept and basic psychological needs in exercise: Are there reciprocal effects? ''International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 13''(2), 169–181. https://doi.org/10.1080/1612197X.2014.940994 Higgins, E. T. (1987). Self-discrepancy: A theory relating self and affect. ''Psychological Review, 94''(3), 319. Higgins, E. T. (1989). Self-discrepancy theory: What patterns of self-beliefs cause people to suffer?. In ''Advances in experimental social psychology'' (Vol. 22, pp. 93–136). Academic Press. Higgins, E. T., Shah, J., & Friedman, R. (1997). Emotional responses to goal attainment: Strength of regulatory focus as moderator. ''Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72''(3), 515–525. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.72.3.515 Hübner, N., Wagner, W., Zitzmann, S., & Nagengast, B. (2023). How strong is the evidence for a causal reciprocal effect? Contrasting traditional and new methods to investigate the reciprocal effects model of self-concept and achievement. ''Educational Psychology Review, 35'', 6. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-023-09724-6 James, W. (1892). The self. In W. James (Ed.), ''Psychology: Briefer course'' (pp. 176–216). Macmillan and Co. https://doi.org/10.1037/11630-012 Lietz, R., Whittaker, S., & Su, N. M. (2026). ‘It meant something about who I am’: What the lived experience of failure teaches us about designing for goal setting. ''Behaviour & Information Technology,'' 1–27. https://doi.org/10.1080/0144929X.2026.2711023 MacIntyre, P. D., & Vincze, L. (2017). Positive and negative emotions in motivation for second language learning. ''Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching, 7''(1), 61–88. https://doi.org/10.14746/ssllt.2017.7.1.4 Marsh, H. W., Byrne, B. M., & Shavelson, R. J. (1992). A multidimensional, hierarchical self-concept. In T. M. Brinthaupt & R. P. Lipka (Eds.), ''The self: Definitional and methodological issues'' (pp. 44–95). State University of New York Press. Marsh, H. W., Martin, A. J., Yeung, A. S., & Craven, R. G. (2018). Chapter 6: Competence self-perceptions. In A. J. Elliot, C. S. Dweck, & D. S. Yeager (Eds.), ''Handbook of competence and motivation: Theory and application'' (pp. 85–115). Guilford Publications. Marsh, H. W., Seaton, M., Dicke, T., Parker, P. D., & Horwood, M. S. (2019). The centrality of academic self-concept to motivation and learning. In K. A. Renninger, & S. E. Hidi (Eds.), ''The Cambridge handbook of motivation and learning'' (pp. 36–62). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781316823279.004 Mason, T. B., Smith, K. E., Engwall, A., Lass, A., Mead, M., Sorby, M., Bjorlie, K., Strauman, T. J., & Wonderlich, S. (2019). Self-discrepancy theory as a transdiagnostic framework: A meta-analysis of self-discrepancy and psychopathology. ''Psychological Bulletin, 145''(4), 372–389. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000186 Morris, L. S., Grehl, M. M., Rutter, S. B., Mehta, M., & Westwater, M. L. (2022). On what motivates us: A detailed review of intrinsic v. extrinsic motivation. ''Psychological Medicine, 52''(10), 1801–1816. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291722001611 Nurra, C., & Oyserman, D. (2018). From future self to current action: An identity-based motivation perspective. ''Self and Identity, 17''(3), 343-364. https://doi.org/10.1080/15298868.2017.1375003 Oyserman, D. (2015). Identity-based motivation. ''Emerging Trends in the Social and Behavioral Sciences, 38'', 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118900772.etrds0171 Oyserman, D. (2024), Identity-based motivation and the motivational consequences of difficulty. ''Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 18'', e70028. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.70028 Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2020). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation from a self-determination theory perspective: Definitions, theory, practices, and future directions. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology, 61'', 101860. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101860 Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2022). Self-determination theory. In F. Maggino (Ed.), ''Encyclopedia of quality of life and well-being research'' (pp. 1–7). Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-69909-7_2630-2 Schwinger, M., Trautner, M., Pütz, N., Fabianek, S., Lemmer, G., Lauermann, F., & Wirthwein, L. (2022). Why do students use strategies that hurt their chances of academic success? A meta-analysis of antecedents of academic self-handicapping. ''Journal of Educational Psychology, 114''(3), 576–596. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000706 Seaton, M., Parker, P., Marsh, H. W., Craven, R. G., & Yeung, A. S. (2014). The reciprocal relations between self-concept, motivation and achievement: Juxtaposing academic self-concept and achievement goal orientations for mathematics success. ''Educational Psychology, 34''(1), 49–72. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2013.825232 Sewasew, D., Schroeders, U., Schiefer, I. M., Weirich, S., & Artelt, C. (2018). Development of sex differences in math achievement, self-concept, and interest from grade 5 to 7. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology, 54'', 55–65. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2018.05.003 Showers, C. J., Ditzfeld, C. P., & Zeigler-Hill, V. (2015). Self-concept structure and the quality of self-knowledge. ''Journal of Personality, 83''(5), 535-551. https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12130 Sorjonen, K., Ingre, M., Melin, B., & Nilsonne, G. (2024). Questioning the reciprocal effects model of academic self-concept and achievement: A reanalysis of a meta-analysis of longitudinal studies and a simulation. ''Sage Open, 14''(4). https://doi.org/10.1177/21582440241292826 Török, L., & Szabó, Z. P. (2018). The theory of self-handicapping: Forms, influencing factors and measurement. ''Ceskoslovenska Psychologie, 62''(2), 173-188. Wang, L., Cui, Y., Wang, X., Wang, J., Du, K., & Luo, Z. (2021). Regulatory focus, motivation, and their relationship with creativity among adolescents. ''Frontiers in Psychology, 12'', 666071. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.666071 Wehrle, K., & Fasbender, U. (2018). Self-concept. In Zeigler-Hill, V., & Shackelford, T. (Eds.), ''Encyclopedia of personality and individual differences'' (pp. 1–5). Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-28099-8_2001-1 Weiner, B. (1985). An attributional theory of achievement motivation and emotion. ''Psychological Review, 92''(4), 548–573. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.92.4.548 Yip, L., Thomas, E. F., Amiot, C., Louis, W. R., & McGarty, C. (2024). Autonomous motives foster sustained commitment to action: Integrating self-determination theory and the social identity approach. ''Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 50''(5), 750–765. https://doi.org/10.1177/01461672221148396 }} == External links == * [https://rickhanson.com/being-well-podcast-self-concept-the-secret-to-changing-who-you-are/ Being well podcast: Self-concept: The secret to changing WHO you are] (Being Well Podcast) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Nck7lP-6C2g Unlocking success: The power of self-efficacy and self-concept] (TEDx Talks) * [https://www.ted.com/talks/anil_ananthaswamy_where_does_your_sense_of_self_come_from_a_scientific_look Where does your sense of self come from? A scientific look] (TEDx Talks) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self-concept]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Motivation]] pq3zujg0914ulpnfb8a8qag0wreakhw 2835747 2835746 2026-10-04T05:06:37Z U3253363 3106362 /* Conclusion */ Further refinements of conclusion 2835747 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Self-concept and motivation:<br>How does self-concept relate to motivation?}} == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Sinclair Swimming.JPG|right|thumb|180px|'''Figure 1'''. Ash is a competitive swimmer and swims daily.]] ;Scenario Ash is a swimmer training for a national competition. When asked to describe herself, being "a swimmer" is the first word Ash uses. She is eager to succeed at the upcoming swimming competition. Every morning, she wakes up at 4:00 a.m to swim four kilometres (see Figure 1). Her friend Riley struggles to understand how Ash maintains this demanding schedule. Why is Ash able to do this when many would find this difficult? {{RoundBoxBottom}} Why can some people sustain long-term commitment to challenging goals while others lose momentum or experience fear of failure? Many popular explanations to motivation focus on [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2015/Willpower|willpower]], [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Rewards, punishments, and social cooperation|rewards]], and [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Needs|needs]]. However, motivation is also influenced by [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Self-concept|self-concept]], an individual's understanding of who they are and how they feel about themselves (Wehrle & Fasbender, 2018). Beyond answering “who am I?”, self-concept acts as an internal compass that influences thinking, feelings, and behaviour. This chapter explores the reciprocal relationship between self-concept and motivation; how self-understanding influences motivated behaviour, and how motivated behaviour progressively shapes self-concept. Understanding this reciprocal relationship can help people develop motivation around meaningful identities while reducing the risk that failure becomes a threat to personal worth. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=12}} '''Focus questions''' *What is self-concept? *How does self-concept influence motivation? *How does motivation shape self-concept?{{RoundBoxBottom}} == What is self-concept? == Self-concept is a cognitive framework of self-knowledge including attitudes, beliefs, and judgements about oneself (Wehrle & Fasbender, 2018). It is related, but unique to many of the popular “self-” constructs like [[self-esteem]], [[w:Self-efficacy|self-efficacy]], and [[w:Self-image|self-image]]. Each self-concept-relevant theory approaches the construct differently, but several common properties emerge and provide the foundation for understanding its motivational effects (see Table 1). Foundationally, [[wikipedia:William_James|James]] (1892) conceptualised the self as having two parts: “I”, the subjective thinker, and “me”, the material and social self. Cooley (1902) added the [[wikipedia:Looking-glass_self|looking-glass self]], proposing that self-concept develops through perceived social evaluations. Modern frameworks, including identity-based motivation theory (Oyserman, 2024) and the multidimensional model (Marsh et al., 1992) suggest self-concept is hierarchical, multifaceted, and dynamic. '''Table 1''' ''Self-Concept Properties and Their Significance for Motivation'' {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" !Property !Key theory !Significance for motivation |- |'''Descriptive  ''' |James |Identity beliefs influence set standards and expectations |- |'''Socially developed''' |Looking glass self |Social feedback influences which behaviours are pursued |- |'''Dynamic''' |Identity-based motivation theory |Self-concept shifts situationally |- |'''Multidimensional''' |Multidimensional model |Domain-specific self-concepts motivate distinct behaviours |- |'''Hierarchical  ''' |Multidimensional model |General and specific domains of the self influence each other and different behaviours |} == How does self-concept influence motivation? == Like self-concept, motivation is multidimensional and central to human behaviour (Bandhu et al., 2024). This creates an interesting intersection of properties; self-concept and motivation both influence which goals people pursue and responses to difficulty. This section explores how self-concept influences motivation.   === How the self directs and energises behaviour === [[w:Self-discrepancy_theory|Self-discrepancy theory]] proposes people have three representations of the self: the actual (who one is), ideal (who one wants to become), and ought self (who one believes others want them to be; see Table 2; Higgins, 1987). Ideal and ought selves set standards for one to strive toward, laying a framework for goal direction. Discrepancies between actual and ideal or ought selves also generate emotional vulnerabilities (Table 2). Actual/ideal self-discrepancies result in dejection-related emotions (e.g. frustration, dissatisfaction; Higgins, 1987). Actual/ought self-discrepancies result in agitation-related emotions (e.g. anxiety, guilt). Greater discrepancies result in greater emotional discomfort and generate greater motivation to close the gap (Higgins, 1989). Meta-analytic findings support that greater discrepancies result in more negative emotions (Mason et al., 2019). However, Mason et al. (2019) found that actual/ideal and actual/ought self-discrepancies both correlated with dejection- and agitation-related emotions. This contrasts with self-discrepancy theory's proposition. Further, while the negative emotions resulting from discrepancies are proposed to motivate people to reduce discrepancies, MacIntyre and Vincze (2017) suggest positive emotions have greater motivating strength than negative emotions. This suggests that while self-concepts provide frameworks for goal selection and energise behaviour, self-discrepancies may not be the most powerful emotional source of motivation. '''Table 2''' ''Dimensions of the Self and Emotional Effects of Discrepancies'' {| class="wikitable" !Self dimension !Examples !Emotional effect of discrepancy with actual self |- |Actual |Daily behaviours, beliefs | - |- |Ideal |Dreams, aspirations |Dejection-related emotions |- |Ought |Duties, obligations |Agitation-related emotions |}[[w:Regulatory_focus_theory|Regulatory focus theory]] (Higgins, 1997) expands self-discrepancy theory to suggest different self-representations produce different motivational orientations. Ideal-self goals create a promotion focus, where people are motivated to seek positive outcomes (see Table 3). Ought-self goals create a prevention focus, where people are motivated to avoid negative outcomes. These regulatory focuses both positively correlated with intrinsic motivation in Wang et al.'s (2021) study of adolescent task engagement. However, promotion focuses positively correlated with creativity and an innovative cognitive style, whereas prevention focuses negatively correlated with an innovative cognitive style and was characterised by error avoidance. This shows that while both promotion and prevention orientations generate self-sustained motivation, they result in different approaches to tasks. '''Table 3''' ''Self-concept's Motivational Mechanisms'' {| class="wikitable" |+ !Self-discrepancy !Motivational focus !Motivational mechanism !Task approach |- |Actual-ideal |Promotion |Seek positive outcomes |Creativity, innovation |- |Actual-ought |Prevention |Avoid negative outcomes |Reduced innovation, error avoidance |} [[wikipedia:Identity_based_motivation|Identity-based motivation theory]] (Oyserman, 2024) provides an alternative explanation to how self-concept directs behaviour. The theory proposes that situations influence which aspects of self-concept are active. Active identities change interpretations of difficulty, which influences motivation. When behaviour aligns with an active identity, people interpret difficulties in completing that behaviour as evidence the behaviour is important (Oyserman, 2015). This is because identity-congruent behaviours provide information about who one is and who one wants to become, making difficulty meaningful rather than discouraging (Oyserman, 2024). Conversely, identity-incongruent actions that have the same challenges are interpreted as pointless. This means that identities mediate motivation and help goal selection and persistence through the process of difficulty interpretation. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Case study comprehension check''' When Ash feels physically exhausted during her early morning swim sets, her identity as an elite athlete is active. This helps her interpret exhaustion as a meaningful challenge. For her non-swimmer friend, Riley, this exhaustion would be interpreted as evidence swimming is not for them.{{RoundBoxBottom}} Illustrating the motivating role of the self-concept within this framework, Nurra and Oyserman (2018) found that motivation to pursue future identity-relevant goals in school children, and subsequent achievement, was influenced by how children thought about their future selves. Students were exposed to prompts that helped them think of their adult self as either near or far. Students in the adult-self-is-near group achieved significantly higher final grades than the adult-self-is-far group. These findings indicate that closely identifying with future selves and viewing future selves as attainable can motivate goal pursual. Together, these results support identity-based motivation theory and detail that self-concept drives behaviour by defining desirable outcomes and shaping how challenges and opportunities are interpreted. Together, self-discrepancy, regulatory focus, and identity-based motivation theories suggest that a person's perceived distance from a valued self can create motivational pressure to change and active identities influence interpretations of challenges. These states modify goal engagement and motivation. In all three theories, self-concept is central to motivation, driving goal selection and engagement. Thus, what motivates each person, and how they subsequently behave, is shaped by self-concept. === How self-concept can undermine motivation === While self-concept can energise and direct behaviour, it can also undermine motivation through self-worth contingencies. [[wikipedia:Contingent_self-esteem#Self-esteem_and_contingent_self-worth|Self-worth contingencies]] refer to the standards people feel they must meet to have personal value (Showers et al., 2015). When goals are tightly bound to self-worth, failure threatens self-concept. So, contingent self-worth can motivate the pursuit of self-concept-important goals, but can result in avoidant behaviour and strong responses to failure. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} <quiz display=simple> '''What are self-worth contingencies?''' |type="()"} - How people feel about themselves + Standards people feel they must meet to have value - How people compare themselves to others </quiz>{{RoundBoxBottom}} Lietz et al. (2026) qualitatively studied 17 participants' identity-shaped goals and found that failing to achieve these goals resulted in negative and severe emotional responses. Further, participants tended to attribute failure to personal shortcomings, because of how closely held the goal was to their self-concept. This resulted in reduced motivation to reattempt, or blind pursuit of the same goal without re-examining the approach. This is consistent with [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Attribution theory and emotion|attribution theory]] (Weiner, 1985), which suggests that causal thinking processes, where people attribute outcomes to stable, uncontrollable factors, result in low motivation. Attributional styles affect self-evaluations and thus can undermine motivation when failure is attributed to stable aspects of the self (Bandhu et al., 2024). This can cause maladaptive behaviours to emerge. One such response to the threat of failure is self-handicapping. [[w:Self-handicapping|Self-handicapping]] involves creating obstacles to one's own goal so that failure can be attributed to external, rather than personal factors (Török & Szabó, 2018). This means people may increase the probability of failure to protect their self-concept (Coudevylle et al., 2020). Therefore, self-concept can impact motivation by hindering goal pursuit. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Case study comprehension check''' Ash cares a lot about succeeding in her swimming competition. To protect her self-concept as a successful swimmer, Ash may fake a mild illness at the competition so that any failure can be attributed to her illness, rather than her competence. {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[File:Multidimensional_model_of_self-concept_diagram.png|thumb|536x536px|'''Figure 2.''' The hierarchical multidimensional model of self-concept (Marsh et al., 2019).]] Illustrating the causes of self-handicapping, Schwinger et al. (2022) found a medium negative correlation between general self-evaluations and self-handicapping and a medium positive correlation between fear of failure and self-handicapping. With more negative general self-evaluations and greater fear of failure, people are more likely to self-handicap, highlighting self-concept as an precursor to self-handicapping. However, in this study, general, rather than domain-specific measures were used. According to the multidimensional model, self-concept is a hierarchical, multi-faceted construct, and more specific self-concepts are more closely related to actual behaviour (see Figure 2; Marsh et al., 2019). Accordingly, future research should investigate domain-specific measures of self-concept and fear of failure to illustrate their direct influence on self-handicapping and task motivation. Self-handicapping demonstrates that self-concept-driven motivation is not always directed towards achieving valued outcomes. Protecting self-worth can become more important than goal engagement. Together, this research suggests self-concept can act both as a motivational resource, and a motivational vulnerability. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}'''Intervention application''' To reduce self-handicapping, interventions should support people to separate self-worth and performance outcomes by building self-compassion, diverse positive self-concepts, and growth-oriented mindsets.{{RoundBoxBottom}} == How does motivation shape self-concept? == The research and theories discussed so far have detailed how self-concept directs and motivates behaviour. The following section explores how, and whether, this relationship works in reverse.   === How internalising motivation shapes self-concept === [[File:Self-determination theory psychological needs.jpg|thumb|450x450px|'''Figure 3.''' Self-determination theory proposes that autonomy, competence, and relatedness support autonomous motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2020).]][[Self-determination theory]] (Ryan & Deci, 2020) proposes motivation exists on a continuum of self-determination, ranging from externally to increasingly internally regulated behaviour. The continuum consists of external, introjected, identified, integrated, and intrinsic regulation (Table 4). These motivation types are influenced by three innate needs: competence, autonomy, and relatedness (see Figure 3; Ryan & Deci, 2020). Understanding the progression of these needs and motivation types can provide insight into how motivational processes influence self-concept. Intrinsic motivation refers to autonomous behaviours completed for enjoyment (see Table 4; Morris et al., 2022). Extrinsic motivation involves engaging in behaviour for an outcome separable from the activity itself (Morris et al., 2022). Its regulation ranges from externally controlled to personally valued and fully integrated. How self-determined people's motivations are depends on the extent to which one has internalised the values, beliefs and perceptions of the behaviour into their self-concept. Meeting the needs of competence, autonomy and relatedness supports motivations to become progressively internalised, and behaviour increasingly self-endorsed (Chiu, 2023). However, it should be noted that this process does not necessarily occur in a fixed sequence. This illustrates how self-concept and motivation reciprocally form one another. The degree to which one identifies with a behaviour shapes their motivation to engage with the behaviour; when needs are met, motivated behaviours and psychological processes shape the self-concept. This internalisation process helps explain how Ash came to identify as a swimmer (see Table 4).   '''Table 4''' ''Applying Self-Determination Theory to Ash's Motivation and Self-Concept Development'' {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" !Regulation type !Ash's self-concept and swimming progression example !Motivational mechanism |- |External |Ash received a lollipop after swimming lessons.   |Rewards or punishments |- |Introjected |Ash wanted her parents to think she is dedicated to swimming. |Avoiding guilt |- |Identified |Ash continued swimming after recognising its health benefits. |Consciously value goal |- |Integrated |Ash starts to identify as a swimmer and with her swim team.   |Congruence with self-concept |- |Intrinsic |After the swimming competition, Ash continues swimming for the joy of it. |Inherent enjoyment |} Chiu (2023) provided compelling evidence for how motivation shapes self-concept within the context of self-determination theory. In their study, 342 Hong Kong high school students completed STEM activities taught using a standard teaching approach or a self-determination theory teaching method, focusing on supporting needs of autonomy, competence and relatedness (see Figure 3). Self-report measures reflected that the needs-supporting teaching approach increased students' feelings of autonomy, competence and relatedness; and, consequently, increased STEM identity and interest. This supports that fulfilling core psychological needs promotes more autonomous motivation and develops identity. Further supporting this relationship, Yip et al.'s (2024) longitudinal study of 236 anti-poverty activists who completed self-reported social attitudes and personality measures at two timepoints found that increases in self-determined motivations positively correlated with group identification. However, non-self-determined motivations, such as external regulation, did not correlate with group identification. This suggests that self-determined motivation facilitates the incorporation of behaviour and group membership into one's self-concept.   Together, self-determination theory suggests self-concepts develop as values and behaviours are progressively internalised. Ash was not initially motivated because she identified as a swimmer. Her repeated engagement in swimming and fulfilment of psychological needs gradually transformed swimming into part of her identity. This demonstrates that motivation can be a mechanism through which self-concept develops and is not simply a motivating force. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11|title=Quiz}} <quiz display=simple> '''Which statement best reflects how motivation shapes self-concept?''' |type="()"} - People are only motivated to engage in behaviours that are part of their self-concept. - Self-concept does not change through motivational processes. + Repeated engagement with a behaviour and satisfaction of psychological needs gradually makes a behaviour part of one's self-concept. </quiz>{{RoundBoxBottom}} === The cyclical process of motivation and self-concept development === The reciprocal effects model proposes that self-concept and achievement reinforce one another over time (Marsh et al., 2018). People with stronger self-concepts tend to achieve more highly, while achievement experiences subsequently shape self-concept. Motivation plays an important role in this process, influencing how people behave toward achievement experiences. There is a growing body of research investigating this model. For example, Sewasew et al.'s (2018) longitudinal study with 2,342 German high schoolers demonstrated mathematics self-concept was positively correlated with mathematics achievement. Their study highlighted a mutually dependent relationship between academic self-concept and achievement, each mediated by motivation. However, Garn and Shen's (2015) longitudinal study of 329 participants' self-concept and motivation for exercise found that the psychological needs posited by self-determination theory (Ryan & Deci, 2022) did not predict physical self-concept at follow-ups. Physical self-concept was only shown to shape, rather than be shaped by exercise motivation. This result conflicts with the reciprocal effects model and Sewasew et al.'s (2018) results, which may reflect the different self-concept domains examined; mathematics versus physical self-concept. This may indicate that reciprocal effects are domain specific; the multidimensional model suggests academic and physical self-concepts function independently, meaning findings from one domain may not generalise to another (Marsh et al., 2019). Thus, future research should directly compare the reciprocal relationship between self-concept and motivation within different domains. Similarly, Sorjonen et al. (2024) reanalysed meta-analytic results which had provided evidence for the reciprocal effects model. Sorjonen et al. (2024) found that conclusions about the longitudinal relationship between achievement and academic self-concept changed depending on the statistical model used. Hübner et al.'s (2023) support for the reciprocal effects model was also inconsistent between statistical models. This may indicate a spurious correlation that undermines the credibility of the reciprocal effects model. Taken together, these findings suggest that achievement can shape self-concept, but the strength and direction of this relationship may depend on the domain being examined and the methodological approach used. Although the reciprocal effects model remains influential, current evidence indicates that the relationship between motivation, achievement, and self-concept is more complex than originally proposed. == Conclusion == Self-concept is a multidimensional, dynamic framework of self-beliefs which acts as an internal compass for human behaviour. Self-concept shapes motivation by determining which goals feel meaningful, attainable, and identity-consistent. Self-discrepancy theory explains how perceived distance from ideal or ought selves creates motivational pressure for change, while identity-based motivation theory explains how active identities change the meaning of difficulty. Contrastingly, contingent self-worth can undermine motivation by making potential failure feel threatening to personal value. Together, these theories detail that self-concept influences goal direction and engagement through social, emotional and cognitive processes. These theories provide insight that people can foster resilient motivation by aligning goals with valued identities and framing challenges as identity-building, rather than solely trying to improve behavioural discipline or seek external rewards. Motivation may also influence self-concept. Self-determination theory details that motivation and subsequent behaviours form self-concept through internalisation processes when psychological needs are met. However, inconsistent support for the reciprocal effects model indicates that the extent to which motivation reshapes self-concept may vary across domains and statistical models. Nevertheless, findings suggest motivation and self-concept operate as a reciprocal system, continually shaping and reinforcing one another. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Take-home message''' With self-concept and motivation inherently linked, who people believe they are shapes the goals they pursue, while motivations, behaviours, and experiences continually reshape who people become. Ash's self-concept as a swimmer motivates her because swimming is identity-consistent and meaningful. Additionally, each time she swims, her identity as a swimmer is reinforced.{{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11|title=Quiz}}<quiz display=simple> {'''Chapter comprehension check quiz:''' Ash wakes up at 4:00 a.m. each day to train because being a swimmer is a central part of her identity. According to the chapter, what best explains Ash's motivation? |type="()"} +Self-concept acts as an internal compass that guides goals and behaviour. -Motivation is caused only by external rewards and punishment. -Self-concept remains fixed and has little influence on actions. </quiz> {{RoundBoxBottom}} == See also == * [[wikipedia:Self-concept|Self-concept]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Self-concept clarity|Self-concept clarity]] (Book chapter, 2019) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Self-efficacy and motivation|Self-efficacy and motivation]] (Book chapter, 2014) == References == {{Hanging indent|Bandhu, D., Mohan, M. M., Nittala, N. A. P., Jadhav, P., Bhadauria, A., & Saxena, K. K. (2024). Theories of motivation: A comprehensive analysis of human behavior drivers. ''Acta Psychologica, 244'', 104177. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2024.104177 Chiu, T.K. (2023). Using self-determination theory (SDT) to explain student STEM interest and identity development. ''Instructional Science, 52'', 89–107. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11251-023-09642-8 Cooley, C. H. (1902). The looking-glass self. ''The production of reality: Essays and readings on social interaction, 6''(1902), 126–28. Coudevylle, G. R., Boulley-Escriva, G., Finez, L., Eugène, K., & Robin, N. (2020). An experimental investigation of claimed self-handicapping strategies across motivational climates based on achievement goal and self-determination theories. ''Educational Psychology, 40''(8), 1002–1021. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2020.1746237 Garn, A., & Shen, B. (2015). Physical self-concept and basic psychological needs in exercise: Are there reciprocal effects? ''International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 13''(2), 169–181. https://doi.org/10.1080/1612197X.2014.940994 Higgins, E. T. (1987). Self-discrepancy: A theory relating self and affect. ''Psychological Review, 94''(3), 319. Higgins, E. T. (1989). Self-discrepancy theory: What patterns of self-beliefs cause people to suffer?. In ''Advances in experimental social psychology'' (Vol. 22, pp. 93–136). Academic Press. Higgins, E. T., Shah, J., & Friedman, R. (1997). Emotional responses to goal attainment: Strength of regulatory focus as moderator. ''Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72''(3), 515–525. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.72.3.515 Hübner, N., Wagner, W., Zitzmann, S., & Nagengast, B. (2023). How strong is the evidence for a causal reciprocal effect? Contrasting traditional and new methods to investigate the reciprocal effects model of self-concept and achievement. ''Educational Psychology Review, 35'', 6. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-023-09724-6 James, W. (1892). The self. In W. James (Ed.), ''Psychology: Briefer course'' (pp. 176–216). Macmillan and Co. https://doi.org/10.1037/11630-012 Lietz, R., Whittaker, S., & Su, N. M. (2026). ‘It meant something about who I am’: What the lived experience of failure teaches us about designing for goal setting. ''Behaviour & Information Technology,'' 1–27. https://doi.org/10.1080/0144929X.2026.2711023 MacIntyre, P. D., & Vincze, L. (2017). Positive and negative emotions in motivation for second language learning. ''Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching, 7''(1), 61–88. https://doi.org/10.14746/ssllt.2017.7.1.4 Marsh, H. W., Byrne, B. M., & Shavelson, R. J. (1992). A multidimensional, hierarchical self-concept. In T. M. Brinthaupt & R. P. Lipka (Eds.), ''The self: Definitional and methodological issues'' (pp. 44–95). State University of New York Press. Marsh, H. W., Martin, A. J., Yeung, A. S., & Craven, R. G. (2018). Chapter 6: Competence self-perceptions. In A. J. Elliot, C. S. Dweck, & D. S. Yeager (Eds.), ''Handbook of competence and motivation: Theory and application'' (pp. 85–115). Guilford Publications. Marsh, H. W., Seaton, M., Dicke, T., Parker, P. D., & Horwood, M. S. (2019). The centrality of academic self-concept to motivation and learning. In K. A. Renninger, & S. E. Hidi (Eds.), ''The Cambridge handbook of motivation and learning'' (pp. 36–62). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781316823279.004 Mason, T. B., Smith, K. E., Engwall, A., Lass, A., Mead, M., Sorby, M., Bjorlie, K., Strauman, T. J., & Wonderlich, S. (2019). Self-discrepancy theory as a transdiagnostic framework: A meta-analysis of self-discrepancy and psychopathology. ''Psychological Bulletin, 145''(4), 372–389. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000186 Morris, L. S., Grehl, M. M., Rutter, S. B., Mehta, M., & Westwater, M. L. (2022). On what motivates us: A detailed review of intrinsic v. extrinsic motivation. ''Psychological Medicine, 52''(10), 1801–1816. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291722001611 Nurra, C., & Oyserman, D. (2018). From future self to current action: An identity-based motivation perspective. ''Self and Identity, 17''(3), 343-364. https://doi.org/10.1080/15298868.2017.1375003 Oyserman, D. (2015). Identity-based motivation. ''Emerging Trends in the Social and Behavioral Sciences, 38'', 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118900772.etrds0171 Oyserman, D. (2024), Identity-based motivation and the motivational consequences of difficulty. ''Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 18'', e70028. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.70028 Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2020). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation from a self-determination theory perspective: Definitions, theory, practices, and future directions. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology, 61'', 101860. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101860 Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2022). Self-determination theory. In F. Maggino (Ed.), ''Encyclopedia of quality of life and well-being research'' (pp. 1–7). Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-69909-7_2630-2 Schwinger, M., Trautner, M., Pütz, N., Fabianek, S., Lemmer, G., Lauermann, F., & Wirthwein, L. (2022). Why do students use strategies that hurt their chances of academic success? A meta-analysis of antecedents of academic self-handicapping. ''Journal of Educational Psychology, 114''(3), 576–596. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000706 Seaton, M., Parker, P., Marsh, H. W., Craven, R. G., & Yeung, A. S. (2014). The reciprocal relations between self-concept, motivation and achievement: Juxtaposing academic self-concept and achievement goal orientations for mathematics success. ''Educational Psychology, 34''(1), 49–72. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2013.825232 Sewasew, D., Schroeders, U., Schiefer, I. M., Weirich, S., & Artelt, C. (2018). Development of sex differences in math achievement, self-concept, and interest from grade 5 to 7. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology, 54'', 55–65. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2018.05.003 Showers, C. J., Ditzfeld, C. P., & Zeigler-Hill, V. (2015). Self-concept structure and the quality of self-knowledge. ''Journal of Personality, 83''(5), 535-551. https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12130 Sorjonen, K., Ingre, M., Melin, B., & Nilsonne, G. (2024). Questioning the reciprocal effects model of academic self-concept and achievement: A reanalysis of a meta-analysis of longitudinal studies and a simulation. ''Sage Open, 14''(4). https://doi.org/10.1177/21582440241292826 Török, L., & Szabó, Z. P. (2018). The theory of self-handicapping: Forms, influencing factors and measurement. ''Ceskoslovenska Psychologie, 62''(2), 173-188. Wang, L., Cui, Y., Wang, X., Wang, J., Du, K., & Luo, Z. (2021). Regulatory focus, motivation, and their relationship with creativity among adolescents. ''Frontiers in Psychology, 12'', 666071. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.666071 Wehrle, K., & Fasbender, U. (2018). Self-concept. In Zeigler-Hill, V., & Shackelford, T. (Eds.), ''Encyclopedia of personality and individual differences'' (pp. 1–5). Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-28099-8_2001-1 Weiner, B. (1985). An attributional theory of achievement motivation and emotion. ''Psychological Review, 92''(4), 548–573. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.92.4.548 Yip, L., Thomas, E. F., Amiot, C., Louis, W. R., & McGarty, C. (2024). Autonomous motives foster sustained commitment to action: Integrating self-determination theory and the social identity approach. ''Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 50''(5), 750–765. https://doi.org/10.1177/01461672221148396 }} == External links == * [https://rickhanson.com/being-well-podcast-self-concept-the-secret-to-changing-who-you-are/ Being well podcast: Self-concept: The secret to changing WHO you are] (Being Well Podcast) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Nck7lP-6C2g Unlocking success: The power of self-efficacy and self-concept] (TEDx Talks) * [https://www.ted.com/talks/anil_ananthaswamy_where_does_your_sense_of_self_come_from_a_scientific_look Where does your sense of self come from? A scientific look] (TEDx Talks) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self-concept]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Motivation]] oqp7gt7wr9j3jq1h7rizqbg1b9a8gnn 2835748 2835747 2026-10-04T05:14:41Z U3253363 3106362 /* Overview */ Minor grammar edits 2835748 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Self-concept and motivation:<br>How does self-concept relate to motivation?}} == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Sinclair Swimming.JPG|right|thumb|180px|'''Figure 1'''. Ash is a competitive swimmer and swims daily.]] ;Scenario Ash is a swimmer training for a national competition. When asked to describe herself, being "a swimmer" is the first word Ash uses. She is eager to succeed at the upcoming swimming competition. Every morning, she wakes up at 4:00 a.m to swim four kilometres (see Figure 1). Her friend Riley struggles to understand how Ash maintains this demanding schedule. Why is Ash able to do this when many would find this difficult? {{RoundBoxBottom}} Why can some people sustain long-term commitment to challenging goals while others lose momentum or experience fear of failure? Many popular explanations of motivation focus on [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2015/Willpower|willpower]], [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Rewards, punishments, and social cooperation|rewards]], and [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Needs|needs]]. However, motivation is also influenced by [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Self-concept|self-concept]], an individual's understanding of who they are and how they feel about themselves (Wehrle & Fasbender, 2018). Beyond answering “who am I?”, self-concept acts as an internal compass that influences thinking, feelings, and behaviour. This chapter explores the reciprocal relationship between self-concept and motivation: how self-understanding influences motivated behaviour, and how motivated behaviour progressively shapes self-concept. Understanding this reciprocal relationship can help people develop motivation around meaningful identities while reducing the risk that failure becomes a threat to personal worth. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=12}} '''Focus questions''' *What is self-concept? *How does self-concept influence motivation? *How does motivation shape self-concept?{{RoundBoxBottom}} == What is self-concept? == Self-concept is a cognitive framework of self-knowledge including attitudes, beliefs, and judgements about oneself (Wehrle & Fasbender, 2018). It is related, but unique to many of the popular “self-” constructs like [[self-esteem]], [[w:Self-efficacy|self-efficacy]], and [[w:Self-image|self-image]]. Each self-concept-relevant theory approaches the construct differently, but several common properties emerge and provide the foundation for understanding its motivational effects (see Table 1). Foundationally, [[wikipedia:William_James|James]] (1892) conceptualised the self as having two parts: “I”, the subjective thinker, and “me”, the material and social self. Cooley (1902) added the [[wikipedia:Looking-glass_self|looking-glass self]], proposing that self-concept develops through perceived social evaluations. Modern frameworks, including identity-based motivation theory (Oyserman, 2024) and the multidimensional model (Marsh et al., 1992) suggest self-concept is hierarchical, multifaceted, and dynamic. '''Table 1''' ''Self-Concept Properties and Their Significance for Motivation'' {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" !Property !Key theory !Significance for motivation |- |'''Descriptive  ''' |James |Identity beliefs influence set standards and expectations |- |'''Socially developed''' |Looking-glass self |Social feedback influences which behaviours are pursued |- |'''Dynamic''' |Identity-based motivation theory |Self-concept shifts situationally |- |'''Multidimensional''' |Multidimensional model |Domain-specific self-concepts motivate distinct behaviours |- |'''Hierarchical  ''' |Multidimensional model |General and specific domains of the self influence each other and different behaviours |} == How does self-concept influence motivation? == Like self-concept, motivation is multidimensional and central to human behaviour (Bandhu et al., 2024). This creates an interesting intersection of properties; self-concept and motivation both influence which goals people pursue and responses to difficulty. This section explores how self-concept influences motivation.   === How the self directs and energises behaviour === [[w:Self-discrepancy_theory|Self-discrepancy theory]] proposes people have three representations of the self: the actual (who one is), ideal (who one wants to become), and ought self (who one believes others want them to be; see Table 2; Higgins, 1987). Ideal and ought selves set standards for one to strive toward, laying a framework for goal direction. Discrepancies between actual and ideal or ought selves also generate emotional vulnerabilities (Table 2). Actual/ideal self-discrepancies result in dejection-related emotions (e.g. frustration, dissatisfaction; Higgins, 1987). Actual/ought self-discrepancies result in agitation-related emotions (e.g. anxiety, guilt). Greater discrepancies result in greater emotional discomfort and generate greater motivation to close the gap (Higgins, 1989). Meta-analytic findings support that greater discrepancies result in more negative emotions (Mason et al., 2019). However, Mason et al. (2019) found that actual/ideal and actual/ought self-discrepancies both correlated with dejection- and agitation-related emotions. This contrasts with self-discrepancy theory's proposition. Further, while the negative emotions resulting from discrepancies are proposed to motivate people to reduce discrepancies, MacIntyre and Vincze (2017) suggest positive emotions have greater motivating strength than negative emotions. This suggests that while self-concepts provide frameworks for goal selection and energise behaviour, self-discrepancies may not be the most powerful emotional source of motivation. '''Table 2''' ''Dimensions of the Self and Emotional Effects of Discrepancies'' {| class="wikitable" !Self dimension !Examples !Emotional effect of discrepancy with actual self |- |Actual |Daily behaviours, beliefs | - |- |Ideal |Dreams, aspirations |Dejection-related emotions |- |Ought |Duties, obligations |Agitation-related emotions |}[[w:Regulatory_focus_theory|Regulatory focus theory]] (Higgins, 1997) expands self-discrepancy theory to suggest different self-representations produce different motivational orientations. Ideal-self goals create a promotion focus, where people are motivated to seek positive outcomes (see Table 3). Ought-self goals create a prevention focus, where people are motivated to avoid negative outcomes. These regulatory focuses both positively correlated with intrinsic motivation in Wang et al.'s (2021) study of adolescent task engagement. However, promotion focuses positively correlated with creativity and an innovative cognitive style, whereas prevention focuses negatively correlated with an innovative cognitive style and was characterised by error avoidance. This shows that while both promotion and prevention orientations generate self-sustained motivation, they result in different approaches to tasks. '''Table 3''' ''Self-concept's Motivational Mechanisms'' {| class="wikitable" |+ !Self-discrepancy !Motivational focus !Motivational mechanism !Task approach |- |Actual-ideal |Promotion |Seek positive outcomes |Creativity, innovation |- |Actual-ought |Prevention |Avoid negative outcomes |Reduced innovation, error avoidance |} [[wikipedia:Identity_based_motivation|Identity-based motivation theory]] (Oyserman, 2024) provides an alternative explanation to how self-concept directs behaviour. The theory proposes that situations influence which aspects of self-concept are active. Active identities change how people interpret difficulty, which influences motivation. When behaviour aligns with an active identity, people interpret difficulties in completing that behaviour as evidence the behaviour is important (Oyserman, 2015). This is because identity-congruent behaviours provide information about who one is and who one wants to become, making difficulty meaningful rather than discouraging (Oyserman, 2024). Conversely, identity-incongruent actions that have the same challenges are interpreted as pointless. This means that identities mediate motivation and help goal selection and persistence through the process of difficulty interpretation. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Case study comprehension check''' When Ash feels physically exhausted during her early morning swim sets, her identity as an elite athlete is active. This helps her interpret exhaustion as a meaningful challenge. For her non-swimmer friend, Riley, this exhaustion would be interpreted as evidence swimming is not for them.{{RoundBoxBottom}} Illustrating the motivating role of the self-concept within this framework, Nurra and Oyserman (2018) found that motivation to pursue future identity-relevant goals in school children, and subsequent achievement, was influenced by how children thought about their future selves. Students were exposed to prompts that helped them think of their adult self as either near or far. Students in the adult-self-is-near group achieved significantly higher final grades than the adult-self-is-far group. These findings indicate that closely identifying with future selves and viewing future selves as attainable can motivate goal pursuit. Together, these results support identity-based motivation theory and detail that self-concept drives behaviour by defining desirable outcomes and shaping how challenges and opportunities are interpreted. Together, self-discrepancy, regulatory focus, and identity-based motivation theories suggest that a person's perceived distance from a valued self can create motivational pressure to change and active identities influence interpretations of challenges. These states modify goal engagement and motivation. In all three theories, self-concept is central to motivation, driving goal selection and engagement. Thus, what motivates each person, and how they subsequently behave, is shaped by self-concept. === How self-concept can undermine motivation === While self-concept can energise and direct behaviour, it can also undermine motivation through self-worth contingencies. [[wikipedia:Contingent_self-esteem#Self-esteem_and_contingent_self-worth|Self-worth contingencies]] refer to the standards people feel they must meet to have personal value (Showers et al., 2015). When goals are tightly bound to self-worth, failure threatens self-concept. So, contingent self-worth can motivate the pursuit of identity-relevant goals, but can also result in avoidance and strong responses to failure. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} <quiz display=simple> '''What are self-worth contingencies?''' |type="()"} - How people feel about themselves + Standards people feel they must meet to have value - How people compare themselves to others </quiz>{{RoundBoxBottom}} Lietz et al. (2026) qualitatively studied 17 participants' identity-shaped goals and found that failing to achieve these goals resulted in negative and severe emotional responses. Further, participants tended to attribute failure to personal shortcomings, because of how closely held the goal was to their self-concept. This resulted in reduced motivation to reattempt, or blind pursuit of the same goal without re-examining the approach. This is consistent with [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Attribution theory and emotion|attribution theory]] (Weiner, 1985), which suggests that causal thinking processes, where people attribute outcomes to stable, uncontrollable factors, result in low motivation. Attributional styles affect self-evaluations and thus can undermine motivation when failure is attributed to stable aspects of the self (Bandhu et al., 2024). This can cause maladaptive behaviours to emerge. One such response to the threat of failure is self-handicapping. [[w:Self-handicapping|Self-handicapping]] involves creating obstacles to one's own goal so that failure can be attributed to external, rather than personal factors (Török & Szabó, 2018). This means people may increase the probability of failure to protect their self-concept (Coudevylle et al., 2020). Therefore, self-concept can impact motivation by hindering goal pursuit. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Case study comprehension check''' Ash cares a lot about succeeding in her swimming competition. To protect her self-concept as a successful swimmer, Ash may fake a mild illness at the competition so that any failure can be attributed to her illness, rather than her competence. {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[File:Multidimensional_model_of_self-concept_diagram.png|thumb|536x536px|'''Figure 2.''' The hierarchical multidimensional model of self-concept (Marsh et al., 2019).]] Illustrating the causes of self-handicapping, Schwinger et al. (2022) found a medium negative correlation between general self-evaluations and self-handicapping and a medium positive correlation between fear of failure and self-handicapping. With more negative general self-evaluations and greater fear of failure, people are more likely to self-handicap, highlighting self-concept as a precursor to self-handicapping. However, in this study, general, rather than domain-specific measures were used. According to the multidimensional model, self-concept is a hierarchical, multi-faceted construct, and more specific self-concepts are more closely related to actual behaviour (see Figure 2; Marsh et al., 2019). Accordingly, future research should investigate domain-specific measures of self-concept and fear of failure to illustrate their direct influence on self-handicapping and task motivation. Self-handicapping demonstrates that self-concept-driven motivation is not always directed towards achieving valued outcomes. Protecting self-worth can become more important than goal engagement. Together, this research suggests self-concept can act both as a motivational resource, and a motivational vulnerability. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}'''Intervention application''' To reduce self-handicapping, interventions should support people to separate self-worth and performance outcomes by building self-compassion, diverse positive self-concepts, and growth-oriented mindsets.{{RoundBoxBottom}} == How does motivation shape self-concept? == The research and theories discussed so far have detailed how self-concept directs and motivates behaviour. The following section explores how, and whether, this relationship works in reverse.   === How internalising motivation shapes self-concept === [[File:Self-determination theory psychological needs.jpg|thumb|450x450px|'''Figure 3.''' Self-determination theory proposes that autonomy, competence, and relatedness support autonomous motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2020).]][[Self-determination theory]] (Ryan & Deci, 2020) proposes motivation exists on a continuum of self-determination, ranging from externally to increasingly internally regulated behaviour. The continuum consists of external, introjected, identified, integrated, and intrinsic regulation (Table 4). These motivation types are influenced by three innate needs: competence, autonomy, and relatedness (see Figure 3; Ryan & Deci, 2020). Understanding the progression of these needs and motivation types can provide insight into how motivational processes influence self-concept. Intrinsic motivation refers to autonomous behaviours completed for enjoyment (see Table 4; Morris et al., 2022). Extrinsic motivation involves engaging in behaviour for an outcome separable from the activity itself (Morris et al., 2022). Its regulation ranges from externally controlled to personally valued and fully integrated. How self-determined people's motivations are depends on the extent to which one has internalised the values, beliefs and perceptions of the behaviour into their self-concept. Meeting the needs of competence, autonomy and relatedness supports motivations to become progressively internalised, and behaviour increasingly self-endorsed (Chiu, 2023). However, it should be noted that this process does not necessarily occur in a fixed sequence. This illustrates how self-concept and motivation reciprocally form one another. The degree to which one identifies with a behaviour shapes their motivation to engage with the behaviour; when needs are met, motivated behaviours and psychological processes shape the self-concept. This internalisation process helps explain how Ash came to identify as a swimmer (see Table 4).   '''Table 4''' ''Applying Self-Determination Theory to Ash's Motivation and Self-Concept Development'' {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" !Regulation type !Ash's self-concept and swimming progression example !Motivational mechanism |- |External |Ash received a lollipop after swimming lessons.   |Rewards or punishments |- |Introjected |Ash wanted her parents to think she is dedicated to swimming. |Avoiding guilt |- |Identified |Ash continued swimming after recognising its health benefits. |Consciously value goal |- |Integrated |Ash starts to identify as a swimmer and with her swim team.   |Congruence with self-concept |- |Intrinsic |After the swimming competition, Ash continues swimming for the joy of it. |Inherent enjoyment |} Chiu (2023) provided compelling evidence for how motivation shapes self-concept within the context of self-determination theory. In their study, 342 Hong Kong high school students completed STEM activities taught using a standard teaching approach or a self-determination theory teaching method, focusing on supporting needs of autonomy, competence and relatedness (see Figure 3). Self-report measures reflected that the needs-supporting teaching approach increased students' feelings of autonomy, competence and relatedness; and, consequently, increased STEM identity and interest. This supports that fulfilling core psychological needs promotes more autonomous motivation and develops identity. Further supporting this relationship, Yip et al.'s (2024) longitudinal study of 236 anti-poverty activists who completed self-reported social attitudes and personality measures at two timepoints found that increases in self-determined motivations positively correlated with group identification. However, non-self-determined motivations, such as external regulation, did not correlate with group identification. This suggests that self-determined motivation facilitates the incorporation of behaviour and group membership into one's self-concept.   Together, self-determination theory suggests self-concepts develop as values and behaviours are progressively internalised. Ash was not initially motivated because she identified as a swimmer. Her repeated engagement in swimming and fulfilment of psychological needs gradually transformed swimming into part of her identity. This demonstrates that motivation can be a mechanism through which self-concept develops and is not simply a motivating force. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11|title=Quiz}} <quiz display=simple> '''Which statement best reflects how motivation shapes self-concept?''' |type="()"} - People are only motivated to engage in behaviours that are part of their self-concept. - Self-concept does not change through motivational processes. + Repeated engagement with a behaviour and satisfaction of psychological needs gradually makes a behaviour part of one's self-concept. </quiz>{{RoundBoxBottom}} === The cyclical process of motivation and self-concept development === The reciprocal effects model proposes that self-concept and achievement reinforce one another over time (Marsh et al., 2018). People with stronger self-concepts tend to achieve more highly, while achievement experiences subsequently shape self-concept. Motivation plays an important role in this process, influencing how people behave toward achievement experiences. There is a growing body of research investigating this model. For example, Sewasew et al.'s (2018) longitudinal study with 2,342 German high schoolers demonstrated mathematics self-concept was positively correlated with mathematics achievement. Their study highlighted a mutually dependent relationship between academic self-concept and achievement, each mediated by motivation. However, Garn and Shen's (2015) longitudinal study of 329 participants' self-concept and motivation for exercise found that the psychological needs posited by self-determination theory (Ryan & Deci, 2022) did not predict physical self-concept at follow-ups. Physical self-concept was only shown to shape, rather than be shaped by exercise motivation. This result conflicts with the reciprocal effects model and Sewasew et al.'s (2018) results, which may reflect the different self-concept domains examined; mathematics versus physical self-concept. This may indicate that reciprocal effects are domain specific; the multidimensional model suggests academic and physical self-concepts function independently, meaning findings from one domain may not generalise to another (Marsh et al., 2019). Thus, future research should directly compare the reciprocal relationship between self-concept and motivation within different domains. Similarly, Sorjonen et al. (2024) reanalysed meta-analytic results which had provided evidence for the reciprocal effects model. Sorjonen et al. (2024) found that conclusions about the longitudinal relationship between achievement and academic self-concept changed depending on the statistical model used. Hübner et al.'s (2023) support for the reciprocal effects model was also inconsistent between statistical models. This may indicate a spurious correlation that undermines the credibility of the reciprocal effects model. Taken together, these findings suggest that achievement can shape self-concept, but the strength and direction of this relationship may depend on the domain being examined and the methodological approach used. Although the reciprocal effects model remains influential, current evidence indicates that the relationship between motivation, achievement, and self-concept is more complex than originally proposed. == Conclusion == Self-concept is a multidimensional, dynamic framework of self-beliefs which acts as an internal compass for human behaviour. Self-concept shapes motivation by determining which goals feel meaningful, attainable, and identity-consistent. Self-discrepancy theory explains how perceived distance from ideal or ought selves creates motivational pressure for change, while identity-based motivation theory explains how active identities change the meaning of difficulty. Contrastingly, contingent self-worth can undermine motivation by making potential failure feel threatening to personal value. Together, these theories detail that self-concept influences goal direction and engagement through social, emotional and cognitive processes. These theories provide insight that people can foster resilient motivation by aligning goals with valued identities and framing challenges as identity-building, rather than solely trying to improve behavioural discipline or seek external rewards. Motivation may also influence self-concept. Self-determination theory details that motivation and subsequent behaviours form self-concept through internalisation processes when psychological needs are met. However, inconsistent support for the reciprocal effects model indicates that the extent to which motivation reshapes self-concept may vary across domains and statistical models. Nevertheless, findings suggest motivation and self-concept operate as a reciprocal system, continually shaping and reinforcing one another. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Take-home message''' With self-concept and motivation inherently linked, who people believe they are shapes the goals they pursue, while motivations, behaviours, and experiences continually reshape who people become. Ash's self-concept as a swimmer motivates her because swimming is identity-consistent and meaningful. Additionally, each time she swims, her identity as a swimmer is reinforced.{{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11|title=Quiz}}<quiz display=simple> {'''Chapter comprehension check quiz:''' Ash wakes up at 4:00 a.m. each day to train because being a swimmer is a central part of her identity. According to the chapter, what best explains Ash's motivation? |type="()"} +Self-concept acts as an internal compass that guides goals and behaviour. -Motivation is caused only by external rewards and punishment. -Self-concept remains fixed and has little influence on actions. </quiz> {{RoundBoxBottom}} == See also == * [[wikipedia:Self-concept|Self-concept]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Self-concept clarity|Self-concept clarity]] (Book chapter, 2019) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Self-efficacy and motivation|Self-efficacy and motivation]] (Book chapter, 2014) == References == {{Hanging indent|Bandhu, D., Mohan, M. M., Nittala, N. A. P., Jadhav, P., Bhadauria, A., & Saxena, K. K. (2024). Theories of motivation: A comprehensive analysis of human behavior drivers. ''Acta Psychologica, 244'', 104177. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2024.104177 Chiu, T.K. (2023). Using self-determination theory (SDT) to explain student STEM interest and identity development. ''Instructional Science, 52'', 89–107. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11251-023-09642-8 Cooley, C. H. (1902). The looking-glass self. ''The production of reality: Essays and readings on social interaction, 6''(1902), 126–28. Coudevylle, G. R., Boulley-Escriva, G., Finez, L., Eugène, K., & Robin, N. (2020). An experimental investigation of claimed self-handicapping strategies across motivational climates based on achievement goal and self-determination theories. ''Educational Psychology, 40''(8), 1002–1021. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2020.1746237 Garn, A., & Shen, B. (2015). Physical self-concept and basic psychological needs in exercise: Are there reciprocal effects? ''International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 13''(2), 169–181. https://doi.org/10.1080/1612197X.2014.940994 Higgins, E. T. (1987). Self-discrepancy: A theory relating self and affect. ''Psychological Review, 94''(3), 319. Higgins, E. T. (1989). Self-discrepancy theory: What patterns of self-beliefs cause people to suffer?. In ''Advances in experimental social psychology'' (Vol. 22, pp. 93–136). Academic Press. Higgins, E. T., Shah, J., & Friedman, R. (1997). Emotional responses to goal attainment: Strength of regulatory focus as moderator. ''Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72''(3), 515–525. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.72.3.515 Hübner, N., Wagner, W., Zitzmann, S., & Nagengast, B. (2023). How strong is the evidence for a causal reciprocal effect? Contrasting traditional and new methods to investigate the reciprocal effects model of self-concept and achievement. ''Educational Psychology Review, 35'', 6. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-023-09724-6 James, W. (1892). The self. In W. James (Ed.), ''Psychology: Briefer course'' (pp. 176–216). Macmillan and Co. https://doi.org/10.1037/11630-012 Lietz, R., Whittaker, S., & Su, N. M. (2026). ‘It meant something about who I am’: What the lived experience of failure teaches us about designing for goal setting. ''Behaviour & Information Technology,'' 1–27. https://doi.org/10.1080/0144929X.2026.2711023 MacIntyre, P. D., & Vincze, L. (2017). Positive and negative emotions in motivation for second language learning. ''Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching, 7''(1), 61–88. https://doi.org/10.14746/ssllt.2017.7.1.4 Marsh, H. W., Byrne, B. M., & Shavelson, R. J. (1992). A multidimensional, hierarchical self-concept. In T. M. Brinthaupt & R. P. Lipka (Eds.), ''The self: Definitional and methodological issues'' (pp. 44–95). State University of New York Press. Marsh, H. W., Martin, A. J., Yeung, A. S., & Craven, R. G. (2018). Chapter 6: Competence self-perceptions. In A. J. Elliot, C. S. Dweck, & D. S. Yeager (Eds.), ''Handbook of competence and motivation: Theory and application'' (pp. 85–115). Guilford Publications. Marsh, H. W., Seaton, M., Dicke, T., Parker, P. D., & Horwood, M. S. (2019). The centrality of academic self-concept to motivation and learning. In K. A. Renninger, & S. E. Hidi (Eds.), ''The Cambridge handbook of motivation and learning'' (pp. 36–62). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781316823279.004 Mason, T. B., Smith, K. E., Engwall, A., Lass, A., Mead, M., Sorby, M., Bjorlie, K., Strauman, T. J., & Wonderlich, S. (2019). Self-discrepancy theory as a transdiagnostic framework: A meta-analysis of self-discrepancy and psychopathology. ''Psychological Bulletin, 145''(4), 372–389. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000186 Morris, L. S., Grehl, M. M., Rutter, S. B., Mehta, M., & Westwater, M. L. (2022). On what motivates us: A detailed review of intrinsic v. extrinsic motivation. ''Psychological Medicine, 52''(10), 1801–1816. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291722001611 Nurra, C., & Oyserman, D. (2018). From future self to current action: An identity-based motivation perspective. ''Self and Identity, 17''(3), 343-364. https://doi.org/10.1080/15298868.2017.1375003 Oyserman, D. (2015). Identity-based motivation. ''Emerging Trends in the Social and Behavioral Sciences, 38'', 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118900772.etrds0171 Oyserman, D. (2024), Identity-based motivation and the motivational consequences of difficulty. ''Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 18'', e70028. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.70028 Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2020). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation from a self-determination theory perspective: Definitions, theory, practices, and future directions. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology, 61'', 101860. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101860 Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2022). Self-determination theory. In F. Maggino (Ed.), ''Encyclopedia of quality of life and well-being research'' (pp. 1–7). Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-69909-7_2630-2 Schwinger, M., Trautner, M., Pütz, N., Fabianek, S., Lemmer, G., Lauermann, F., & Wirthwein, L. (2022). Why do students use strategies that hurt their chances of academic success? A meta-analysis of antecedents of academic self-handicapping. ''Journal of Educational Psychology, 114''(3), 576–596. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000706 Seaton, M., Parker, P., Marsh, H. W., Craven, R. G., & Yeung, A. S. (2014). The reciprocal relations between self-concept, motivation and achievement: Juxtaposing academic self-concept and achievement goal orientations for mathematics success. ''Educational Psychology, 34''(1), 49–72. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2013.825232 Sewasew, D., Schroeders, U., Schiefer, I. M., Weirich, S., & Artelt, C. (2018). Development of sex differences in math achievement, self-concept, and interest from grade 5 to 7. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology, 54'', 55–65. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2018.05.003 Showers, C. J., Ditzfeld, C. P., & Zeigler-Hill, V. (2015). Self-concept structure and the quality of self-knowledge. ''Journal of Personality, 83''(5), 535-551. https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12130 Sorjonen, K., Ingre, M., Melin, B., & Nilsonne, G. (2024). Questioning the reciprocal effects model of academic self-concept and achievement: A reanalysis of a meta-analysis of longitudinal studies and a simulation. ''Sage Open, 14''(4). https://doi.org/10.1177/21582440241292826 Török, L., & Szabó, Z. P. (2018). The theory of self-handicapping: Forms, influencing factors and measurement. ''Ceskoslovenska Psychologie, 62''(2), 173-188. Wang, L., Cui, Y., Wang, X., Wang, J., Du, K., & Luo, Z. (2021). Regulatory focus, motivation, and their relationship with creativity among adolescents. ''Frontiers in Psychology, 12'', 666071. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.666071 Wehrle, K., & Fasbender, U. (2018). Self-concept. In Zeigler-Hill, V., & Shackelford, T. (Eds.), ''Encyclopedia of personality and individual differences'' (pp. 1–5). Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-28099-8_2001-1 Weiner, B. (1985). An attributional theory of achievement motivation and emotion. ''Psychological Review, 92''(4), 548–573. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.92.4.548 Yip, L., Thomas, E. F., Amiot, C., Louis, W. R., & McGarty, C. (2024). Autonomous motives foster sustained commitment to action: Integrating self-determination theory and the social identity approach. ''Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 50''(5), 750–765. https://doi.org/10.1177/01461672221148396 }} == External links == * [https://rickhanson.com/being-well-podcast-self-concept-the-secret-to-changing-who-you-are/ Being well podcast: Self-concept: The secret to changing WHO you are] (Being Well Podcast) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Nck7lP-6C2g Unlocking success: The power of self-efficacy and self-concept] (TEDx Talks) * [https://www.ted.com/talks/anil_ananthaswamy_where_does_your_sense_of_self_come_from_a_scientific_look Where does your sense of self come from? A scientific look] (TEDx Talks) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self-concept]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Motivation]] i0hv0j4tepyxyyi53ndzvhaeaoz3fdm 2835751 2835748 2026-10-04T05:20:27Z U3253363 3106362 /* Overview */ Removed final few words to bring it under the word count! 2835751 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Self-concept and motivation:<br>How does self-concept relate to motivation?}} == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Sinclair Swimming.JPG|right|thumb|180px|'''Figure 1'''. Ash is a competitive swimmer and swims daily.]] ;Scenario Ash is a swimmer training for a national competition. When asked to describe herself, being "a swimmer" is the first word Ash uses. She is eager to succeed at the upcoming swimming competition. Every morning, she wakes up at 4:00 a.m to swim four kilometres (see Figure 1). Her friend Riley struggles to understand how Ash maintains this demanding schedule. Why is Ash able to do this when many would find this difficult? {{RoundBoxBottom}} Why can some people sustain long-term commitment to challenging goals while others lose momentum or experience fear of failure? Many popular explanations of motivation focus on [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2015/Willpower|willpower]], [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Rewards, punishments, and social cooperation|rewards]], and [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Needs|needs]]. However, motivation is also influenced by [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Self-concept|self-concept]], an individual's understanding of who they are and how they feel about themselves (Wehrle & Fasbender, 2018). Self-concept helps people answer the question “who am I?” and acts as an internal compass that influences thinking, feelings, and behaviour. This chapter explores the reciprocal relationship between self-concept and motivation: how self-understanding influences motivated behaviour, and how motivated behaviour progressively shapes self-concept. Understanding this reciprocal relationship can help people develop motivation around meaningful identities while reducing the risk that failure becomes a threat to personal worth. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=12}} '''Focus questions''' *What is self-concept? *How does self-concept influence motivation? *How does motivation shape self-concept?{{RoundBoxBottom}} == What is self-concept? == Self-concept is a cognitive framework of self-knowledge including attitudes, beliefs, and judgements about oneself (Wehrle & Fasbender, 2018). It is related, but unique to many of the popular “self-” constructs like [[self-esteem]], [[w:Self-efficacy|self-efficacy]], and [[w:Self-image|self-image]]. Each self-concept-relevant theory approaches the construct differently, but several common properties emerge and provide the foundation for understanding its motivational effects (see Table 1). Foundationally, [[wikipedia:William_James|James]] (1892) conceptualised the self as having two parts: “I”, the subjective thinker, and “me”, the material and social self. Cooley (1902) added the [[wikipedia:Looking-glass_self|looking-glass self]], proposing that self-concept develops through perceived social evaluations. Modern frameworks, including identity-based motivation theory (Oyserman, 2024) and the multidimensional model (Marsh et al., 1992) suggest self-concept is hierarchical, multifaceted, and dynamic. '''Table 1''' ''Self-Concept Properties and Their Significance for Motivation'' {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" !Property !Key theory !Significance for motivation |- |'''Descriptive  ''' |James |Identity beliefs set standards and expectations |- |'''Socially developed''' |Looking-glass self |Social feedback influences which behaviours are pursued |- |'''Dynamic''' |Identity-based motivation theory |Self-concept shifts situationally |- |'''Multidimensional''' |Multidimensional model |Domain-specific self-concepts motivate distinct behaviours |- |'''Hierarchical  ''' |Multidimensional model |General and specific domains of the self influence each other and different behaviours |} == How does self-concept influence motivation? == Like self-concept, motivation is multidimensional and central to human behaviour (Bandhu et al., 2024). This creates an interesting intersection of properties; self-concept and motivation both influence which goals people pursue and responses to difficulty. This section explores how self-concept influences motivation.   === How the self directs and energises behaviour === [[w:Self-discrepancy_theory|Self-discrepancy theory]] proposes people have three representations of the self: the actual (who one is), ideal (who one wants to become), and ought self (who one believes others want them to be; see Table 2; Higgins, 1987). Ideal and ought selves set standards for one to strive toward, laying a framework for goal direction. Discrepancies between actual and ideal or ought selves also generate emotional vulnerabilities (Table 2). Actual/ideal self-discrepancies result in dejection-related emotions (e.g. frustration, dissatisfaction; Higgins, 1987). Actual/ought self-discrepancies result in agitation-related emotions (e.g. anxiety, guilt). Greater discrepancies result in greater emotional discomfort and generate greater motivation to close the gap (Higgins, 1989). Meta-analytic findings support that greater discrepancies result in more negative emotions (Mason et al., 2019). However, Mason et al. (2019) found that actual/ideal and actual/ought self-discrepancies both correlated with dejection- and agitation-related emotions. This contrasts with self-discrepancy theory's proposition. Further, while the negative emotions resulting from discrepancies are proposed to motivate people to reduce discrepancies, MacIntyre and Vincze (2017) suggest positive emotions have greater motivating strength than negative emotions. This suggests that while self-concepts provide frameworks for goal selection and energise behaviour, self-discrepancies may not be the most powerful emotional source of motivation. '''Table 2''' ''Dimensions of the Self and Emotional Effects of Discrepancies'' {| class="wikitable" !Self dimension !Examples !Emotional effect of discrepancy with actual self |- |Actual |Daily behaviours, beliefs | - |- |Ideal |Dreams, aspirations |Dejection-related emotions |- |Ought |Duties, obligations |Agitation-related emotions |}[[w:Regulatory_focus_theory|Regulatory focus theory]] (Higgins, 1997) expands self-discrepancy theory to suggest different self-representations produce different motivational orientations. Ideal-self goals create a promotion focus, where people are motivated to seek positive outcomes (see Table 3). Ought-self goals create a prevention focus, where people are motivated to avoid negative outcomes. These regulatory focuses both positively correlated with intrinsic motivation in Wang et al.'s (2021) study of adolescent task engagement. However, promotion focuses positively correlated with creativity and an innovative cognitive style, whereas prevention focuses negatively correlated with an innovative cognitive style and was characterised by error avoidance. This shows that while both promotion and prevention orientations generate self-sustained motivation, they result in different approaches to tasks. '''Table 3''' ''Self-concept's Motivational Mechanisms'' {| class="wikitable" |+ !Self-discrepancy !Motivational focus !Motivational mechanism !Task approach |- |Actual-ideal |Promotion |Seek positive outcomes |Creativity, innovation |- |Actual-ought |Prevention |Avoid negative outcomes |Reduced innovation, error avoidance |} [[wikipedia:Identity_based_motivation|Identity-based motivation theory]] (Oyserman, 2024) provides an alternative explanation to how self-concept directs behaviour. The theory proposes that situations influence which aspects of self-concept are active. Active identities change how people interpret difficulty, which influences motivation. When behaviour aligns with an active identity, people interpret difficulties in completing that behaviour as evidence the behaviour is important (Oyserman, 2015). This is because identity-congruent behaviours provide information about who one is and who one wants to become, making difficulty meaningful rather than discouraging (Oyserman, 2024). Conversely, identity-incongruent actions that have the same challenges are interpreted as pointless. This means that identities mediate motivation and help goal selection and persistence through the process of difficulty interpretation. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Case study comprehension check''' When Ash feels physically exhausted during her early morning swim sets, her identity as an elite athlete is active. This helps her interpret exhaustion as a meaningful challenge. For her non-swimmer friend, Riley, this exhaustion would be interpreted as evidence swimming is not for them.{{RoundBoxBottom}} Illustrating the motivating role of the self-concept within this framework, Nurra and Oyserman (2018) found that motivation to pursue future identity-relevant goals in school children, and subsequent achievement, was influenced by how children thought about their future selves. Students were exposed to prompts that helped them think of their adult self as either near or far. Students in the adult-self-is-near group achieved significantly higher final grades than the adult-self-is-far group. These findings indicate that closely identifying with future selves and viewing future selves as attainable can motivate goal pursuit. Together, these results support identity-based motivation theory and detail that self-concept drives behaviour by defining desirable outcomes and shaping how challenges and opportunities are interpreted. Together, self-discrepancy, regulatory focus, and identity-based motivation theories suggest that a person's perceived distance from a valued self can create motivational pressure to change and active identities influence interpretations of challenges. These states modify goal engagement and motivation. In all three theories, self-concept is central to motivation, driving goal selection and engagement. Thus, what motivates each person, and how they subsequently behave, is shaped by self-concept. === How self-concept can undermine motivation === While self-concept can energise and direct behaviour, it can also undermine motivation through self-worth contingencies. [[wikipedia:Contingent_self-esteem#Self-esteem_and_contingent_self-worth|Self-worth contingencies]] refer to the standards people feel they must meet to have personal value (Showers et al., 2015). When goals are tightly bound to self-worth, failure threatens self-concept. So, contingent self-worth can motivate the pursuit of identity-relevant goals, but can also result in avoidance and strong responses to failure. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} <quiz display=simple> '''What are self-worth contingencies?''' |type="()"} - How people feel about themselves + Standards people feel they must meet to have value - How people compare themselves to others </quiz>{{RoundBoxBottom}} Lietz et al. (2026) qualitatively studied 17 participants' identity-shaped goals and found that failing to achieve these goals resulted in negative and severe emotional responses. Further, participants tended to attribute failure to personal shortcomings, because of how closely held the goal was to their self-concept. This resulted in reduced motivation to reattempt, or blind pursuit of the same goal without re-examining the approach. This is consistent with [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Attribution theory and emotion|attribution theory]] (Weiner, 1985), which suggests that causal thinking processes, where people attribute outcomes to stable, uncontrollable factors, result in low motivation. Attributional styles affect self-evaluations and thus can undermine motivation when failure is attributed to stable aspects of the self (Bandhu et al., 2024). This can cause maladaptive behaviours to emerge. One such response to the threat of failure is self-handicapping. [[w:Self-handicapping|Self-handicapping]] involves creating obstacles to one's own goal so that failure can be attributed to external, rather than personal factors (Török & Szabó, 2018). This means people may increase the probability of failure to protect their self-concept (Coudevylle et al., 2020). Therefore, self-concept can impact motivation by hindering goal pursuit. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Case study comprehension check''' Ash cares a lot about succeeding in her swimming competition. To protect her self-concept as a successful swimmer, Ash may fake a mild illness at the competition so that any failure can be attributed to her illness, rather than her competence. {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[File:Multidimensional_model_of_self-concept_diagram.png|thumb|536x536px|'''Figure 2.''' The hierarchical multidimensional model of self-concept (Marsh et al., 2019).]] Illustrating the causes of self-handicapping, Schwinger et al. (2022) found a medium negative correlation between general self-evaluations and self-handicapping and a medium positive correlation between fear of failure and self-handicapping. With more negative general self-evaluations and greater fear of failure, people are more likely to self-handicap, highlighting self-concept as a precursor to self-handicapping. However, in this study, general, rather than domain-specific measures were used. According to the multidimensional model, self-concept is a hierarchical, multi-faceted construct, and more specific self-concepts are more closely related to actual behaviour (see Figure 2; Marsh et al., 2019). Accordingly, future research should investigate domain-specific measures of self-concept and fear of failure to illustrate their direct influence on self-handicapping and task motivation. Self-handicapping demonstrates that self-concept-driven motivation is not always directed towards achieving valued outcomes. Protecting self-worth can become more important than goal engagement. Together, this research suggests self-concept can act both as a motivational resource, and a motivational vulnerability. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}'''Intervention application''' To reduce self-handicapping, interventions should support people to separate self-worth and performance outcomes by building self-compassion, diverse positive self-concepts, and growth-oriented mindsets.{{RoundBoxBottom}} == How does motivation shape self-concept? == The research and theories discussed so far have detailed how self-concept directs and motivates behaviour. The following section explores how, and whether, this relationship works in reverse.   === How internalising motivation shapes self-concept === [[File:Self-determination theory psychological needs.jpg|thumb|450x450px|'''Figure 3.''' Self-determination theory proposes that autonomy, competence, and relatedness support autonomous motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2020).]][[Self-determination theory]] (Ryan & Deci, 2020) proposes motivation exists on a continuum of self-determination, ranging from externally to increasingly internally regulated behaviour. The continuum consists of external, introjected, identified, integrated, and intrinsic regulation (Table 4). These motivation types are influenced by three innate needs: competence, autonomy, and relatedness (see Figure 3; Ryan & Deci, 2020). Understanding the progression of these needs and motivation types can provide insight into how motivational processes influence self-concept. Intrinsic motivation refers to autonomous behaviours completed for enjoyment (see Table 4; Morris et al., 2022). Extrinsic motivation involves engaging in behaviour for an outcome separable from the activity itself (Morris et al., 2022). Its regulation ranges from externally controlled to personally valued and fully integrated. How self-determined people's motivations are depends on the extent to which one has internalised the values, beliefs and perceptions of the behaviour into their self-concept. Meeting the needs of competence, autonomy and relatedness supports motivations to become progressively internalised, and behaviour increasingly self-endorsed (Chiu, 2023). However, it should be noted that this process does not necessarily occur in a fixed sequence. This illustrates how self-concept and motivation reciprocally form one another. The degree to which one identifies with a behaviour shapes their motivation to engage with the behaviour; when needs are met, motivated behaviours and psychological processes shape the self-concept. This internalisation process helps explain how Ash came to identify as a swimmer (see Table 4).   '''Table 4''' ''Applying Self-Determination Theory to Ash's Motivation and Self-Concept Development'' {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" !Regulation type !Ash's self-concept and swimming progression example !Motivational mechanism |- |External |Ash received a lollipop after swimming lessons.   |Rewards or punishments |- |Introjected |Ash wanted her parents to think she is dedicated to swimming. |Avoiding guilt |- |Identified |Ash continued swimming after recognising its health benefits. |Consciously value goal |- |Integrated |Ash starts to identify as a swimmer and with her swim team.   |Congruence with self-concept |- |Intrinsic |After the swimming competition, Ash continues swimming for the joy of it. |Inherent enjoyment |} Chiu (2023) provided compelling evidence for how motivation shapes self-concept within the context of self-determination theory. In their study, 342 Hong Kong high school students completed STEM activities taught using a standard teaching approach or a self-determination theory teaching method, focusing on supporting needs of autonomy, competence and relatedness (see Figure 3). Self-report measures reflected that the needs-supporting teaching approach increased students' feelings of autonomy, competence and relatedness; and, consequently, increased STEM identity and interest. This supports that fulfilling core psychological needs promotes more autonomous motivation and develops identity. Further supporting this relationship, Yip et al.'s (2024) longitudinal study of 236 anti-poverty activists who completed self-reported social attitudes and personality measures at two timepoints found that increases in self-determined motivations positively correlated with group identification. However, non-self-determined motivations, such as external regulation, did not correlate with group identification. This suggests that self-determined motivation facilitates the incorporation of behaviour and group membership into one's self-concept.   Together, self-determination theory suggests self-concepts develop as values and behaviours are progressively internalised. Ash was not initially motivated because she identified as a swimmer. Her repeated engagement in swimming and fulfilment of psychological needs gradually transformed swimming into part of her identity. This demonstrates that motivation can be a mechanism through which self-concept develops and is not simply a motivating force. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11|title=Quiz}} <quiz display=simple> '''Which statement best reflects how motivation shapes self-concept?''' |type="()"} - People are only motivated to engage in behaviours that are part of their self-concept. - Self-concept does not change through motivational processes. + Repeated engagement with a behaviour and satisfaction of psychological needs gradually makes a behaviour part of one's self-concept. </quiz>{{RoundBoxBottom}} === The cyclical process of motivation and self-concept development === The reciprocal effects model proposes that self-concept and achievement reinforce one another over time (Marsh et al., 2018). People with stronger self-concepts tend to achieve more highly, while achievement experiences subsequently shape self-concept. Motivation plays an important role in this process, influencing how people behave toward achievement experiences. There is a growing body of research investigating this model. For example, Sewasew et al.'s (2018) longitudinal study with 2,342 German high schoolers demonstrated mathematics self-concept was positively correlated with mathematics achievement. Their study highlighted a mutually dependent relationship between academic self-concept and achievement, each mediated by motivation. However, Garn and Shen's (2015) longitudinal study of 329 participants' self-concept and motivation for exercise found that the psychological needs posited by self-determination theory (Ryan & Deci, 2022) did not predict physical self-concept at follow-ups. Physical self-concept was only shown to shape, rather than be shaped by exercise motivation. This result conflicts with the reciprocal effects model and Sewasew et al.'s (2018) results, which may reflect the different self-concept domains examined; mathematics versus physical self-concept. This may indicate that reciprocal effects are domain specific; the multidimensional model suggests academic and physical self-concepts function independently, meaning findings from one domain may not generalise to another (Marsh et al., 2019). Thus, future research should directly compare the reciprocal relationship between self-concept and motivation within different domains. Similarly, Sorjonen et al. (2024) reanalysed meta-analytic results which had provided evidence for the reciprocal effects model. Sorjonen et al. (2024) found that conclusions about the longitudinal relationship between achievement and academic self-concept changed depending on the statistical model used. Hübner et al.'s (2023) support for the reciprocal effects model was also inconsistent between statistical models. This may indicate a spurious correlation that undermines the credibility of the reciprocal effects model. Taken together, these findings suggest that achievement can shape self-concept, but the strength and direction of this relationship may depend on the domain being examined and the methodological approach used. Although the reciprocal effects model remains influential, current evidence indicates that the relationship between motivation, achievement, and self-concept is more complex than originally proposed. == Conclusion == Self-concept is a multidimensional, dynamic framework of self-beliefs which acts as an internal compass for human behaviour. Self-concept shapes motivation by determining which goals feel meaningful, attainable, and identity-consistent. Self-discrepancy theory explains how perceived distance from ideal or ought selves creates motivational pressure for change, while identity-based motivation theory explains how active identities change the meaning of difficulty. Contrastingly, contingent self-worth can undermine motivation by making failure feel threatening to personal value. Together, these theories detail that self-concept influences goal direction and engagement through social, emotional and cognitive processes. These theories provide insight that people can foster resilient motivation by aligning goals with valued identities and framing challenges as identity-building, rather than solely striving for behavioural discipline or external rewards. Motivation may also influence self-concept. Self-determination theory details that motivation and subsequent behaviours form self-concept through internalisation processes when psychological needs are met. However, inconsistent support for the reciprocal effects model indicates that the extent to which motivation reshapes self-concept may vary across domains and statistical models. Nevertheless, findings suggest motivation and self-concept operate as a reciprocal system, continually shaping and reinforcing one another. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Take-home message''' With self-concept and motivation inherently linked, who people believe they are shapes the goals they pursue, while motivations, behaviours, and experiences continually reshape who people become. Ash's self-concept as a swimmer motivates her because swimming is identity-consistent and meaningful. Additionally, each time she swims, her identity as a swimmer is reinforced.{{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11|title=Quiz}}<quiz display=simple> {'''Chapter comprehension check quiz:''' Ash wakes up at 4:00 a.m. each day to train because being a swimmer is a central part of her identity. According to the chapter, what best explains Ash's motivation? |type="()"} +Self-concept acts as an internal compass that guides goals and behaviour. -Motivation is caused only by external rewards and punishment. -Self-concept remains fixed and has little influence on actions. </quiz> {{RoundBoxBottom}} == See also == * [[wikipedia:Self-concept|Self-concept]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Self-concept clarity|Self-concept clarity]] (Book chapter, 2019) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Self-efficacy and motivation|Self-efficacy and motivation]] (Book chapter, 2014) == References == {{Hanging indent|Bandhu, D., Mohan, M. M., Nittala, N. A. P., Jadhav, P., Bhadauria, A., & Saxena, K. K. (2024). Theories of motivation: A comprehensive analysis of human behavior drivers. ''Acta Psychologica, 244'', 104177. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2024.104177 Chiu, T.K. (2023). Using self-determination theory (SDT) to explain student STEM interest and identity development. ''Instructional Science, 52'', 89–107. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11251-023-09642-8 Cooley, C. H. (1902). The looking-glass self. ''The production of reality: Essays and readings on social interaction, 6''(1902), 126–28. Coudevylle, G. R., Boulley-Escriva, G., Finez, L., Eugène, K., & Robin, N. (2020). An experimental investigation of claimed self-handicapping strategies across motivational climates based on achievement goal and self-determination theories. ''Educational Psychology, 40''(8), 1002–1021. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2020.1746237 Garn, A., & Shen, B. (2015). Physical self-concept and basic psychological needs in exercise: Are there reciprocal effects? ''International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 13''(2), 169–181. https://doi.org/10.1080/1612197X.2014.940994 Higgins, E. T. (1987). Self-discrepancy: A theory relating self and affect. ''Psychological Review, 94''(3), 319. Higgins, E. T. (1989). Self-discrepancy theory: What patterns of self-beliefs cause people to suffer?. In ''Advances in experimental social psychology'' (Vol. 22, pp. 93–136). Academic Press. Higgins, E. T., Shah, J., & Friedman, R. (1997). Emotional responses to goal attainment: Strength of regulatory focus as moderator. ''Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72''(3), 515–525. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.72.3.515 Hübner, N., Wagner, W., Zitzmann, S., & Nagengast, B. (2023). How strong is the evidence for a causal reciprocal effect? Contrasting traditional and new methods to investigate the reciprocal effects model of self-concept and achievement. ''Educational Psychology Review, 35'', 6. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-023-09724-6 James, W. (1892). The self. In W. James (Ed.), ''Psychology: Briefer course'' (pp. 176–216). Macmillan and Co. https://doi.org/10.1037/11630-012 Lietz, R., Whittaker, S., & Su, N. M. (2026). ‘It meant something about who I am’: What the lived experience of failure teaches us about designing for goal setting. ''Behaviour & Information Technology,'' 1–27. https://doi.org/10.1080/0144929X.2026.2711023 MacIntyre, P. D., & Vincze, L. (2017). Positive and negative emotions in motivation for second language learning. ''Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching, 7''(1), 61–88. https://doi.org/10.14746/ssllt.2017.7.1.4 Marsh, H. W., Byrne, B. M., & Shavelson, R. J. (1992). A multidimensional, hierarchical self-concept. In T. M. Brinthaupt & R. P. Lipka (Eds.), ''The self: Definitional and methodological issues'' (pp. 44–95). State University of New York Press. Marsh, H. W., Martin, A. J., Yeung, A. S., & Craven, R. G. (2018). Chapter 6: Competence self-perceptions. In A. J. Elliot, C. S. Dweck, & D. S. Yeager (Eds.), ''Handbook of competence and motivation: Theory and application'' (pp. 85–115). Guilford Publications. Marsh, H. W., Seaton, M., Dicke, T., Parker, P. D., & Horwood, M. S. (2019). The centrality of academic self-concept to motivation and learning. In K. A. Renninger, & S. E. Hidi (Eds.), ''The Cambridge handbook of motivation and learning'' (pp. 36–62). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781316823279.004 Mason, T. B., Smith, K. E., Engwall, A., Lass, A., Mead, M., Sorby, M., Bjorlie, K., Strauman, T. J., & Wonderlich, S. (2019). Self-discrepancy theory as a transdiagnostic framework: A meta-analysis of self-discrepancy and psychopathology. ''Psychological Bulletin, 145''(4), 372–389. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000186 Morris, L. S., Grehl, M. M., Rutter, S. B., Mehta, M., & Westwater, M. L. (2022). On what motivates us: A detailed review of intrinsic v. extrinsic motivation. ''Psychological Medicine, 52''(10), 1801–1816. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291722001611 Nurra, C., & Oyserman, D. (2018). From future self to current action: An identity-based motivation perspective. ''Self and Identity, 17''(3), 343-364. https://doi.org/10.1080/15298868.2017.1375003 Oyserman, D. (2015). Identity-based motivation. ''Emerging Trends in the Social and Behavioral Sciences, 38'', 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118900772.etrds0171 Oyserman, D. (2024), Identity-based motivation and the motivational consequences of difficulty. ''Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 18'', e70028. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.70028 Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2020). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation from a self-determination theory perspective: Definitions, theory, practices, and future directions. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology, 61'', 101860. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101860 Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2022). Self-determination theory. In F. Maggino (Ed.), ''Encyclopedia of quality of life and well-being research'' (pp. 1–7). Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-69909-7_2630-2 Schwinger, M., Trautner, M., Pütz, N., Fabianek, S., Lemmer, G., Lauermann, F., & Wirthwein, L. (2022). Why do students use strategies that hurt their chances of academic success? A meta-analysis of antecedents of academic self-handicapping. ''Journal of Educational Psychology, 114''(3), 576–596. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000706 Seaton, M., Parker, P., Marsh, H. W., Craven, R. G., & Yeung, A. S. (2014). The reciprocal relations between self-concept, motivation and achievement: Juxtaposing academic self-concept and achievement goal orientations for mathematics success. ''Educational Psychology, 34''(1), 49–72. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2013.825232 Sewasew, D., Schroeders, U., Schiefer, I. M., Weirich, S., & Artelt, C. (2018). Development of sex differences in math achievement, self-concept, and interest from grade 5 to 7. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology, 54'', 55–65. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2018.05.003 Showers, C. J., Ditzfeld, C. P., & Zeigler-Hill, V. (2015). Self-concept structure and the quality of self-knowledge. ''Journal of Personality, 83''(5), 535-551. https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12130 Sorjonen, K., Ingre, M., Melin, B., & Nilsonne, G. (2024). Questioning the reciprocal effects model of academic self-concept and achievement: A reanalysis of a meta-analysis of longitudinal studies and a simulation. ''Sage Open, 14''(4). https://doi.org/10.1177/21582440241292826 Török, L., & Szabó, Z. P. (2018). The theory of self-handicapping: Forms, influencing factors and measurement. ''Ceskoslovenska Psychologie, 62''(2), 173-188. Wang, L., Cui, Y., Wang, X., Wang, J., Du, K., & Luo, Z. (2021). Regulatory focus, motivation, and their relationship with creativity among adolescents. ''Frontiers in Psychology, 12'', 666071. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.666071 Wehrle, K., & Fasbender, U. (2018). Self-concept. In Zeigler-Hill, V., & Shackelford, T. (Eds.), ''Encyclopedia of personality and individual differences'' (pp. 1–5). Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-28099-8_2001-1 Weiner, B. (1985). An attributional theory of achievement motivation and emotion. ''Psychological Review, 92''(4), 548–573. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.92.4.548 Yip, L., Thomas, E. F., Amiot, C., Louis, W. R., & McGarty, C. (2024). Autonomous motives foster sustained commitment to action: Integrating self-determination theory and the social identity approach. ''Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 50''(5), 750–765. https://doi.org/10.1177/01461672221148396 }} == External links == * [https://rickhanson.com/being-well-podcast-self-concept-the-secret-to-changing-who-you-are/ Being well podcast: Self-concept: The secret to changing WHO you are] (Being Well Podcast) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Nck7lP-6C2g Unlocking success: The power of self-efficacy and self-concept] (TEDx Talks) * [https://www.ted.com/talks/anil_ananthaswamy_where_does_your_sense_of_self_come_from_a_scientific_look Where does your sense of self come from? A scientific look] (TEDx Talks) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self-concept]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Motivation]] jcje41odny5syll5ooacpnxxugp52l9 2835756 2835751 2026-10-04T06:17:14Z U3253363 3106362 /* Conclusion */ 2835756 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Self-concept and motivation:<br>How does self-concept relate to motivation?}} == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Sinclair Swimming.JPG|right|thumb|180px|'''Figure 1'''. Ash is a competitive swimmer and swims daily.]] ;Scenario Ash is a swimmer training for a national competition. When asked to describe herself, being "a swimmer" is the first word Ash uses. She is eager to succeed at the upcoming swimming competition. Every morning, she wakes up at 4:00 a.m to swim four kilometres (see Figure 1). Her friend Riley struggles to understand how Ash maintains this demanding schedule. Why is Ash able to do this when many would find this difficult? {{RoundBoxBottom}} Why can some people sustain long-term commitment to challenging goals while others lose momentum or experience fear of failure? Many popular explanations of motivation focus on [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2015/Willpower|willpower]], [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Rewards, punishments, and social cooperation|rewards]], and [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Needs|needs]]. However, motivation is also influenced by [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Self-concept|self-concept]], an individual's understanding of who they are and how they feel about themselves (Wehrle & Fasbender, 2018). Self-concept helps people answer the question “who am I?” and acts as an internal compass that influences thinking, feelings, and behaviour. This chapter explores the reciprocal relationship between self-concept and motivation: how self-understanding influences motivated behaviour, and how motivated behaviour progressively shapes self-concept. Understanding this reciprocal relationship can help people develop motivation around meaningful identities while reducing the risk that failure becomes a threat to personal worth. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=12}} '''Focus questions''' *What is self-concept? *How does self-concept influence motivation? *How does motivation shape self-concept?{{RoundBoxBottom}} == What is self-concept? == Self-concept is a cognitive framework of self-knowledge including attitudes, beliefs, and judgements about oneself (Wehrle & Fasbender, 2018). It is related, but unique to many of the popular “self-” constructs like [[self-esteem]], [[w:Self-efficacy|self-efficacy]], and [[w:Self-image|self-image]]. Each self-concept-relevant theory approaches the construct differently, but several common properties emerge and provide the foundation for understanding its motivational effects (see Table 1). Foundationally, [[wikipedia:William_James|James]] (1892) conceptualised the self as having two parts: “I”, the subjective thinker, and “me”, the material and social self. Cooley (1902) added the [[wikipedia:Looking-glass_self|looking-glass self]], proposing that self-concept develops through perceived social evaluations. Modern frameworks, including identity-based motivation theory (Oyserman, 2024) and the multidimensional model (Marsh et al., 1992) suggest self-concept is hierarchical, multifaceted, and dynamic. '''Table 1''' ''Self-Concept Properties and Their Significance for Motivation'' {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" !Property !Key theory !Significance for motivation |- |'''Descriptive  ''' |James |Identity beliefs set standards and expectations |- |'''Socially developed''' |Looking-glass self |Social feedback influences which behaviours are pursued |- |'''Dynamic''' |Identity-based motivation theory |Self-concept shifts situationally |- |'''Multidimensional''' |Multidimensional model |Domain-specific self-concepts motivate distinct behaviours |- |'''Hierarchical  ''' |Multidimensional model |General and specific domains of the self influence each other and different behaviours |} == How does self-concept influence motivation? == Like self-concept, motivation is multidimensional and central to human behaviour (Bandhu et al., 2024). This creates an interesting intersection of properties; self-concept and motivation both influence which goals people pursue and responses to difficulty. This section explores how self-concept influences motivation.   === How the self directs and energises behaviour === [[w:Self-discrepancy_theory|Self-discrepancy theory]] proposes people have three representations of the self: the actual (who one is), ideal (who one wants to become), and ought self (who one believes others want them to be; see Table 2; Higgins, 1987). Ideal and ought selves set standards for one to strive toward, laying a framework for goal direction. Discrepancies between actual and ideal or ought selves also generate emotional vulnerabilities (Table 2). Actual/ideal self-discrepancies result in dejection-related emotions (e.g. frustration, dissatisfaction; Higgins, 1987). Actual/ought self-discrepancies result in agitation-related emotions (e.g. anxiety, guilt). Greater discrepancies result in greater emotional discomfort and generate greater motivation to close the gap (Higgins, 1989). Meta-analytic findings support that greater discrepancies result in more negative emotions (Mason et al., 2019). However, Mason et al. (2019) found that actual/ideal and actual/ought self-discrepancies both correlated with dejection- and agitation-related emotions. This contrasts with self-discrepancy theory's proposition. Further, while the negative emotions resulting from discrepancies are proposed to motivate people to reduce discrepancies, MacIntyre and Vincze (2017) suggest positive emotions have greater motivating strength than negative emotions. This suggests that while self-concepts provide frameworks for goal selection and energise behaviour, self-discrepancies may not be the most powerful emotional source of motivation. '''Table 2''' ''Dimensions of the Self and Emotional Effects of Discrepancies'' {| class="wikitable" !Self dimension !Examples !Emotional effect of discrepancy with actual self |- |Actual |Daily behaviours, beliefs | - |- |Ideal |Dreams, aspirations |Dejection-related emotions |- |Ought |Duties, obligations |Agitation-related emotions |}[[w:Regulatory_focus_theory|Regulatory focus theory]] (Higgins, 1997) expands self-discrepancy theory to suggest different self-representations produce different motivational orientations. Ideal-self goals create a promotion focus, where people are motivated to seek positive outcomes (see Table 3). Ought-self goals create a prevention focus, where people are motivated to avoid negative outcomes. These regulatory focuses both positively correlated with intrinsic motivation in Wang et al.'s (2021) study of adolescent task engagement. However, promotion focuses positively correlated with creativity and an innovative cognitive style, whereas prevention focuses negatively correlated with an innovative cognitive style and was characterised by error avoidance. This shows that while both promotion and prevention orientations generate self-sustained motivation, they result in different approaches to tasks. '''Table 3''' ''Self-concept's Motivational Mechanisms'' {| class="wikitable" |+ !Self-discrepancy !Motivational focus !Motivational mechanism !Task approach |- |Actual-ideal |Promotion |Seek positive outcomes |Creativity, innovation |- |Actual-ought |Prevention |Avoid negative outcomes |Reduced innovation, error avoidance |} [[wikipedia:Identity_based_motivation|Identity-based motivation theory]] (Oyserman, 2024) provides an alternative explanation to how self-concept directs behaviour. The theory proposes that situations influence which aspects of self-concept are active. Active identities change how people interpret difficulty, which influences motivation. When behaviour aligns with an active identity, people interpret difficulties in completing that behaviour as evidence the behaviour is important (Oyserman, 2015). This is because identity-congruent behaviours provide information about who one is and who one wants to become, making difficulty meaningful rather than discouraging (Oyserman, 2024). Conversely, identity-incongruent actions that have the same challenges are interpreted as pointless. This means that identities mediate motivation and help goal selection and persistence through the process of difficulty interpretation. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Case study comprehension check''' When Ash feels physically exhausted during her early morning swim sets, her identity as an elite athlete is active. This helps her interpret exhaustion as a meaningful challenge. For her non-swimmer friend, Riley, this exhaustion would be interpreted as evidence swimming is not for them.{{RoundBoxBottom}} Illustrating the motivating role of the self-concept within this framework, Nurra and Oyserman (2018) found that motivation to pursue future identity-relevant goals in school children, and subsequent achievement, was influenced by how children thought about their future selves. Students were exposed to prompts that helped them think of their adult self as either near or far. Students in the adult-self-is-near group achieved significantly higher final grades than the adult-self-is-far group. These findings indicate that closely identifying with future selves and viewing future selves as attainable can motivate goal pursuit. Together, these results support identity-based motivation theory and detail that self-concept drives behaviour by defining desirable outcomes and shaping how challenges and opportunities are interpreted. Together, self-discrepancy, regulatory focus, and identity-based motivation theories suggest that a person's perceived distance from a valued self can create motivational pressure to change and active identities influence interpretations of challenges. These states modify goal engagement and motivation. In all three theories, self-concept is central to motivation, driving goal selection and engagement. Thus, what motivates each person, and how they subsequently behave, is shaped by self-concept. === How self-concept can undermine motivation === While self-concept can energise and direct behaviour, it can also undermine motivation through self-worth contingencies. [[wikipedia:Contingent_self-esteem#Self-esteem_and_contingent_self-worth|Self-worth contingencies]] refer to the standards people feel they must meet to have personal value (Showers et al., 2015). When goals are tightly bound to self-worth, failure threatens self-concept. So, contingent self-worth can motivate the pursuit of identity-relevant goals, but can also result in avoidance and strong responses to failure. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} <quiz display=simple> '''What are self-worth contingencies?''' |type="()"} - How people feel about themselves + Standards people feel they must meet to have value - How people compare themselves to others </quiz>{{RoundBoxBottom}} Lietz et al. (2026) qualitatively studied 17 participants' identity-shaped goals and found that failing to achieve these goals resulted in negative and severe emotional responses. Further, participants tended to attribute failure to personal shortcomings, because of how closely held the goal was to their self-concept. This resulted in reduced motivation to reattempt, or blind pursuit of the same goal without re-examining the approach. This is consistent with [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Attribution theory and emotion|attribution theory]] (Weiner, 1985), which suggests that causal thinking processes, where people attribute outcomes to stable, uncontrollable factors, result in low motivation. Attributional styles affect self-evaluations and thus can undermine motivation when failure is attributed to stable aspects of the self (Bandhu et al., 2024). This can cause maladaptive behaviours to emerge. One such response to the threat of failure is self-handicapping. [[w:Self-handicapping|Self-handicapping]] involves creating obstacles to one's own goal so that failure can be attributed to external, rather than personal factors (Török & Szabó, 2018). This means people may increase the probability of failure to protect their self-concept (Coudevylle et al., 2020). Therefore, self-concept can impact motivation by hindering goal pursuit. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Case study comprehension check''' Ash cares a lot about succeeding in her swimming competition. To protect her self-concept as a successful swimmer, Ash may fake a mild illness at the competition so that any failure can be attributed to her illness, rather than her competence. {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[File:Multidimensional_model_of_self-concept_diagram.png|thumb|536x536px|'''Figure 2.''' The hierarchical multidimensional model of self-concept (Marsh et al., 2019).]] Illustrating the causes of self-handicapping, Schwinger et al. (2022) found a medium negative correlation between general self-evaluations and self-handicapping and a medium positive correlation between fear of failure and self-handicapping. With more negative general self-evaluations and greater fear of failure, people are more likely to self-handicap, highlighting self-concept as a precursor to self-handicapping. However, in this study, general, rather than domain-specific measures were used. According to the multidimensional model, self-concept is a hierarchical, multi-faceted construct, and more specific self-concepts are more closely related to actual behaviour (see Figure 2; Marsh et al., 2019). Accordingly, future research should investigate domain-specific measures of self-concept and fear of failure to illustrate their direct influence on self-handicapping and task motivation. Self-handicapping demonstrates that self-concept-driven motivation is not always directed towards achieving valued outcomes. Protecting self-worth can become more important than goal engagement. Together, this research suggests self-concept can act both as a motivational resource, and a motivational vulnerability. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}'''Intervention application''' To reduce self-handicapping, interventions should support people to separate self-worth and performance outcomes by building self-compassion, diverse positive self-concepts, and growth-oriented mindsets.{{RoundBoxBottom}} == How does motivation shape self-concept? == The research and theories discussed so far have detailed how self-concept directs and motivates behaviour. The following section explores how, and whether, this relationship works in reverse.   === How internalising motivation shapes self-concept === [[File:Self-determination theory psychological needs.jpg|thumb|450x450px|'''Figure 3.''' Self-determination theory proposes that autonomy, competence, and relatedness support autonomous motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2020).]][[Self-determination theory]] (Ryan & Deci, 2020) proposes motivation exists on a continuum of self-determination, ranging from externally to increasingly internally regulated behaviour. The continuum consists of external, introjected, identified, integrated, and intrinsic regulation (Table 4). These motivation types are influenced by three innate needs: competence, autonomy, and relatedness (see Figure 3; Ryan & Deci, 2020). Understanding the progression of these needs and motivation types can provide insight into how motivational processes influence self-concept. Intrinsic motivation refers to autonomous behaviours completed for enjoyment (see Table 4; Morris et al., 2022). Extrinsic motivation involves engaging in behaviour for an outcome separable from the activity itself (Morris et al., 2022). Its regulation ranges from externally controlled to personally valued and fully integrated. How self-determined people's motivations are depends on the extent to which one has internalised the values, beliefs and perceptions of the behaviour into their self-concept. Meeting the needs of competence, autonomy and relatedness supports motivations to become progressively internalised, and behaviour increasingly self-endorsed (Chiu, 2023). However, it should be noted that this process does not necessarily occur in a fixed sequence. This illustrates how self-concept and motivation reciprocally form one another. The degree to which one identifies with a behaviour shapes their motivation to engage with the behaviour; when needs are met, motivated behaviours and psychological processes shape the self-concept. This internalisation process helps explain how Ash came to identify as a swimmer (see Table 4).   '''Table 4''' ''Applying Self-Determination Theory to Ash's Motivation and Self-Concept Development'' {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" !Regulation type !Ash's self-concept and swimming progression example !Motivational mechanism |- |External |Ash received a lollipop after swimming lessons.   |Rewards or punishments |- |Introjected |Ash wanted her parents to think she is dedicated to swimming. |Avoiding guilt |- |Identified |Ash continued swimming after recognising its health benefits. |Consciously value goal |- |Integrated |Ash starts to identify as a swimmer and with her swim team.   |Congruence with self-concept |- |Intrinsic |After the swimming competition, Ash continues swimming for the joy of it. |Inherent enjoyment |} Chiu (2023) provided compelling evidence for how motivation shapes self-concept within the context of self-determination theory. In their study, 342 Hong Kong high school students completed STEM activities taught using a standard teaching approach or a self-determination theory teaching method, focusing on supporting needs of autonomy, competence and relatedness (see Figure 3). Self-report measures reflected that the needs-supporting teaching approach increased students' feelings of autonomy, competence and relatedness; and, consequently, increased STEM identity and interest. This supports that fulfilling core psychological needs promotes more autonomous motivation and develops identity. Further supporting this relationship, Yip et al.'s (2024) longitudinal study of 236 anti-poverty activists who completed self-reported social attitudes and personality measures at two timepoints found that increases in self-determined motivations positively correlated with group identification. However, non-self-determined motivations, such as external regulation, did not correlate with group identification. This suggests that self-determined motivation facilitates the incorporation of behaviour and group membership into one's self-concept.   Together, self-determination theory suggests self-concepts develop as values and behaviours are progressively internalised. Ash was not initially motivated because she identified as a swimmer. Her repeated engagement in swimming and fulfilment of psychological needs gradually transformed swimming into part of her identity. This demonstrates that motivation can be a mechanism through which self-concept develops and is not simply a motivating force. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11|title=Quiz}} <quiz display=simple> '''Which statement best reflects how motivation shapes self-concept?''' |type="()"} - People are only motivated to engage in behaviours that are part of their self-concept. - Self-concept does not change through motivational processes. + Repeated engagement with a behaviour and satisfaction of psychological needs gradually makes a behaviour part of one's self-concept. </quiz>{{RoundBoxBottom}} === The cyclical process of motivation and self-concept development === The reciprocal effects model proposes that self-concept and achievement reinforce one another over time (Marsh et al., 2018). People with stronger self-concepts tend to achieve more highly, while achievement experiences subsequently shape self-concept. Motivation plays an important role in this process, influencing how people behave toward achievement experiences. There is a growing body of research investigating this model. For example, Sewasew et al.'s (2018) longitudinal study with 2,342 German high schoolers demonstrated mathematics self-concept was positively correlated with mathematics achievement. Their study highlighted a mutually dependent relationship between academic self-concept and achievement, each mediated by motivation. However, Garn and Shen's (2015) longitudinal study of 329 participants' self-concept and motivation for exercise found that the psychological needs posited by self-determination theory (Ryan & Deci, 2022) did not predict physical self-concept at follow-ups. Physical self-concept was only shown to shape, rather than be shaped by exercise motivation. This result conflicts with the reciprocal effects model and Sewasew et al.'s (2018) results, which may reflect the different self-concept domains examined; mathematics versus physical self-concept. This may indicate that reciprocal effects are domain specific; the multidimensional model suggests academic and physical self-concepts function independently, meaning findings from one domain may not generalise to another (Marsh et al., 2019). Thus, future research should directly compare the reciprocal relationship between self-concept and motivation within different domains. Similarly, Sorjonen et al. (2024) reanalysed meta-analytic results which had provided evidence for the reciprocal effects model. Sorjonen et al. (2024) found that conclusions about the longitudinal relationship between achievement and academic self-concept changed depending on the statistical model used. Hübner et al.'s (2023) support for the reciprocal effects model was also inconsistent between statistical models. This may indicate a spurious correlation that undermines the credibility of the reciprocal effects model. Taken together, these findings suggest that achievement can shape self-concept, but the strength and direction of this relationship may depend on the domain being examined and the methodological approach used. Although the reciprocal effects model remains influential, current evidence indicates that the relationship between motivation, achievement, and self-concept is more complex than originally proposed. == Conclusion == Self-concept is a multidimensional, dynamic framework of self-beliefs which acts as an internal compass for human behaviour. Self-concept shapes motivation by determining which goals feel meaningful, attainable, and identity-consistent. Self-discrepancy theory explains how perceived distance from ideal or ought selves creates motivational pressure for change, while identity-based motivation theory explains how active identities change the meaning of difficulty. Contrastingly, contingent self-worth can undermine motivation by making failure feel threatening to personal value. Together, these theories detail that self-concept influences goal direction and engagement through social, emotional and cognitive processes. These theories provide insight that people can foster resilient motivation by aligning goals with valued identities and framing challenges as identity-building, rather than solely striving for behavioural discipline or external rewards. Motivation may influences self-concept. Self-determination theory details that motivation and subsequent behaviours form self-concept through internalisation processes when psychological needs are met. However, inconsistent support for the reciprocal effects model indicates that the extent to which motivation reshapes self-concept may vary across domains and statistical models. Nevertheless, findings suggest motivation and self-concept continually shape and reinforce one another. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Take-home message''' With self-concept and motivation inherently linked, who people believe they are shapes the goals they pursue, while motivations, behaviours, and experiences continually reshape who people become. Ash's self-concept as a swimmer motivates her because swimming is identity-consistent and meaningful. Additionally, each time she swims, her identity as a swimmer is reinforced.{{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11|title=Quiz}}<quiz display=simple> {'''Chapter comprehension check quiz:''' Ash wakes up at 4:00 a.m. each day to train because being a swimmer is a central part of her identity. According to the chapter, what best explains Ash's motivation? |type="()"} +Self-concept acts as an internal compass that guides goals and behaviour. -Motivation is caused only by external rewards and punishment. -Self-concept remains fixed and has little influence on actions. </quiz> {{RoundBoxBottom}} == See also == * [[wikipedia:Self-concept|Self-concept]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Self-concept clarity|Self-concept clarity]] (Book chapter, 2019) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Self-efficacy and motivation|Self-efficacy and motivation]] (Book chapter, 2014) == References == {{Hanging indent|Bandhu, D., Mohan, M. M., Nittala, N. A. P., Jadhav, P., Bhadauria, A., & Saxena, K. K. (2024). Theories of motivation: A comprehensive analysis of human behavior drivers. ''Acta Psychologica, 244'', 104177. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2024.104177 Chiu, T.K. (2023). Using self-determination theory (SDT) to explain student STEM interest and identity development. ''Instructional Science, 52'', 89–107. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11251-023-09642-8 Cooley, C. H. (1902). The looking-glass self. ''The production of reality: Essays and readings on social interaction, 6''(1902), 126–28. Coudevylle, G. R., Boulley-Escriva, G., Finez, L., Eugène, K., & Robin, N. (2020). An experimental investigation of claimed self-handicapping strategies across motivational climates based on achievement goal and self-determination theories. ''Educational Psychology, 40''(8), 1002–1021. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2020.1746237 Garn, A., & Shen, B. (2015). Physical self-concept and basic psychological needs in exercise: Are there reciprocal effects? ''International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 13''(2), 169–181. https://doi.org/10.1080/1612197X.2014.940994 Higgins, E. T. (1987). Self-discrepancy: A theory relating self and affect. ''Psychological Review, 94''(3), 319. Higgins, E. T. (1989). Self-discrepancy theory: What patterns of self-beliefs cause people to suffer?. In ''Advances in experimental social psychology'' (Vol. 22, pp. 93–136). Academic Press. Higgins, E. T., Shah, J., & Friedman, R. (1997). Emotional responses to goal attainment: Strength of regulatory focus as moderator. ''Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72''(3), 515–525. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.72.3.515 Hübner, N., Wagner, W., Zitzmann, S., & Nagengast, B. (2023). How strong is the evidence for a causal reciprocal effect? Contrasting traditional and new methods to investigate the reciprocal effects model of self-concept and achievement. ''Educational Psychology Review, 35'', 6. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-023-09724-6 James, W. (1892). The self. In W. James (Ed.), ''Psychology: Briefer course'' (pp. 176–216). Macmillan and Co. https://doi.org/10.1037/11630-012 Lietz, R., Whittaker, S., & Su, N. M. (2026). ‘It meant something about who I am’: What the lived experience of failure teaches us about designing for goal setting. ''Behaviour & Information Technology,'' 1–27. https://doi.org/10.1080/0144929X.2026.2711023 MacIntyre, P. D., & Vincze, L. (2017). Positive and negative emotions in motivation for second language learning. ''Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching, 7''(1), 61–88. https://doi.org/10.14746/ssllt.2017.7.1.4 Marsh, H. W., Byrne, B. M., & Shavelson, R. J. (1992). A multidimensional, hierarchical self-concept. In T. M. Brinthaupt & R. P. Lipka (Eds.), ''The self: Definitional and methodological issues'' (pp. 44–95). State University of New York Press. Marsh, H. W., Martin, A. J., Yeung, A. S., & Craven, R. G. (2018). Chapter 6: Competence self-perceptions. In A. J. Elliot, C. S. Dweck, & D. S. Yeager (Eds.), ''Handbook of competence and motivation: Theory and application'' (pp. 85–115). Guilford Publications. Marsh, H. W., Seaton, M., Dicke, T., Parker, P. D., & Horwood, M. S. (2019). The centrality of academic self-concept to motivation and learning. In K. A. Renninger, & S. E. Hidi (Eds.), ''The Cambridge handbook of motivation and learning'' (pp. 36–62). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781316823279.004 Mason, T. B., Smith, K. E., Engwall, A., Lass, A., Mead, M., Sorby, M., Bjorlie, K., Strauman, T. J., & Wonderlich, S. (2019). Self-discrepancy theory as a transdiagnostic framework: A meta-analysis of self-discrepancy and psychopathology. ''Psychological Bulletin, 145''(4), 372–389. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000186 Morris, L. S., Grehl, M. M., Rutter, S. B., Mehta, M., & Westwater, M. L. (2022). On what motivates us: A detailed review of intrinsic v. extrinsic motivation. ''Psychological Medicine, 52''(10), 1801–1816. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291722001611 Nurra, C., & Oyserman, D. (2018). From future self to current action: An identity-based motivation perspective. ''Self and Identity, 17''(3), 343-364. https://doi.org/10.1080/15298868.2017.1375003 Oyserman, D. (2015). Identity-based motivation. ''Emerging Trends in the Social and Behavioral Sciences, 38'', 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118900772.etrds0171 Oyserman, D. (2024), Identity-based motivation and the motivational consequences of difficulty. ''Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 18'', e70028. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.70028 Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2020). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation from a self-determination theory perspective: Definitions, theory, practices, and future directions. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology, 61'', 101860. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101860 Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2022). Self-determination theory. In F. Maggino (Ed.), ''Encyclopedia of quality of life and well-being research'' (pp. 1–7). Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-69909-7_2630-2 Schwinger, M., Trautner, M., Pütz, N., Fabianek, S., Lemmer, G., Lauermann, F., & Wirthwein, L. (2022). Why do students use strategies that hurt their chances of academic success? A meta-analysis of antecedents of academic self-handicapping. ''Journal of Educational Psychology, 114''(3), 576–596. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000706 Seaton, M., Parker, P., Marsh, H. W., Craven, R. G., & Yeung, A. S. (2014). The reciprocal relations between self-concept, motivation and achievement: Juxtaposing academic self-concept and achievement goal orientations for mathematics success. ''Educational Psychology, 34''(1), 49–72. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2013.825232 Sewasew, D., Schroeders, U., Schiefer, I. M., Weirich, S., & Artelt, C. (2018). Development of sex differences in math achievement, self-concept, and interest from grade 5 to 7. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology, 54'', 55–65. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2018.05.003 Showers, C. J., Ditzfeld, C. P., & Zeigler-Hill, V. (2015). Self-concept structure and the quality of self-knowledge. ''Journal of Personality, 83''(5), 535-551. https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12130 Sorjonen, K., Ingre, M., Melin, B., & Nilsonne, G. (2024). Questioning the reciprocal effects model of academic self-concept and achievement: A reanalysis of a meta-analysis of longitudinal studies and a simulation. ''Sage Open, 14''(4). https://doi.org/10.1177/21582440241292826 Török, L., & Szabó, Z. P. (2018). The theory of self-handicapping: Forms, influencing factors and measurement. ''Ceskoslovenska Psychologie, 62''(2), 173-188. Wang, L., Cui, Y., Wang, X., Wang, J., Du, K., & Luo, Z. (2021). Regulatory focus, motivation, and their relationship with creativity among adolescents. ''Frontiers in Psychology, 12'', 666071. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.666071 Wehrle, K., & Fasbender, U. (2018). Self-concept. In Zeigler-Hill, V., & Shackelford, T. (Eds.), ''Encyclopedia of personality and individual differences'' (pp. 1–5). Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-28099-8_2001-1 Weiner, B. (1985). An attributional theory of achievement motivation and emotion. ''Psychological Review, 92''(4), 548–573. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.92.4.548 Yip, L., Thomas, E. F., Amiot, C., Louis, W. R., & McGarty, C. (2024). Autonomous motives foster sustained commitment to action: Integrating self-determination theory and the social identity approach. ''Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 50''(5), 750–765. https://doi.org/10.1177/01461672221148396 }} == External links == * [https://rickhanson.com/being-well-podcast-self-concept-the-secret-to-changing-who-you-are/ Being well podcast: Self-concept: The secret to changing WHO you are] (Being Well Podcast) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Nck7lP-6C2g Unlocking success: The power of self-efficacy and self-concept] (TEDx Talks) * [https://www.ted.com/talks/anil_ananthaswamy_where_does_your_sense_of_self_come_from_a_scientific_look Where does your sense of self come from? A scientific look] (TEDx Talks) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self-concept]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Motivation]] hawozpl13zp60ld9h7xwzi3wqndeloh 0 331052 2835723 2834361 2026-10-04T00:45:28Z ~2026-53295-41 3112076 2835723 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Need to love and be loved:<br>How does the desire to give and receive love influence motivation?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=12}} [[File:Love heart.jpg|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Hands holding out a heart.]] '''Understanding love in pop culture''' ''Do you ever wonder how the media portrays love-driven behaviours?'' Filmmakers and game developers intentionally create love-driven character stories as it floods our brain with oxytocin (the "bonding and empathy" hormone). In turn, this hormone enhances our viewing experience, making films and video games much more memorable (Zak, 2015). In the 2026 psychological horror film the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backrooms_(film) Backrooms] {{ic|Use an internal link as shown in Tutorial 2}}, the deuteragonist, Mary, investigates the disappearance of her patient, Clark. She visits his workplace, ''Cap'n Clark's Ottoman Empire'', and unknowingly stumbles across the backrooms of the establishment. Mary's decision to search for Clark requires considerable risk and effort. Her behaviour raises the question of why a person might pursue another person's wellbeing, even when doing so conflicts with their own safety. A more positive example of giving and receiving love is portrayed in the popular 2013 video game [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Last_of_Us The Last of Us]. The game centres around a hardened smuggler named Joel who must escort a teenage girl named Ellie across a post-apocalyptic United States. As they spend more time together, their relationship develops into a close emotional bond resembling that of a parent and child. {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': (see above) ✅ # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topic''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help ✅ #* '''Motivation''': First, explain the importance of motivation and how it is a psychological process that influences direction, intensity, and the persistence of a behaviour. #* '''Love and Belonging''': Follow with introducing the concepts of love and belonging. Love and belonging is needs involving affection, acceptance, and connection. Love is not limited to romantic relationships (THIS WILL BE EMPHASISED). #* '''Interpersonal Connection''': This term can bridge the above concepts to the theories. The need for meaningful connection is considered in several psychological perspectives: Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs, Self-determination theory, and Attachment theory. #* '''Outline the aim of the chapter'''; (i.e. this chapter develops the readers{{g}} understanding of the desire to give and receive love, and how motivation plays an important role in influencing said behaviours. This chapter will draw on a breath of psychological research, including key concepts and terms, and draw upon different psychological theories related to understanding love. This is to provide the reader a comprehensive but applicable direction for knowledge. '''''DRAFT OVERVIEW:''''' Love is a complex interpersonal experience that can influence how people think, feel, and behave. In psychology, motivation refers to the processes that give behaviour direction, intensity, and persistence. The desire to love and be loved can therefore be understood as a source of motivation. Motivation can influence people to initiate and invest in meaningful relationships. Love and belonging involve the desire for affection and acceptance, while interpersonal connection refers to the emotional and social bonds people develop with others. Several psychological theories provide different perspectives for understanding this relationship between love and motivation. Maslow's hierarchy of needs conceptualises love and belonging as fundamental human needs, while basic psychological needs theory identifies relatedness, or feeling connected to and cared for by others, as a fundamental psychological need. Attachment theory provides another framework for understanding how close emotional bonds can influence behaviour. Particularly, caregiving and responses to separation or threat. Recommended length: 180-330 words. # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box (see below) ✅ {{RoundBoxTop|theme=12}}'''Focus questions''' {{ic|}} Why is the need to love and be loved considered an important source of human motivation? How do psychological theories explain the motivation to form and maintain meaningful relationships? How does the desire to give and receive love influence behaviours such as affiliation, caregiving, and prosocial behaviour? When can the motivation to obtain love and belonging conflict with other psychological needs or become maladaptive? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==1. Love and Belonging as Human Motivation== {{expand}} ====== 1.1 The Need to Belong ====== [[File:Human–canine friendship - girl hugging her dog tightly at golden hour in Laos.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. A companionship that goes beyond.]] Love and interpersonal relationships can influence motivation by directing people towards social connection. In other words, forming and maintaining relationships. Humans do not simply interact with others because social interaction is available. Baumeister and Leary (1995)'s [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Mark-Leary-2/publication/15420847_The_Need_to_Belong_Desire_for_Interpersonal_Attachments_as_a_Fundamental_Human_Motivation/links/5b647053aca272e3b6af9211/The-Need-to-Belong-Desire-for-Interpersonal-Attachments-as-a-Fundamental-Human-Motivation.pdf Theory of Belonging] reviewed evidence supporting the belongingness hypothesis and concluded that people have a pervasive desire to form social attachments. People readily develop relationships with others, including under adverse circumstances, and tend to resist the loss or dissolution of existing social bonds even when maintaining them provides no obvious practical benefit. This suggests that interpersonal relationships can function as motivation goals in their own right rather than simply serving other purposes. The importance of belonging can be seen in the psychological consequences associated with social connection and disconnection. Rather than being simply a preference for social interaction, belongingness can influence emotional and cognitive processes. This explains why people may invest considerable time and effort into developing and maintaining relationships. The desire for connection can also become particularly influential when an individual's relationship is perceived as a threat or when dependence on another person becomes excessive. For example, Guan et al., (2015) examined 80 couples longitudinally and found that love addiction was positively associated with emotional dependence and negatively associated with attachment avoidance. Their findings suggest that the motivation to maintain close romantic relationships can interact with attachment patterns and interpersonal dependence. ====== 1.2 Love, Connection, And Relatedness ====== Belongingness refers to the human emotion to be accepted as a member of a group. Whether family, friends, co-workers, a religion, or something else. People have an inherent desire to belong. [[File:20110702-31-Ilana_tim_and_becca_hug_(5972579616).jpg|thumb|225x225px|'''Figure 3'''. Friends hugging.]] Love can therefore be one way through which the broader need for interpersonal connection is experienced and expressed. Qadir et al., (2026) explored occupational therapists' experiences of belongingness within interprofessional clinical environments and found colleagues and patients contributed to participants' sense of belonging. Conversely, organisational barriers, discrimination and difficulties establishing a professional identity could undermine this sense of connection. The study also illustrates how belongingness and motivation can reinforce one another. Participants identified achievement, professional development and appreciation from others as important sources of motivation, while supportive and welcoming interactions contributed to their sense of belonging. This suggests that interpersonal environments can both motivate individuals to participate and develop the social acceptance that contributes to belongingness. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=12}}'''Think About It: What's On Your Phone Lock Screen?''' [[File:IPhone 17e Soft Pink Model - 1.jpg|thumb|150px|'''Figure 4'''. Pink Apple iPhone.]] ''Imagine you could only have one person on your phone's lock screen for the next year. Who would you choose, and why them?'' A lock screen is a practical feature of a phone, yet the image we choose to display can carry considerable emotional meaning. People may choose photographs of partners, family members, friends, or other significant individuals, turning an everyday object into a reminder of an important relationship. Conroy and Fraley (2026) investigated whether photographs of romantic partners could function as everyday attachment-related cues. Their findings suggested that lock screens are embedded with psychological processes involved in close relationships. Simply put, people like having photos of their partners.{{RoundBoxBottom}} == 2. Theories Explaining Love == {{expand}} ====== 2.1 Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs ====== Maslow (1943) proposed that human motivation is influenced by a hierarchy of needs. Beginning with physiological needs and safety, then love and belonging, and finally esteem and self-actualisation. Within this framework, love and belonging involve the desire for affection and acceptance. When these needs are insufficiently satisfied, individuals may become motivated to seek relationships and social connection. ====== 2.2 Self-Determination Theory ====== People are centrally concerned with motivation, how to move themselves or others to act (Ryan & Deci, 2000). == 3. How Love Influences Motivated Behaviour == What does this motivation actually make people do? ==Conclusion== * Draw back to the Overview; discuss the terms, and how those concepts link to the theories discussed. * Love and interpersonal relationships can influence motivation by directing people towards social connections. * Belongingness can influence emotional and cognitive processes, explaining why individuals invest time and effort in maintaining their relationships despite interfering with other life goals. * Draw on the comparison between Maslow's theory, self-determination theory, and attachment theory. * Potentially answer the focus questions, or at least, reference them once more here. * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words ==See also== * [[wikipedia:Belongingness|Belongingness]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Love styles and relationship satisfaction|Love styles and relationship satisfaction]] (Book chapter, 2025) * [[wikipedia:Need_theory|Need theory]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Baumeister, R. F., & Leary, M. R. (1995). The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation. ''Psychological Bulletin, 117''(3), 497-529. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.117.3.497 Conroy, K. E., & Fraley, R. C. (2026). Security priming in everyday life: How do symbols of close others support attachment in adulthood? ''Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 130''(6), 1229-1247. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspp0000590 Guan, C., Wang, J., Zhang, L. et al. (2025). A longitudinal network of the relationship between love addiction, insecure attachment patterns, and interpersonal dependence. ''BMC Psychol'' 13, 330. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-025-02605-3 Maslow, A. H. (1943). A theory of human motivation. ''Psychological Review, 50''(4), 370-396. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0054346 Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. ''American Psychologist, 55''(1), 68-79. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.55.1.68 Qadir, N. A., & Sethi, A. (2026). Factors affecting belongingness of Occupational Therapists in an Interprofessional Clinical Environment. ''Pakistan Journal of Medical Sciences, 42''(5), 1100-1104. https://doi.org/10.12669/pjms.42.5.13539 Zak, P. J (2015). Why inspiring stories make us react: the neuroscience of narrative. ''Cerebrum: the Dana forum on brain science, 2015'', 2. }} ==External links== * [https://www.unitedfamilies.org/parents/child-development/love-the-greatest-motivation-to-change/ Love: The Greatest Motivation to Change] (unitiedfamilies.org) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4BvlBoZsV_I The Key to Writing Criminally Good Relationships | Video Essay] (YouTube) * [https://open.spotify.com/track/42WQZAqPJOlLvg2Jr6lv8K You're My Best Friend - Queen] (Spotify) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Love]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Needs/Rela]] sjhhznf9eqtgjh3ih3lru0irld4wf3n 2835724 2835723 2026-10-04T00:48:37Z U3280743 3106333 Bullet points to focus question 2835724 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Need to love and be loved:<br>How does the desire to give and receive love influence motivation?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=12}} [[File:Love heart.jpg|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Hands holding out a heart.]] '''Understanding love in pop culture''' ''Do you ever wonder how the media portrays love-driven behaviours?'' Filmmakers and game developers intentionally create love-driven character stories as it floods our brain with oxytocin (the "bonding and empathy" hormone). In turn, this hormone enhances our viewing experience, making films and video games much more memorable (Zak, 2015). In the 2026 psychological horror film the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backrooms_(film) Backrooms] {{ic|Use an internal link as shown in Tutorial 2}}, the deuteragonist, Mary, investigates the disappearance of her patient, Clark. She visits his workplace, ''Cap'n Clark's Ottoman Empire'', and unknowingly stumbles across the backrooms of the establishment. Mary's decision to search for Clark requires considerable risk and effort. Her behaviour raises the question of why a person might pursue another person's wellbeing, even when doing so conflicts with their own safety. A more positive example of giving and receiving love is portrayed in the popular 2013 video game [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Last_of_Us The Last of Us]. The game centres around a hardened smuggler named Joel who must escort a teenage girl named Ellie across a post-apocalyptic United States. As they spend more time together, their relationship develops into a close emotional bond resembling that of a parent and child. {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': (see above) ✅ # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topic''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help ✅ #* '''Motivation''': First, explain the importance of motivation and how it is a psychological process that influences direction, intensity, and the persistence of a behaviour. #* '''Love and Belonging''': Follow with introducing the concepts of love and belonging. Love and belonging is needs involving affection, acceptance, and connection. Love is not limited to romantic relationships (THIS WILL BE EMPHASISED). #* '''Interpersonal Connection''': This term can bridge the above concepts to the theories. The need for meaningful connection is considered in several psychological perspectives: Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs, Self-determination theory, and Attachment theory. #* '''Outline the aim of the chapter'''; (i.e. this chapter develops the readers{{g}} understanding of the desire to give and receive love, and how motivation plays an important role in influencing said behaviours. This chapter will draw on a breath of psychological research, including key concepts and terms, and draw upon different psychological theories related to understanding love. This is to provide the reader a comprehensive but applicable direction for knowledge. '''''DRAFT OVERVIEW:''''' Love is a complex interpersonal experience that can influence how people think, feel, and behave. In psychology, motivation refers to the processes that give behaviour direction, intensity, and persistence. The desire to love and be loved can therefore be understood as a source of motivation. Motivation can influence people to initiate and invest in meaningful relationships. Love and belonging involve the desire for affection and acceptance, while interpersonal connection refers to the emotional and social bonds people develop with others. Several psychological theories provide different perspectives for understanding this relationship between love and motivation. Maslow's hierarchy of needs conceptualises love and belonging as fundamental human needs, while basic psychological needs theory identifies relatedness, or feeling connected to and cared for by others, as a fundamental psychological need. Attachment theory provides another framework for understanding how close emotional bonds can influence behaviour. Particularly, caregiving and responses to separation or threat. Recommended length: 180-330 words. # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box (see below) ✅ {{RoundBoxTop|theme=12}}'''Focus questions''' • Why is the need to love and be loved considered an important source of human motivation? • How do psychological theories explain the motivation to form and maintain meaningful relationships? • How does the desire to give and receive love influence behaviours such as affiliation, caregiving, and prosocial behaviour? • When can the motivation to obtain love and belonging conflict with other psychological needs or become maladaptive? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==1. Love and Belonging as Human Motivation== {{expand}} ====== 1.1 The Need to Belong ====== [[File:Human–canine friendship - girl hugging her dog tightly at golden hour in Laos.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. A companionship that goes beyond.]] Love and interpersonal relationships can influence motivation by directing people towards social connection. In other words, forming and maintaining relationships. Humans do not simply interact with others because social interaction is available. Baumeister and Leary (1995)'s [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Mark-Leary-2/publication/15420847_The_Need_to_Belong_Desire_for_Interpersonal_Attachments_as_a_Fundamental_Human_Motivation/links/5b647053aca272e3b6af9211/The-Need-to-Belong-Desire-for-Interpersonal-Attachments-as-a-Fundamental-Human-Motivation.pdf Theory of Belonging] reviewed evidence supporting the belongingness hypothesis and concluded that people have a pervasive desire to form social attachments. People readily develop relationships with others, including under adverse circumstances, and tend to resist the loss or dissolution of existing social bonds even when maintaining them provides no obvious practical benefit. This suggests that interpersonal relationships can function as motivation goals in their own right rather than simply serving other purposes. The importance of belonging can be seen in the psychological consequences associated with social connection and disconnection. Rather than being simply a preference for social interaction, belongingness can influence emotional and cognitive processes. This explains why people may invest considerable time and effort into developing and maintaining relationships. The desire for connection can also become particularly influential when an individual's relationship is perceived as a threat or when dependence on another person becomes excessive. For example, Guan et al., (2015) examined 80 couples longitudinally and found that love addiction was positively associated with emotional dependence and negatively associated with attachment avoidance. Their findings suggest that the motivation to maintain close romantic relationships can interact with attachment patterns and interpersonal dependence. ====== 1.2 Love, Connection, And Relatedness ====== Belongingness refers to the human emotion to be accepted as a member of a group. Whether family, friends, co-workers, a religion, or something else. People have an inherent desire to belong. [[File:20110702-31-Ilana_tim_and_becca_hug_(5972579616).jpg|thumb|225x225px|'''Figure 3'''. Friends hugging.]] Love can therefore be one way through which the broader need for interpersonal connection is experienced and expressed. Qadir et al., (2026) explored occupational therapists' experiences of belongingness within interprofessional clinical environments and found colleagues and patients contributed to participants' sense of belonging. Conversely, organisational barriers, discrimination and difficulties establishing a professional identity could undermine this sense of connection. The study also illustrates how belongingness and motivation can reinforce one another. Participants identified achievement, professional development and appreciation from others as important sources of motivation, while supportive and welcoming interactions contributed to their sense of belonging. This suggests that interpersonal environments can both motivate individuals to participate and develop the social acceptance that contributes to belongingness. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=12}}'''Think About It: What's On Your Phone Lock Screen?''' [[File:IPhone 17e Soft Pink Model - 1.jpg|thumb|150px|'''Figure 4'''. Pink Apple iPhone.]] ''Imagine you could only have one person on your phone's lock screen for the next year. Who would you choose, and why them?'' A lock screen is a practical feature of a phone, yet the image we choose to display can carry considerable emotional meaning. People may choose photographs of partners, family members, friends, or other significant individuals, turning an everyday object into a reminder of an important relationship. Conroy and Fraley (2026) investigated whether photographs of romantic partners could function as everyday attachment-related cues. Their findings suggested that lock screens are embedded with psychological processes involved in close relationships. Simply put, people like having photos of their partners.{{RoundBoxBottom}} == 2. Theories Explaining Love == {{expand}} ====== 2.1 Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs ====== Maslow (1943) proposed that human motivation is influenced by a hierarchy of needs. Beginning with physiological needs and safety, then love and belonging, and finally esteem and self-actualisation. Within this framework, love and belonging involve the desire for affection and acceptance. When these needs are insufficiently satisfied, individuals may become motivated to seek relationships and social connection. ====== 2.2 Self-Determination Theory ====== People are centrally concerned with motivation, how to move themselves or others to act (Ryan & Deci, 2000). == 3. How Love Influences Motivated Behaviour == What does this motivation actually make people do? ==Conclusion== * Draw back to the Overview; discuss the terms, and how those concepts link to the theories discussed. * Love and interpersonal relationships can influence motivation by directing people towards social connections. * Belongingness can influence emotional and cognitive processes, explaining why individuals invest time and effort in maintaining their relationships despite interfering with other life goals. * Draw on the comparison between Maslow's theory, self-determination theory, and attachment theory. * Potentially answer the focus questions, or at least, reference them once more here. * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words ==See also== * [[wikipedia:Belongingness|Belongingness]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Love styles and relationship satisfaction|Love styles and relationship satisfaction]] (Book chapter, 2025) * [[wikipedia:Need_theory|Need theory]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Baumeister, R. F., & Leary, M. R. (1995). The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation. ''Psychological Bulletin, 117''(3), 497-529. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.117.3.497 Conroy, K. E., & Fraley, R. C. (2026). Security priming in everyday life: How do symbols of close others support attachment in adulthood? ''Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 130''(6), 1229-1247. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspp0000590 Guan, C., Wang, J., Zhang, L. et al. (2025). A longitudinal network of the relationship between love addiction, insecure attachment patterns, and interpersonal dependence. ''BMC Psychol'' 13, 330. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-025-02605-3 Maslow, A. H. (1943). A theory of human motivation. ''Psychological Review, 50''(4), 370-396. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0054346 Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. ''American Psychologist, 55''(1), 68-79. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.55.1.68 Qadir, N. A., & Sethi, A. (2026). Factors affecting belongingness of Occupational Therapists in an Interprofessional Clinical Environment. ''Pakistan Journal of Medical Sciences, 42''(5), 1100-1104. https://doi.org/10.12669/pjms.42.5.13539 Zak, P. J (2015). Why inspiring stories make us react: the neuroscience of narrative. ''Cerebrum: the Dana forum on brain science, 2015'', 2. }} ==External links== * [https://www.unitedfamilies.org/parents/child-development/love-the-greatest-motivation-to-change/ Love: The Greatest Motivation to Change] (unitiedfamilies.org) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4BvlBoZsV_I The Key to Writing Criminally Good Relationships | Video Essay] (YouTube) * [https://open.spotify.com/track/42WQZAqPJOlLvg2Jr6lv8K You're My Best Friend - Queen] (Spotify) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Love]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Needs/Rela]] 0yk8xkidxmr0enhh7ac2h3sk1zzc75f 2835727 2835724 2026-10-04T01:13:52Z U3280743 3106333 2835727 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Need to love and be loved:<br>How does the desire to give and receive love influence motivation?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=12}} [[File:Love heart.jpg|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Hands holding out a heart.]] '''Understanding love in pop culture''' ''Do you ever wonder how the media portrays love-driven behaviours?'' Filmmakers and game developers intentionally create love-driven character stories as it floods our brain with oxytocin (the "bonding and empathy" hormone). In turn, this hormone enhances our viewing experience, making films and video games much more memorable (Zak, 2015). In the 2026 psychological horror film the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backrooms_(film) Backrooms] {{ic|Use an internal link as shown in Tutorial 2}}, the deuteragonist, Mary, investigates the disappearance of her patient, Clark. She visits his workplace, ''Cap'n Clark's Ottoman Empire'', and unknowingly stumbles across the backrooms of the establishment. Mary's decision to search for Clark requires considerable risk and effort. Her behaviour raises the question of why a person might pursue another person's wellbeing, even when doing so conflicts with their own safety. A more positive example of giving and receiving love is portrayed in the popular 2013 video game [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Last_of_Us The Last of Us]. The game centres around a hardened smuggler named Joel who must escort a teenage girl named Ellie across a post-apocalyptic United States. As they spend more time together, their relationship develops into a close emotional bond resembling that of a parent and child. {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topic''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help ✅ #* '''Motivation''': First, explain the importance of motivation and how it is a psychological process that influences direction, intensity, and the persistence of a behaviour. #* '''Love and Belonging''': Follow with introducing the concepts of love and belonging. Love and belonging is needs involving affection, acceptance, and connection. Love is not limited to romantic relationships (THIS WILL BE EMPHASISED). #* '''Interpersonal Connection''': This term can bridge the above concepts to the theories. The need for meaningful connection is considered in several psychological perspectives: Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs, Self-determination theory, and Attachment theory. #* '''Outline the aim of the chapter'''; (i.e. this chapter develops the readers{{g}} understanding of the desire to give and receive love, and how motivation plays an important role in influencing said behaviours. This chapter will draw on a breath of psychological research, including key concepts and terms, and draw upon different psychological theories related to understanding love. This is to provide the reader a comprehensive but applicable direction for knowledge. '''''DRAFT OVERVIEW:''''' Love is a complex interpersonal experience that can influence how people think, feel, and behave. In psychology, motivation refers to the processes that give behaviour direction, intensity, and persistence. The desire to love and be loved can therefore be understood as a source of motivation. Motivation can influence people to initiate and invest in meaningful relationships. Love and belonging involve the desire for affection and acceptance, while interpersonal connection refers to the emotional and social bonds people develop with others. Several psychological theories provide different perspectives for understanding this relationship between love and motivation. Maslow's hierarchy of needs conceptualises love and belonging as fundamental human needs, while basic psychological needs theory identifies relatedness, or feeling connected to and cared for by others, as a fundamental psychological need. Attachment theory provides another framework for understanding how close emotional bonds can influence behaviour. Particularly, caregiving and responses to separation or threat. Recommended length: 180-330 words. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=12}}'''Focus questions''' • Why is the need to love and be loved considered an important source of human motivation? • How do psychological theories explain the motivation to form and maintain meaningful relationships? • How does the desire to give and receive love influence behaviours such as affiliation, caregiving, and prosocial behaviour? • When can the motivation to obtain love and belonging conflict with other psychological needs or become maladaptive? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==1. Love and Belonging as Human Motivation== {{expand}} ====== 1.1 The Need to Belong ====== [[File:Human–canine friendship - girl hugging her dog tightly at golden hour in Laos.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. A companionship that goes beyond.]] Love and interpersonal relationships can influence motivation by directing people towards social connection. In other words, forming and maintaining relationships. Humans do not simply interact with others because social interaction is available. Baumeister and Leary (1995)'s [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Mark-Leary-2/publication/15420847_The_Need_to_Belong_Desire_for_Interpersonal_Attachments_as_a_Fundamental_Human_Motivation/links/5b647053aca272e3b6af9211/The-Need-to-Belong-Desire-for-Interpersonal-Attachments-as-a-Fundamental-Human-Motivation.pdf Theory of Belonging] reviewed evidence supporting the belongingness hypothesis and concluded that people have a pervasive desire to form social attachments. People readily develop relationships with others, including under adverse circumstances, and tend to resist the loss or dissolution of existing social bonds even when maintaining them provides no obvious practical benefit. This suggests that interpersonal relationships can function as motivation goals in their own right rather than simply serving other purposes. The importance of belonging can be seen in the psychological consequences associated with social connection and disconnection. Rather than being simply a preference for social interaction, belongingness can influence emotional and cognitive processes. This explains why people may invest considerable time and effort into developing and maintaining relationships. The desire for connection can also become particularly influential when an individual's relationship is perceived as a threat or when dependence on another person becomes excessive. For example, Guan et al., (2015) examined 80 couples longitudinally and found that love addiction was positively associated with emotional dependence and negatively associated with attachment avoidance. Their findings suggest that the motivation to maintain close romantic relationships can interact with attachment patterns and interpersonal dependence. ====== 1.2 Love, Connection, And Relatedness ====== Belongingness refers to the human emotion to be accepted as a member of a group. Whether family, friends, co-workers, a religion, or something else. People have an inherent desire to belong. [[File:20110702-31-Ilana_tim_and_becca_hug_(5972579616).jpg|thumb|225x225px|'''Figure 3'''. Friends hugging.]] Love can therefore be one way through which the broader need for interpersonal connection is experienced and expressed. Qadir et al., (2026) explored occupational therapists' experiences of belongingness within interprofessional clinical environments and found colleagues and patients contributed to participants' sense of belonging. Conversely, organisational barriers, discrimination and difficulties establishing a professional identity could undermine this sense of connection. The study also illustrates how belongingness and motivation can reinforce one another. Participants identified achievement, professional development and appreciation from others as important sources of motivation, while supportive and welcoming interactions contributed to their sense of belonging. This suggests that interpersonal environments can both motivate individuals to participate and develop the social acceptance that contributes to belongingness. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=12}}'''Think About It: What's On Your Phone Lock Screen?''' [[File:IPhone 17e Soft Pink Model - 1.jpg|thumb|150px|'''Figure 4'''. Pink Apple iPhone.]] ''Imagine you could only have one person on your phone's lock screen for the next year. Who would you choose, and why them?'' A lock screen is a practical feature of a phone, yet the image we choose to display can carry considerable emotional meaning. People may choose photographs of partners, family members, friends, or other significant individuals, turning an everyday object into a reminder of an important relationship. Conroy and Fraley (2026) investigated whether photographs of romantic partners could function as everyday attachment-related cues. Their findings suggested that lock screens are embedded with psychological processes involved in close relationships. Simply put, people like having photos of their partners.{{RoundBoxBottom}} == 2. Theories Explaining Love == {{expand}} ====== 2.1 Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs ====== Maslow (1943) proposed that human motivation is influenced by a hierarchy of needs. Beginning with physiological needs and safety, then love and belonging, and finally esteem and self-actualisation. Within this framework, love and belonging involve the desire for affection and acceptance. When these needs are insufficiently satisfied, individuals may become motivated to seek relationships and social connection. ====== 2.2 Self-Determination Theory ====== People are centrally concerned with motivation, how to move themselves or others to act (Ryan & Deci, 2000). == 3. How Love Influences Motivated Behaviour == What does this motivation actually make people do? ==Conclusion== * Draw back to the Overview; discuss the terms, and how those concepts link to the theories discussed. * Love and interpersonal relationships can influence motivation by directing people towards social connections. * Belongingness can influence emotional and cognitive processes, explaining why individuals invest time and effort in maintaining their relationships despite interfering with other life goals. * Draw on the comparison between Maslow's theory, self-determination theory, and attachment theory. * Potentially answer the focus questions, or at least, reference them once more here. * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words ==See also== * [[wikipedia:Belongingness|Belongingness]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Love styles and relationship satisfaction|Love styles and relationship satisfaction]] (Book chapter, 2025) * [[wikipedia:Need_theory|Need theory]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Baumeister, R. F., & Leary, M. R. (1995). The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation. ''Psychological Bulletin, 117''(3), 497-529. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.117.3.497 Conroy, K. E., & Fraley, R. C. (2026). Security priming in everyday life: How do symbols of close others support attachment in adulthood? ''Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 130''(6), 1229-1247. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspp0000590 Guan, C., Wang, J., Zhang, L. et al. (2025). A longitudinal network of the relationship between love addiction, insecure attachment patterns, and interpersonal dependence. ''BMC Psychol'' 13, 330. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-025-02605-3 Maslow, A. H. (1943). A theory of human motivation. ''Psychological Review, 50''(4), 370-396. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0054346 Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. ''American Psychologist, 55''(1), 68-79. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.55.1.68 Qadir, N. A., & Sethi, A. (2026). Factors affecting belongingness of Occupational Therapists in an Interprofessional Clinical Environment. ''Pakistan Journal of Medical Sciences, 42''(5), 1100-1104. https://doi.org/10.12669/pjms.42.5.13539 Zak, P. J (2015). Why inspiring stories make us react: the neuroscience of narrative. ''Cerebrum: the Dana forum on brain science, 2015'', 2. }} ==External links== * [https://www.unitedfamilies.org/parents/child-development/love-the-greatest-motivation-to-change/ Love: The Greatest Motivation to Change] (unitiedfamilies.org) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4BvlBoZsV_I The Key to Writing Criminally Good Relationships | Video Essay] (YouTube) * [https://open.spotify.com/track/42WQZAqPJOlLvg2Jr6lv8K You're My Best Friend - Queen] (Spotify) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Love]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Needs/Rela]] ioizjemald3mo9hqzvv7m8wss4haohz 2835729 2835727 2026-10-04T01:42:40Z U3280743 3106333 2835729 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Need to love and be loved:<br>How does the desire to give and receive love influence motivation?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=12}} [[File:Love heart.jpg|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Hands holding out a heart.]] '''Understanding love in pop culture''' ''Do you ever wonder how the media portrays love-driven behaviours?'' Filmmakers and game developers intentionally create love-driven character stories as it floods our brain with oxytocin (the "bonding and empathy" hormone). In turn, this hormone enhances our viewing experience, making films and video games much more memorable (Zak, 2015). In the 2026 psychological horror film the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backrooms_(film) Backrooms] {{ic|Use an internal link as shown in Tutorial 2}}, the deuteragonist, Mary, investigates the disappearance of her patient, Clark. She visits his workplace, ''Cap'n Clark's Ottoman Empire'', and unknowingly stumbles across the backrooms of the establishment. Mary's decision to search for Clark requires considerable risk and effort. Her behaviour raises the question of why a person might pursue another person's wellbeing, even when doing so conflicts with their own safety. A more positive example of giving and receiving love is portrayed in the popular 2013 video game [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Last_of_Us The Last of Us]. The game centres around a hardened smuggler named Joel who must escort a teenage girl named Ellie across a post-apocalyptic United States. As they spend more time together, their relationship develops into a close emotional bond resembling that of a parent and child. {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topic''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help ✅ #* '''Motivation''': First, explain the importance of motivation and how it is a psychological process that influences direction, intensity, and the persistence of a behaviour. #* '''Love and Belonging''': Follow with introducing the concepts of love and belonging. Love and belonging is needs involving affection, acceptance, and connection. Love is not limited to romantic relationships (THIS WILL BE EMPHASISED). #* '''Interpersonal Connection''': This term can bridge the above concepts to the theories. The need for meaningful connection is considered in several psychological perspectives: Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs, Self-determination theory, and Attachment theory. #* '''Outline the aim of the chapter'''; (i.e. this chapter develops the readers{{g}} understanding of the desire to give and receive love, and how motivation plays an important role in influencing said behaviours. This chapter will draw on a breath of psychological research, including key concepts and terms, and draw upon different psychological theories related to understanding love. This is to provide the reader a comprehensive but applicable direction for knowledge. '''''DRAFT OVERVIEW:''''' Love is a complex interpersonal experience that can influence how people think, feel, and behave. Chances are you have felt love, wether romantic and/or platonic. In psychology, motivation refers to the processes that give behaviour direction, intensity, and persistence. The desire to love and be loved can therefore be understood as a source of motivation. Motivation can influence people to initiate and invest in meaningful relationships. Love and belonging involve the desire for affection and acceptance, while interpersonal connection refers to the emotional and social bonds people develop with others. Several psychological theories provide different perspectives for understanding this relationship between love and motivation. Maslow's hierarchy of needs conceptualises love and belonging as fundamental human needs, while basic psychological needs theory identifies relatedness, or feeling connected to and cared for by others, as a fundamental psychological need. Attachment theory provides another framework for understanding how close emotional bonds can influence behaviour. Particularly, caregiving and responses to separation or threat. Recommended length: 180-330 words. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=12}}'''Focus questions''' • Why is the need to love and be loved considered an important source of human motivation? • How do psychological theories explain the motivation to form and maintain meaningful relationships? • How does the desire to give and receive love influence behaviours such as affiliation, caregiving, and prosocial behaviour? • When can the motivation to obtain love and belonging conflict with other psychological needs or become maladaptive? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==1. Love and Belonging as Human Motivation== {{expand}} ====== 1.1 The Need to Belong ====== [[File:Human–canine friendship - girl hugging her dog tightly at golden hour in Laos.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. A companionship that goes beyond.]] Love and interpersonal relationships can influence motivation by directing people towards social connection. In other words, forming and maintaining relationships. Humans do not simply interact with others because social interaction is available. Baumeister and Leary (1995)'s [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Mark-Leary-2/publication/15420847_The_Need_to_Belong_Desire_for_Interpersonal_Attachments_as_a_Fundamental_Human_Motivation/links/5b647053aca272e3b6af9211/The-Need-to-Belong-Desire-for-Interpersonal-Attachments-as-a-Fundamental-Human-Motivation.pdf Theory of Belonging] reviewed evidence supporting the belongingness hypothesis and concluded that people have a pervasive desire to form social attachments. People readily develop relationships with others, including under adverse circumstances, and tend to resist the loss or dissolution of existing social bonds even when maintaining them provides no obvious practical benefit. This suggests that interpersonal relationships can function as motivation goals in their own right rather than simply serving other purposes. The importance of belonging can be seen in the psychological consequences associated with social connection and disconnection. Rather than being simply a preference for social interaction, belongingness can influence emotional and cognitive processes. This explains why people may invest considerable time and effort into developing and maintaining relationships. The desire for connection can also become particularly influential when an individual's relationship is perceived as a threat or when dependence on another person becomes excessive. For example, Guan et al., (2015) examined 80 couples longitudinally and found that love addiction was positively associated with emotional dependence and negatively associated with attachment avoidance. Their findings suggest that the motivation to maintain close romantic relationships can interact with attachment patterns and interpersonal dependence. ====== 1.2 Love, Connection, And Relatedness ====== Belongingness refers to the human emotion to be accepted as a member of a group. Whether family, friends, co-workers, a religion, or something else. People have an inherent desire to belong. [[File:20110702-31-Ilana_tim_and_becca_hug_(5972579616).jpg|thumb|225x225px|'''Figure 3'''. Friends hugging.]] Love can therefore be one way through which the broader need for interpersonal connection is experienced and expressed. Qadir et al., (2026) explored occupational therapists' experiences of belongingness within interprofessional clinical environments and found colleagues and patients contributed to participants' sense of belonging. Conversely, organisational barriers, discrimination and difficulties establishing a professional identity could undermine this sense of connection. The study also illustrates how belongingness and motivation can reinforce one another. Participants identified achievement, professional development and appreciation from others as important sources of motivation, while supportive and welcoming interactions contributed to their sense of belonging. This suggests that interpersonal environments can both motivate individuals to participate and develop the social acceptance that contributes to belongingness. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=12}}'''Think About It: What's On Your Phone Lock Screen?''' [[File:IPhone 17e Soft Pink Model - 1.jpg|thumb|150px|'''Figure 4'''. Pink Apple iPhone.]] ''Imagine you could only have one person on your phone's lock screen for the next year. Who would you choose, and why them?'' A lock screen is a practical feature of a phone, yet the image we choose to display can carry considerable emotional meaning. People may choose photographs of partners, family members, friends, or other significant individuals, turning an everyday object into a reminder of an important relationship. Conroy and Fraley (2026) investigated whether photographs of romantic partners could function as everyday attachment-related cues. Their findings suggested that lock screens are embedded with psychological processes involved in close relationships. Simply put, people like having photos of their partners.{{RoundBoxBottom}} == 2. Theories Explaining Love == {{expand}} ====== 2.1 Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs ====== Maslow (1943) proposed that human motivation is influenced by a hierarchy of needs. Beginning with physiological needs and safety, then love and belonging, and finally esteem and self-actualisation. Within this framework, love and belonging involve the desire for affection and acceptance. When these needs are insufficiently satisfied, individuals may become motivated to seek relationships and social connection. ====== 2.2 Self-Determination Theory ====== People are centrally concerned with motivation, how to move themselves or others to act (Ryan & Deci, 2000). == 3. How Love Influences Motivated Behaviour == What does this motivation actually make people do? ==Conclusion== * Draw back to the Overview; discuss the terms, and how those concepts link to the theories discussed. * Love and interpersonal relationships can influence motivation by directing people towards social connections. * Belongingness can influence emotional and cognitive processes, explaining why individuals invest time and effort in maintaining their relationships despite interfering with other life goals. * Draw on the comparison between Maslow's theory, self-determination theory, and attachment theory. * Potentially answer the focus questions, or at least, reference them once more here. * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words ==See also== * [[wikipedia:Belongingness|Belongingness]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Love styles and relationship satisfaction|Love styles and relationship satisfaction]] (Book chapter, 2025) * [[wikipedia:Need_theory|Need theory]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Baumeister, R. F., & Leary, M. R. (1995). The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation. ''Psychological Bulletin, 117''(3), 497-529. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.117.3.497 Conroy, K. E., & Fraley, R. C. (2026). Security priming in everyday life: How do symbols of close others support attachment in adulthood? ''Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 130''(6), 1229-1247. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspp0000590 Guan, C., Wang, J., Zhang, L. et al. (2025). A longitudinal network of the relationship between love addiction, insecure attachment patterns, and interpersonal dependence. ''BMC Psychol'' 13, 330. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-025-02605-3 Maslow, A. H. (1943). A theory of human motivation. ''Psychological Review, 50''(4), 370-396. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0054346 Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. ''American Psychologist, 55''(1), 68-79. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.55.1.68 Qadir, N. A., & Sethi, A. (2026). Factors affecting belongingness of Occupational Therapists in an Interprofessional Clinical Environment. ''Pakistan Journal of Medical Sciences, 42''(5), 1100-1104. https://doi.org/10.12669/pjms.42.5.13539 Zak, P. J (2015). Why inspiring stories make us react: the neuroscience of narrative. ''Cerebrum: the Dana forum on brain science, 2015'', 2. }} ==External links== * [https://www.unitedfamilies.org/parents/child-development/love-the-greatest-motivation-to-change/ Love: The Greatest Motivation to Change] (unitiedfamilies.org) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4BvlBoZsV_I The Key to Writing Criminally Good Relationships | Video Essay] (YouTube) * [https://open.spotify.com/track/42WQZAqPJOlLvg2Jr6lv8K You're My Best Friend - Queen] (Spotify) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Love]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Needs/Rela]] 78tdsk5q9ixnf0dp55983ugzymn414d 0 331068 2835683 2835678 2026-10-03T12:20:47Z Flickstar888 3106813 2835683 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Envy in the workplace:<br>What role does envy play in workplace behaviour?}} __TOC__ === Overview === {{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}} [[File:Zonaspace-coworking-collaboration.jpg|thumb|320x320px|'''Figure 1'''. Envy can occur in any workplace.]] ;Case study Jillian and Anna work for the same consulting firm and are at the same level. Jillian recently completed a project that received recognition from senior leaders and she continues to be praised about it. Anna and Jillian get along well, although Anna has started feeling resentful towards Jillian (see Figure 1). Anna recently asked Jillian about the project and what tools she used that could possibly assist with her projects. Jillian mentioned she completed a project management course that really changed the way she approaches projects to ensure all milestones are delivered on time and on budget. Anna enrols in the same project management course immediately. This is an example of benign envy. By feeling envy towards Jillian, it has motivated Anna to take action to improve herself. With Anna developing her project management skills, this will impact the team and consulting firm in a positive way encouraging extraordinary results. {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[wikipedia:Envy|Envy]] is a powerful [[emotion]] that drives different behaviours (Yang & Tang, 2021). It can be described as the bitterness or anger you feel when others receive what you deeply or unconsciously desire. In many workplaces, it is human nature for an individual to measure and compare themselves to those that are being recognised or seem more valued than they are. These comparisons can trigger workplace envy, especially when someone feels they are inferior to others. According to Duffy et al (2021), over the last 25 years, there has been growing interest in the phenomenon of workplace envy. While every workplace is filled with opportunities for competition and self-comparison, Liu et al (2021), stated it was important to consider the environment and the timing when looking at workplace envy as it is constantly evolving. Workplace envy occurs across a variety of workplace situations although experiences can vary in intensity and frequency and can transform into behavioural reactions. This book chapter describes workplace envy and discusses the role it plays in workplace behaviour. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * What is the role of envy in the workplace? * What is the difference between malicious envy and benign envy? * What causes envy and how is it linked to motivation? * What is the relationship between envy and self-efficacy? * What is the relationship between envy and social comparison theory? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Role of envy in the workplace == There are many causes of envy in the workplace. It can emerge when an employee notices that a colleague has achieved something they desire, such as recognition, a reward, a promotion or an opportunity. It can occur in any workplace where employees routinely compare their performance or progress to those around them, these comparisons can easily activate feelings of envy. Through guidance and intervention, envy can be used as a workplace 'tool' to drive positive behaviour. *Envy can be destructive or can lead to a promotion (Liu et al, 2021) *can drive cultural change *envy can occur when individuals compare themselves to others, they perceive to be more fortunate. == Benign versus malicious envy == Workplace envy can be either benign or malicious. Even though they both start with the same feeling of inferiority, they can lead to different reactions (Crusius et al, 2021). Benign envy creates an urge for people to grow while malicious envy leads to negative thoughts or actions that aims to bring a person down (see Table 1). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Scenario:''' Jon and Sam have worked together for a long time. They both applied for a promotion within the team recently, Jon was successful and Sam missed out. Since then, Sam has started treating Jon unfairly. In meetings, Sam makes negative comments about Jon's ideas. During team lunches, Sam leaves Jon out on purpose. Each day, Sam's behaviour becomes more unfriendly and hurtful. This is an example of malicious envy. Sam is feeling envious of Jon and is trying to harm and put him down. {{RoundBoxBottom}}The following table outlines the difference between benign and malicious envy in the workplace. '''Table 1.''' {| class="wikitable" ! ! Benign Envy ! Malicious Envy |- | Definition | Envy that motivates self‑improvement. | Envy that manifests when someone feels threatened or unable to match another’s achievements. |- | Emotional Response | Encourages growth, motivation and learning. | Creates feelings of resentment, threat, or inferiority. |- | Typical Behaviours | Working harder, learning new skills, seeking growth or development opportunities. | Exclusion, gossip, criticism or subtle sabotage. |- | Impact on Workplace Culture | Strengthens workplace culture through healthy competition and personal development. | Damages trust, teamwork, morale, and can escalate into workplace conflict and create a toxic culture. |- | Outcome | Positive: supports improvement and collaboration. | Negative: undermines relationships and workplace functioning. |} == Relationship between envy and motivation? == Envy is linked to motivation. The relationship between them is: * motivation can drive envy * what motivates positive behaviour * what motivates negative behaviour * how, what and why? == Behaviours caused by self-efficacy? == Self-efficacy is the mental switch that determines whether envy will lead to a positive or negative behaviour. The two types of self-efficacy are: * [[File:Self and environment.png|thumb|'''Figure 3.''' Self-efficacy factors.]]high self-efficacy * low self-efficacy * Example of each of the above == Relationship between workplace envy and social comparison theory? == Social comparison theory assumes that individuals tend to compare their opinions and abilities to others. Feeling threatened in the workplace makes people judge themselves more harshly as they believe they cannot match their colleague's social status or success. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}} [[File:Call center (8300442093).jpg|thumb|320x320px|'''Figure 4'''. Social Comparison Theory at play in a Call Centre.]] ;Case study At ReadyCall, everyone's daily call numbers are recorded on a big screen. Ebony is new and she keeps comparing herself to Rick, a senior worker who always has the highest call numbers. Seeing the gap makes Ebony feel stressed and worried she isn't good enough. Ebony's manager explains that Rick learned his skills over many years and wasn't fast when he first started. After hearing this, Ebony feels better, learns some tips from Rick, and becomes more confident. This is an example of social comparison theory, where people judge themselves by comparing their performance to others (see Figure 4). {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[File:Happy-smiley-face-and-sad-2048x1536.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' Envy can drive positive or negative behaviour in the workplace.]] [[wikipedia:Envy|Envy]] is a powerful [[emotion]]. It can be described as the resentment you feel when others receive what you deeply desire. In many workplaces, it is human nature for people to compare themselves to others. In the workplace, a person will measure and compare themselves against those that are being recognised for their work, those that are promoted and those that seem more valued than they are. These comparisons can trigger envy, especially when someone feels they are inferior to others. ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display="simple"> {Benign envy is associated with positive emotions and encourages positive behaviour? |type="()"} + True - False {Malicious envy is associated with negative emotions and encourages negative behaviour? |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== Envy plays a significant role in shaping workplace behaviour because employees constantly observe and compare their progress and recognition and opportunities of those around them. These comparisons can trigger envy which is not just a negative emotion but a complex psychological response influenced by self-efficacy, motivation and social comparison processes. These comparisons highlight an individual's insecurities, making envy an important emotional signal rather than a something negative. When employees feel capable of improving themselves, workplace envy becomes a constructive force that encourages learning, effort and healthy competition. However, workplace envy can also shift into a harmful direction when employees feel threatened, insecure or unable to achieve similar success. In these situations, workplace envy may lead to resentment, withdrawal or undermining behaviour which can disrupt teamwork or damage workplace relationships. By understanding these dynamics, workplaces can respond carefully and recognise the important role envy plays in fostering growth. fairness and healthier interpersonal relationships that will effectively create a positive working culture. {{tip|Take-home messages: * Not all workplace envy is negative. * Envy is an important catalyst for change if driven in a positive way. * Envy can motivate staff in a constructive way. }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * Envy<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2011/Envy|title=Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Envy - Wikiversity|website=en.wikiversity.org|language=en|access-date=2026-08-25}}</ref> (Book Chapter, 2011) {{ic|See Tutorial 2 for how to create an internal link to a book chapter) * Jealousy<ref>{{Cite web|url=|title=|website=|language=|access-date=}}</ref> is not the same as envy (Book Chapter, 2013) * [[Self-Efficacy]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Aggression in the workplace|Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Aggression in the workplace - Wikiversity]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Rivalry in the workplace|Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Rivalry in the workplace - Wikiversity]] {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Crusius J., Thierhoff J., Lange J. (2021). Dispositional greed predicts benign and malicious envy. Personality and Individual Differences, 168, 110361. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110361 Dong, Xue T., Yang W. Chung, Joon H. Park, and Jeong K. Yun. 2026. “Workplace Envy and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour: The Mediating Effect of Cynicism and the Moderating Effect of Organizational Support.” Canadian Journal of Administrative Sciences / Revue Canadienne des Sciences de l'Administration: e70020. https://doi.org/10.1002/cjas.70020. Duffy, M. K., Lee, K., & Adair, E. A. (2021). Workplace envy. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 8, 19–44. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-012420-055746 Erdil O., Müceldili B. (2014). The effects of envy on job engagement and turnover intention. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 150(1), 447–454. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.09.050 Han, S., Zhan, Y., Zhang, L., & Mu, R. (2022). You Have Received More Help than I Did and I Envy You: A Social Comparison Perspective on Receiving Help in the Team. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(14), 8351. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19148351 Jafri M. H. (2020). Moderating role of self-efficacy on benign envy—employee engagement relationship. Business Perspectives and Research, 8(2), 232–243. https://doi.org/10.1177/227853371988745 Köksal, K., Tufan, C., Griffiths, M.D. et al. From perceived workplace envy to deviance: a multi-theoretical model of envy-related workplace behaviors and the moderating role of social courage. Curr Psychol 45, 1052 (2026). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-026-09607-3 Lange, J., Paulhus, D. L., & Crusius, J. (2018). Elucidating the Dark Side of Envy: Distinctive Links of Benign and Malicious Envy With Dark Personalities. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 44(4), 601-614. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167217746340 Li M., Xu X., Kwan H. K. (2021). The antecedents and consequences of workplace envy: A meta-analytic review. Asia Pacific Journal of Management. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10490-021-09772-y Li M, Qin Y, Le J (2025), "Mentoring matters: decoding the impact of downward envy on interpersonal conflict, workplace ostracism, and displaced aggression". Journal of Managerial Psychology, Vol. 40 No. 1 pp. 67–81, doi: https://doi.org/10.1108/JMP-12-2023-0768 Li, Y., & Wang, S. (2023). "Comparisons are Odious"? - Exploring the Dual Effect of Upward Social Comparison on Workplace Coping Behaviors of Temporary Agency Workers. Psychology research and behavior management, 16, 4251–4265. https://doi.org/10.2147/PRBM.S425946 Liu, H., Geng, J., & Yao, P. (2021). Relationship of Leadership and Envy: How to Resolve Workplace Envy with Leadership-A Bibliometric Review Study. Journal of Intelligence, 9(3), 44. https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence9030044 Nakai, A. and Numazaki, M. (2026), The Emotional Nature of Malicious and Benign Envy: Separate Measurements for Emotion and Motivation. Jpn Psychol Res. https://doi.org/10.1111/jpr.12568 Song, Y., & Zhao, Z. (2022). Social Undermining and Interpersonal Rumination among Employees: The Mediating Role of Being the Subject of Envy and the Moderating Role of Social Support. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(14), 8419. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19148419 Su, X., & Chen, C. (2023). The Influence of Workplace Envy on Employees’ Knowledge-Hiding Behavior Based on a Comparative Analysis between Generation Cohorts. Behavioral Sciences, 13(9), 716. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs13090716 Walter CE, Au-Yong-Oliveira M (2022), "An exploratory study on the barriers to innovative behavior: the spiteful effect of envy". Journal of Organizational Change Management, Vol. 35 No. 6 pp. 936–960, https://doi.org/10.1108/JOCM-02-2022-0034 Wilkes, D. (2023) Workplace Envy: Exploring the Effect of Envy on Team Communication and Organizational Information Sharing. Open Journal of Business and Management, 11, 1757-1786. https://doi.org/10.4236/ojbm.2023.114099 Yang C and Tang R (2021) Validating the “Two Faces” of Envy: The Effect of Self-Control. Front. Psychol. 12:731451. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.731451 }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== The following links provide further background and context to support this book chapter: * [https://www.youtube.com/shorts/NwGMsgB9mNg Envy: The Ugliest Emotion? Find out the Truth!] * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1f9IE3CkB4s How to Stop Comparing Yourself to Others] * https://www.ted.com/talks/worklife_with_adam_grant_become_friends_with_your_rivals * [https://ideas.ted.com/do-you-secretly-feel-good-when-others-stumble-5-ways-to-make-peace-with-this-very-human-emotion/ https://ideas.ted.com/do-you-secretly-feel-goo-when-others-stumble-5-ways-to-make-peace-with-this-very-human-emotion/] * [https://www.youtube.com/shorts/3g0lRfiAXzc Why Workplace Envy Is Secretly Power ? - YouTube] {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} <references group="Categories: Motivation and emotion/Book/2026Motivation and emotion/Book/CopingMotivation and emotion/Book/EmotionMotivation and emotion/Book/Envyintheworkplace" responsive /> 8roz1d0om3d2zplj96wq4xvzkuf6dsl 2835685 2835683 2026-10-03T12:24:44Z Flickstar888 3106813 Redirected page to [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Envy in the workplace]] 2835685 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Envy in the workplace]]{{title|Envy in the workplace:<br>What role does envy play in workplace behaviour?}} __TOC__ === Overview === {{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}} [[File:Zonaspace-coworking-collaboration.jpg|thumb|320x320px|'''Figure 1'''. Envy can occur in any workplace.]] ;Case study Jillian and Anna work for the same consulting firm and are at the same level. Jillian recently completed a project that received recognition from senior leaders and she continues to be praised about it. Anna and Jillian get along well, although Anna has started feeling resentful towards Jillian (see Figure 1). Anna recently asked Jillian about the project and what tools she used that could possibly assist with her projects. Jillian mentioned she completed a project management course that really changed the way she approaches projects to ensure all milestones are delivered on time and on budget. Anna enrols in the same project management course immediately. This is an example of benign envy. By feeling envy towards Jillian, it has motivated Anna to take action to improve herself. With Anna developing her project management skills, this will impact the team and consulting firm in a positive way encouraging extraordinary results. {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[wikipedia:Envy|Envy]] is a powerful [[emotion]] that drives different behaviours (Yang & Tang, 2021). It can be described as the bitterness or anger you feel when others receive what you deeply or unconsciously desire. In many workplaces, it is human nature for an individual to measure and compare themselves to those that are being recognised or seem more valued than they are. These comparisons can trigger workplace envy, especially when someone feels they are inferior to others. According to Duffy et al (2021), over the last 25 years, there has been growing interest in the phenomenon of workplace envy. While every workplace is filled with opportunities for competition and self-comparison, Liu et al (2021), stated it was important to consider the environment and the timing when looking at workplace envy as it is constantly evolving. Workplace envy occurs across a variety of workplace situations although experiences can vary in intensity and frequency and can transform into behavioural reactions. This book chapter describes workplace envy and discusses the role it plays in workplace behaviour. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * What is the role of envy in the workplace? * What is the difference between malicious envy and benign envy? * What causes envy and how is it linked to motivation? * What is the relationship between envy and self-efficacy? * What is the relationship between envy and social comparison theory? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Role of envy in the workplace == There are many causes of envy in the workplace. It can emerge when an employee notices that a colleague has achieved something they desire, such as recognition, a reward, a promotion or an opportunity. It can occur in any workplace where employees routinely compare their performance or progress to those around them, these comparisons can easily activate feelings of envy. Through guidance and intervention, envy can be used as a workplace 'tool' to drive positive behaviour. *Envy can be destructive or can lead to a promotion (Liu et al, 2021) *can drive cultural change *envy can occur when individuals compare themselves to others, they perceive to be more fortunate. == Benign versus malicious envy == Workplace envy can be either benign or malicious. Even though they both start with the same feeling of inferiority, they can lead to different reactions (Crusius et al, 2021). Benign envy creates an urge for people to grow while malicious envy leads to negative thoughts or actions that aims to bring a person down (see Table 1). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Scenario:''' Jon and Sam have worked together for a long time. They both applied for a promotion within the team recently, Jon was successful and Sam missed out. Since then, Sam has started treating Jon unfairly. In meetings, Sam makes negative comments about Jon's ideas. During team lunches, Sam leaves Jon out on purpose. Each day, Sam's behaviour becomes more unfriendly and hurtful. This is an example of malicious envy. Sam is feeling envious of Jon and is trying to harm and put him down. {{RoundBoxBottom}}The following table outlines the difference between benign and malicious envy in the workplace. '''Table 1.''' {| class="wikitable" ! ! Benign Envy ! Malicious Envy |- | Definition | Envy that motivates self‑improvement. | Envy that manifests when someone feels threatened or unable to match another’s achievements. |- | Emotional Response | Encourages growth, motivation and learning. | Creates feelings of resentment, threat, or inferiority. |- | Typical Behaviours | Working harder, learning new skills, seeking growth or development opportunities. | Exclusion, gossip, criticism or subtle sabotage. |- | Impact on Workplace Culture | Strengthens workplace culture through healthy competition and personal development. | Damages trust, teamwork, morale, and can escalate into workplace conflict and create a toxic culture. |- | Outcome | Positive: supports improvement and collaboration. | Negative: undermines relationships and workplace functioning. |} == Relationship between envy and motivation? == Envy is linked to motivation. The relationship between them is: * motivation can drive envy * what motivates positive behaviour * what motivates negative behaviour * how, what and why? == Behaviours caused by self-efficacy? == Self-efficacy is the mental switch that determines whether envy will lead to a positive or negative behaviour. The two types of self-efficacy are: * [[File:Self and environment.png|thumb|'''Figure 3.''' Self-efficacy factors.]]high self-efficacy * low self-efficacy * Example of each of the above == Relationship between workplace envy and social comparison theory? == Social comparison theory assumes that individuals tend to compare their opinions and abilities to others. Feeling threatened in the workplace makes people judge themselves more harshly as they believe they cannot match their colleague's social status or success. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}} [[File:Call center (8300442093).jpg|thumb|320x320px|'''Figure 4'''. Social Comparison Theory at play in a Call Centre.]] ;Case study At ReadyCall, everyone's daily call numbers are recorded on a big screen. Ebony is new and she keeps comparing herself to Rick, a senior worker who always has the highest call numbers. Seeing the gap makes Ebony feel stressed and worried she isn't good enough. Ebony's manager explains that Rick learned his skills over many years and wasn't fast when he first started. After hearing this, Ebony feels better, learns some tips from Rick, and becomes more confident. This is an example of social comparison theory, where people judge themselves by comparing their performance to others (see Figure 4). {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[File:Happy-smiley-face-and-sad-2048x1536.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' Envy can drive positive or negative behaviour in the workplace.]] [[wikipedia:Envy|Envy]] is a powerful [[emotion]]. It can be described as the resentment you feel when others receive what you deeply desire. In many workplaces, it is human nature for people to compare themselves to others. In the workplace, a person will measure and compare themselves against those that are being recognised for their work, those that are promoted and those that seem more valued than they are. These comparisons can trigger envy, especially when someone feels they are inferior to others. ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display="simple"> {Benign envy is associated with positive emotions and encourages positive behaviour? |type="()"} + True - False {Malicious envy is associated with negative emotions and encourages negative behaviour? |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== Envy plays a significant role in shaping workplace behaviour because employees constantly observe and compare their progress and recognition and opportunities of those around them. These comparisons can trigger envy which is not just a negative emotion but a complex psychological response influenced by self-efficacy, motivation and social comparison processes. These comparisons highlight an individual's insecurities, making envy an important emotional signal rather than a something negative. When employees feel capable of improving themselves, workplace envy becomes a constructive force that encourages learning, effort and healthy competition. However, workplace envy can also shift into a harmful direction when employees feel threatened, insecure or unable to achieve similar success. In these situations, workplace envy may lead to resentment, withdrawal or undermining behaviour which can disrupt teamwork or damage workplace relationships. By understanding these dynamics, workplaces can respond carefully and recognise the important role envy plays in fostering growth. fairness and healthier interpersonal relationships that will effectively create a positive working culture. {{tip|Take-home messages: * Not all workplace envy is negative. * Envy is an important catalyst for change if driven in a positive way. * Envy can motivate staff in a constructive way. }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * Envy<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2011/Envy|title=Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Envy - Wikiversity|website=en.wikiversity.org|language=en|access-date=2026-08-25}}</ref> (Book Chapter, 2011) {{ic|See Tutorial 2 for how to create an internal link to a book chapter) * Jealousy<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2026/Envy_in_the_workplace?veaction=edit|title=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2026/Envy_in_the_workplace?veaction=edit|website=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2026/Envy_in_the_workplace?veaction=edit|language=|access-date=|last=Flickstar888}}</ref> is not the same as envy (Book Chapter, 2013) * [[Self-Efficacy]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Aggression in the workplace|Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Aggression in the workplace - Wikiversity]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Rivalry in the workplace|Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Rivalry in the workplace - Wikiversity]] {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Crusius J., Thierhoff J., Lange J. (2021). Dispositional greed predicts benign and malicious envy. Personality and Individual Differences, 168, 110361. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110361 Dong, Xue T., Yang W. Chung, Joon H. Park, and Jeong K. Yun. 2026. “Workplace Envy and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour: The Mediating Effect of Cynicism and the Moderating Effect of Organizational Support.” Canadian Journal of Administrative Sciences / Revue Canadienne des Sciences de l'Administration: e70020. https://doi.org/10.1002/cjas.70020. Duffy, M. K., Lee, K., & Adair, E. A. (2021). Workplace envy. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 8, 19–44. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-012420-055746 Erdil O., Müceldili B. (2014). The effects of envy on job engagement and turnover intention. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 150(1), 447–454. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.09.050 Han, S., Zhan, Y., Zhang, L., & Mu, R. (2022). You Have Received More Help than I Did and I Envy You: A Social Comparison Perspective on Receiving Help in the Team. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(14), 8351. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19148351 Jafri M. H. (2020). Moderating role of self-efficacy on benign envy—employee engagement relationship. Business Perspectives and Research, 8(2), 232–243. https://doi.org/10.1177/227853371988745 Köksal, K., Tufan, C., Griffiths, M.D. et al. From perceived workplace envy to deviance: a multi-theoretical model of envy-related workplace behaviors and the moderating role of social courage. Curr Psychol 45, 1052 (2026). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-026-09607-3 Lange, J., Paulhus, D. L., & Crusius, J. (2018). Elucidating the Dark Side of Envy: Distinctive Links of Benign and Malicious Envy With Dark Personalities. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 44(4), 601-614. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167217746340 Li M., Xu X., Kwan H. K. (2021). The antecedents and consequences of workplace envy: A meta-analytic review. Asia Pacific Journal of Management. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10490-021-09772-y Li M, Qin Y, Le J (2025), "Mentoring matters: decoding the impact of downward envy on interpersonal conflict, workplace ostracism, and displaced aggression". Journal of Managerial Psychology, Vol. 40 No. 1 pp. 67–81, doi: https://doi.org/10.1108/JMP-12-2023-0768 Li, Y., & Wang, S. (2023). "Comparisons are Odious"? - Exploring the Dual Effect of Upward Social Comparison on Workplace Coping Behaviors of Temporary Agency Workers. Psychology research and behavior management, 16, 4251–4265. https://doi.org/10.2147/PRBM.S425946 Liu, H., Geng, J., & Yao, P. (2021). Relationship of Leadership and Envy: How to Resolve Workplace Envy with Leadership-A Bibliometric Review Study. Journal of Intelligence, 9(3), 44. https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence9030044 Nakai, A. and Numazaki, M. (2026), The Emotional Nature of Malicious and Benign Envy: Separate Measurements for Emotion and Motivation. Jpn Psychol Res. https://doi.org/10.1111/jpr.12568 Song, Y., & Zhao, Z. (2022). Social Undermining and Interpersonal Rumination among Employees: The Mediating Role of Being the Subject of Envy and the Moderating Role of Social Support. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(14), 8419. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19148419 Su, X., & Chen, C. (2023). The Influence of Workplace Envy on Employees’ Knowledge-Hiding Behavior Based on a Comparative Analysis between Generation Cohorts. Behavioral Sciences, 13(9), 716. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs13090716 Walter CE, Au-Yong-Oliveira M (2022), "An exploratory study on the barriers to innovative behavior: the spiteful effect of envy". Journal of Organizational Change Management, Vol. 35 No. 6 pp. 936–960, https://doi.org/10.1108/JOCM-02-2022-0034 Wilkes, D. (2023) Workplace Envy: Exploring the Effect of Envy on Team Communication and Organizational Information Sharing. Open Journal of Business and Management, 11, 1757-1786. https://doi.org/10.4236/ojbm.2023.114099 Yang C and Tang R (2021) Validating the “Two Faces” of Envy: The Effect of Self-Control. Front. Psychol. 12:731451. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.731451 }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== The following links provide further background and context to support this book chapter: * [https://www.youtube.com/shorts/NwGMsgB9mNg Envy: The Ugliest Emotion? Find out the Truth!] * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1f9IE3CkB4s How to Stop Comparing Yourself to Others] * https://www.ted.com/talks/worklife_with_adam_grant_become_friends_with_your_rivals * [https://ideas.ted.com/do-you-secretly-feel-good-when-others-stumble-5-ways-to-make-peace-with-this-very-human-emotion/ https://ideas.ted.com/do-you-secretly-feel-goo-when-others-stumble-5-ways-to-make-peace-with-this-very-human-emotion/] * [https://www.youtube.com/shorts/3g0lRfiAXzc Why Workplace Envy Is Secretly Power ? - YouTube] {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} 2a9nngdrtr56j28jpa9pybd6lm1o64a 2835686 2835685 2026-10-03T12:29:53Z Flickstar888 3106813 2835686 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Envy in the workplace]]{{title|Envy in the workplace:<br>What role does envy play in workplace behaviour?}} __TOC__ === Overview === {{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}} [[File:Zonaspace-coworking-collaboration.jpg|thumb|320x320px|'''Figure 1'''. Envy can occur in any workplace.]] ;Case study Jillian and Anna work for the same consulting firm and are at the same level. Jillian recently completed a project that received recognition from senior leaders and she continues to be praised about it. Anna and Jillian get along well, although Anna has started feeling resentful towards Jillian (see Figure 1). Anna recently asked Jillian about the project and what tools she used that could possibly assist with her projects. Jillian mentioned she completed a project management course that really changed the way she approaches projects to ensure all milestones are delivered on time and on budget. Anna enrols in the same project management course immediately. This is an example of benign envy. By feeling envy towards Jillian, it has motivated Anna to take action to improve herself. With Anna developing her project management skills, this will impact the team and consulting firm in a positive way encouraging extraordinary results. {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[wikipedia:Envy|Envy]] is a powerful [[emotion]] that drives different behaviours (Yang & Tang, 2021). It can be described as the bitterness or anger you feel when others receive what you deeply or unconsciously desire. In many workplaces, it is human nature for an individual to measure and compare themselves to those that are being recognised or seem more valued than they are. These comparisons can trigger workplace envy, especially when someone feels they are inferior to others. According to Duffy et al (2021), over the last 25 years, there has been growing interest in the phenomenon of workplace envy. While every workplace is filled with opportunities for competition and self-comparison, Liu et al (2021), stated it was important to consider the environment and the timing when looking at workplace envy as it is constantly evolving. Workplace envy occurs across a variety of workplace situations although experiences can vary in intensity and frequency and can transform into behavioural reactions. This book chapter describes workplace envy and discusses the role it plays in workplace behaviour. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * What is the role of envy in the workplace? * What is the difference between malicious envy and benign envy? * What causes envy and how is it linked to motivation? * What is the relationship between envy and self-efficacy? * What is the relationship between envy and social comparison theory? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Role of envy in the workplace == There are many causes of envy in the workplace. It can emerge when an employee notices that a colleague has achieved something they desire, such as recognition, a reward, a promotion or an opportunity. It can occur in any workplace where employees routinely compare their performance or progress to those around them, these comparisons can easily activate feelings of envy. Through guidance and intervention, envy can be used as a workplace 'tool' to drive positive behaviour. *Envy can be destructive or can lead to a promotion (Liu et al, 2021) *can drive cultural change *envy can occur when individuals compare themselves to others, they perceive to be more fortunate. == Benign versus malicious envy == Workplace envy can be either benign or malicious. Even though they both start with the same feeling of inferiority, they can lead to different reactions (Crusius et al, 2021). Benign envy creates an urge for people to grow while malicious envy leads to negative thoughts or actions that aims to bring a person down (see Table 1). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Scenario:''' Jon and Sam have worked together for a long time. They both applied for a promotion within the team recently, Jon was successful and Sam missed out. Since then, Sam has started treating Jon unfairly. In meetings, Sam makes negative comments about Jon's ideas. During team lunches, Sam leaves Jon out on purpose. Each day, Sam's behaviour becomes more unfriendly and hurtful. This is an example of malicious envy. Sam is feeling envious of Jon and is trying to harm and put him down. {{RoundBoxBottom}}The following table outlines the difference between benign and malicious envy in the workplace. '''Table 1.''' {| class="wikitable" ! ! Benign Envy ! Malicious Envy |- | Definition | Envy that motivates self‑improvement. | Envy that manifests when someone feels threatened or unable to match another’s achievements. |- | Emotional Response | Encourages growth, motivation and learning. | Creates feelings of resentment, threat, or inferiority. |- | Typical Behaviours | Working harder, learning new skills, seeking growth or development opportunities. | Exclusion, gossip, criticism or subtle sabotage. |- | Impact on Workplace Culture | Strengthens workplace culture through healthy competition and personal development. | Damages trust, teamwork, morale, and can escalate into workplace conflict and create a toxic culture. |- | Outcome | Positive: supports improvement and collaboration. | Negative: undermines relationships and workplace functioning. |} == Relationship between envy and motivation? == Envy is linked to motivation. The relationship between them is: * motivation can drive envy * what motivates positive behaviour * what motivates negative behaviour * how, what and why? == Behaviours caused by self-efficacy? == Self-efficacy is the mental switch that determines whether envy will lead to a positive or negative behaviour. The two types of self-efficacy are: * [[File:Self and environment.png|thumb|'''Figure 3.''' Self-efficacy factors.]]high self-efficacy * low self-efficacy * Example of each of the above == Relationship between workplace envy and social comparison theory? == Social comparison theory assumes that individuals tend to compare their opinions and abilities to others. Feeling threatened in the workplace makes people judge themselves more harshly as they believe they cannot match their colleague's social status or success. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}} [[File:Call center (8300442093).jpg|thumb|320x320px|'''Figure 4'''. Social Comparison Theory at play in a Call Centre.]] ;Case study At ReadyCall, everyone's daily call numbers are recorded on a big screen. Ebony is new and she keeps comparing herself to Rick, a senior worker who always has the highest call numbers. Seeing the gap makes Ebony feel stressed and worried she isn't good enough. Ebony's manager explains that Rick learned his skills over many years and wasn't fast when he first started. After hearing this, Ebony feels better, learns some tips from Rick, and becomes more confident. This is an example of social comparison theory, where people judge themselves by comparing their performance to others (see Figure 4). {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[File:Happy-smiley-face-and-sad-2048x1536.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' Envy can drive positive or negative behaviour in the workplace.]] [[wikipedia:Envy|Envy]] is a powerful [[emotion]]. It can be described as the resentment you feel when others receive what you deeply desire. In many workplaces, it is human nature for people to compare themselves to others. In the workplace, a person will measure and compare themselves against those that are being recognised for their work, those that are promoted and those that seem more valued than they are. These comparisons can trigger envy, especially when someone feels they are inferior to others. ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display="simple"> {Benign envy is associated with positive emotions and encourages positive behaviour? |type="()"} + True - False {Malicious envy is associated with negative emotions and encourages negative behaviour? |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== Envy plays a significant role in shaping workplace behaviour because employees constantly observe and compare their progress and recognition and opportunities of those around them. These comparisons can trigger envy which is not just a negative emotion but a complex psychological response influenced by self-efficacy, motivation and social comparison processes. These comparisons highlight an individual's insecurities, making envy an important emotional signal rather than a something negative. When employees feel capable of improving themselves, workplace envy becomes a constructive force that encourages learning, effort and healthy competition. However, workplace envy can also shift into a harmful direction when employees feel threatened, insecure or unable to achieve similar success. In these situations, workplace envy may lead to resentment, withdrawal or undermining behaviour which can disrupt teamwork or damage workplace relationships. By understanding these dynamics, workplaces can respond carefully and recognise the important role envy plays in fostering growth. fairness and healthier interpersonal relationships that will effectively create a positive working culture. {{tip|Take-home messages: * Not all workplace envy is negative. * Envy is an important catalyst for change if driven in a positive way. * Envy can motivate staff in a constructive way. }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * Envy<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2011/Envy|title=Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Envy - Wikiversity|website=en.wikiversity.org|language=en|access-date=2026-08-25}}</ref> (Book Chapter, 2011) {{ic|See Tutorial 2 for how to create an internal link to a book chapter) * Jealousy<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2026/Envy_in_the_workplace?veaction=edit|title=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2026/Envy_in_the_workplace?veaction=edit|website=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2026/Envy_in_the_workplace?veaction=edit|language=|access-date=|last=Flickstar888}}</ref> is not the same as envy (Book Chapter, 2013) * [[Self-Efficacy]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Aggression in the workplace|Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Aggression in the workplace - Wikiversity]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Rivalry in the workplace|Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Rivalry in the workplace - Wikiversity]] {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Crusius J., Thierhoff J., Lange J. (2021). Dispositional greed predicts benign and malicious envy. Personality and Individual Differences, 168, 110361. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110361 Dong, Xue T., Yang W. Chung, Joon H. Park, and Jeong K. Yun. 2026. “Workplace Envy and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour: The Mediating Effect of Cynicism and the Moderating Effect of Organizational Support.” Canadian Journal of Administrative Sciences / Revue Canadienne des Sciences de l'Administration: e70020. https://doi.org/10.1002/cjas.70020. Duffy, M. K., Lee, K., & Adair, E. A. (2021). Workplace envy. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 8, 19–44. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-012420-055746 Erdil O., Müceldili B. (2014). The effects of envy on job engagement and turnover intention. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 150(1), 447–454. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.09.050 Han, S., Zhan, Y., Zhang, L., & Mu, R. (2022). You Have Received More Help than I Did and I Envy You: A Social Comparison Perspective on Receiving Help in the Team. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(14), 8351. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19148351 Jafri M. H. (2020). Moderating role of self-efficacy on benign envy—employee engagement relationship. Business Perspectives and Research, 8(2), 232–243. https://doi.org/10.1177/227853371988745 Köksal, K., Tufan, C., Griffiths, M.D. et al. From perceived workplace envy to deviance: a multi-theoretical model of envy-related workplace behaviors and the moderating role of social courage. Curr Psychol 45, 1052 (2026). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-026-09607-3 Lange, J., Paulhus, D. L., & Crusius, J. (2018). Elucidating the Dark Side of Envy: Distinctive Links of Benign and Malicious Envy With Dark Personalities. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 44(4), 601-614. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167217746340 Li M., Xu X., Kwan H. K. (2021). The antecedents and consequences of workplace envy: A meta-analytic review. Asia Pacific Journal of Management. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10490-021-09772-y Li M, Qin Y, Le J (2025), "Mentoring matters: decoding the impact of downward envy on interpersonal conflict, workplace ostracism, and displaced aggression". Journal of Managerial Psychology, Vol. 40 No. 1 pp. 67–81, doi: https://doi.org/10.1108/JMP-12-2023-0768 Li, Y., & Wang, S. (2023). "Comparisons are Odious"? - Exploring the Dual Effect of Upward Social Comparison on Workplace Coping Behaviors of Temporary Agency Workers. Psychology research and behavior management, 16, 4251–4265. https://doi.org/10.2147/PRBM.S425946 Liu, H., Geng, J., & Yao, P. (2021). Relationship of Leadership and Envy: How to Resolve Workplace Envy with Leadership-A Bibliometric Review Study. Journal of Intelligence, 9(3), 44. https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence9030044 Nakai, A. and Numazaki, M. (2026), The Emotional Nature of Malicious and Benign Envy: Separate Measurements for Emotion and Motivation. Jpn Psychol Res. https://doi.org/10.1111/jpr.12568 Song, Y., & Zhao, Z. (2022). Social Undermining and Interpersonal Rumination among Employees: The Mediating Role of Being the Subject of Envy and the Moderating Role of Social Support. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(14), 8419. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19148419 Su, X., & Chen, C. (2023). The Influence of Workplace Envy on Employees’ Knowledge-Hiding Behavior Based on a Comparative Analysis between Generation Cohorts. Behavioral Sciences, 13(9), 716. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs13090716 Walter CE, Au-Yong-Oliveira M (2022), "An exploratory study on the barriers to innovative behavior: the spiteful effect of envy". Journal of Organizational Change Management, Vol. 35 No. 6 pp. 936–960, https://doi.org/10.1108/JOCM-02-2022-0034 Wilkes, D. (2023) Workplace Envy: Exploring the Effect of Envy on Team Communication and Organizational Information Sharing. Open Journal of Business and Management, 11, 1757-1786. https://doi.org/10.4236/ojbm.2023.114099 Yang C and Tang R (2021) Validating the “Two Faces” of Envy: The Effect of Self-Control. Front. Psychol. 12:731451. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.731451 }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== The following links provide further background and context to support this book chapter: * [https://www.youtube.com/shorts/NwGMsgB9mNg Envy: The Ugliest Emotion? Find out the Truth!] * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1f9IE3CkB4s How to Stop Comparing Yourself to Others] * https://www.ted.com/talks/worklife_with_adam_grant_become_friends_with_your_rivals * [https://ideas.ted.com/do-you-secretly-feel-good-when-others-stumble-5-ways-to-make-peace-with-this-very-human-emotion/ https://ideas.ted.com/do-you-secretly-feel-goo-when-others-stumble-5-ways-to-make-peace-with-this-very-human-emotion/] * [https://www.youtube.com/shorts/3g0lRfiAXzc Why Workplace Envy Is Secretly Power ? - YouTube] {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} <references /> __FORCETOC__ fssgc90j27l1zv96e7tibqputmxcmgn 2835687 2835686 2026-10-03T12:35:37Z Flickstar888 3106813 Used AI to wrap-up last paragraph of conclusion. 2835687 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Envy in the workplace]]{{title|Envy in the workplace:<br>What role does envy play in workplace behaviour?}} __TOC__ === Overview === {{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}} [[File:Zonaspace-coworking-collaboration.jpg|thumb|320x320px|'''Figure 1'''. Envy can occur in any workplace.]] ;Case study Jillian and Anna work for the same consulting firm and are at the same level. Jillian recently completed a project that received recognition from senior leaders and she continues to be praised about it. Anna and Jillian get along well, although Anna has started feeling resentful towards Jillian (see Figure 1). Anna recently asked Jillian about the project and what tools she used that could possibly assist with her projects. Jillian mentioned she completed a project management course that really changed the way she approaches projects to ensure all milestones are delivered on time and on budget. Anna enrols in the same project management course immediately. This is an example of benign envy. By feeling envy towards Jillian, it has motivated Anna to take action to improve herself. With Anna developing her project management skills, this will impact the team and consulting firm in a positive way encouraging extraordinary results. {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[wikipedia:Envy|Envy]] is a powerful [[emotion]] that drives different behaviours (Yang & Tang, 2021). It can be described as the bitterness or anger you feel when others receive what you deeply or unconsciously desire. In many workplaces, it is human nature for an individual to measure and compare themselves to those that are being recognised or seem more valued than they are. These comparisons can trigger workplace envy, especially when someone feels they are inferior to others. According to Duffy et al (2021), over the last 25 years, there has been growing interest in the phenomenon of workplace envy. While every workplace is filled with opportunities for competition and self-comparison, Liu et al (2021), stated it was important to consider the environment and the timing when looking at workplace envy as it is constantly evolving. Workplace envy occurs across a variety of workplace situations although experiences can vary in intensity and frequency and can transform into behavioural reactions. This book chapter describes workplace envy and discusses the role it plays in workplace behaviour. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * What is the role of envy in the workplace? * What is the difference between malicious envy and benign envy? * What causes envy and how is it linked to motivation? * What is the relationship between envy and self-efficacy? * What is the relationship between envy and social comparison theory? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Role of envy in the workplace == There are many causes of envy in the workplace. It can emerge when an employee notices that a colleague has achieved something they desire, such as recognition, a reward, a promotion or an opportunity. It can occur in any workplace where employees routinely compare their performance or progress to those around them, these comparisons can easily activate feelings of envy. Through guidance and intervention, envy can be used as a workplace 'tool' to drive positive behaviour. *Envy can be destructive or can lead to a promotion (Liu et al, 2021) *can drive cultural change *envy can occur when individuals compare themselves to others, they perceive to be more fortunate. == Benign versus malicious envy == Workplace envy can be either benign or malicious. Even though they both start with the same feeling of inferiority, they can lead to different reactions (Crusius et al, 2021). Benign envy creates an urge for people to grow while malicious envy leads to negative thoughts or actions that aims to bring a person down (see Table 1). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Scenario:''' Jon and Sam have worked together for a long time. They both applied for a promotion within the team recently, Jon was successful and Sam missed out. Since then, Sam has started treating Jon unfairly. In meetings, Sam makes negative comments about Jon's ideas. During team lunches, Sam leaves Jon out on purpose. Each day, Sam's behaviour becomes more unfriendly and hurtful. This is an example of malicious envy. Sam is feeling envious of Jon and is trying to harm and put him down. {{RoundBoxBottom}}The following table outlines the difference between benign and malicious envy in the workplace. '''Table 1.''' {| class="wikitable" ! ! Benign Envy ! Malicious Envy |- | Definition | Envy that motivates self‑improvement. | Envy that manifests when someone feels threatened or unable to match another’s achievements. |- | Emotional Response | Encourages growth, motivation and learning. | Creates feelings of resentment, threat, or inferiority. |- | Typical Behaviours | Working harder, learning new skills, seeking growth or development opportunities. | Exclusion, gossip, criticism or subtle sabotage. |- | Impact on Workplace Culture | Strengthens workplace culture through healthy competition and personal development. | Damages trust, teamwork, morale, and can escalate into workplace conflict and create a toxic culture. |- | Outcome | Positive: supports improvement and collaboration. | Negative: undermines relationships and workplace functioning. |} == Relationship between envy and motivation? == Envy is linked to motivation. The relationship between them is: * motivation can drive envy * what motivates positive behaviour * what motivates negative behaviour * how, what and why? == Behaviours caused by self-efficacy? == Self-efficacy is the mental switch that determines whether envy will lead to a positive or negative behaviour. The two types of self-efficacy are: * [[File:Self and environment.png|thumb|'''Figure 3.''' Self-efficacy factors.]]high self-efficacy * low self-efficacy * Example of each of the above == Relationship between workplace envy and social comparison theory? == Social comparison theory assumes that individuals tend to compare their opinions and abilities to others. Feeling threatened in the workplace makes people judge themselves more harshly as they believe they cannot match their colleague's social status or success. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}} [[File:Call center (8300442093).jpg|thumb|320x320px|'''Figure 4'''. Social Comparison Theory at play in a Call Centre.]] ;Case study At ReadyCall, everyone's daily call numbers are recorded on a big screen. Ebony is new and she keeps comparing herself to Rick, a senior worker who always has the highest call numbers. Seeing the gap makes Ebony feel stressed and worried she isn't good enough. Ebony's manager explains that Rick learned his skills over many years and wasn't fast when he first started. After hearing this, Ebony feels better, learns some tips from Rick, and becomes more confident. This is an example of social comparison theory, where people judge themselves by comparing their performance to others (see Figure 4). {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[File:Happy-smiley-face-and-sad-2048x1536.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' Envy can drive positive or negative behaviour in the workplace.]] [[wikipedia:Envy|Envy]] is a powerful [[emotion]]. It can be described as the resentment you feel when others receive what you deeply desire. In many workplaces, it is human nature for people to compare themselves to others. In the workplace, a person will measure and compare themselves against those that are being recognised for their work, those that are promoted and those that seem more valued than they are. These comparisons can trigger envy, especially when someone feels they are inferior to others. ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display="simple"> {Benign envy is associated with positive emotions and encourages positive behaviour? |type="()"} + True - False {Malicious envy is associated with negative emotions and encourages negative behaviour? |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== Envy plays a significant role in shaping workplace behaviour because employees constantly observe and compare their progress, recognition and opportunities to those around them. These comparisons can trigger workplace envy, which is not just a negative emotion, but a complex psychological response influenced by self-efficacy, motivation and social comparison processes. These comparisons highlight an individual's insecurities, making envy an important emotional signal. When employees feel capable of improving themselves, workplace envy becomes a constructive force that encourages learning, effort and healthy competition. However, workplace envy can also shift into a harmful direction when employees feel threatened, insecure or unable to achieve similar success. In these situations, workplace envy may lead to resentment, withdrawal or undermining behaviour which can disrupt teamwork or damage workplace relationships. By understanding these dynamics, workplaces can respond carefully and recognise the important role envy plays in fostering growth. fairness and healthier interpersonal relationships that will effectively create a positive working culture. {{tip|Take-home messages: * Not all workplace envy is negative. * Envy is an important catalyst for change if driven in a positive way. * Envy can motivate staff in a constructive way. }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * Envy<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2011/Envy|title=Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Envy - Wikiversity|website=en.wikiversity.org|language=en|access-date=2026-08-25}}</ref> (Book Chapter, 2011) {{ic|See Tutorial 2 for how to create an internal link to a book chapter) * Jealousy<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2026/Envy_in_the_workplace?veaction=edit|title=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2026/Envy_in_the_workplace?veaction=edit|website=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2026/Envy_in_the_workplace?veaction=edit|language=|access-date=|last=Flickstar888}}</ref> is not the same as envy (Book Chapter, 2013) * [[Self-Efficacy]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Aggression in the workplace|Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Aggression in the workplace - Wikiversity]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Rivalry in the workplace|Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Rivalry in the workplace - Wikiversity]] {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Crusius J., Thierhoff J., Lange J. (2021). Dispositional greed predicts benign and malicious envy. Personality and Individual Differences, 168, 110361. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110361 Dong, Xue T., Yang W. Chung, Joon H. Park, and Jeong K. Yun. 2026. “Workplace Envy and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour: The Mediating Effect of Cynicism and the Moderating Effect of Organizational Support.” Canadian Journal of Administrative Sciences / Revue Canadienne des Sciences de l'Administration: e70020. https://doi.org/10.1002/cjas.70020. Duffy, M. K., Lee, K., & Adair, E. A. (2021). Workplace envy. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 8, 19–44. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-012420-055746 Erdil O., Müceldili B. (2014). The effects of envy on job engagement and turnover intention. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 150(1), 447–454. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.09.050 Han, S., Zhan, Y., Zhang, L., & Mu, R. (2022). You Have Received More Help than I Did and I Envy You: A Social Comparison Perspective on Receiving Help in the Team. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(14), 8351. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19148351 Jafri M. H. (2020). Moderating role of self-efficacy on benign envy—employee engagement relationship. Business Perspectives and Research, 8(2), 232–243. https://doi.org/10.1177/227853371988745 Köksal, K., Tufan, C., Griffiths, M.D. et al. From perceived workplace envy to deviance: a multi-theoretical model of envy-related workplace behaviors and the moderating role of social courage. Curr Psychol 45, 1052 (2026). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-026-09607-3 Lange, J., Paulhus, D. L., & Crusius, J. (2018). Elucidating the Dark Side of Envy: Distinctive Links of Benign and Malicious Envy With Dark Personalities. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 44(4), 601-614. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167217746340 Li M., Xu X., Kwan H. K. (2021). The antecedents and consequences of workplace envy: A meta-analytic review. Asia Pacific Journal of Management. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10490-021-09772-y Li M, Qin Y, Le J (2025), "Mentoring matters: decoding the impact of downward envy on interpersonal conflict, workplace ostracism, and displaced aggression". Journal of Managerial Psychology, Vol. 40 No. 1 pp. 67–81, doi: https://doi.org/10.1108/JMP-12-2023-0768 Li, Y., & Wang, S. (2023). "Comparisons are Odious"? - Exploring the Dual Effect of Upward Social Comparison on Workplace Coping Behaviors of Temporary Agency Workers. Psychology research and behavior management, 16, 4251–4265. https://doi.org/10.2147/PRBM.S425946 Liu, H., Geng, J., & Yao, P. (2021). Relationship of Leadership and Envy: How to Resolve Workplace Envy with Leadership-A Bibliometric Review Study. Journal of Intelligence, 9(3), 44. https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence9030044 Nakai, A. and Numazaki, M. (2026), The Emotional Nature of Malicious and Benign Envy: Separate Measurements for Emotion and Motivation. Jpn Psychol Res. https://doi.org/10.1111/jpr.12568 Song, Y., & Zhao, Z. (2022). Social Undermining and Interpersonal Rumination among Employees: The Mediating Role of Being the Subject of Envy and the Moderating Role of Social Support. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(14), 8419. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19148419 Su, X., & Chen, C. (2023). The Influence of Workplace Envy on Employees’ Knowledge-Hiding Behavior Based on a Comparative Analysis between Generation Cohorts. Behavioral Sciences, 13(9), 716. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs13090716 Walter CE, Au-Yong-Oliveira M (2022), "An exploratory study on the barriers to innovative behavior: the spiteful effect of envy". Journal of Organizational Change Management, Vol. 35 No. 6 pp. 936–960, https://doi.org/10.1108/JOCM-02-2022-0034 Wilkes, D. (2023) Workplace Envy: Exploring the Effect of Envy on Team Communication and Organizational Information Sharing. Open Journal of Business and Management, 11, 1757-1786. https://doi.org/10.4236/ojbm.2023.114099 Yang C and Tang R (2021) Validating the “Two Faces” of Envy: The Effect of Self-Control. Front. Psychol. 12:731451. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.731451 }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== The following links provide further background and context to support this book chapter: * [https://www.youtube.com/shorts/NwGMsgB9mNg Envy: The Ugliest Emotion? Find out the Truth!] * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1f9IE3CkB4s How to Stop Comparing Yourself to Others] * https://www.ted.com/talks/worklife_with_adam_grant_become_friends_with_your_rivals * [https://ideas.ted.com/do-you-secretly-feel-good-when-others-stumble-5-ways-to-make-peace-with-this-very-human-emotion/ https://ideas.ted.com/do-you-secretly-feel-goo-when-others-stumble-5-ways-to-make-peace-with-this-very-human-emotion/] * [https://www.youtube.com/shorts/3g0lRfiAXzc Why Workplace Envy Is Secretly Power ? - YouTube] {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} <references /> __FORCETOC__ fahdeuqggqe67sncutm6of2ft1lpovw 2835688 2835687 2026-10-03T12:39:49Z Flickstar888 3106813 added parenthesis. 2835688 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Envy in the workplace:<br>What role does envy play in workplace behaviour?}} __TOC__ === Overview === {{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}} [[File:Zonaspace-coworking-collaboration.jpg|thumb|320x320px|'''Figure 1'''. Envy can occur in any workplace.]] ;Case study Jillian and Anna work for the same consulting firm and are at the same level. Jillian recently completed a project that received recognition from senior leaders and she continues to be praised about it. Anna and Jillian get along well, although Anna has started feeling resentful towards Jillian (see Figure 1). Anna recently asked Jillian about the project and what tools she used that could possibly assist with her projects. Jillian mentioned she completed a project management course that really changed the way she approaches projects to ensure all milestones are delivered on time and on budget. Anna enrols in the same project management course immediately. This is an example of benign envy. By feeling envy towards Jillian, it has motivated Anna to take action to improve herself. With Anna developing her project management skills, this will impact the team and consulting firm in a positive way encouraging extraordinary results. {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[wikipedia:Envy|Envy]] is a powerful [[emotion]] that drives different behaviours (Yang & Tang, 2021). It can be described as the bitterness or anger you feel when others receive what you deeply or unconsciously desire. In many workplaces, it is human nature for an individual to measure and compare themselves to those that are being recognised or seem more valued than they are. These comparisons can trigger workplace envy, especially when someone feels they are inferior to others. According to Duffy et al (2021), over the last 25 years, there has been growing interest in the phenomenon of workplace envy. While every workplace is filled with opportunities for competition and self-comparison, Liu et al (2021), stated it was important to consider the environment and the timing when looking at workplace envy as it is constantly evolving. Workplace envy occurs across a variety of workplace situations although experiences can vary in intensity and frequency and can transform into behavioural reactions. This book chapter describes workplace envy and discusses the role it plays in workplace behaviour. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * What is the role of envy in the workplace? * What is the difference between malicious envy and benign envy? * What causes envy and how is it linked to motivation? * What is the relationship between envy and self-efficacy? * What is the relationship between envy and social comparison theory? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Role of envy in the workplace == There are many causes of envy in the workplace. It can emerge when an employee notices that a colleague has achieved something they desire, such as recognition, a reward, a promotion or an opportunity. It can occur in any workplace where employees routinely compare their performance or progress to those around them, these comparisons can easily activate feelings of envy. Through guidance and intervention, envy can be used as a workplace 'tool' to drive positive behaviour. *Envy can be destructive or can lead to a promotion (Liu et al, 2021) *can drive cultural change *envy can occur when individuals compare themselves to others, they perceive to be more fortunate. == Benign versus malicious envy == Workplace envy can be either benign or malicious. Even though they both start with the same feeling of inferiority, they can lead to different reactions (Crusius et al, 2021). Benign envy creates an urge for people to grow while malicious envy leads to negative thoughts or actions that aims to bring a person down (see Table 1). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Scenario:''' Jon and Sam have worked together for a long time. They both applied for a promotion within the team recently, Jon was successful and Sam missed out. Since then, Sam has started treating Jon unfairly. In meetings, Sam makes negative comments about Jon's ideas. During team lunches, Sam leaves Jon out on purpose. Each day, Sam's behaviour becomes more unfriendly and hurtful. This is an example of malicious envy. Sam is feeling envious of Jon and is trying to harm and put him down. {{RoundBoxBottom}}The following table outlines the difference between benign and malicious envy in the workplace. '''Table 1.''' {| class="wikitable" ! ! Benign Envy ! Malicious Envy |- | Definition | Envy that motivates self‑improvement. | Envy that manifests when someone feels threatened or unable to match another’s achievements. |- | Emotional Response | Encourages growth, motivation and learning. | Creates feelings of resentment, threat, or inferiority. |- | Typical Behaviours | Working harder, learning new skills, seeking growth or development opportunities. | Exclusion, gossip, criticism or subtle sabotage. |- | Impact on Workplace Culture | Strengthens workplace culture through healthy competition and personal development. | Damages trust, teamwork, morale, and can escalate into workplace conflict and create a toxic culture. |- | Outcome | Positive: supports improvement and collaboration. | Negative: undermines relationships and workplace functioning. |} == Relationship between envy and motivation? == Envy is linked to motivation. The relationship between them is: * motivation can drive envy * what motivates positive behaviour * what motivates negative behaviour * how, what and why? == Behaviours caused by self-efficacy? == Self-efficacy is the mental switch that determines whether envy will lead to a positive or negative behaviour. The two types of self-efficacy are: * [[File:Self and environment.png|thumb|'''Figure 3.''' Self-efficacy factors.]]high self-efficacy * low self-efficacy * Example of each of the above == Relationship between workplace envy and social comparison theory? == Social comparison theory assumes that individuals tend to compare their opinions and abilities to others. Feeling threatened in the workplace makes people judge themselves more harshly as they believe they cannot match their colleague's social status or success. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}} [[File:Call center (8300442093).jpg|thumb|320x320px|'''Figure 4'''. Social Comparison Theory at play in a Call Centre.]] ;Case study At ReadyCall, everyone's daily call numbers are recorded on a big screen. Ebony is new and she keeps comparing herself to Rick, a senior worker who always has the highest call numbers. Seeing the gap makes Ebony feel stressed and worried she isn't good enough. Ebony's manager explains that Rick learned his skills over many years and wasn't fast when he first started. After hearing this, Ebony feels better, learns some tips from Rick, and becomes more confident. This is an example of social comparison theory, where people judge themselves by comparing their performance to others (see Figure 4). {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[File:Happy-smiley-face-and-sad-2048x1536.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' Envy can drive positive or negative behaviour in the workplace.]] [[wikipedia:Envy|Envy]] is a powerful [[emotion]]. It can be described as the resentment you feel when others receive what you deeply desire. In many workplaces, it is human nature for people to compare themselves to others. In the workplace, a person will measure and compare themselves against those that are being recognised for their work, those that are promoted and those that seem more valued than they are. These comparisons can trigger envy, especially when someone feels they are inferior to others. ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display="simple"> {Benign envy is associated with positive emotions and encourages positive behaviour? |type="()"} + True - False {Malicious envy is associated with negative emotions and encourages negative behaviour? |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== Envy plays a significant role in shaping workplace behaviour because employees constantly observe and compare their progress and recognition and opportunities of those around them. These comparisons can trigger envy which is not just a negative emotion but a complex psychological response influenced by self-efficacy, motivation and social comparison processes. These comparisons highlight an individual's insecurities, making envy an important emotional signal rather than a something negative. When employees feel capable of improving themselves, workplace envy becomes a constructive force that encourages learning, effort and healthy competition. However, workplace envy can also shift into a harmful direction when employees feel threatened, insecure or unable to achieve similar success. In these situations, workplace envy may lead to resentment, withdrawal or undermining behaviour which can disrupt teamwork or damage workplace relationships. By understanding these dynamics, workplaces can respond carefully and recognise the important role envy plays in fostering growth. fairness and healthier interpersonal relationships that will effectively create a positive working culture. {{tip|Take-home messages: * Not all workplace envy is negative. * Envy is an important catalyst for change if driven in a positive way. * Envy can motivate staff in a constructive way. }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * Envy<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2011/Envy|title=Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Envy - Wikiversity|website=en.wikiversity.org|language=en|access-date=2026-08-25}}</ref> (Book Chapter, 2011) {{ic|See Tutorial 2 for how to create an internal link to a book chapter) * Jealousy<ref>{{Cite web|url=|title=|website=|language=|access-date=}}</ref> is not the same as envy (Book Chapter, 2013) * [[Self-Efficacy]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Aggression in the workplace|Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Aggression in the workplace - Wikiversity]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Rivalry in the workplace|Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Rivalry in the workplace - Wikiversity]] {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Crusius J., Thierhoff J., Lange J. (2021). Dispositional greed predicts benign and malicious envy. Personality and Individual Differences, 168, 110361. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110361 Dong, Xue T., Yang W. Chung, Joon H. Park, and Jeong K. Yun. 2026. “Workplace Envy and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour: The Mediating Effect of Cynicism and the Moderating Effect of Organizational Support.” Canadian Journal of Administrative Sciences / Revue Canadienne des Sciences de l'Administration: e70020. https://doi.org/10.1002/cjas.70020. Duffy, M. K., Lee, K., & Adair, E. A. (2021). Workplace envy. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 8, 19–44. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-012420-055746 Erdil O., Müceldili B. (2014). The effects of envy on job engagement and turnover intention. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 150(1), 447–454. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.09.050 Han, S., Zhan, Y., Zhang, L., & Mu, R. (2022). You Have Received More Help than I Did and I Envy You: A Social Comparison Perspective on Receiving Help in the Team. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(14), 8351. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19148351 Jafri M. H. (2020). Moderating role of self-efficacy on benign envy—employee engagement relationship. Business Perspectives and Research, 8(2), 232–243. https://doi.org/10.1177/227853371988745 Köksal, K., Tufan, C., Griffiths, M.D. et al. From perceived workplace envy to deviance: a multi-theoretical model of envy-related workplace behaviors and the moderating role of social courage. Curr Psychol 45, 1052 (2026). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-026-09607-3 Lange, J., Paulhus, D. L., & Crusius, J. (2018). Elucidating the Dark Side of Envy: Distinctive Links of Benign and Malicious Envy With Dark Personalities. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 44(4), 601-614. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167217746340 Li M., Xu X., Kwan H. K. (2021). The antecedents and consequences of workplace envy: A meta-analytic review. Asia Pacific Journal of Management. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10490-021-09772-y Li M, Qin Y, Le J (2025), "Mentoring matters: decoding the impact of downward envy on interpersonal conflict, workplace ostracism, and displaced aggression". Journal of Managerial Psychology, Vol. 40 No. 1 pp. 67–81, doi: https://doi.org/10.1108/JMP-12-2023-0768 Li, Y., & Wang, S. (2023). "Comparisons are Odious"? - Exploring the Dual Effect of Upward Social Comparison on Workplace Coping Behaviors of Temporary Agency Workers. Psychology research and behavior management, 16, 4251–4265. https://doi.org/10.2147/PRBM.S425946 Liu, H., Geng, J., & Yao, P. (2021). Relationship of Leadership and Envy: How to Resolve Workplace Envy with Leadership-A Bibliometric Review Study. Journal of Intelligence, 9(3), 44. https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence9030044 Nakai, A. and Numazaki, M. (2026), The Emotional Nature of Malicious and Benign Envy: Separate Measurements for Emotion and Motivation. Jpn Psychol Res. https://doi.org/10.1111/jpr.12568 Song, Y., & Zhao, Z. (2022). Social Undermining and Interpersonal Rumination among Employees: The Mediating Role of Being the Subject of Envy and the Moderating Role of Social Support. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(14), 8419. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19148419 Su, X., & Chen, C. (2023). The Influence of Workplace Envy on Employees’ Knowledge-Hiding Behavior Based on a Comparative Analysis between Generation Cohorts. Behavioral Sciences, 13(9), 716. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs13090716 Walter CE, Au-Yong-Oliveira M (2022), "An exploratory study on the barriers to innovative behavior: the spiteful effect of envy". Journal of Organizational Change Management, Vol. 35 No. 6 pp. 936–960, https://doi.org/10.1108/JOCM-02-2022-0034 Wilkes, D. (2023) Workplace Envy: Exploring the Effect of Envy on Team Communication and Organizational Information Sharing. Open Journal of Business and Management, 11, 1757-1786. https://doi.org/10.4236/ojbm.2023.114099 Yang C and Tang R (2021) Validating the “Two Faces” of Envy: The Effect of Self-Control. Front. Psychol. 12:731451. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.731451 }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== The following links provide further background and context to support this book chapter: * [https://www.youtube.com/shorts/NwGMsgB9mNg Envy: The Ugliest Emotion? Find out the Truth!] (YouTube) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1f9IE3CkB4s How to Stop Comparing Yourself to Others] (YouTube) * https://www.ted.com/talks/worklife_with_adam_grant_become_friends_with_your_rivals (TedTalk) * [https://ideas.ted.com/do-you-secretly-feel-good-when-others-stumble-5-ways-to-make-peace-with-this-very-human-emotion/ https://ideas.ted.com/do-you-secretly-feel-goo-when-others-stumble-5-ways-to-make-peace-with-this-very-human-emotion/] (TedTalk) * [https://www.youtube.com/shorts/3g0lRfiAXzc Why Workplace Envy Is Secretly Power ? - YouTube] (YouTube) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} <references group="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2026/Envy_in_the_workplace" /> __FORCETOC__ 84j7uxu6rnp4rkzdjtyhoz66hvpq432 0 331100 2835770 2835669 2026-10-04T08:51:06Z U3239236 3106753 2835770 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Emotional intelligence:<br>How does emotional intelligence affect emotional wellbeing?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Sophie emotional regulation scenario.png|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' A university student pausing to regulate her emotions after receiving a disappointing grade, generated with ai ]] '''Scenario''' Imagine Sophie, a university student managing several assessments and conflict with a close friend. After receiving a disappointing mark, she feels frustrated, embarrassed, and overwhelmed. Rather than reacting immediately, she recognises her emotions, takes time to regulate them, and later talks calmly with her friend. Another student in the same situation might become overwhelmed or react impulsively. Why might people respond differently to similar emotional situations? One explanation involves emotional intelligence, the ability to perceive, understand, use, and regulate emotions. EI may influence how people interpret and respond to emotional experiences and, consequently, their emotional wellbeing. Emotional wellbeing involves more than experiencing positive emotions or avoiding negative ones; it also concerns how people experience and manage emotions. Understanding the relationship between EI and wellbeing can help explain which emotional abilities may support wellbeing, which components are particularly important, and the psychological processes underlying this relationship. {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxTop}} ; Focus questions # What are emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing? # What is the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing? #How does emotional intelligence influence emotional wellbeing? #Which components of emotional intelligence are particularly important for emotional wellbeing? # How can emotional intelligence be developed to support emotional wellbeing? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == What are emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing? == Emotional intelligence can play an important role in how people recognise, understand, and regulate their emotions. These emotional abilities may influence how people cope with difficult experiences and support their overall emotional wellbeing. However, EI is a complex construct, and different emotional abilities may contribute to wellbeing in different ways. Before examining this relationship, it is important to understand what psychologists mean by emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing. One influential approach to emotional intelligence is Mayer and Salovey's ability model, which describes emotional intelligence through four related abilities: perceiving emotions, using emotions to support thinking, understanding emotions, and managing emotions see Figure 1. An important practical question is whether emotional abilities can be developed and whether improving them leads to better wellbeing.[[File:Model of emotional intelligence.png|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' ''Mayer and Salovey's Emotional Intelligence model'' |359x359px]] === Defining emotional wellbeing === Emotional wellbeing refers to people's emotional experiences and how they evaluate their lives. Psychological research often distinguishes between hedonic and eudaimonic approaches to wellbeing. Hedonic wellbeing focuses on experiences such as pleasure, enjoyment, and comfort, whereas eudaimonic wellbeing emphasises personal growth, meaning, and authenticity (Huta & Waterman, 2014). Both approaches are important for understanding wellbeing, although researchers differ in how they define and measure these concepts. Importantly, emotional wellbeing does not mean feeling happy or positive all the time. Negative emotions such as sadness, anger, anxiety, and disappointment are normal responses to difficult experiences. Chen et al. (2023) explain that adaptive stress responses can help people cope with stressful situations or adjust to challenges that cannot be resolved, whereas maladaptive responses can increase the risk of stress-related difficulties. This highlights why wellbeing involves more than simply experiencing positive emotions; how people respond to difficult experiences is also important. Another approach to understanding wellbeing is Seligman's PERMA model, which identifies five elements of flourishing: positive emotion, engagement, relationships, meaning, and accomplishment (Al-Hendawi et al., 2024). Unlike approaches that focus mainly on emotional experiences, PERMA considers several aspects of a fulfilling life see Figure 2.[[File:ChatGPT Image Sep 26, 2026, 01 48 17 PM.png|thumb|335x335px|'''Figure 3.''' ''Seligman's PERMA model of wellbeing, consisting of positive emotion, engagement, relationships, meaning, and accomplishment. (AI generated)'' ]]<quiz display="simple"> Quiz 1. Which statement best describes emotional intelligence? |type="()"} + The ability to perceive, understand, use, and manage emotions. - The ability to avoid experiencing negative emotions. - The ability to remain happy in all situations. - The ability to control the emotions of other people. } </quiz> <quiz display="simple"> Quiz 2. What does emotion regulation involve? |type="()"} + Managing how we experience and respond to emotions. - Avoiding all negative emotions. - Staying positive in stressful situations. - Ignoring emotions until they disappear. } </quiz> === Trait emotional intelligence === Trait EI focuses on how people perceive their own emotional abilities and tendencies rather than how they perform on an objective test. It is usually measured through self-report questionnaires that assess how people typically recognise, understand, and manage emotions. In contrast, performance-based tests assess emotional abilities through emotion-related tasks. Chapman (2005) explains that trait EI is more closely related to personality, whereas ability EI is more closely associated with cognitive abilities. Performance-based measures, such as the Multifactor Emotional Intelligence Scale and Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test, assess responses using scoring criteria. However, determining a correct emotional response can be difficult because emotional situations may be interpreted differently. Expert scoring relies on selected experts, while consensus scoring reflects the responses of a reference group (Chapman, 2005). Trait EI avoids this scoring issue by focusing on people's perceptions of their emotional abilities. Common self-report measures include the Trait Meta-Mood Scale and the 33-item Schutte Self-Report Inventory of Emotional Intelligence (Chapman, 2005). However, people's perceptions of their emotional abilities may not always reflect their actual performance. This distinction is important when examining emotional wellbeing. Someone may believe they manage emotions effectively even when their behaviour suggests otherwise. Trait EI and wellbeing are also often measured using self-report questionnaires, which may influence the strength of the relationship observed between them (Sánchez-Álvarez et al., 2016). == What is the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing? == === Emotional intelligence and positive wellbeing === Research generally suggests that people with higher EI report greater subjective wellbeing. A meta-analysis of 25 studies involving more than 8,500 participants found a moderate positive association between EI and subjective wellbeing (''r'' = .32; Sánchez-Álvarez et al., 2016). This indicates that higher EI tends to be associated with greater subjective wellbeing, although the relationship is moderate rather than strong. Importantly, the strength of the relationship depended on how EI was measured. The association was stronger for self-report measures that incorporated emotional and personality-related characteristics (''r'' = .38) than for performance-based measures (''r'' = .22). EI also showed a somewhat stronger relationship with life satisfaction (''r'' = .35) than with emotional experiences (''r'' = .29). These findings demonstrate why the way EI and wellbeing are defined and measured matters when interpreting their relationship (Sánchez-Álvarez et al., 2016). However, these findings do not demonstrate that EI causes greater happiness or life satisfaction. People who already experience greater wellbeing may find it easier to perceive or manage emotions, while other characteristics, including personality, could potentially contribute to both EI and wellbeing. === Emotional intelligence and negative wellbeing === EI has also been examined in relation to psychological distress and other negative outcomes. Martins et al. (2010) found that higher EI was associated with better health outcomes, including aspects of mental health. Research has also examined relationships between emotional abilities, emotion regulation, and symptoms of depression (Fernández-Berrocal & Extremera, 2016). Importantly, higher EI does not mean that someone will never experience negative emotions. Instead, emotional abilities may influence how people understand and respond to difficult emotions when they occur. Sophie's emotional abilities, for example, do not prevent her from feeling disappointed about her grade. They may instead help her recognise the emotion and choose how to respond to it. === Trait and ability emotional intelligence === Trait EI tends to show stronger associations with wellbeing than ability EI, which is typically assessed using performance-based measures. One possible explanation is that trait EI and wellbeing are often both assessed using self-report questionnaires. Similar measurement methods can contribute to stronger observed relationships between constructs. Self-report measures also assess people's perceptions of their emotional abilities, which may not always correspond with their performance on emotional ability tasks. This makes the way EI is measured particularly important when interpreting its relationship with wellbeing === '''What does the evidence tell us?''' === Overall, research suggests that higher EI is linked to greater subjective wellbeing and lower psychological distress. However, the strength of this relationship varies depending on how EI is defined and measured (Martins et al., 2010; Sánchez-Álvarez et al., 2016). However, an association between EI and wellbeing does not demonstrate that EI directly causes better wellbeing. Much of this research is correlational, meaning the direction of the relationship cannot necessarily be established and other factors may contribute to both constructs. Differences between EI models and measurement approaches further complicate interpretation. Therefore, the evidence supports a relationship between EI and wellbeing, but stronger causal conclusions require research capable of examining whether changes in EI actually produce changes in wellbeing. Finding an association also does not explain how EI and wellbeing are connected. Emotional awareness, emotional understanding, emotion regulation, coping with stress, and social relationships may provide possible pathways through which EI is associated with emotional wellbeing. == How does emotional intelligence influence emotional wellbeing? == === Emotional awareness and perception === The relationship between emotional intelligence and wellbeing may be explained by several psychological processes. Emotional intelligence may help people recognise what they are feeling, understand why those emotions have occurred, regulate difficult emotional responses, and cope more effectively with stressful situations. It may also support communication and relationships with others. Rather than working separately, these processes are likely to interact and may help explain why people with higher emotional intelligence often report greater wellbeing. === Emotional awareness and perception === Recognising emotions is an important first step in responding to them effectively. Being able to identify whether a person is feeling anxious, angry, disappointed, or overwhelmed can provide useful information about what is happening and what they may need to do next. For example, recognising feelings of anxiety before an assessment may help a student identify the source of their stress and decide whether they need to prepare further, seek support, or use a strategy to manage their anxiety. Difficulty recognising emotions may make it harder to respond appropriately. A person who interprets anxiety as anger, for example, may react to a situation differently than someone who accurately understands what they are experiencing. Emotional awareness alone does not guarantee good emotional wellbeing, but it may provide the information needed for later processes such as emotional understanding, regulation, and coping (Lane & Smith, 2021). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}💡 Tip When you experience a strong emotion, try identifying exactly what you are feeling rather than simply describing it as “good” or “bad.” For example, you might recognise that you are disappointed rather than embarrassed, or anxious rather than angry. This ability to identify emotions more precisely, known as emotional granularity, can help build emotional awareness and guide how you respond.{{RoundBoxBottom}} === Understanding emotions === Emotional intelligence also involves understanding why emotions occur and how they may change over time. Emotional experiences are not always simple, and people can experience several emotions at once. Someone receiving critical feedback, for example, might simultaneously feel disappointed, embarrassed, and motivated to improve. Understanding the causes and possible consequences of these emotions may help people choose more appropriate responses. Instead of immediately reacting to disappointment, a person who understands where the feeling comes from may be better able to consider the situation before deciding what to do (Tzieropoulos et al., 2011). Emotional understanding may therefore contribute to wellbeing indirectly by supporting more effective emotion regulation and coping. === Emotion regulation === Emotion regulation refers to how people influence their emotional experiences and responses. Rather than eliminating negative emotions, regulation can involve changing how a situation is interpreted or choosing how to respond. Different strategies may have different consequences for wellbeing. Cognitive reappraisal changes the interpretation of a situation to alter its emotional impact, however suppression reduces emotional expression without necessarily changing the underlying experience. Emotional intelligence may help people select appropriate regulation strategies, potentially explaining its relationship with wellbeing (MacCann et al., 2026). However, further evidence is needed to determine whether emotion regulation actually mediates the relationship between emotional intelligence and wellbeing. === Coping with stress === Emotional intelligence may also influence how people respond to stressful experiences. Stress can produce difficult emotional responses such as tension, worry, and feelings of being overwhelmed. Chen et al. (2023) distinguish between adaptive responses that help people cope with or adjust to stressors and maladaptive responses that may interfere with functioning and increase the risk of stress-related difficulties. Emotional skills may be useful during this process because recognising and understanding an emotional response can help a person decide how to cope with the situation. Effective coping does not necessarily remove the stressor, particularly when a situation cannot be changed. Instead, people may need to adjust their response to it. Emotion regulation has also been identified as a resilience-related factor, further demonstrating the connection between emotional processes and responses to stress. === Social relationships and support === Emotional intelligence may also contribute to wellbeing through relationships with other people. Recognising another person's emotions can make it easier to understand their perspective, communicate appropriately, and respond to interpersonal difficulties. Managing one's own emotional responses may also be important during disagreements or emotionally challenging conversations. These abilities could support stronger relationships and access to social support, providing another possible pathway between emotional intelligence and wellbeing. However, being able to recognise another person's emotions does not automatically lead to supportive or prosocial behaviour (Hidalgo-Fuentes et al., 2024). Emotional abilities describe how effectively emotional information is processed, rather than whether that information will always be used positively. '''Figure 3.''' ''Possible pathways through which emotional intelligence may support emotional wellbeing.'' Emotional intelligence may contribute to emotional wellbeing through several interacting processes, including emotional awareness, emotional understanding, emotion regulation, coping with stress, and social functioning. These processes may influence one another rather than occurring in a simple step-by-step sequence. == Which components of emotional intelligence are particularly important for emotional wellbeing? == Although emotional intelligence is often discussed as a single construct, Mayer and Salovey's ability model proposes several distinct emotional abilities. These components may not contribute equally to emotional wellbeing. Comparing emotion perception, using emotions, emotional understanding, and emotion management can therefore provide a clearer picture of which aspects of emotional intelligence may be particularly relevant to wellbeing. === Emotion perception === Emotion perception involves accurately recognising emotions in oneself and other people. This ability may contribute to wellbeing by helping individuals identify their emotional state and recognise emotional information in social situations. However, recognising an emotion does not necessarily mean that a person knows how to respond to it. Someone may accurately recognise that they are angry, for example, while still responding impulsively. Emotion perception may therefore provide an important foundation for emotional functioning without being sufficient on its own to support wellbeing (Carfagno, 2020). === '''Using emotions''' === Using emotions involves drawing on emotional information to support thinking, attention, judgement, and decision-making. Different emotional states can influence what people notice and how they approach a problem. Being able to use this information may therefore help individuals adapt their thinking to different situations. However, the relevance of this component to emotional wellbeing needs to be established through research rather than assumed (Blasco-Belled et al., 2019). Compared with emotion management, for example, using emotions may have a less direct connection with how people cope with distress or regulate difficult emotional experiences. === Emotion understanding === Emotion understanding involves recognising the causes of emotions, distinguishing between related emotional states, and understanding how emotions can change or combine. This ability may help people make sense of complicated emotional experiences and anticipate how feelings might develop. Understanding an emotion may also make it easier to choose an appropriate coping or regulation strategy. However, as with emotion perception, understanding an emotion does not guarantee that it will be managed effectively. Research comparing the different branches of emotional intelligence is therefore needed to determine whether emotional understanding has an independent relationship with wellbeing or primarily contributes through other emotional processes (Antonopoulou, 2024). === Emotion regulation and management === Emotion management may have a particularly direct connection with emotional wellbeing because it concerns how people respond to and regulate emotional experiences. Effective regulation could help people manage distress, maintain positive emotional functioning, and recover from stressful experiences. This does not mean eliminating negative emotions, but responding to them in ways that are appropriate to the situation. However, emotion management should not automatically be considered the most important component of emotional intelligence. Its relative importance needs to be established by studies that compare it directly with perception, use, and understanding of emotions. Differences in how emotional intelligence and wellbeing are measured may also affect which component appears most strongly related to wellbeing (Blasco-Belled et al., 2019). === Comparing the components === Overall, the four emotional abilities may contribute to wellbeing in different but connected ways. Perception provides information about emotional states, understanding helps make sense of that information, using emotions may support thinking and decision-making, and management concerns how emotional experiences are handled. Rather than functioning independently, these abilities may work together. Determining whether one component is particularly important requires direct comparisons across the four branches. Evidence that emotion management is associated with wellbeing would not, by itself, demonstrate that it is more important than the other components. Differences between ability-based and self-report measures should also be considered when interpreting these findings. <quiz display="simple"> Quiz 3. Which statement best describes how the components of emotional intelligence relate to wellbeing? |type="()"} + Different EI components may contribute to wellbeing in different but connected ways. - Emotion management is always the most important component for wellbeing. - Emotion perception alone is enough to support emotional wellbeing. - All EI components affect wellbeing in exactly the same way. } </quiz> <quiz display="simple"> Quiz 4. Why might recognising an emotion not be enough to support wellbeing? |type="()"} + A person may recognise an emotion but still respond to it poorly. - Recognising emotions prevents people from regulating them. - Emotion perception only involves recognising other people's emotions. - Recognising emotions automatically removes negative feelings. } </quiz> '''Table 1.''' ''Emotional intelligence components and wellbeing'' {| class="wikitable" !EI component !What it involves !Relevance to wellbeing |- |'''Emotion perception''' |Recognising emotions |Supports emotional awareness |- |'''Using emotions''' |Using emotions to guide thinking |Supports attention and judgement |- |'''Emotion understanding''' |Understanding causes and changes in emotions |Supports understanding and responding |- |'''Emotion management''' |Regulating emotional responses |Supports coping and emotional functioning |} == How can emotional intelligence be developed to support emotional wellbeing? == If emotional intelligence contributes to wellbeing, an important practical question is whether these emotional abilities can be developed. Emotional intelligence interventions have attempted to improve skills such as emotional awareness, understanding emotions, emotion regulation, and interpersonal communication. However, evidence that EI can be improved does not necessarily mean that increasing EI will automatically improve emotional wellbeing. === Can emotional intelligence be developed? === Emotional intelligence is not necessarily a completely fixed characteristic. Training programs have attempted to develop emotional abilities through education, practice, feedback, and exercises focused on recognising and managing emotions. However, the effectiveness of training may depend on how emotional intelligence is conceptualised and measured. Changes in self-reported EI, for example, may indicate that people feel more confident in their emotional abilities without necessarily demonstrating equivalent improvements on performance-based measures. Research evaluating EI interventions is therefore important for determining whether emotional abilities can genuinely be improved and whether any improvements continue after training has ended (Hodzic et al., 2017). === Emotional intelligence interventions === EI interventions may target several skills rather than emotional intelligence as a single ability. Activities can focus on recognising emotional cues, developing emotional vocabulary, understanding emotional triggers, considering other people's perspectives, practising emotion-regulation strategies, and improving emotional communication. These approaches are particularly relevant to emotional wellbeing if improvements in emotional skills help people respond more effectively to stress and difficult emotional experiences. However, intervention studies need to examine more than whether EI scores increase. They should also assess whether changes are accompanied by meaningful improvements in wellbeing. === Do improvements in emotional intelligence improve wellbeing? === An important distinction is whether EI training improves emotional intelligence itself and whether those improvements subsequently lead to better wellbeing. An intervention could increase participants' knowledge about emotions without meaningfully changing their happiness, life satisfaction, stress, or emotional functioning. Evidence that an intervention improves both EI and wellbeing would provide stronger support for a possible causal relationship than correlational studies showing that the two are associated. Even then, researchers need to consider whether improvements are maintained over time and whether changes in wellbeing are actually explained by increased emotional intelligence (Hodzic et al., 2018; Nadler et al., 2020). === Limitations and practical implications === Although EI training may have practical value, its potential benefits should not be overstated. Emotional wellbeing is influenced by many personal, social, and environmental factors, and improving emotional skills cannot remove every source of stress or psychological difficulty. Differences between EI models, measurement methods, intervention designs, and participant groups can also make findings difficult to compare. ==Conclusion== Emotional wellbeing involves more than simply feeling happy or avoiding negative emotions. It also involves how people understand, respond to, and manage their emotional experiences. Overall, emotional intelligence may support emotional wellbeing by helping people recognise, understand, and regulate emotions and respond more effectively to stressful and interpersonal experiences. Research generally shows that higher EI is associated with better indicators of wellbeing, although the strength of this relationship varies depending on how EI and wellbeing are defined and measured. Importantly, emotional intelligence should not be viewed as a guarantee or universal cause of emotional wellbeing. Wellbeing is influenced by many factors, and emotionally intelligent people will still experience stress, disappointment, conflict, and other difficult emotions. Sophie's situation demonstrates this distinction. Her emotional abilities do not prevent her from feeling disappointed or overwhelmed; instead, they may help her recognise what she is experiencing, understand why she feels that way, regulate her response, and choose behaviours that better support her wellbeing ==See also Internal Links == * [[Motivation and emotion/Textbook/Emotion/Emotion management|Managing emotions]] * [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subjective_well-being?wprov=srpw1_1 Subjective wellbeing] (Book chapter, 2026) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Emotional intelligence|Emotional intelligence]] (Book chapter, 2011) * [[wikibooks:Foundations_of_Education_and_Instructional_Assessment/Effective_Teaching/Intelligence#Introduction_to_Emotional_Intelligence|How are all children smart?]] (Wikibooks) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Antonopoulou, H. (2024, April 11). The value of emotional intelligence: Self-awareness, self-regulation, motivation, and empathy as key. ''Technium Education and Humanities'' . ResearchGate. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/379764627_The_Value_of_Emotional_Intelligence_Self-Awareness_Self-Regulation_Motivation_and_Empathy_as_Key_Components Al-Hendawi, M., Alodat, A., Al-Zoubi, S., & Bulut, S. (2024). A PERMA model approach to well-being: A psychometric properties study. ''BMC Psychology'', 12(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-024-01909-0 Blasco-Belled, A., Rogoza, R., Torrelles-Nadal, C., & Alsinet, C. (2019). Emotional intelligence structure and its relationship with life satisfaction and happiness: New findings from the bifactor model. ''Journal of Happiness Studies'', 21(6), 2031–2049. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-019-00167-x Chapman, B. P. (2005). Emotional intelligence at mid life: A cross sectional investigation of structural variance, social correlates, and relationship to established personality and ability taxonomies. Proquest.Com. https://www.proquest.com/psychology/docview/305400900/8D98674B36744231PQ/2?accountid=28889&sourcetype=Dissertations%20&%20Theses Chen, C., Kotozaki , Y., Okubo , R., & Nakagawa , S. (2023, July 13). Editorial: New insights into stress coping and resilience . Canberra.Edu.Au. https://pmc-ncbi-nlm-nih-gov.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/articles/PMC10374303/ Hidalgo-Fuentes, S., Martínez-Álvarez, I., Sospedra-Baeza, M. J., Martí-Vilar, M., Merino-Soto, C., & Toledano-Toledano, F. (2024). Emotional intelligence and perceived social support: Its relationship with subjective well-being. ''Healthcare'' (Basel, Switzerland), 12(6), 634. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare12060634 Hodzic, S., Scharfen, J., Ripoll, P., Holling, H., & Zenasni, F. (2017). How efficient are emotional intelligence trainings: A meta-analysis. ''Emotion Review'', 10(2), 138–148. https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073917708613 Huta, V., & Waterman, A. S. (2014). Eudaimonia and its distinction from hedonia: Developing a classification and terminology for understanding conceptual and operational definitions. ''Journal of Happiness Studies'', 15(6), 1425–1456. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-013-9485-0 Lane, R. D., & Smith, R. (2021). Levels of emotional awareness: Theory and measurement of a socio-emotional skill. ''Journal of Intelligence'', 9(3), 42. https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence9030042 Martins, A., Ramalho, N., & Morin, E. (2010). A comprehensive meta-analysis of the relationship between emotional intelligence and health. ''Personality and Individual Differences'', 49(6), 554–564. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.05.029 MacCann , C., Double , K. S., & E Clarke , I. (2026). Lower avoidant coping mediates the relationship of emotional intelligence with well-being and ill-being. Canberra.Edu.Au. https://pmc-ncbi-nlm-nih-gov.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/articles/PMC9396212/ Nadler, R., Carswell , J., & Minda, J. P. (2020, February). Online mindfulness training increases well-being, trait emotional intelligence, and workplace competency ratings: A randomized waitlist-controlled trial. Canberra.Edu.Au. https://pmc-ncbi-nlm-nih-gov.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/articles/PMC7048000/ Sánchez-Álvarez, N., Extremera, N., & Fernández-Berrocal, P. (2015). The relation between emotional intelligence and subjective well-being: A meta-analytic investigation. ''The Journal of Positive Psychology'', 11(3), 276–285. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2015.1058968 Tzieropoulos, H., Peralta, R. G. de, Bossaerts, P., & Andino, S. L. G. (2011). The impact of disappointment in decision making: Inter-individual differences and electrical neuroimaging. ''Frontiers in Human Neuroscience'', 4(235). https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2010.00235 }} ==External links== * [https://www.ted.com/talks/maximilian_park_emotional_intelligence_from_a_teenage_perspective Emotional Intelligence From a Teenage Perspective] * [https://rickhanson.com/being-well-podcast-emotional-intelligence-improving-self-awareness-self-regulation-and-empathy-2/ Being Well Podcast: Emotional Intelligence: Improving Self-Awareness, Self-Regulation, and Empathy] * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4KbSRXP0wik Emotion, Stress, and Health: Crash Course Psychology #26] [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotional intelligence]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Well-being]] a5s0pvos8k03233hznsgo087obm1dz0 2835771 2835770 2026-10-04T08:52:04Z U3239236 3106753 2835771 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Emotional intelligence:<br>How does emotional intelligence affect emotional wellbeing?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Sophie emotional regulation scenario.png|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' A university student pausing to regulate her emotions after receiving a disappointing grade, generated with ai ]] '''Scenario''' Imagine Sophie, a university student managing several assessments and conflict with a close friend. After receiving a disappointing mark, she feels frustrated, embarrassed, and overwhelmed. Rather than reacting immediately, she recognises her emotions, takes time to regulate them, and later talks calmly with her friend. Another student in the same situation might become overwhelmed or react impulsively. Why might people respond differently to similar emotional situations? One explanation involves emotional intelligence, the ability to perceive, understand, use, and regulate emotions. EI may influence how people interpret and respond to emotional experiences and, consequently, their emotional wellbeing. Emotional wellbeing involves more than experiencing positive emotions or avoiding negative ones; it also concerns how people experience and manage emotions. Understanding the relationship between EI and wellbeing can help explain which emotional abilities may support wellbeing, which components are particularly important, and the psychological processes underlying this relationship. {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxTop}} ; Focus questions # What are emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing? # What is the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing? #How does emotional intelligence influence emotional wellbeing? #Which components of emotional intelligence are particularly important for emotional wellbeing? # How can emotional intelligence be developed to support emotional wellbeing? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == What are emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing? == Emotional intelligence can play an important role in how people recognise, understand, and regulate their emotions. These emotional abilities may influence how people cope with difficult experiences and support their overall emotional wellbeing. However, EI is a complex construct, and different emotional abilities may contribute to wellbeing in different ways. Before examining this relationship, it is important to understand what psychologists mean by emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing. One influential approach to emotional intelligence is Mayer and Salovey's ability model, which describes emotional intelligence through four related abilities: perceiving emotions, using emotions to support thinking, understanding emotions, and managing emotions see Figure 1. An important practical question is whether emotional abilities can be developed and whether improving them leads to better wellbeing.[[File:Model of emotional intelligence.png|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' ''Mayer and Salovey's Emotional Intelligence model'' |359x359px]] === Defining emotional wellbeing === Emotional wellbeing refers to people's emotional experiences and how they evaluate their lives. Psychological research often distinguishes between hedonic and eudaimonic approaches to wellbeing. Hedonic wellbeing focuses on experiences such as pleasure, enjoyment, and comfort, whereas eudaimonic wellbeing emphasises personal growth, meaning, and authenticity (Huta & Waterman, 2014). Both approaches are important for understanding wellbeing, although researchers differ in how they define and measure these concepts. Importantly, emotional wellbeing does not mean feeling happy or positive all the time. Negative emotions such as sadness, anger, anxiety, and disappointment are normal responses to difficult experiences. Chen et al. (2023) explain that adaptive stress responses can help people cope with stressful situations or adjust to challenges that cannot be resolved, whereas maladaptive responses can increase the risk of stress-related difficulties. This highlights why wellbeing involves more than simply experiencing positive emotions; how people respond to difficult experiences is also important. Another approach to understanding wellbeing is Seligman's PERMA model, which identifies five elements of flourishing: positive emotion, engagement, relationships, meaning, and accomplishment (Al-Hendawi et al., 2024). Unlike approaches that focus mainly on emotional experiences, PERMA considers several aspects of a fulfilling life see Figure 2.[[File:ChatGPT Image Sep 26, 2026, 01 48 17 PM.png|thumb|335x335px|'''Figure 3.''' ''Seligman's PERMA model of wellbeing, consisting of positive emotion, engagement, relationships, meaning, and accomplishment. (AI generated)'' ]]<quiz display="simple"> Quiz 1. Which statement best describes emotional intelligence? |type="()"} + The ability to perceive, understand, use, and manage emotions. - The ability to avoid experiencing negative emotions. - The ability to remain happy in all situations. - The ability to control the emotions of other people. } </quiz> <quiz display="simple"> Quiz 2. What does emotion regulation involve? |type="()"} + Managing how we experience and respond to emotions. - Avoiding all negative emotions. - Staying positive in stressful situations. - Ignoring emotions until they disappear. } </quiz> === Trait emotional intelligence === Trait EI focuses on how people perceive their own emotional abilities and tendencies rather than how they perform on an objective test. It is usually measured through self-report questionnaires that assess how people typically recognise, understand, and manage emotions. In contrast, performance-based tests assess emotional abilities through emotion-related tasks. Chapman (2005) explains that trait EI is more closely related to personality, whereas ability EI is more closely associated with cognitive abilities. Performance-based measures, such as the Multifactor Emotional Intelligence Scale and Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test, assess responses using scoring criteria. However, determining a correct emotional response can be difficult because emotional situations may be interpreted differently. Expert scoring relies on selected experts, while consensus scoring reflects the responses of a reference group (Chapman, 2005). Trait EI avoids this scoring issue by focusing on people's perceptions of their emotional abilities. Common self-report measures include the Trait Meta-Mood Scale and the 33-item Schutte Self-Report Inventory of Emotional Intelligence (Chapman, 2005). However, people's perceptions of their emotional abilities may not always reflect their actual performance. This distinction is important when examining emotional wellbeing. Someone may believe they manage emotions effectively even when their behaviour suggests otherwise. Trait EI and wellbeing are also often measured using self-report questionnaires, which may influence the strength of the relationship observed between them (Sánchez-Álvarez et al., 2016). == What is the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing? == === Emotional intelligence and positive wellbeing === Research generally suggests that people with higher EI report greater subjective wellbeing. A meta-analysis of 25 studies involving more than 8,500 participants found a moderate positive association between EI and subjective wellbeing (''r'' = .32; Sánchez-Álvarez et al., 2016). This indicates that higher EI tends to be associated with greater subjective wellbeing, although the relationship is moderate rather than strong. Importantly, the strength of the relationship depended on how EI was measured. The association was stronger for self-report measures that incorporated emotional and personality-related characteristics (''r'' = .38) than for performance-based measures (''r'' = .22). EI also showed a somewhat stronger relationship with life satisfaction (''r'' = .35) than with emotional experiences (''r'' = .29). These findings demonstrate why the way EI and wellbeing are defined and measured matters when interpreting their relationship (Sánchez-Álvarez et al., 2016). However, these findings do not demonstrate that EI causes greater happiness or life satisfaction. People who already experience greater wellbeing may find it easier to perceive or manage emotions, while other characteristics, including personality, could potentially contribute to both EI and wellbeing. === Emotional intelligence and negative wellbeing === EI has also been examined in relation to psychological distress and other negative outcomes. Martins et al. (2010) found that higher EI was associated with better health outcomes, including aspects of mental health. Research has also examined relationships between emotional abilities, emotion regulation, and symptoms of depression (Fernández-Berrocal & Extremera, 2016). Importantly, higher EI does not mean that someone will never experience negative emotions. Instead, emotional abilities may influence how people understand and respond to difficult emotions when they occur. Sophie's emotional abilities, for example, do not prevent her from feeling disappointed about her grade. They may instead help her recognise the emotion and choose how to respond to it. === Trait and ability emotional intelligence === Trait EI tends to show stronger associations with wellbeing than ability EI, which is typically assessed using performance-based measures. One possible explanation is that trait EI and wellbeing are often both assessed using self-report questionnaires. Similar measurement methods can contribute to stronger observed relationships between constructs. Self-report measures also assess people's perceptions of their emotional abilities, which may not always correspond with their performance on emotional ability tasks. This makes the way EI is measured particularly important when interpreting its relationship with wellbeing === '''What does the evidence tell us?''' === Overall, research suggests that higher EI is linked to greater subjective wellbeing and lower psychological distress. However, the strength of this relationship varies depending on how EI is defined and measured (Martins et al., 2010; Sánchez-Álvarez et al., 2016). However, an association between EI and wellbeing does not demonstrate that EI directly causes better wellbeing. Much of this research is correlational, meaning the direction of the relationship cannot necessarily be established and other factors may contribute to both constructs. Differences between EI models and measurement approaches further complicate interpretation. Therefore, the evidence supports a relationship between EI and wellbeing, but stronger causal conclusions require research capable of examining whether changes in EI actually produce changes in wellbeing. Finding an association also does not explain how EI and wellbeing are connected. Emotional awareness, emotional understanding, emotion regulation, coping with stress, and social relationships may provide possible pathways through which EI is associated with emotional wellbeing. == How does emotional intelligence influence emotional wellbeing? == === Emotional awareness and perception === The relationship between emotional intelligence and wellbeing may be explained by several psychological processes. Emotional intelligence may help people recognise what they are feeling, understand why those emotions have occurred, regulate difficult emotional responses, and cope more effectively with stressful situations. It may also support communication and relationships with others. Rather than working separately, these processes are likely to interact and may help explain why people with higher emotional intelligence often report greater wellbeing. === Emotional awareness and perception === Recognising emotions is an important first step in responding to them effectively. Being able to identify whether a person is feeling anxious, angry, disappointed, or overwhelmed can provide useful information about what is happening and what they may need to do next. For example, recognising feelings of anxiety before an assessment may help a student identify the source of their stress and decide whether they need to prepare further, seek support, or use a strategy to manage their anxiety. Difficulty recognising emotions may make it harder to respond appropriately. A person who interprets anxiety as anger, for example, may react to a situation differently than someone who accurately understands what they are experiencing. Emotional awareness alone does not guarantee good emotional wellbeing, but it may provide the information needed for later processes such as emotional understanding, regulation, and coping (Lane & Smith, 2021). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}💡 Tip When you experience a strong emotion, try identifying exactly what you are feeling rather than simply describing it as “good” or “bad.” For example, you might recognise that you are disappointed rather than embarrassed, or anxious rather than angry. This ability to identify emotions more precisely, known as emotional granularity, can help build emotional awareness and guide how you respond.{{RoundBoxBottom}} === Understanding emotions === Emotional intelligence also involves understanding why emotions occur and how they may change over time. Emotional experiences are not always simple, and people can experience several emotions at once. Someone receiving critical feedback, for example, might simultaneously feel disappointed, embarrassed, and motivated to improve. Understanding the causes and possible consequences of these emotions may help people choose more appropriate responses. Instead of immediately reacting to disappointment, a person who understands where the feeling comes from may be better able to consider the situation before deciding what to do (Tzieropoulos et al., 2011). Emotional understanding may therefore contribute to wellbeing indirectly by supporting more effective emotion regulation and coping. === Emotion regulation === Emotion regulation refers to how people influence their emotional experiences and responses. Rather than eliminating negative emotions, regulation can involve changing how a situation is interpreted or choosing how to respond. Different strategies may have different consequences for wellbeing. Cognitive reappraisal changes the interpretation of a situation to alter its emotional impact, however suppression reduces emotional expression without necessarily changing the underlying experience. Emotional intelligence may help people select appropriate regulation strategies, potentially explaining its relationship with wellbeing (MacCann et al., 2026). However, further evidence is needed to determine whether emotion regulation actually mediates the relationship between emotional intelligence and wellbeing. === Coping with stress === Emotional intelligence may also influence how people respond to stressful experiences. Stress can produce difficult emotional responses such as tension, worry, and feelings of being overwhelmed. Chen et al. (2023) distinguish between adaptive responses that help people cope with or adjust to stressors and maladaptive responses that may interfere with functioning and increase the risk of stress-related difficulties. Emotional skills may be useful during this process because recognising and understanding an emotional response can help a person decide how to cope with the situation. Effective coping does not necessarily remove the stressor, particularly when a situation cannot be changed. Instead, people may need to adjust their response to it. Emotion regulation has also been identified as a resilience-related factor, further demonstrating the connection between emotional processes and responses to stress. === Social relationships and support === Emotional intelligence may also contribute to wellbeing through relationships with other people. Recognising another person's emotions can make it easier to understand their perspective, communicate appropriately, and respond to interpersonal difficulties. Managing one's own emotional responses may also be important during disagreements or emotionally challenging conversations. These abilities could support stronger relationships and access to social support, providing another possible pathway between emotional intelligence and wellbeing. However, being able to recognise another person's emotions does not automatically lead to supportive or prosocial behaviour (Hidalgo-Fuentes et al., 2024). Emotional abilities describe how effectively emotional information is processed, rather than whether that information will always be used positively. '''Figure 3.''' ''Possible pathways through which emotional intelligence may support emotional wellbeing.'' Emotional intelligence may contribute to emotional wellbeing through several interacting processes, including emotional awareness, emotional understanding, emotion regulation, coping with stress, and social functioning. These processes may influence one another rather than occurring in a simple step-by-step sequence. == Which components of emotional intelligence are particularly important for emotional wellbeing? == Although emotional intelligence is often discussed as a single construct, Mayer and Salovey's (1997) ability model proposes several distinct emotional abilities. These components may not contribute equally to emotional wellbeing. Comparing emotion perception, using emotions, emotional understanding, and emotion management can therefore provide a clearer picture of which aspects of emotional intelligence may be particularly relevant to wellbeing. === Emotion perception === Emotion perception involves accurately recognising emotions in oneself and other people. This ability may contribute to wellbeing by helping individuals identify their emotional state and recognise emotional information in social situations. However, recognising an emotion does not necessarily mean that a person knows how to respond to it. Someone may accurately recognise that they are angry, for example, while still responding impulsively. Emotion perception may therefore provide an important foundation for emotional functioning without being sufficient on its own to support wellbeing (Carfagno, 2020). === '''Using emotions''' === Using emotions involves drawing on emotional information to support thinking, attention, judgement, and decision-making. Different emotional states can influence what people notice and how they approach a problem. Being able to use this information may therefore help individuals adapt their thinking to different situations. However, the relevance of this component to emotional wellbeing needs to be established through research rather than assumed (Blasco-Belled et al., 2019). Compared with emotion management, for example, using emotions may have a less direct connection with how people cope with distress or regulate difficult emotional experiences. === Emotion understanding === Emotion understanding involves recognising the causes of emotions, distinguishing between related emotional states, and understanding how emotions can change or combine. This ability may help people make sense of complicated emotional experiences and anticipate how feelings might develop. Understanding an emotion may also make it easier to choose an appropriate coping or regulation strategy. However, as with emotion perception, understanding an emotion does not guarantee that it will be managed effectively. Research comparing the different branches of emotional intelligence is therefore needed to determine whether emotional understanding has an independent relationship with wellbeing or primarily contributes through other emotional processes (Antonopoulou, 2024). === Emotion regulation and management === Emotion management may have a particularly direct connection with emotional wellbeing because it concerns how people respond to and regulate emotional experiences. Effective regulation could help people manage distress, maintain positive emotional functioning, and recover from stressful experiences. This does not mean eliminating negative emotions, but responding to them in ways that are appropriate to the situation. However, emotion management should not automatically be considered the most important component of emotional intelligence. Its relative importance needs to be established by studies that compare it directly with perception, use, and understanding of emotions. Differences in how emotional intelligence and wellbeing are measured may also affect which component appears most strongly related to wellbeing (Blasco-Belled et al., 2019). === Comparing the components === Overall, the four emotional abilities may contribute to wellbeing in different but connected ways. Perception provides information about emotional states, understanding helps make sense of that information, using emotions may support thinking and decision-making, and management concerns how emotional experiences are handled. Rather than functioning independently, these abilities may work together. Determining whether one component is particularly important requires direct comparisons across the four branches. Evidence that emotion management is associated with wellbeing would not, by itself, demonstrate that it is more important than the other components. Differences between ability-based and self-report measures should also be considered when interpreting these findings. <quiz display="simple"> Quiz 3. Which statement best describes how the components of emotional intelligence relate to wellbeing? |type="()"} + Different EI components may contribute to wellbeing in different but connected ways. - Emotion management is always the most important component for wellbeing. - Emotion perception alone is enough to support emotional wellbeing. - All EI components affect wellbeing in exactly the same way. } </quiz> <quiz display="simple"> Quiz 4. Why might recognising an emotion not be enough to support wellbeing? |type="()"} + A person may recognise an emotion but still respond to it poorly. - Recognising emotions prevents people from regulating them. - Emotion perception only involves recognising other people's emotions. - Recognising emotions automatically removes negative feelings. } </quiz> '''Table 1.''' ''Emotional intelligence components and wellbeing'' {| class="wikitable" !EI component !What it involves !Relevance to wellbeing |- |'''Emotion perception''' |Recognising emotions |Supports emotional awareness |- |'''Using emotions''' |Using emotions to guide thinking |Supports attention and judgement |- |'''Emotion understanding''' |Understanding causes and changes in emotions |Supports understanding and responding |- |'''Emotion management''' |Regulating emotional responses |Supports coping and emotional functioning |} == How can emotional intelligence be developed to support emotional wellbeing? == If emotional intelligence contributes to wellbeing, an important practical question is whether these emotional abilities can be developed. Emotional intelligence interventions have attempted to improve skills such as emotional awareness, understanding emotions, emotion regulation, and interpersonal communication. However, evidence that EI can be improved does not necessarily mean that increasing EI will automatically improve emotional wellbeing. === Can emotional intelligence be developed? === Emotional intelligence is not necessarily a completely fixed characteristic. Training programs have attempted to develop emotional abilities through education, practice, feedback, and exercises focused on recognising and managing emotions. However, the effectiveness of training may depend on how emotional intelligence is conceptualised and measured. Changes in self-reported EI, for example, may indicate that people feel more confident in their emotional abilities without necessarily demonstrating equivalent improvements on performance-based measures. Research evaluating EI interventions is therefore important for determining whether emotional abilities can genuinely be improved and whether any improvements continue after training has ended (Hodzic et al., 2017). === Emotional intelligence interventions === EI interventions may target several skills rather than emotional intelligence as a single ability. Activities can focus on recognising emotional cues, developing emotional vocabulary, understanding emotional triggers, considering other people's perspectives, practising emotion-regulation strategies, and improving emotional communication. These approaches are particularly relevant to emotional wellbeing if improvements in emotional skills help people respond more effectively to stress and difficult emotional experiences. However, intervention studies need to examine more than whether EI scores increase. They should also assess whether changes are accompanied by meaningful improvements in wellbeing. === Do improvements in emotional intelligence improve wellbeing? === An important distinction is whether EI training improves emotional intelligence itself and whether those improvements subsequently lead to better wellbeing. An intervention could increase participants' knowledge about emotions without meaningfully changing their happiness, life satisfaction, stress, or emotional functioning. Evidence that an intervention improves both EI and wellbeing would provide stronger support for a possible causal relationship than correlational studies showing that the two are associated. Even then, researchers need to consider whether improvements are maintained over time and whether changes in wellbeing are actually explained by increased emotional intelligence (Hodzic et al., 2018; Nadler et al., 2020). === Limitations and practical implications === Although EI training may have practical value, its potential benefits should not be overstated. Emotional wellbeing is influenced by many personal, social, and environmental factors, and improving emotional skills cannot remove every source of stress or psychological difficulty. Differences between EI models, measurement methods, intervention designs, and participant groups can also make findings difficult to compare. ==Conclusion== Emotional wellbeing involves more than simply feeling happy or avoiding negative emotions. It also involves how people understand, respond to, and manage their emotional experiences. Overall, emotional intelligence may support emotional wellbeing by helping people recognise, understand, and regulate emotions and respond more effectively to stressful and interpersonal experiences. Research generally shows that higher EI is associated with better indicators of wellbeing, although the strength of this relationship varies depending on how EI and wellbeing are defined and measured. Importantly, emotional intelligence should not be viewed as a guarantee or universal cause of emotional wellbeing. Wellbeing is influenced by many factors, and emotionally intelligent people will still experience stress, disappointment, conflict, and other difficult emotions. Sophie's situation demonstrates this distinction. Her emotional abilities do not prevent her from feeling disappointed or overwhelmed; instead, they may help her recognise what she is experiencing, understand why she feels that way, regulate her response, and choose behaviours that better support her wellbeing ==See also Internal Links == * [[Motivation and emotion/Textbook/Emotion/Emotion management|Managing emotions]] * [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subjective_well-being?wprov=srpw1_1 Subjective wellbeing] (Book chapter, 2026) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Emotional intelligence|Emotional intelligence]] (Book chapter, 2011) * [[wikibooks:Foundations_of_Education_and_Instructional_Assessment/Effective_Teaching/Intelligence#Introduction_to_Emotional_Intelligence|How are all children smart?]] (Wikibooks) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Antonopoulou, H. (2024, April 11). The value of emotional intelligence: Self-awareness, self-regulation, motivation, and empathy as key. ''Technium Education and Humanities'' . ResearchGate. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/379764627_The_Value_of_Emotional_Intelligence_Self-Awareness_Self-Regulation_Motivation_and_Empathy_as_Key_Components Al-Hendawi, M., Alodat, A., Al-Zoubi, S., & Bulut, S. (2024). A PERMA model approach to well-being: A psychometric properties study. ''BMC Psychology'', 12(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-024-01909-0 Blasco-Belled, A., Rogoza, R., Torrelles-Nadal, C., & Alsinet, C. (2019). Emotional intelligence structure and its relationship with life satisfaction and happiness: New findings from the bifactor model. ''Journal of Happiness Studies'', 21(6), 2031–2049. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-019-00167-x Chapman, B. P. (2005). Emotional intelligence at mid life: A cross sectional investigation of structural variance, social correlates, and relationship to established personality and ability taxonomies. Proquest.Com. https://www.proquest.com/psychology/docview/305400900/8D98674B36744231PQ/2?accountid=28889&sourcetype=Dissertations%20&%20Theses Chen, C., Kotozaki , Y., Okubo , R., & Nakagawa , S. (2023, July 13). Editorial: New insights into stress coping and resilience . Canberra.Edu.Au. https://pmc-ncbi-nlm-nih-gov.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/articles/PMC10374303/ Hidalgo-Fuentes, S., Martínez-Álvarez, I., Sospedra-Baeza, M. J., Martí-Vilar, M., Merino-Soto, C., & Toledano-Toledano, F. (2024). Emotional intelligence and perceived social support: Its relationship with subjective well-being. ''Healthcare'' (Basel, Switzerland), 12(6), 634. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare12060634 Hodzic, S., Scharfen, J., Ripoll, P., Holling, H., & Zenasni, F. (2017). How efficient are emotional intelligence trainings: A meta-analysis. ''Emotion Review'', 10(2), 138–148. https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073917708613 Huta, V., & Waterman, A. S. (2014). Eudaimonia and its distinction from hedonia: Developing a classification and terminology for understanding conceptual and operational definitions. ''Journal of Happiness Studies'', 15(6), 1425–1456. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-013-9485-0 Lane, R. D., & Smith, R. (2021). Levels of emotional awareness: Theory and measurement of a socio-emotional skill. ''Journal of Intelligence'', 9(3), 42. https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence9030042 Martins, A., Ramalho, N., & Morin, E. (2010). A comprehensive meta-analysis of the relationship between emotional intelligence and health. ''Personality and Individual Differences'', 49(6), 554–564. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.05.029 MacCann , C., Double , K. S., & E Clarke , I. (2026). Lower avoidant coping mediates the relationship of emotional intelligence with well-being and ill-being. Canberra.Edu.Au. https://pmc-ncbi-nlm-nih-gov.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/articles/PMC9396212/ Nadler, R., Carswell , J., & Minda, J. P. (2020, February). Online mindfulness training increases well-being, trait emotional intelligence, and workplace competency ratings: A randomized waitlist-controlled trial. Canberra.Edu.Au. https://pmc-ncbi-nlm-nih-gov.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/articles/PMC7048000/ Sánchez-Álvarez, N., Extremera, N., & Fernández-Berrocal, P. (2015). The relation between emotional intelligence and subjective well-being: A meta-analytic investigation. ''The Journal of Positive Psychology'', 11(3), 276–285. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2015.1058968 Tzieropoulos, H., Peralta, R. G. de, Bossaerts, P., & Andino, S. L. G. (2011). The impact of disappointment in decision making: Inter-individual differences and electrical neuroimaging. ''Frontiers in Human Neuroscience'', 4(235). https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2010.00235 }} ==External links== * [https://www.ted.com/talks/maximilian_park_emotional_intelligence_from_a_teenage_perspective Emotional Intelligence From a Teenage Perspective] * [https://rickhanson.com/being-well-podcast-emotional-intelligence-improving-self-awareness-self-regulation-and-empathy-2/ Being Well Podcast: Emotional Intelligence: Improving Self-Awareness, Self-Regulation, and Empathy] * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4KbSRXP0wik Emotion, Stress, and Health: Crash Course Psychology #26] [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotional intelligence]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Well-being]] 9frnkqnu6e6rdimildvkznpg8mxafni 2835773 2835771 2026-10-04T08:53:51Z U3239236 3106753 fixed references 2835773 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Emotional intelligence:<br>How does emotional intelligence affect emotional wellbeing?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Sophie emotional regulation scenario.png|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' A university student pausing to regulate her emotions after receiving a disappointing grade, generated with ai ]] '''Scenario''' Imagine Sophie, a university student managing several assessments and conflict with a close friend. After receiving a disappointing mark, she feels frustrated, embarrassed, and overwhelmed. Rather than reacting immediately, she recognises her emotions, takes time to regulate them, and later talks calmly with her friend. Another student in the same situation might become overwhelmed or react impulsively. Why might people respond differently to similar emotional situations? One explanation involves emotional intelligence, the ability to perceive, understand, use, and regulate emotions. EI may influence how people interpret and respond to emotional experiences and, consequently, their emotional wellbeing. Emotional wellbeing involves more than experiencing positive emotions or avoiding negative ones; it also concerns how people experience and manage emotions. Understanding the relationship between EI and wellbeing can help explain which emotional abilities may support wellbeing, which components are particularly important, and the psychological processes underlying this relationship. {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxTop}} ; Focus questions # What are emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing? # What is the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing? #How does emotional intelligence influence emotional wellbeing? #Which components of emotional intelligence are particularly important for emotional wellbeing? # How can emotional intelligence be developed to support emotional wellbeing? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == What are emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing? == Emotional intelligence can play an important role in how people recognise, understand, and regulate their emotions. These emotional abilities may influence how people cope with difficult experiences and support their overall emotional wellbeing. However, EI is a complex construct, and different emotional abilities may contribute to wellbeing in different ways. Before examining this relationship, it is important to understand what psychologists mean by emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing. One influential approach to emotional intelligence is Mayer and Salovey's ability model, which describes emotional intelligence through four related abilities: perceiving emotions, using emotions to support thinking, understanding emotions, and managing emotions see Figure 1. An important practical question is whether emotional abilities can be developed and whether improving them leads to better wellbeing.[[File:Model of emotional intelligence.png|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' ''Mayer and Salovey's Emotional Intelligence model'' |359x359px]] === Defining emotional wellbeing === Emotional wellbeing refers to people's emotional experiences and how they evaluate their lives. Psychological research often distinguishes between hedonic and eudaimonic approaches to wellbeing. Hedonic wellbeing focuses on experiences such as pleasure, enjoyment, and comfort, whereas eudaimonic wellbeing emphasises personal growth, meaning, and authenticity (Huta & Waterman, 2014). Both approaches are important for understanding wellbeing, although researchers differ in how they define and measure these concepts. Importantly, emotional wellbeing does not mean feeling happy or positive all the time. Negative emotions such as sadness, anger, anxiety, and disappointment are normal responses to difficult experiences. Chen et al. (2023) explain that adaptive stress responses can help people cope with stressful situations or adjust to challenges that cannot be resolved, whereas maladaptive responses can increase the risk of stress-related difficulties. This highlights why wellbeing involves more than simply experiencing positive emotions; how people respond to difficult experiences is also important. Another approach to understanding wellbeing is Seligman's PERMA model, which identifies five elements of flourishing: positive emotion, engagement, relationships, meaning, and accomplishment (Al-Hendawi et al., 2024). Unlike approaches that focus mainly on emotional experiences, PERMA considers several aspects of a fulfilling life see Figure 2.[[File:ChatGPT Image Sep 26, 2026, 01 48 17 PM.png|thumb|335x335px|'''Figure 3.''' ''Seligman's PERMA model of wellbeing, consisting of positive emotion, engagement, relationships, meaning, and accomplishment. (AI generated)'' ]]<quiz display="simple"> Quiz 1. Which statement best describes emotional intelligence? |type="()"} + The ability to perceive, understand, use, and manage emotions. - The ability to avoid experiencing negative emotions. - The ability to remain happy in all situations. - The ability to control the emotions of other people. } </quiz> <quiz display="simple"> Quiz 2. What does emotion regulation involve? |type="()"} + Managing how we experience and respond to emotions. - Avoiding all negative emotions. - Staying positive in stressful situations. - Ignoring emotions until they disappear. } </quiz> === Trait emotional intelligence === Trait EI focuses on how people perceive their own emotional abilities and tendencies rather than how they perform on an objective test. It is usually measured through self-report questionnaires that assess how people typically recognise, understand, and manage emotions. In contrast, performance-based tests assess emotional abilities through emotion-related tasks. Chapman (2005) explains that trait EI is more closely related to personality, whereas ability EI is more closely associated with cognitive abilities. Performance-based measures, such as the Multifactor Emotional Intelligence Scale and Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test, assess responses using scoring criteria. However, determining a correct emotional response can be difficult because emotional situations may be interpreted differently. Expert scoring relies on selected experts, while consensus scoring reflects the responses of a reference group (Chapman, 2005). Trait EI avoids this scoring issue by focusing on people's perceptions of their emotional abilities. Common self-report measures include the Trait Meta-Mood Scale and the 33-item Schutte Self-Report Inventory of Emotional Intelligence (Chapman, 2005). However, people's perceptions of their emotional abilities may not always reflect their actual performance. This distinction is important when examining emotional wellbeing. Someone may believe they manage emotions effectively even when their behaviour suggests otherwise. Trait EI and wellbeing are also often measured using self-report questionnaires, which may influence the strength of the relationship observed between them (Sánchez-Álvarez et al., 2016). == What is the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing? == === Emotional intelligence and positive wellbeing === Research generally suggests that people with higher EI report greater subjective wellbeing. A meta-analysis of 25 studies involving more than 8,500 participants found a moderate positive association between EI and subjective wellbeing (''r'' = .32; Sánchez-Álvarez et al., 2016). This indicates that higher EI tends to be associated with greater subjective wellbeing, although the relationship is moderate rather than strong. Importantly, the strength of the relationship depended on how EI was measured. The association was stronger for self-report measures that incorporated emotional and personality-related characteristics (''r'' = .38) than for performance-based measures (''r'' = .22). EI also showed a somewhat stronger relationship with life satisfaction (''r'' = .35) than with emotional experiences (''r'' = .29). These findings demonstrate why the way EI and wellbeing are defined and measured matters when interpreting their relationship (Sánchez-Álvarez et al., 2016). However, these findings do not demonstrate that EI causes greater happiness or life satisfaction. People who already experience greater wellbeing may find it easier to perceive or manage emotions, while other characteristics, including personality, could potentially contribute to both EI and wellbeing. === Emotional intelligence and negative wellbeing === EI has also been examined in relation to psychological distress and other negative outcomes. Martins et al. (2010) found that higher EI was associated with better health outcomes, including aspects of mental health. Research has also examined relationships between emotional abilities, emotion regulation, and symptoms of depression (Fernández-Berrocal & Extremera, 2016). Importantly, higher EI does not mean that someone will never experience negative emotions. Instead, emotional abilities may influence how people understand and respond to difficult emotions when they occur. Sophie's emotional abilities, for example, do not prevent her from feeling disappointed about her grade. They may instead help her recognise the emotion and choose how to respond to it. === Trait and ability emotional intelligence === Trait EI tends to show stronger associations with wellbeing than ability EI, which is typically assessed using performance-based measures. One possible explanation is that trait EI and wellbeing are often both assessed using self-report questionnaires. Similar measurement methods can contribute to stronger observed relationships between constructs. Self-report measures also assess people's perceptions of their emotional abilities, which may not always correspond with their performance on emotional ability tasks. This makes the way EI is measured particularly important when interpreting its relationship with wellbeing === '''What does the evidence tell us?''' === Overall, research suggests that higher EI is linked to greater subjective wellbeing and lower psychological distress. However, the strength of this relationship varies depending on how EI is defined and measured (Martins et al., 2010; Sánchez-Álvarez et al., 2016). However, an association between EI and wellbeing does not demonstrate that EI directly causes better wellbeing. Much of this research is correlational, meaning the direction of the relationship cannot necessarily be established and other factors may contribute to both constructs. Differences between EI models and measurement approaches further complicate interpretation. Therefore, the evidence supports a relationship between EI and wellbeing, but stronger causal conclusions require research capable of examining whether changes in EI actually produce changes in wellbeing. Finding an association also does not explain how EI and wellbeing are connected. Emotional awareness, emotional understanding, emotion regulation, coping with stress, and social relationships may provide possible pathways through which EI is associated with emotional wellbeing. == How does emotional intelligence influence emotional wellbeing? == === Emotional awareness and perception === The relationship between emotional intelligence and wellbeing may be explained by several psychological processes. Emotional intelligence may help people recognise what they are feeling, understand why those emotions have occurred, regulate difficult emotional responses, and cope more effectively with stressful situations. It may also support communication and relationships with others. Rather than working separately, these processes are likely to interact and may help explain why people with higher emotional intelligence often report greater wellbeing. === Emotional awareness and perception === Recognising emotions is an important first step in responding to them effectively. Being able to identify whether a person is feeling anxious, angry, disappointed, or overwhelmed can provide useful information about what is happening and what they may need to do next. For example, recognising feelings of anxiety before an assessment may help a student identify the source of their stress and decide whether they need to prepare further, seek support, or use a strategy to manage their anxiety. Difficulty recognising emotions may make it harder to respond appropriately. A person who interprets anxiety as anger, for example, may react to a situation differently than someone who accurately understands what they are experiencing. Emotional awareness alone does not guarantee good emotional wellbeing, but it may provide the information needed for later processes such as emotional understanding, regulation, and coping (Lane & Smith, 2021). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}💡 Tip When you experience a strong emotion, try identifying exactly what you are feeling rather than simply describing it as “good” or “bad.” For example, you might recognise that you are disappointed rather than embarrassed, or anxious rather than angry. This ability to identify emotions more precisely, known as emotional granularity, can help build emotional awareness and guide how you respond.{{RoundBoxBottom}} === Understanding emotions === Emotional intelligence also involves understanding why emotions occur and how they may change over time. Emotional experiences are not always simple, and people can experience several emotions at once. Someone receiving critical feedback, for example, might simultaneously feel disappointed, embarrassed, and motivated to improve. Understanding the causes and possible consequences of these emotions may help people choose more appropriate responses. Instead of immediately reacting to disappointment, a person who understands where the feeling comes from may be better able to consider the situation before deciding what to do (Tzieropoulos et al., 2011). Emotional understanding may therefore contribute to wellbeing indirectly by supporting more effective emotion regulation and coping. === Emotion regulation === Emotion regulation refers to how people influence their emotional experiences and responses. Rather than eliminating negative emotions, regulation can involve changing how a situation is interpreted or choosing how to respond. Different strategies may have different consequences for wellbeing. Cognitive reappraisal changes the interpretation of a situation to alter its emotional impact, however suppression reduces emotional expression without necessarily changing the underlying experience. Emotional intelligence may help people select appropriate regulation strategies, potentially explaining its relationship with wellbeing (MacCann et al., 2026). However, further evidence is needed to determine whether emotion regulation actually mediates the relationship between emotional intelligence and wellbeing. === Coping with stress === Emotional intelligence may also influence how people respond to stressful experiences. Stress can produce difficult emotional responses such as tension, worry, and feelings of being overwhelmed. Chen et al. (2023) distinguish between adaptive responses that help people cope with or adjust to stressors and maladaptive responses that may interfere with functioning and increase the risk of stress-related difficulties. Emotional skills may be useful during this process because recognising and understanding an emotional response can help a person decide how to cope with the situation. Effective coping does not necessarily remove the stressor, particularly when a situation cannot be changed. Instead, people may need to adjust their response to it. Emotion regulation has also been identified as a resilience-related factor, further demonstrating the connection between emotional processes and responses to stress. === Social relationships and support === Emotional intelligence may also contribute to wellbeing through relationships with other people. Recognising another person's emotions can make it easier to understand their perspective, communicate appropriately, and respond to interpersonal difficulties. Managing one's own emotional responses may also be important during disagreements or emotionally challenging conversations. These abilities could support stronger relationships and access to social support, providing another possible pathway between emotional intelligence and wellbeing. However, being able to recognise another person's emotions does not automatically lead to supportive or prosocial behaviour (Hidalgo-Fuentes et al., 2024). Emotional abilities describe how effectively emotional information is processed, rather than whether that information will always be used positively. '''Figure 3.''' ''Possible pathways through which emotional intelligence may support emotional wellbeing.'' Emotional intelligence may contribute to emotional wellbeing through several interacting processes, including emotional awareness, emotional understanding, emotion regulation, coping with stress, and social functioning. These processes may influence one another rather than occurring in a simple step-by-step sequence. == Which components of emotional intelligence are particularly important for emotional wellbeing? == Although emotional intelligence is often discussed as a single construct, Mayer and Salovey's (1997) ability model proposes several distinct emotional abilities. These components may not contribute equally to emotional wellbeing. Comparing emotion perception, using emotions, emotional understanding, and emotion management can therefore provide a clearer picture of which aspects of emotional intelligence may be particularly relevant to wellbeing. === Emotion perception === Emotion perception involves accurately recognising emotions in oneself and other people. This ability may contribute to wellbeing by helping individuals identify their emotional state and recognise emotional information in social situations. However, recognising an emotion does not necessarily mean that a person knows how to respond to it. Someone may accurately recognise that they are angry, for example, while still responding impulsively. Emotion perception may therefore provide an important foundation for emotional functioning without being sufficient on its own to support wellbeing (Carfagno, 2020). === '''Using emotions''' === Using emotions involves drawing on emotional information to support thinking, attention, judgement, and decision-making. Different emotional states can influence what people notice and how they approach a problem. Being able to use this information may therefore help individuals adapt their thinking to different situations. However, the relevance of this component to emotional wellbeing needs to be established through research rather than assumed (Blasco-Belled et al., 2019). Compared with emotion management, for example, using emotions may have a less direct connection with how people cope with distress or regulate difficult emotional experiences. === Emotion understanding === Emotion understanding involves recognising the causes of emotions, distinguishing between related emotional states, and understanding how emotions can change or combine. This ability may help people make sense of complicated emotional experiences and anticipate how feelings might develop. Understanding an emotion may also make it easier to choose an appropriate coping or regulation strategy. However, as with emotion perception, understanding an emotion does not guarantee that it will be managed effectively. Research comparing the different branches of emotional intelligence is therefore needed to determine whether emotional understanding has an independent relationship with wellbeing or primarily contributes through other emotional processes (Antonopoulou, 2024). === Emotion regulation and management === Emotion management may have a particularly direct connection with emotional wellbeing because it concerns how people respond to and regulate emotional experiences. Effective regulation could help people manage distress, maintain positive emotional functioning, and recover from stressful experiences. This does not mean eliminating negative emotions, but responding to them in ways that are appropriate to the situation. However, emotion management should not automatically be considered the most important component of emotional intelligence. Its relative importance needs to be established by studies that compare it directly with perception, use, and understanding of emotions. Differences in how emotional intelligence and wellbeing are measured may also affect which component appears most strongly related to wellbeing (Blasco-Belled et al., 2019). === Comparing the components === Overall, the four emotional abilities may contribute to wellbeing in different but connected ways. Perception provides information about emotional states, understanding helps make sense of that information, using emotions may support thinking and decision-making, and management concerns how emotional experiences are handled. Rather than functioning independently, these abilities may work together. Determining whether one component is particularly important requires direct comparisons across the four branches. Evidence that emotion management is associated with wellbeing would not, by itself, demonstrate that it is more important than the other components. Differences between ability-based and self-report measures should also be considered when interpreting these findings. <quiz display="simple"> Quiz 3. Which statement best describes how the components of emotional intelligence relate to wellbeing? |type="()"} + Different EI components may contribute to wellbeing in different but connected ways. - Emotion management is always the most important component for wellbeing. - Emotion perception alone is enough to support emotional wellbeing. - All EI components affect wellbeing in exactly the same way. } </quiz> <quiz display="simple"> Quiz 4. Why might recognising an emotion not be enough to support wellbeing? |type="()"} + A person may recognise an emotion but still respond to it poorly. - Recognising emotions prevents people from regulating them. - Emotion perception only involves recognising other people's emotions. - Recognising emotions automatically removes negative feelings. } </quiz> '''Table 1.''' ''Emotional intelligence components and wellbeing'' {| class="wikitable" !EI component !What it involves !Relevance to wellbeing |- |'''Emotion perception''' |Recognising emotions |Supports emotional awareness |- |'''Using emotions''' |Using emotions to guide thinking |Supports attention and judgement |- |'''Emotion understanding''' |Understanding causes and changes in emotions |Supports understanding and responding |- |'''Emotion management''' |Regulating emotional responses |Supports coping and emotional functioning |} == How can emotional intelligence be developed to support emotional wellbeing? == If emotional intelligence contributes to wellbeing, an important practical question is whether these emotional abilities can be developed. Emotional intelligence interventions have attempted to improve skills such as emotional awareness, understanding emotions, emotion regulation, and interpersonal communication. However, evidence that EI can be improved does not necessarily mean that increasing EI will automatically improve emotional wellbeing. === Can emotional intelligence be developed? === Emotional intelligence is not necessarily a completely fixed characteristic. Training programs have attempted to develop emotional abilities through education, practice, feedback, and exercises focused on recognising and managing emotions. However, the effectiveness of training may depend on how emotional intelligence is conceptualised and measured. Changes in self-reported EI, for example, may indicate that people feel more confident in their emotional abilities without necessarily demonstrating equivalent improvements on performance-based measures. Research evaluating EI interventions is therefore important for determining whether emotional abilities can genuinely be improved and whether any improvements continue after training has ended (Hodzic et al., 2017). === Emotional intelligence interventions === EI interventions may target several skills rather than emotional intelligence as a single ability. Activities can focus on recognising emotional cues, developing emotional vocabulary, understanding emotional triggers, considering other people's perspectives, practising emotion-regulation strategies, and improving emotional communication. These approaches are particularly relevant to emotional wellbeing if improvements in emotional skills help people respond more effectively to stress and difficult emotional experiences. However, intervention studies need to examine more than whether EI scores increase. They should also assess whether changes are accompanied by meaningful improvements in wellbeing. === Do improvements in emotional intelligence improve wellbeing? === An important distinction is whether EI training improves emotional intelligence itself and whether those improvements subsequently lead to better wellbeing. An intervention could increase participants' knowledge about emotions without meaningfully changing their happiness, life satisfaction, stress, or emotional functioning. Evidence that an intervention improves both EI and wellbeing would provide stronger support for a possible causal relationship than correlational studies showing that the two are associated. Even then, researchers need to consider whether improvements are maintained over time and whether changes in wellbeing are actually explained by increased emotional intelligence (Hodzic et al., 2018; Nadler et al., 2020). === Limitations and practical implications === Although EI training may have practical value, its potential benefits should not be overstated. Emotional wellbeing is influenced by many personal, social, and environmental factors, and improving emotional skills cannot remove every source of stress or psychological difficulty. Differences between EI models, measurement methods, intervention designs, and participant groups can also make findings difficult to compare. ==Conclusion== Emotional wellbeing involves more than simply feeling happy or avoiding negative emotions. It also involves how people understand, respond to, and manage their emotional experiences. Overall, emotional intelligence may support emotional wellbeing by helping people recognise, understand, and regulate emotions and respond more effectively to stressful and interpersonal experiences. Research generally shows that higher EI is associated with better indicators of wellbeing, although the strength of this relationship varies depending on how EI and wellbeing are defined and measured. Importantly, emotional intelligence should not be viewed as a guarantee or universal cause of emotional wellbeing. Wellbeing is influenced by many factors, and emotionally intelligent people will still experience stress, disappointment, conflict, and other difficult emotions. Sophie's situation demonstrates this distinction. Her emotional abilities do not prevent her from feeling disappointed or overwhelmed; instead, they may help her recognise what she is experiencing, understand why she feels that way, regulate her response, and choose behaviours that better support her wellbeing ==See also Internal Links == * [[Motivation and emotion/Textbook/Emotion/Emotion management|Managing emotions]] * [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subjective_well-being?wprov=srpw1_1 Subjective wellbeing] (Book chapter, 2026) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Emotional intelligence|Emotional intelligence]] (Book chapter, 2011) * [[wikibooks:Foundations_of_Education_and_Instructional_Assessment/Effective_Teaching/Intelligence#Introduction_to_Emotional_Intelligence|How are all children smart?]] (Wikibooks) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Al-Hendawi, M., Alodat, A., Al-Zoubi, S., & Bulut, S. (2024). A PERMA model approach to well-being: A psychometric properties study. BMC Psychology, 12(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-024-01909-0 Antonopoulou, H. (2024). The value of emotional intelligence: Self-awareness, self-regulation, motivation, and empathy as key components. Technium Education and Humanities. Blasco-Belled, A., Rogoza, R., Torrelles-Nadal, C., & Alsinet, C. (2020). Emotional intelligence structure and its relationship with life satisfaction and happiness: New findings from the bifactor model. Journal of Happiness Studies, 21(6), 2031–2049. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-019-00167-x Chapman, B. P. (2005). Emotional intelligence at mid life: A cross sectional investigation of structural variance, social correlates, and relationship to established personality and ability taxonomies [Doctoral dissertation]. ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global. Chen, C., Kotozaki, Y., Okubo, R., & Nakagawa, S. (2023). Editorial: New insights into stress coping and resilience. Frontiers in Psychology. Hidalgo-Fuentes, S., Martínez-Álvarez, I., Sospedra-Baeza, M. J., Martí-Vilar, M., Merino-Soto, C., & Toledano-Toledano, F. (2024). Emotional intelligence and perceived social support: Its relationship with subjective well-being. Healthcare, 12(6), 634. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare12060634 Hodzic, S., Scharfen, J., Ripoll, P., Holling, H., & Zenasni, F. (2018). How efficient are emotional intelligence trainings: A meta-analysis. Emotion Review, 10(2), 138–148. https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073917708613 Huta, V., & Waterman, A. S. (2014). Eudaimonia and its distinction from hedonia: Developing a classification and terminology for understanding conceptual and operational definitions. Journal of Happiness Studies, 15(6), 1425–1456. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-013-9485-0 Lane, R. D., & Smith, R. (2021). Levels of emotional awareness: Theory and measurement of a socio-emotional skill. Journal of Intelligence, 9(3), 42. https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence9030042 MacCann, C., Double, K. S., & Clarke, I. E. (2022). Lower avoidant coping mediates the relationship of emotional intelligence with well-being and ill-being. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 835819. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.835819 Martins, A., Ramalho, N., & Morin, E. (2010). A comprehensive meta-analysis of the relationship between emotional intelligence and health. Personality and Individual Differences, 49(6), 554–564. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.05.029 Nadler, R., Carswell, J. J., & Minda, J. P. (2020). Online mindfulness training increases well-being, trait emotional intelligence, and workplace competency ratings: A randomized waitlist-controlled trial. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 255. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00255 Sánchez-Álvarez, N., Extremera, N., & Fernández-Berrocal, P. (2016). The relation between emotional intelligence and subjective well-being: A meta-analytic investigation. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 11(3), 276–285. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2015.1058968 Tzieropoulos, H., de Peralta, R. G., Bossaerts, P., & González Andino, S. L. (2011). The impact of disappointment in decision making: Inter-individual differences and electrical neuroimaging. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 4, 235. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2010.00235 }} ==External links== * [https://www.ted.com/talks/maximilian_park_emotional_intelligence_from_a_teenage_perspective Emotional Intelligence From a Teenage Perspective] * [https://rickhanson.com/being-well-podcast-emotional-intelligence-improving-self-awareness-self-regulation-and-empathy-2/ Being Well Podcast: Emotional Intelligence: Improving Self-Awareness, Self-Regulation, and Empathy] * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4KbSRXP0wik Emotion, Stress, and Health: Crash Course Psychology #26] [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotional intelligence]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Well-being]] r2el2i99vi987k9zz7cc2bxeu42nupy 0 331105 2835722 2835603 2026-10-04T00:40:32Z U3261376 3106964 2835722 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Sex work motivation:<br>What motivates sex work and how does this impact worker experiences?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} [[File:“Sex workers rights are human rights” - Europride 2019.jpg|thumb|200px|'''Figure 1'''. Prostitution in Sao Paulo, Brazil]] '''What would you do if you found yourself in this scenario?''' Feeling lost and left with little money of your own, but you have to make ends meet. What will you do when you have to pay your rent? What if you have a child? Would you turn to sex work to make ends meet? If you did... would that make your rights to a safe and trustworthy work environment just disappear? Sex work itself is illegal. Having been driven to such means to make ends meet, you must register as self-employed to pay taxes, buy a house, or even just be considered an employee. [https://doi.org/10.1080/14427591.2020.1830841. (Huglstad et al., 2020)]. Sex workers rights activists proclaim that sex work is work, that they are not victims in need of help, and that they are entitled to any basic human right (see Figure 1). That in itself poses another scenario: What drives people into sex work? Is it finance and convenience? Or is it pleasure and fun? {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[Sex education|Sex]] work or [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/10.1086/324390.pdf?casa_token=lfbXJZ0pqcQAAAAA:Y2KROCBvBcyTR_OkV9GU9nGAnh5lp0VKsrro0wiLqGF_MeXybi6-z3pvrxj97OM6GMvGv6r_Zbmt_s9RvHKDiUw3JzDhAPWvsSz3uzNI4nXa_mNdM5o prostitution] is a broad topic which includes many elements of sexual activities. In 2005, Harcourt defined "prostitution, [as] the provision of sexual services for money or its equivalent," ([https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC1744977/pdf/v081p00201.pdf Harcourt, 2005]). To understand sex work as a concept it is important to first understand why people may turn to sex work for an income to begin with. This topic has been discussed at nauseum however often in a negative and clouded light. As stated in The Journal of Sex Research in 2013, it wasn't until the 1990's that literature that looked into this topic stopped looking at prostitutes as "predominantly... ‘‘evil characters’’ or ‘‘sick personalities.’’" ([https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00224499.2012.696285?casa_token=wgasXeCYwFAAAAAA:0Iuwx4QzcbYP0ZAj6GISEX5oDHr4t-phuo4VUxmwfMIVjTrLXaTBhIoYpXtC9r0WaeYaxII3ObSZ Vanwesenbeeck, 2013]) and carrying a lense of ""simmering abhorrence, incomprehension, and fascination" (Vanwesenbeeck, 2013) towards these individuals. Some of the main concepts that will be unpacked below are what motivates people to go into sex work, answers are commonly, "financial, sexual, recreational motives, and coercion (i.e., [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/30048506.pdf?casa_token=pqlPp6XrnF0AAAAA:SFSvr6r_WKbLtO638dPPYk35oZFz9anPcub1Be7iUjk9AMX7a4h73yPLMJ6efSSxWVK7Az4Upc3UgohFYtht3QViGNIyTXPWCkBaY5lhRS_RGNFzUoA trafficking])" (Vanwesenbeeck, 2013), these experiences can often lead to negative workplace satisfaction. External influences like the adult entertainment industry and whorephobia can also heavily influence an individual's workplace satisfaction when working in the prostitution industry. To learn the in depth relationship between motivation to join sex work and the quality of said workplace satisfaction continue reading below! {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} '''Focus questions''' * What are the main driving forces causing people to turn to sex work? * What is the effect of the adult entertainment industry on sex workers? * What is the condition of work place satisfaction for sex workers? * How does whorephobia and others' actions towards sex workers effect their work place? * Do those who turn to sex work for pleasure have different experiences to those who do so for money alone? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Driving forces pushing people towards sex work == There are many driving forces that can influence someone's motivation to enter any kind of work force. Unfortunatly financial motives are often what pushes people to turn to the sex trade. Although there is evidence that some do find pleasure and positive experiences through sex work. So, those who turn to sex work for pleasure have different experiences to those who do so for money alone? === Intrinsic motivation === It would be irresponsible to look at motivation without first adressing key theories that may explain why a person would perform any behaviour. By looking at [[Intrinsic motivation|intrinsic motivational]] forces that may influence someone into the sex trade it can give a fuller explination of their actions. What internal need are they fulfilling by performing these actions? Intrinsic motivation falls under the "definition of [an] action as rewarding in itself" (Fishbach & Woolley, 2021), not nesseserily the outcome/ final goal. Although economic needs are a common factor of joining the sex trade — and is considered an extrinsically motivating factor — there is "research confirming that individuals sometimes enter this occupation for reasons of personal fulfillment"(Arnold et al., 2020) which more closly alligns into intrinsic motives. === Extrinsic motivation === Influences that effect people on an external level, or [[Extrinsic motivation|extrinsic motivations]], are influences that effect people outwardly, forces that are harder for an individual to control. A common driving factor for joining sex work, as stated above, is earning money — an outward influence. A paper published in 2021 by [https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.586235/full Ernst, et al]. shows evidence to support the link between monetary needs and sex work by looking at the topic from the lense of a student in debt. === Maslow's hierarchy of needs === [[File:Maslow's hierarchy of needs.svg|thumb|290x290px|'''Figure 1'''. Maslow's Heirarchy of Needs]] Having covered the basics of what forces both internal and external drive people into the sex work industry, the lense of [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's heirarchy of needs]] can now be applied. - looking at maslows hierarchy of needs, what may cause people to turn to sex work? - does peoples standing on the hierarchy influence their workplace satisfaction? == How motivations to join the sex work industry differ from men to women == {| class="wikitable" |+Percentages showing [https://www.annualreviews.org/docserver/fulltext/psych/65/1/annurev-psych-010213-115057.pdf?expires=1790841225&id=id&accname=au&checksum=112378A7023548A83B7DDDA7288D0EA0 gender differences] in paying for vs working in sex ! !Participate in sex work !Pay for sex work |- |Men |20% |12% |- |Women |80% |1% |} === Male sex workers === - why are they less prevelent in the public eye? - why are they not degraded as much as female workers? - do men turn to sex work to fulfill their own physical needs? === Female sex workers === - why are they more prevelent in the public eye? - why are they degraded more then male workers? - do women turn to sex work to fulfill their own physical needs?<quiz display="simple"> {Knowing what motivates people to go into sex work, if you found yourself in their shoes would you do it too?: |type="()"} + Yes - No </quiz> == The adult entertainment industry and its relationship to sex workers == - does this carer add unrealistic expectations towards sex workers and what people will ask to recieve? - looking into detail about how the adult entertainment industry can glorify sex work and how that may motivate people to join the industry. == Work place satisfaction for sex workers == - is there an element of sexual satisfaction which motivates sex workers? - is there a difference between men and women? - how to sexworkers respond to violence in their line of work and how may that motivate their actions? == Whorephobia and how it influences work place satisfaction == - how do unfavorable opinions of sex workers effect motivation and how does that relate to workplace satisfaction? "on a continuum from amotivation through extrinsic to intrinsic motivation. We consider this as an individual difference variable that changes the relationship between perceived physical danger and desire to leave the sex work occupation." (Arnold et al., 2020) - how does the prevelence of this violence motivate sex workers to continue in their chosen carer path? - how does [https://www.jrc-concordia.ca/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/Journal-of-Religion-and-Culture-Vol-27-no-1.pdf#page=13 whorephobia] effect workplace satisfaction?<quiz display="simple"> {More men then women experience sexual violence as a sex worker: |type="()"} - True + False {There are more women in the sex trade then there are men: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== Through this chapter we have spoken about the different motivations that drives people into sex work and how that can influence work place experiences. We have done this by assesing how age and gender can influence motivations as well as what circumstances can effect those drives. - summerise the different motivations that lead to sex work, considering gender and age. - summerise how socioeconomic factors influence sex worker experiences, including prejudices. * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== * [[Extrinsic motivation|Extrincis motivation]] (Wikiversity) * [[Intrinsic motivation]] (Wikiversity) * [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikiversity) * [[Sex education]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2015/Sex worker motivation|Sex work motivation]] (Book chapter, 2015) * [https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.586235/full Students in the Sex Industry: Motivations, Feelings, Risks, and Judgments] (Fronteirs in Psychology) ==References == {{Hanging indent|1=Arnold, K. A., Turner, N., Barling, J., & Iverson, R. D. (2020). Feeling safe while doing sex work: Motivation for entering sex work moderates the relationship between perceptions of physical danger and desire to leave sex work. Safety science, 129, 104795.[https://pdf.sciencedirectassets.com/271730/1-s2.0-S0925753520X00063/1-s2.0-S0925753520301922/main.pdf?X-Amz-Security-Token=IQoJb3JpZ2luX2VjEDgaCXVzLWVhc3QtMSJIMEYCIQDLwNUlkBLTVH2W9sUG%2FL8xBiniafqj2YjDThRYfM8j7gIhAPpb6usou%2FCfun2GlN94HXvsSkZFNyb27ndcS5LYkmOqKrIFCAEQBRoMMDU5MDAzNTQ2ODY1IgwVqu3mdLMxIbQQT4EqjwVyEzAMhHQLz8i1mRyce46T7kq8nFGMPfsWbvGbIjwD5sTztgejH2H6uoazHE3ceLn%2BHJAMU2gcjulIYqlqCSyvPuWe%2BScfjOHfBfQZnctFdUl2oWqaahIi9YzAVcTWeftoZk%2FylcCfLerGklhqD7HwVv2vZdBzsx94xmqQ1V1uUbIbAIkJ30NfSj00z1cSaUL1q96wM120kL%2By3Fd%2FYRnMyLzgn343yVJM%2BYWksKgOiezOVEa%2BhmIbNUYzcpb%2Fkcah8UWIgZWXjdLp2fZTJB2yCYbj091PqbNLxbKvPvqaCnGI%2BSTaCPpupfKIdR02m2jepxiZI8%2FZrLGy71f0vYzU%2Be120AQZZCPdjTZZAOP9xB%2Bvfpp48EyclSYmN0rSn2bZcMSiqosJl%2Bz6BiiW3J9SmbZXGNWeECGltEiG%2FP%2FRiZ0uB94c2nIGVzBsfJ4fe7UAD3mlWR9UBCT5FirlPE3Dzap%2BH1xnOe%2BGN481xmH1YSoL3FACDW8J5HUez%2BURv5vTzFDq4nON4cFWhMdgPNfu8v%2BjU35utqWccWAfsows5CFE%2FdiNDUQa7EI1XwF00wtRp2k06DjOWBl%2FggL2duXPWFHHaJnOEovHXAGzQUl%2FzBocvEbkU%2BstJU3AjUwCqbrDZRVZay0dd7OLQ6NCZTFxvZrhEoOwYukzgYt02XtXs23oNKc8QK8jPBsjSx8K1Xj9V9tPB5eBTptias5DuJnme5GPMo0H0rehhAFIbH1iz5aLEJ2WFAs2YMajNB9b8K9hsdcsufqw3IWvDgGjJl491SPFYv4AkHpfF%2B2OEEmH9hDMp3rnzv686gQ5u2%2FmSKrDsChJ2JSpJUuTnHdHBZrk%2Fwzx%2BpsfpZ4zLVgKx0K6MJOGtdQGOrAB7mHiroFpJKweD4wGdVv4twWKj65wn3ZS715WCDMXnol3ZjKerxKwtTiAS8MYNXREK5yRc6R%2BCtHqgkfO1QIL6y35fyD0iOWFO6ZYrI1IePcEupQe4Ao%2B8i5%2Bz9PydRXrVVCjz1A9o6ZcLX9dN59jVDboJOpZsOpXxuErU9LEKNKGTqVoHfJq%2FpKSdZkltmLsDvSAgBZORP2gpikUUQyl6A0CxzJ3SGD1ZrqXN39XlWY%3D&X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Date=20260825T084050Z&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&X-Amz-Expires=300&X-Amz-Credential=ASIAQ3PHCVTYZDNOMNKH%2F20260825%2Fus-east-1%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&X-Amz-Signature=222054776072dd684a9220ca5e137f808570de2f4b46a74fc1fac36b8741d31e&hash=9077aea1050680fe483f80515f312051569ddf0b7a50ba90c1511bc6ef136d06&host=68042c943591013ac2b2430a89b270f6af2c76d8dfd086a07176afe7c76c2c61&pii=S0925753520301922&tid=spdf-2823bc10-4a39-4f2b-8a32-7409653a6f56&sid=6bbf6c2f3a5ff545d91b09f2929365875304gxrqa&type=client&tsoh=d3d3LnNjaWVuY2VkaXJlY3QuY29t&rh=d3d3LnNjaWVuY2VkaXJlY3QuY29t&ua=1b130057565d500d535050&rr=a3094b5109a37504&cc=au] Ernst, F., Romanczuk-Seiferth, N., Köhler, S., Amelung, T., & Betzler, F. (2021). Students in the sex industry: Motivations, feelings, risks, and judgments. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 586235. Fishbach, A., & Woolley, K. (2021). Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior The Structure of Intrinsic Motivation. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-012420- ‌ Footer, K. H. A., White, R. H., Park, J. N., Decker, M. R., Lutnick, A., & Sherman, S. G. (2020). Entry to Sex Trade and Long-Term Vulnerabilities of Female Sex Workers Who Enter the Sex Trade Before the Age of Eighteen. Journal of Urban Health, 97(3), 406–417. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7305278/ Harcourt, C. (2005). The many faces of sex work. Sexually Transmitted Infections, 81(3), 201–206. https://doi.org/10.1136/sti.2004.012468 ‌ Huglstad, M., Halvorsen, I. L. I., Jonsson, H., & Nielsen, K. T. (2020). “Some of us actually choose to do this”: The meanings of sex work from the perspective of female sex workers in Denmark. Journal of Occupational Science, 29(1), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1080/14427591.2020.1830841. Ine Vanwesenbeeck (2013) Prostitution Push and Pull: Male and Female Perspectives, Journal of Sex Research, 50:1, 11-16, https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2012.696285 Maslow, A., & Lewis, K. J. (1987). Maslow's hierarchy of needs. Salenger Incorporated, 14(17), 987-990. https://www.justiceacademy.am/assets/uploads/Maslow.pdf McNamara, R. (2016). The trouble with whorephobia. Journal of Religion and Culture, 27(1), 13-34. McKeever, N. (2025). Is Sex Work Inherently Gendered? Hypatia, 40(3), 633–652. doi:10.1017/hyp.2024.56 ‌Redwood, R. (2018). Myths and Realities of Male Sex Work. Red light labour: Sex work regulation, agency, and resistance, 167-180.[https://books.google.com.au/books?hl=en&lr=&id=8GJoDwAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PA167&dq=Myths+and+Realities+of+Male+Sex+Work&ots=mQOUglmuLU&sig=XHi0ybe124LABeHMulfVUMeYsxw#v=onepage&q=Myths%20and%20Realities%20of%20Male%20Sex%20Work&f=false] Sex worker - Wikipedia. (2023). Wikipedia.Org. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sex_worker}} ==External links== [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/10.1086/324390.pdf?casa_token=lfbXJZ0pqcQAAAAA:Y2KROCBvBcyTR_OkV9GU9nGAnh5lp0VKsrro0wiLqGF_MeXybi6-z3pvrxj97OM6GMvGv6r_Zbmt_s9RvHKDiUw3JzDhAPWvsSz3uzNI4nXa_mNdM5o A Theory of Prostitution] (The University of Chicago Press) [https://www.annualreviews.org/docserver/fulltext/psych/65/1/annurev-psych-010213-115057.pdf?expires=1790841225&id=id&accname=au&checksum=112378A7023548A83B7DDDA7288D0EA0 Gender Similarities and Differences] (The Annual Review of Psychology) [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/30048506.pdf?refreqid=fastly-default%3Abdd06e603789b9df6429bacfd93907fe&ab_segments=&initiator=&acceptTC=1 Human Trafficking] (JSTOR)‌ [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Sex]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Work motivation]] p7pji2df3sedqmo1j7bgtl0346zx7q5 2835777 2835722 2026-10-04T09:26:16Z U3261376 3106964 2835777 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Sex work motivation:<br>What motivates sex work and how does this impact worker experiences?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} [[File:“Sex workers rights are human rights” - Europride 2019.jpg|thumb|200px|'''Figure 1'''. Prostitution in Sao Paulo, Brazil]] '''What would you do if you found yourself in this scenario?''' Feeling lost and left with little money of your own, but you have to make ends meet. What will you do when you have to pay your rent? What if you have a child? Would you turn to sex work to make ends meet? If you did... would that make your rights to a safe and trustworthy work environment just disappear? Sex work itself is illegal. Having been driven to such means to make ends meet, you must register as self-employed to pay taxes, buy a house, or even just be considered an employee. [https://doi.org/10.1080/14427591.2020.1830841. (Huglstad et al., 2020)]. Sex workers rights activists proclaim that sex work is work, that they are not victims in need of help, and that they are entitled to any basic human right (see Figure 1). That in itself poses another scenario: What drives people into sex work? Is it finance and convenience? Or is it pleasure and fun? {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[Sex education|Sex]] work or [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/10.1086/324390.pdf?casa_token=lfbXJZ0pqcQAAAAA:Y2KROCBvBcyTR_OkV9GU9nGAnh5lp0VKsrro0wiLqGF_MeXybi6-z3pvrxj97OM6GMvGv6r_Zbmt_s9RvHKDiUw3JzDhAPWvsSz3uzNI4nXa_mNdM5o prostitution] is a broad topic which includes many elements of sexual activities. In 2005, Harcourt defined "prostitution, [as] the provision of sexual services for money or its equivalent," ([https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC1744977/pdf/v081p00201.pdf Harcourt, 2005]). To understand sex work as a concept it is important to first understand why people may turn to sex work for an income to begin with. This topic has been discussed at nauseum however often in a negative and clouded light. As stated in The Journal of Sex Research in 2013, it wasn't until the 1990's that literature that looked into this topic stopped looking at prostitutes as "predominantly... ‘‘evil characters’’ or ‘‘sick personalities.’’" ([https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00224499.2012.696285?casa_token=wgasXeCYwFAAAAAA:0Iuwx4QzcbYP0ZAj6GISEX5oDHr4t-phuo4VUxmwfMIVjTrLXaTBhIoYpXtC9r0WaeYaxII3ObSZ Vanwesenbeeck, 2013]) and carrying a lense of ""simmering abhorrence, incomprehension, and fascination" (Vanwesenbeeck, 2013) towards these individuals. Some of the main concepts that will be unpacked below are what motivates people to go into sex work, answers are commonly, "financial, sexual, recreational motives, and coercion (i.e., [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/30048506.pdf?casa_token=pqlPp6XrnF0AAAAA:SFSvr6r_WKbLtO638dPPYk35oZFz9anPcub1Be7iUjk9AMX7a4h73yPLMJ6efSSxWVK7Az4Upc3UgohFYtht3QViGNIyTXPWCkBaY5lhRS_RGNFzUoA trafficking])" (Vanwesenbeeck, 2013), these experiences can often lead to negative workplace satisfaction. External influences like the adult entertainment industry and whorephobia can also heavily influence an individual's workplace satisfaction when working in the prostitution industry. To learn the in depth relationship between motivation to join sex work and the quality of said workplace satisfaction continue reading below! {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} '''Focus questions''' * What are the main driving forces causing people to turn to sex work? * What is the effect of the adult entertainment industry on sex workers? * What is the condition of work place satisfaction for sex workers? * How does whorephobia and others' actions towards sex workers effect their work place? * Do those who turn to sex work for pleasure have different experiences to those who do so for money alone? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Driving forces pushing people towards sex work == There are many driving forces that can influence someone's motivation to enter any kind of work force. Unfortunatly financial motives are often what pushes people to turn to the sex trade. Although there is evidence that some do find pleasure and positive experiences through sex work. So, those who turn to sex work for pleasure have different experiences to those who do so for money alone? === Intrinsic motivation === It would be irresponsible to look at motivation without first adressing key theories that may explain why a person would perform any behaviour. By looking at [[Intrinsic motivation|intrinsic motivational]] forces that may influence someone into the sex trade it can give a fuller explination of their actions. What internal need are they fulfilling by performing these actions? Intrinsic motivation falls under the "definition of [an] action as rewarding in itself" (Fishbach & Woolley, 2021), not nesseserily the outcome/ final goal. Although economic needs are a common factor of joining the sex trade — and is considered an extrinsically motivating factor — there is "research confirming that individuals sometimes enter this occupation for reasons of personal fulfillment"(Arnold et al., 2020) which more closly alligns into intrinsic motives. === Extrinsic motivation === Influences that effect people on an external level, or [[Extrinsic motivation|extrinsic motivations]], are influences that effect people outwardly, forces that are harder for an individual to control. A common driving factor for joining sex work, as stated above, is earning money — an outward influence. A paper published in 2021 by [https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.586235/full Ernst, et al]. shows evidence to support the link between monetary needs and sex work by looking at the topic from the lense of a student in debt. === Maslow's hierarchy of needs === [[File:Maslow's hierarchy of needs.svg|thumb|290x290px|'''Figure 1'''. Maslow's Heirarchy of Needs]] Having covered the basics of what forces both internal and external drive people into the sex work industry, the lense of [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's heirarchy of needs]] can now be applied. A. H. Malsow drew from both intrinsic and extrinsic influences when making the heirarchy of needs. However Maslow defines a difference in the prevelence of a need and states that some needs will draw motivation for action then others, fr exsmple "A person who is lacking food, safety, love, and esteem would most probably hunger for food more strongly than for anything else" (Malsow, 1987). A possible reason for those who become sex workers through external motives – needing food, water or shelter – may find themselves in more compromising positions then those who enter through intrinsic fulfilment. This is because of there place on Malsow's model, extrinsicly motivated people may be trying to go from physiological to saftey. Where as, intrinsic may be seeking love/belonging possibly leading to more positive work satisfaction then others. == How motivations to join the sex work industry differ from men to women == {| class="wikitable" |+Percentages showing [https://www.annualreviews.org/docserver/fulltext/psych/65/1/annurev-psych-010213-115057.pdf?expires=1790841225&id=id&accname=au&checksum=112378A7023548A83B7DDDA7288D0EA0 gender differences] in paying for vs working in sex ! !Participate in sex work !Pay for sex work |- |Men |20% |12% |- |Women |80% |1% |} === Male sex workers === - why are they less prevelent in the public eye? - why are they not degraded as much as female workers? - do men turn to sex work to fulfill their own physical needs? === Female sex workers === - why are they more prevelent in the public eye? - why are they degraded more then male workers? - do women turn to sex work to fulfill their own physical needs?<quiz display="simple"> {Knowing what motivates people to go into sex work, if you found yourself in their shoes would you do it too?: |type="()"} + Yes - No </quiz> == The adult entertainment industry and its relationship to sex workers == - does this carer add unrealistic expectations towards sex workers and what people will ask to recieve? - looking into detail about how the adult entertainment industry can glorify sex work and how that may motivate people to join the industry. == Work place satisfaction for sex workers == - is there an element of sexual satisfaction which motivates sex workers? - is there a difference between men and women? - how to sexworkers respond to violence in their line of work and how may that motivate their actions? == Whorephobia and how it influences work place satisfaction == - how do unfavorable opinions of sex workers effect motivation and how does that relate to workplace satisfaction? "on a continuum from amotivation through extrinsic to intrinsic motivation. We consider this as an individual difference variable that changes the relationship between perceived physical danger and desire to leave the sex work occupation." (Arnold et al., 2020) - how does the prevelence of this violence motivate sex workers to continue in their chosen carer path? - how does [https://www.jrc-concordia.ca/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/Journal-of-Religion-and-Culture-Vol-27-no-1.pdf#page=13 whorephobia] effect workplace satisfaction?<quiz display="simple"> {More men then women experience sexual violence as a sex worker: |type="()"} - True + False {There are more women in the sex trade then there are men: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== Through this chapter we have spoken about the different motivations that drives people into sex work and how that can influence work place experiences. We have done this by assesing how age and gender can influence motivations as well as what circumstances can effect those drives. - summerise the different motivations that lead to sex work, considering gender and age. - summerise how socioeconomic factors influence sex worker experiences, including prejudices. * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== * [[Extrinsic motivation|Extrincis motivation]] (Wikiversity) * [[Intrinsic motivation]] (Wikiversity) * [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikiversity) * [[Sex education]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2015/Sex worker motivation|Sex work motivation]] (Book chapter, 2015) * [https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.586235/full Students in the Sex Industry: Motivations, Feelings, Risks, and Judgments] (Fronteirs in Psychology) ==References == {{Hanging indent|1=Arnold, K. A., Turner, N., Barling, J., & Iverson, R. D. (2020). Feeling safe while doing sex work: Motivation for entering sex work moderates the relationship between perceptions of physical danger and desire to leave sex work. Safety science, 129, 104795.[https://pdf.sciencedirectassets.com/271730/1-s2.0-S0925753520X00063/1-s2.0-S0925753520301922/main.pdf?X-Amz-Security-Token=IQoJb3JpZ2luX2VjEDgaCXVzLWVhc3QtMSJIMEYCIQDLwNUlkBLTVH2W9sUG%2FL8xBiniafqj2YjDThRYfM8j7gIhAPpb6usou%2FCfun2GlN94HXvsSkZFNyb27ndcS5LYkmOqKrIFCAEQBRoMMDU5MDAzNTQ2ODY1IgwVqu3mdLMxIbQQT4EqjwVyEzAMhHQLz8i1mRyce46T7kq8nFGMPfsWbvGbIjwD5sTztgejH2H6uoazHE3ceLn%2BHJAMU2gcjulIYqlqCSyvPuWe%2BScfjOHfBfQZnctFdUl2oWqaahIi9YzAVcTWeftoZk%2FylcCfLerGklhqD7HwVv2vZdBzsx94xmqQ1V1uUbIbAIkJ30NfSj00z1cSaUL1q96wM120kL%2By3Fd%2FYRnMyLzgn343yVJM%2BYWksKgOiezOVEa%2BhmIbNUYzcpb%2Fkcah8UWIgZWXjdLp2fZTJB2yCYbj091PqbNLxbKvPvqaCnGI%2BSTaCPpupfKIdR02m2jepxiZI8%2FZrLGy71f0vYzU%2Be120AQZZCPdjTZZAOP9xB%2Bvfpp48EyclSYmN0rSn2bZcMSiqosJl%2Bz6BiiW3J9SmbZXGNWeECGltEiG%2FP%2FRiZ0uB94c2nIGVzBsfJ4fe7UAD3mlWR9UBCT5FirlPE3Dzap%2BH1xnOe%2BGN481xmH1YSoL3FACDW8J5HUez%2BURv5vTzFDq4nON4cFWhMdgPNfu8v%2BjU35utqWccWAfsows5CFE%2FdiNDUQa7EI1XwF00wtRp2k06DjOWBl%2FggL2duXPWFHHaJnOEovHXAGzQUl%2FzBocvEbkU%2BstJU3AjUwCqbrDZRVZay0dd7OLQ6NCZTFxvZrhEoOwYukzgYt02XtXs23oNKc8QK8jPBsjSx8K1Xj9V9tPB5eBTptias5DuJnme5GPMo0H0rehhAFIbH1iz5aLEJ2WFAs2YMajNB9b8K9hsdcsufqw3IWvDgGjJl491SPFYv4AkHpfF%2B2OEEmH9hDMp3rnzv686gQ5u2%2FmSKrDsChJ2JSpJUuTnHdHBZrk%2Fwzx%2BpsfpZ4zLVgKx0K6MJOGtdQGOrAB7mHiroFpJKweD4wGdVv4twWKj65wn3ZS715WCDMXnol3ZjKerxKwtTiAS8MYNXREK5yRc6R%2BCtHqgkfO1QIL6y35fyD0iOWFO6ZYrI1IePcEupQe4Ao%2B8i5%2Bz9PydRXrVVCjz1A9o6ZcLX9dN59jVDboJOpZsOpXxuErU9LEKNKGTqVoHfJq%2FpKSdZkltmLsDvSAgBZORP2gpikUUQyl6A0CxzJ3SGD1ZrqXN39XlWY%3D&X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Date=20260825T084050Z&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&X-Amz-Expires=300&X-Amz-Credential=ASIAQ3PHCVTYZDNOMNKH%2F20260825%2Fus-east-1%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&X-Amz-Signature=222054776072dd684a9220ca5e137f808570de2f4b46a74fc1fac36b8741d31e&hash=9077aea1050680fe483f80515f312051569ddf0b7a50ba90c1511bc6ef136d06&host=68042c943591013ac2b2430a89b270f6af2c76d8dfd086a07176afe7c76c2c61&pii=S0925753520301922&tid=spdf-2823bc10-4a39-4f2b-8a32-7409653a6f56&sid=6bbf6c2f3a5ff545d91b09f2929365875304gxrqa&type=client&tsoh=d3d3LnNjaWVuY2VkaXJlY3QuY29t&rh=d3d3LnNjaWVuY2VkaXJlY3QuY29t&ua=1b130057565d500d535050&rr=a3094b5109a37504&cc=au] Ernst, F., Romanczuk-Seiferth, N., Köhler, S., Amelung, T., & Betzler, F. (2021). Students in the sex industry: Motivations, feelings, risks, and judgments. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 586235. Fishbach, A., & Woolley, K. (2021). Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior The Structure of Intrinsic Motivation. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-012420- ‌ Footer, K. H. A., White, R. H., Park, J. N., Decker, M. R., Lutnick, A., & Sherman, S. G. (2020). Entry to Sex Trade and Long-Term Vulnerabilities of Female Sex Workers Who Enter the Sex Trade Before the Age of Eighteen. Journal of Urban Health, 97(3), 406–417. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7305278/ Harcourt, C. (2005). The many faces of sex work. Sexually Transmitted Infections, 81(3), 201–206. https://doi.org/10.1136/sti.2004.012468 ‌ Huglstad, M., Halvorsen, I. L. I., Jonsson, H., & Nielsen, K. T. (2020). “Some of us actually choose to do this”: The meanings of sex work from the perspective of female sex workers in Denmark. Journal of Occupational Science, 29(1), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1080/14427591.2020.1830841. Ine Vanwesenbeeck (2013) Prostitution Push and Pull: Male and Female Perspectives, Journal of Sex Research, 50:1, 11-16, https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2012.696285 Maslow, A., & Lewis, K. J. (1987). Maslow's hierarchy of needs. Salenger Incorporated, 14(17), 987-990. https://www.justiceacademy.am/assets/uploads/Maslow.pdf McNamara, R. (2016). The trouble with whorephobia. Journal of Religion and Culture, 27(1), 13-34. McKeever, N. (2025). Is Sex Work Inherently Gendered? Hypatia, 40(3), 633–652. doi:10.1017/hyp.2024.56 ‌Redwood, R. (2018). Myths and Realities of Male Sex Work. Red light labour: Sex work regulation, agency, and resistance, 167-180.[https://books.google.com.au/books?hl=en&lr=&id=8GJoDwAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PA167&dq=Myths+and+Realities+of+Male+Sex+Work&ots=mQOUglmuLU&sig=XHi0ybe124LABeHMulfVUMeYsxw#v=onepage&q=Myths%20and%20Realities%20of%20Male%20Sex%20Work&f=false] Sex worker - Wikipedia. (2023). Wikipedia.Org. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sex_worker}} ==External links== [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/10.1086/324390.pdf?casa_token=lfbXJZ0pqcQAAAAA:Y2KROCBvBcyTR_OkV9GU9nGAnh5lp0VKsrro0wiLqGF_MeXybi6-z3pvrxj97OM6GMvGv6r_Zbmt_s9RvHKDiUw3JzDhAPWvsSz3uzNI4nXa_mNdM5o A Theory of Prostitution] (The University of Chicago Press) [https://www.annualreviews.org/docserver/fulltext/psych/65/1/annurev-psych-010213-115057.pdf?expires=1790841225&id=id&accname=au&checksum=112378A7023548A83B7DDDA7288D0EA0 Gender Similarities and Differences] (The Annual Review of Psychology) [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/30048506.pdf?refreqid=fastly-default%3Abdd06e603789b9df6429bacfd93907fe&ab_segments=&initiator=&acceptTC=1 Human Trafficking] (JSTOR)‌ [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Sex]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Work motivation]] achdupst3xwpg6qhyzvbcs4sykq1cqq 2835788 2835777 2026-10-04T11:13:19Z U3261376 3106964 2835788 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Sex work motivation:<br>What motivates sex work and how does this impact worker experiences?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} [[File:“Sex workers rights are human rights” - Europride 2019.jpg|thumb|200px|'''Figure 1'''. Prostitution in Sao Paulo, Brazil]] '''What would you do if you found yourself in this scenario?''' Feeling lost and left with little money of your own, but you have to make ends meet. What will you do when you have to pay your rent? What if you have a child? Would you turn to sex work to make ends meet? If you did... would that make your rights to a safe and trustworthy work environment just disappear? Sex work itself is illegal. Having been driven to such means to make ends meet, you must register as self-employed to pay taxes, buy a house, or even just be considered an employee. [https://doi.org/10.1080/14427591.2020.1830841. (Huglstad et al., 2020)]. Sex workers rights activists proclaim that sex work is work, that they are not victims in need of help, and that they are entitled to any basic human right (see Figure 1). That in itself poses another scenario: What drives people into sex work? Is it finance and convenience? Or is it pleasure and fun? {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[Sex education|Sex]] work or [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/10.1086/324390.pdf?casa_token=lfbXJZ0pqcQAAAAA:Y2KROCBvBcyTR_OkV9GU9nGAnh5lp0VKsrro0wiLqGF_MeXybi6-z3pvrxj97OM6GMvGv6r_Zbmt_s9RvHKDiUw3JzDhAPWvsSz3uzNI4nXa_mNdM5o prostitution] is a broad topic which includes many elements of sexual activities. In 2005, Harcourt defined "prostitution, [as] the provision of sexual services for money or its equivalent," ([https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC1744977/pdf/v081p00201.pdf Harcourt, 2005]). To understand sex work as a concept it is important to first understand why people may turn to sex work for an income to begin with. This topic has been discussed at nauseum however often in a negative and clouded light. As stated in The Journal of Sex Research in 2013, it wasn't until the 1990's that literature that looked into this topic stopped looking at prostitutes as "predominantly... ‘‘evil characters’’ or ‘‘sick personalities.’’" ([https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00224499.2012.696285?casa_token=wgasXeCYwFAAAAAA:0Iuwx4QzcbYP0ZAj6GISEX5oDHr4t-phuo4VUxmwfMIVjTrLXaTBhIoYpXtC9r0WaeYaxII3ObSZ Vanwesenbeeck, 2013]) and carrying a lense of ""simmering abhorrence, incomprehension, and fascination" (Vanwesenbeeck, 2013) towards these individuals. Some of the main concepts that will be unpacked below are what motivates people to go into sex work, answers are commonly, "financial, sexual, recreational motives, and coercion (i.e., [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/30048506.pdf?casa_token=pqlPp6XrnF0AAAAA:SFSvr6r_WKbLtO638dPPYk35oZFz9anPcub1Be7iUjk9AMX7a4h73yPLMJ6efSSxWVK7Az4Upc3UgohFYtht3QViGNIyTXPWCkBaY5lhRS_RGNFzUoA trafficking])" (Vanwesenbeeck, 2013), these experiences can often lead to negative workplace satisfaction. External influences like the adult entertainment industry and whorephobia can also heavily influence an individual's workplace satisfaction when working in the prostitution industry. To learn the in depth relationship between motivation to join sex work and the quality of said workplace satisfaction continue reading below! {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} '''Focus questions''' * What are the main driving forces causing people to turn to sex work? * What is the effect of the adult entertainment industry on sex workers? * What is the condition of work place satisfaction for sex workers? * How does whorephobia and others' actions towards sex workers effect their work place? * Do those who turn to sex work for pleasure have different experiences to those who do so for money alone? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Driving forces pushing people towards sex work == There are many driving forces that can influence someone's motivation to enter any kind of work force. Unfortunatly financial motives are often what pushes people to turn to the sex trade. Although there is evidence that some do find pleasure and positive experiences through sex work. So, those who turn to sex work for pleasure have different experiences to those who do so for money alone? === Intrinsic motivation === It would be irresponsible to look at motivation without first adressing key theories that may explain why a person would perform any behaviour. By looking at [[Intrinsic motivation|intrinsic motivational]] forces that may influence someone into the sex trade it can give a fuller explination of their actions. What internal need are they fulfilling by performing these actions? Intrinsic motivation falls under the "definition of [an] action as rewarding in itself" (Fishbach & Woolley, 2021), not nesseserily the outcome/ final goal. Although economic needs are a common factor of joining the sex trade — and is considered an extrinsically motivating factor — there is "research confirming that individuals sometimes enter this occupation for reasons of personal fulfillment"(Arnold et al., 2020) which more closly alligns into intrinsic motives. === Extrinsic motivation === Influences that effect people on an external level, or [[Extrinsic motivation|extrinsic motivations]], are influences that effect people outwardly, forces that are harder for an individual to control. A common driving factor for joining sex work, as stated above, is earning money — an outward influence. A paper published in 2021 by [https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.586235/full Ernst, et al]. shows evidence to support the link between monetary needs and sex work by looking at the topic from the lense of a student in debt. === Maslow's hierarchy of needs === [[File:Maslow's hierarchy of needs.svg|thumb|290x290px|'''Figure 1'''. Maslow's Heirarchy of Needs]] Having covered the basics of what forces both internal and external drive people into the sex work industry, the lense of [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's heirarchy of needs]] can now be applied. A. H. Malsow drew from both intrinsic and extrinsic influences when making the heirarchy of needs. However Maslow defines a difference in the prevelence of a need and states that some needs will draw motivation for action then others, fr exsmple "A person who is lacking food, safety, love, and esteem would most probably hunger for food more strongly than for anything else" (Malsow, 1987). A possible reason for those who become sex workers through external motives – needing food, water or shelter – may find themselves in more compromising positions then those who enter through intrinsic fulfilment. This is because of there place on Malsow's model, extrinsicly motivated people may be trying to go from physiological to saftey. Where as, intrinsic may be seeking love/belonging possibly leading to more positive work satisfaction then others. <quiz display="simple"> {Knowing factors that motivate people to go into sex work, if you found yourself in their shoes would you do it too?: |type="()"} + Yes + No + I'm not sure </quiz> == How motivations to join the sex work industry differ from men to women == {| class="wikitable" |+Percentages showing [https://www.annualreviews.org/docserver/fulltext/psych/65/1/annurev-psych-010213-115057.pdf?expires=1790841225&id=id&accname=au&checksum=112378A7023548A83B7DDDA7288D0EA0 gender differences] in paying for vs working in sex ! !Participate in sex work !Pay for sex work |- |Men |20% |12% |- |Women |80% |1% |} In past years the sex trade has been veiwed as a primerily female dominated career, though men and women to take part in the transaction of sexual favours. In 2006 a study in the netherlands concluded that "3% of both men and women in the adult population (19 to 69 years of age) reported ever having received money for sex" ([https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/19317610903425571?casa_token=sDZAxkVnpLsAAAAA:8IjuI8blrONnsvny4LV0C2Vk4C2ltfOlOt2_Kkf-G1EfBgrGwdhCLxG7959b6OAMuelLbyed8bd3 Bakker & Vanwesenbeeck, 2006]). Although both sexes take part, how does the gender divide split worker satisfaction? It is important to mention that the research of [[transgender]] individuals in the sex trade is highly limited and needs to be more heavily researched. === Male sex workers === Male sex workers often get overlooked in media as well as acedemically, an "analysis of 166 social science academic articles on sex work found that a majority did not mention male sex workers" ([http://cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/3EE28F1EAC9594C89B21F8E47C42D106/S0887536724000564a.pdf/is-sex-work-inherently-gendered.pdf McKeever, 2025]). Not only does gender tell a part in this story but so does sexuality. The stigma of male sex workers was rampent during the [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/24987949.pdf?refreqid=fastly-default%3Af21bffe92b59f3868c81a7143b186da7&ab_segments=&initiator=&acceptTC=1 aids] crisis when male sex workers were seen as problamatic to spreading the disease. Older papers of male sex workers characterizes them as more faminine and rooted in homosexuality, in the 20th century they are "characterized as young, heterosexual, and innocent victims of older, predatory perverts" ([https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00224499.2012.760189?casa_token=MwObuzJvcRUAAAAA:y2bj4pT8W0FJZBr3AYul37bEqXRu_jKD8-CBJDOU1N3Z_Y4WuAixv5SF9F0RPZVeCSrD3Ew5fSl9 Minichiello et al., 2013]). The experience of male sex workers is vastly influenced by external influences (ie. gender, sexuality, clientel). Those influences also dictate the quality of male prostitutes workplace experiences and satisfation. Minichiello et al. (2013), in a paper focusing on the changes in the male sex work industry states that the "intrinsic nature of sex work is not oppressive, and that there are different kinds of worker and client experiences and varying degrees of victimization, exploitation, agency, and choice". === Female sex workers === - why are they more prevelent in the public eye? - why are they degraded more then male workers? - do women turn to sex work to fulfill their own physical needs? == The adult entertainment industry and its relationship to sex workers == - does this carer add unrealistic expectations towards sex workers and what people will ask to recieve? - looking into detail about how the adult entertainment industry can glorify sex work and how that may motivate people to join the industry. == Work place satisfaction for sex workers == - is there an element of sexual satisfaction which motivates sex workers? - is there a difference between men and women? - how to sexworkers respond to violence in their line of work and how may that motivate their actions? == Whorephobia and how it influences work place satisfaction == - how do unfavorable opinions of sex workers effect motivation and how does that relate to workplace satisfaction? "on a continuum from amotivation through extrinsic to intrinsic motivation. We consider this as an individual difference variable that changes the relationship between perceived physical danger and desire to leave the sex work occupation." (Arnold et al., 2020) - how does the prevelence of this violence motivate sex workers to continue in their chosen carer path? - how does [https://www.jrc-concordia.ca/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/Journal-of-Religion-and-Culture-Vol-27-no-1.pdf#page=13 whorephobia] effect workplace satisfaction?<quiz display="simple"> {More men then women experience sexual violence as a sex worker: |type="()"} - True + False {There are more women in the sex trade then there are men: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== Through this chapter we have spoken about the different motivations that drives people into sex work and how that can influence work place experiences. We have done this by assesing how age and gender can influence motivations as well as what circumstances can effect those drives. - summerise the different motivations that lead to sex work, considering gender and age. - summerise how socioeconomic factors influence sex worker experiences, including prejudices. * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== * [[Extrinsic motivation|Extrincis motivation]] (Wikiversity) * [[Intrinsic motivation]] (Wikiversity) * [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikiversity) * [[Sex education]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2015/Sex worker motivation|Sex work motivation]] (Book chapter, 2015) * [https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.586235/full Students in the Sex Industry: Motivations, Feelings, Risks, and Judgments] (Fronteirs in Psychology) * [[Transgender]] (Wikiversity) ==References == {{Hanging indent|1=Arnold, K. A., Turner, N., Barling, J., & Iverson, R. D. (2020). Feeling safe while doing sex work: Motivation for entering sex work moderates the relationship between perceptions of physical danger and desire to leave sex work. Safety science, 129, 104795.[https://pdf.sciencedirectassets.com/271730/1-s2.0-S0925753520X00063/1-s2.0-S0925753520301922/main.pdf?X-Amz-Security-Token=IQoJb3JpZ2luX2VjEDgaCXVzLWVhc3QtMSJIMEYCIQDLwNUlkBLTVH2W9sUG%2FL8xBiniafqj2YjDThRYfM8j7gIhAPpb6usou%2FCfun2GlN94HXvsSkZFNyb27ndcS5LYkmOqKrIFCAEQBRoMMDU5MDAzNTQ2ODY1IgwVqu3mdLMxIbQQT4EqjwVyEzAMhHQLz8i1mRyce46T7kq8nFGMPfsWbvGbIjwD5sTztgejH2H6uoazHE3ceLn%2BHJAMU2gcjulIYqlqCSyvPuWe%2BScfjOHfBfQZnctFdUl2oWqaahIi9YzAVcTWeftoZk%2FylcCfLerGklhqD7HwVv2vZdBzsx94xmqQ1V1uUbIbAIkJ30NfSj00z1cSaUL1q96wM120kL%2By3Fd%2FYRnMyLzgn343yVJM%2BYWksKgOiezOVEa%2BhmIbNUYzcpb%2Fkcah8UWIgZWXjdLp2fZTJB2yCYbj091PqbNLxbKvPvqaCnGI%2BSTaCPpupfKIdR02m2jepxiZI8%2FZrLGy71f0vYzU%2Be120AQZZCPdjTZZAOP9xB%2Bvfpp48EyclSYmN0rSn2bZcMSiqosJl%2Bz6BiiW3J9SmbZXGNWeECGltEiG%2FP%2FRiZ0uB94c2nIGVzBsfJ4fe7UAD3mlWR9UBCT5FirlPE3Dzap%2BH1xnOe%2BGN481xmH1YSoL3FACDW8J5HUez%2BURv5vTzFDq4nON4cFWhMdgPNfu8v%2BjU35utqWccWAfsows5CFE%2FdiNDUQa7EI1XwF00wtRp2k06DjOWBl%2FggL2duXPWFHHaJnOEovHXAGzQUl%2FzBocvEbkU%2BstJU3AjUwCqbrDZRVZay0dd7OLQ6NCZTFxvZrhEoOwYukzgYt02XtXs23oNKc8QK8jPBsjSx8K1Xj9V9tPB5eBTptias5DuJnme5GPMo0H0rehhAFIbH1iz5aLEJ2WFAs2YMajNB9b8K9hsdcsufqw3IWvDgGjJl491SPFYv4AkHpfF%2B2OEEmH9hDMp3rnzv686gQ5u2%2FmSKrDsChJ2JSpJUuTnHdHBZrk%2Fwzx%2BpsfpZ4zLVgKx0K6MJOGtdQGOrAB7mHiroFpJKweD4wGdVv4twWKj65wn3ZS715WCDMXnol3ZjKerxKwtTiAS8MYNXREK5yRc6R%2BCtHqgkfO1QIL6y35fyD0iOWFO6ZYrI1IePcEupQe4Ao%2B8i5%2Bz9PydRXrVVCjz1A9o6ZcLX9dN59jVDboJOpZsOpXxuErU9LEKNKGTqVoHfJq%2FpKSdZkltmLsDvSAgBZORP2gpikUUQyl6A0CxzJ3SGD1ZrqXN39XlWY%3D&X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Date=20260825T084050Z&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&X-Amz-Expires=300&X-Amz-Credential=ASIAQ3PHCVTYZDNOMNKH%2F20260825%2Fus-east-1%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&X-Amz-Signature=222054776072dd684a9220ca5e137f808570de2f4b46a74fc1fac36b8741d31e&hash=9077aea1050680fe483f80515f312051569ddf0b7a50ba90c1511bc6ef136d06&host=68042c943591013ac2b2430a89b270f6af2c76d8dfd086a07176afe7c76c2c61&pii=S0925753520301922&tid=spdf-2823bc10-4a39-4f2b-8a32-7409653a6f56&sid=6bbf6c2f3a5ff545d91b09f2929365875304gxrqa&type=client&tsoh=d3d3LnNjaWVuY2VkaXJlY3QuY29t&rh=d3d3LnNjaWVuY2VkaXJlY3QuY29t&ua=1b130057565d500d535050&rr=a3094b5109a37504&cc=au] Ernst, F., Romanczuk-Seiferth, N., Köhler, S., Amelung, T., & Betzler, F. (2021). Students in the sex industry: Motivations, feelings, risks, and judgments. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 586235. Fishbach, A., & Woolley, K. (2021). Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior The Structure of Intrinsic Motivation. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-012420- ‌ Footer, K. H. A., White, R. H., Park, J. N., Decker, M. R., Lutnick, A., & Sherman, S. G. (2020). Entry to Sex Trade and Long-Term Vulnerabilities of Female Sex Workers Who Enter the Sex Trade Before the Age of Eighteen. Journal of Urban Health, 97(3), 406–417. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7305278/ Harcourt, C. (2005). The many faces of sex work. Sexually Transmitted Infections, 81(3), 201–206. https://doi.org/10.1136/sti.2004.012468 ‌ Huglstad, M., Halvorsen, I. L. I., Jonsson, H., & Nielsen, K. T. (2020). “Some of us actually choose to do this”: The meanings of sex work from the perspective of female sex workers in Denmark. Journal of Occupational Science, 29(1), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1080/14427591.2020.1830841. Vanwesenbeeck, I., Bakker, F., & Gesell, S. (2010). Sexual Health in the Netherlands: Main Results of a Population Survey Among Dutch Adults. International Journal of Sexual Health, 22(2), 55–71. https://doi.org/10.1080/19317610903425571 ‌ Vanwesenbeeck, I. (2013). Prostitution push and pull: Male and female perspectives. Journal of Sex Research, 50(1), 11-16. Maslow, A., & Lewis, K. J. (1987). Maslow's hierarchy of needs. Salenger Incorporated, 14(17), 987-990. https://www.justiceacademy.am/assets/uploads/Maslow.pdf McNamara, R. (2016). The trouble with whorephobia. Journal of Religion and Culture, 27(1), 13-34. McKeever, N. (2025). Is Sex Work Inherently Gendered? Hypatia, 40(3), 633–652. doi:10.1017/hyp.2024.56 ‌Redwood, R. (2018). Myths and Realities of Male Sex Work. Red light labour: Sex work regulation, agency, and resistance, 167-180.[https://books.google.com.au/books?hl=en&lr=&id=8GJoDwAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PA167&dq=Myths+and+Realities+of+Male+Sex+Work&ots=mQOUglmuLU&sig=XHi0ybe124LABeHMulfVUMeYsxw#v=onepage&q=Myths%20and%20Realities%20of%20Male%20Sex%20Work&f=false] Sex worker - Wikipedia. (2023). Wikipedia.Org. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sex_worker}} ==External links== [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/10.1086/324390.pdf?casa_token=lfbXJZ0pqcQAAAAA:Y2KROCBvBcyTR_OkV9GU9nGAnh5lp0VKsrro0wiLqGF_MeXybi6-z3pvrxj97OM6GMvGv6r_Zbmt_s9RvHKDiUw3JzDhAPWvsSz3uzNI4nXa_mNdM5o A Theory of Prostitution] (The University of Chicago Press) [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/24987949.pdf?refreqid=fastly-default%3Af21bffe92b59f3868c81a7143b186da7&ab_segments=&initiator=&acceptTC=1 AIDS in 1988] (JSTOR) [https://www.annualreviews.org/docserver/fulltext/psych/65/1/annurev-psych-010213-115057.pdf?expires=1790841225&id=id&accname=au&checksum=112378A7023548A83B7DDDA7288D0EA0 Gender Similarities and Differences] (The Annual Review of Psychology) [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/30048506.pdf?refreqid=fastly-default%3Abdd06e603789b9df6429bacfd93907fe&ab_segments=&initiator=&acceptTC=1 Human Trafficking] (JSTOR)‌ [http://cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/3EE28F1EAC9594C89B21F8E47C42D106/S0887536724000564a.pdf/is-sex-work-inherently-gendered.pdf Is Sex Work Inherently Gendered?] (Cambridge University Press) [https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00224499.2012.760189?casa_token=MwObuzJvcRUAAAAA:y2bj4pT8W0FJZBr3AYul37bEqXRu_jKD8-CBJDOU1N3Z_Y4WuAixv5SF9F0RPZVeCSrD3Ew5fSl9 New Pleasures and Old Dangers: Reinventing Male Sex Work] (Journal of Sex Research) [https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/19317610903425571?casa_token=sDZAxkVnpLsAAAAA:8IjuI8blrONnsvny4LV0C2Vk4C2ltfOlOt2_Kkf-G1EfBgrGwdhCLxG7959b6OAMuelLbyed8bd3 Sexual Health in the Netherlands: Main Results of a Population Survey Among Dutch Adults] (International Journal of Sexual Health) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Sex]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Work motivation]] imzfks7h7dvl7lize4bda1xqj0js1q5 2835789 2835788 2026-10-04T11:32:27Z U3261376 3106964 2835789 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Sex work motivation:<br>What motivates sex work and how does this impact worker experiences?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} [[File:“Sex workers rights are human rights” - Europride 2019.jpg|thumb|200px|'''Figure 1'''. Prostitution in Sao Paulo, Brazil]] '''What would you do if you found yourself in this scenario?''' Feeling lost and left with little money of your own, but you have to make ends meet. What will you do when you have to pay your rent? What if you have a child? Would you turn to sex work to make ends meet? If you did... would that make your rights to a safe and trustworthy work environment just disappear? Sex work itself is illegal. Having been driven to such means to make ends meet, you must register as self-employed to pay taxes, buy a house, or even just be considered an employee. [https://doi.org/10.1080/14427591.2020.1830841. (Huglstad et al., 2020)]. Sex workers rights activists proclaim that sex work is work, that they are not victims in need of help, and that they are entitled to any basic human right (see Figure 1). That in itself poses another scenario: What drives people into sex work? Is it finance and convenience? Or is it pleasure and fun? {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[Sex education|Sex]] work or [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/10.1086/324390.pdf?casa_token=lfbXJZ0pqcQAAAAA:Y2KROCBvBcyTR_OkV9GU9nGAnh5lp0VKsrro0wiLqGF_MeXybi6-z3pvrxj97OM6GMvGv6r_Zbmt_s9RvHKDiUw3JzDhAPWvsSz3uzNI4nXa_mNdM5o prostitution] is a broad topic which includes many elements of sexual activities. In 2005, Harcourt defined "prostitution, [as] the provision of sexual services for money or its equivalent," ([https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC1744977/pdf/v081p00201.pdf Harcourt, 2005]). To understand sex work as a concept it is important to first understand why people may turn to sex work for an income to begin with. This topic has been discussed at nauseum however often in a negative and clouded light. As stated in The Journal of Sex Research in 2013, it wasn't until the 1990's that literature that looked into this topic stopped looking at prostitutes as "predominantly... ‘‘evil characters’’ or ‘‘sick personalities.’’" ([https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00224499.2012.696285?casa_token=wgasXeCYwFAAAAAA:0Iuwx4QzcbYP0ZAj6GISEX5oDHr4t-phuo4VUxmwfMIVjTrLXaTBhIoYpXtC9r0WaeYaxII3ObSZ Vanwesenbeeck, 2013]) and carrying a lense of ""simmering abhorrence, incomprehension, and fascination" (Vanwesenbeeck, 2013) towards these individuals. Some of the main concepts that will be unpacked below are what motivates people to go into sex work, answers are commonly, "financial, sexual, recreational motives, and coercion (i.e., [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/30048506.pdf?casa_token=pqlPp6XrnF0AAAAA:SFSvr6r_WKbLtO638dPPYk35oZFz9anPcub1Be7iUjk9AMX7a4h73yPLMJ6efSSxWVK7Az4Upc3UgohFYtht3QViGNIyTXPWCkBaY5lhRS_RGNFzUoA trafficking])" (Vanwesenbeeck, 2013), these experiences can often lead to negative workplace satisfaction. External influences like the adult entertainment industry and whorephobia can also heavily influence an individual's workplace satisfaction when working in the prostitution industry. To learn the in depth relationship between motivation to join sex work and the quality of said workplace satisfaction continue reading below! {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} '''Focus questions''' * What are the main driving forces causing people to turn to sex work? * What is the effect of the adult entertainment industry on sex workers? * What is the condition of work place satisfaction for sex workers? * How does whorephobia and others' actions towards sex workers effect their work place? * Do those who turn to sex work for pleasure have different experiences to those who do so for money alone? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Driving forces pushing people towards sex work == There are many driving forces that can influence someone's motivation to enter any kind of work force. Unfortunatly financial motives are often what pushes people to turn to the sex trade. Although there is evidence that some do find pleasure and positive experiences through sex work. So, those who turn to sex work for pleasure have different experiences to those who do so for money alone? === Intrinsic motivation === It would be irresponsible to look at motivation without first adressing key theories that may explain why a person would perform any behaviour. By looking at [[Intrinsic motivation|intrinsic motivational]] forces that may influence someone into the sex trade it can give a fuller explination of their actions. What internal need are they fulfilling by performing these actions? Intrinsic motivation falls under the "definition of [an] action as rewarding in itself" (Fishbach & Woolley, 2021), not nesseserily the outcome/ final goal. Although economic needs are a common factor of joining the sex trade — and is considered an extrinsically motivating factor — there is "research confirming that individuals sometimes enter this occupation for reasons of personal fulfillment"(Arnold et al., 2020) which more closly alligns into intrinsic motives. === Extrinsic motivation === Influences that effect people on an external level, or [[Extrinsic motivation|extrinsic motivations]], are influences that effect people outwardly, forces that are harder for an individual to control. A common driving factor for joining sex work, as stated above, is earning money — an outward influence. A paper published in 2021 by [https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.586235/full Ernst, et al]. shows evidence to support the link between monetary needs and sex work by looking at the topic from the lense of a student in debt. === Maslow's hierarchy of needs === [[File:Maslow's hierarchy of needs.svg|thumb|290x290px|'''Figure 1'''. Maslow's Heirarchy of Needs]] Having covered the basics of what forces both internal and external drive people into the sex work industry, the lense of [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's heirarchy of needs]] can now be applied. A. H. Malsow drew from both intrinsic and extrinsic influences when making the heirarchy of needs. However Maslow defines a difference in the prevelence of a need and states that some needs will draw motivation for action then others, fr exsmple "A person who is lacking food, safety, love, and esteem would most probably hunger for food more strongly than for anything else" (Malsow, 1987). A possible reason for those who become sex workers through external motives – needing food, water or shelter – may find themselves in more compromising positions then those who enter through intrinsic fulfilment. This is because of there place on Malsow's model, extrinsicly motivated people may be trying to go from physiological to saftey. Where as, intrinsic may be seeking love/belonging possibly leading to more positive work satisfaction then others. <quiz display="simple"> {Knowing factors that motivate people to go into sex work, if you found yourself in their shoes would you do it too?: |type="()"} + Yes + No + I'm not sure </quiz> == How does the sex work industry differ when looking at male sex workers == {| class="wikitable" |+Percentages showing [https://www.annualreviews.org/docserver/fulltext/psych/65/1/annurev-psych-010213-115057.pdf?expires=1790841225&id=id&accname=au&checksum=112378A7023548A83B7DDDA7288D0EA0 gender differences] in paying for vs working in sex ! !Participate in sex work !Pay for sex work |- |Men |20% |12% |- |Women |80% |1% |} In past years the sex trade has been veiwed as a primerily female dominated career, though men and women to take part in the transaction of sexual favours. In 2006 a study in the netherlands concluded that "3% of both men and women in the adult population (19 to 69 years of age) reported ever having received money for sex" ([https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/19317610903425571?casa_token=sDZAxkVnpLsAAAAA:8IjuI8blrONnsvny4LV0C2Vk4C2ltfOlOt2_Kkf-G1EfBgrGwdhCLxG7959b6OAMuelLbyed8bd3 Bakker & Vanwesenbeeck, 2006]). Although both sexes take part, how does the gender divide split worker satisfaction? It is important to mention that the research of [[transgender]] individuals in the sex trade is highly limited and needs to be more heavily researched. === The difference in male sex workers === Male sex workers often get overlooked in media as well as acedemically, an "analysis of 166 social science academic articles on sex work found that a majority did not mention male sex workers" ([http://cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/3EE28F1EAC9594C89B21F8E47C42D106/S0887536724000564a.pdf/is-sex-work-inherently-gendered.pdf McKeever, 2025]). Not only does gender tell a part in this story but so does sexuality. The stigma of male sex workers was rampent during the [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/24987949.pdf?refreqid=fastly-default%3Af21bffe92b59f3868c81a7143b186da7&ab_segments=&initiator=&acceptTC=1 aids] crisis when male sex workers were seen as problamatic to spreading the disease. Older papers of male sex workers characterizes them as more faminine and rooted in homosexuality, in the 20th century they are "characterized as young, heterosexual, and innocent victims of older, predatory perverts" ([https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00224499.2012.760189?casa_token=MwObuzJvcRUAAAAA:y2bj4pT8W0FJZBr3AYul37bEqXRu_jKD8-CBJDOU1N3Z_Y4WuAixv5SF9F0RPZVeCSrD3Ew5fSl9 Minichiello et al., 2013]). The experience of male sex workers is vastly influenced by external influences (ie. gender, sexuality, clientel) however when compared to women in how they are veiwed "female but not male sex work [is] degrading, causing deep feelings of shame and remorse" ([https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s12147-008-9051-y.pdf Dennis, 2008]). Those influences also dictate the quality of male prostitutes workplace experiences and satisfation. Minichiello et al. (2013), in a paper focusing on the changes in the male sex work industry states that the "intrinsic nature of sex work is not oppressive, and that there are different kinds of worker and client experiences and varying degrees of victimization, exploitation, agency, and choice".<quiz display="simple"> {There are more women in the sex trade then there are men: |type="()"} - True + False {Men also experience negative stereotypes when participating in the sex trade: |type="()"} - False + True </quiz> == The adult entertainment industry and its relationship to sex workers == - does this carer add unrealistic expectations towards sex workers and what people will ask to recieve? - looking into detail about how the adult entertainment industry can glorify sex work and how that may motivate people to join the industry. == Whorephobia and how it influences work place satisfaction == - how do unfavorable opinions of sex workers effect motivation and how does that relate to workplace satisfaction? "on a continuum from amotivation through extrinsic to intrinsic motivation. We consider this as an individual difference variable that changes the relationship between perceived physical danger and desire to leave the sex work occupation." (Arnold et al., 2020) - how does the neglagence of cops towards sex workers effect their workplace and the behaviour of others. - how does the prevelence of this violence motivate sex workers to continue in their chosen carer path? - how does [https://www.jrc-concordia.ca/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/Journal-of-Religion-and-Culture-Vol-27-no-1.pdf#page=13 whorephobia] effect workplace satisfaction? ==Conclusion== Through this chapter we have spoken about the different motivations that drives people into sex work and how that can influence work place experiences. We have done this by assesing how age and gender can influence motivations as well as what circumstances can effect those drives. - summerise the different motivations that lead to sex work, considering gender and age. - summerise how socioeconomic factors influence sex worker experiences, including prejudices. * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== * [[Extrinsic motivation|Extrincis motivation]] (Wikiversity) * [[Intrinsic motivation]] (Wikiversity) * [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikiversity) * [[Sex education]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2015/Sex worker motivation|Sex work motivation]] (Book chapter, 2015) * [https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.586235/full Students in the Sex Industry: Motivations, Feelings, Risks, and Judgments] (Fronteirs in Psychology) * [[Transgender]] (Wikiversity) ==References == {{Hanging indent|1=Arnold, K. A., Turner, N., Barling, J., & Iverson, R. D. (2020). Feeling safe while doing sex work: Motivation for entering sex work moderates the relationship between perceptions of physical danger and desire to leave sex work. Safety science, 129, 104795.[https://pdf.sciencedirectassets.com/271730/1-s2.0-S0925753520X00063/1-s2.0-S0925753520301922/main.pdf?X-Amz-Security-Token=IQoJb3JpZ2luX2VjEDgaCXVzLWVhc3QtMSJIMEYCIQDLwNUlkBLTVH2W9sUG%2FL8xBiniafqj2YjDThRYfM8j7gIhAPpb6usou%2FCfun2GlN94HXvsSkZFNyb27ndcS5LYkmOqKrIFCAEQBRoMMDU5MDAzNTQ2ODY1IgwVqu3mdLMxIbQQT4EqjwVyEzAMhHQLz8i1mRyce46T7kq8nFGMPfsWbvGbIjwD5sTztgejH2H6uoazHE3ceLn%2BHJAMU2gcjulIYqlqCSyvPuWe%2BScfjOHfBfQZnctFdUl2oWqaahIi9YzAVcTWeftoZk%2FylcCfLerGklhqD7HwVv2vZdBzsx94xmqQ1V1uUbIbAIkJ30NfSj00z1cSaUL1q96wM120kL%2By3Fd%2FYRnMyLzgn343yVJM%2BYWksKgOiezOVEa%2BhmIbNUYzcpb%2Fkcah8UWIgZWXjdLp2fZTJB2yCYbj091PqbNLxbKvPvqaCnGI%2BSTaCPpupfKIdR02m2jepxiZI8%2FZrLGy71f0vYzU%2Be120AQZZCPdjTZZAOP9xB%2Bvfpp48EyclSYmN0rSn2bZcMSiqosJl%2Bz6BiiW3J9SmbZXGNWeECGltEiG%2FP%2FRiZ0uB94c2nIGVzBsfJ4fe7UAD3mlWR9UBCT5FirlPE3Dzap%2BH1xnOe%2BGN481xmH1YSoL3FACDW8J5HUez%2BURv5vTzFDq4nON4cFWhMdgPNfu8v%2BjU35utqWccWAfsows5CFE%2FdiNDUQa7EI1XwF00wtRp2k06DjOWBl%2FggL2duXPWFHHaJnOEovHXAGzQUl%2FzBocvEbkU%2BstJU3AjUwCqbrDZRVZay0dd7OLQ6NCZTFxvZrhEoOwYukzgYt02XtXs23oNKc8QK8jPBsjSx8K1Xj9V9tPB5eBTptias5DuJnme5GPMo0H0rehhAFIbH1iz5aLEJ2WFAs2YMajNB9b8K9hsdcsufqw3IWvDgGjJl491SPFYv4AkHpfF%2B2OEEmH9hDMp3rnzv686gQ5u2%2FmSKrDsChJ2JSpJUuTnHdHBZrk%2Fwzx%2BpsfpZ4zLVgKx0K6MJOGtdQGOrAB7mHiroFpJKweD4wGdVv4twWKj65wn3ZS715WCDMXnol3ZjKerxKwtTiAS8MYNXREK5yRc6R%2BCtHqgkfO1QIL6y35fyD0iOWFO6ZYrI1IePcEupQe4Ao%2B8i5%2Bz9PydRXrVVCjz1A9o6ZcLX9dN59jVDboJOpZsOpXxuErU9LEKNKGTqVoHfJq%2FpKSdZkltmLsDvSAgBZORP2gpikUUQyl6A0CxzJ3SGD1ZrqXN39XlWY%3D&X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Date=20260825T084050Z&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&X-Amz-Expires=300&X-Amz-Credential=ASIAQ3PHCVTYZDNOMNKH%2F20260825%2Fus-east-1%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&X-Amz-Signature=222054776072dd684a9220ca5e137f808570de2f4b46a74fc1fac36b8741d31e&hash=9077aea1050680fe483f80515f312051569ddf0b7a50ba90c1511bc6ef136d06&host=68042c943591013ac2b2430a89b270f6af2c76d8dfd086a07176afe7c76c2c61&pii=S0925753520301922&tid=spdf-2823bc10-4a39-4f2b-8a32-7409653a6f56&sid=6bbf6c2f3a5ff545d91b09f2929365875304gxrqa&type=client&tsoh=d3d3LnNjaWVuY2VkaXJlY3QuY29t&rh=d3d3LnNjaWVuY2VkaXJlY3QuY29t&ua=1b130057565d500d535050&rr=a3094b5109a37504&cc=au] Dennis, J. P. (2008). Women are Victims, Men Make Choices: The Invisibility of Men and Boys in the Global Sex Trade. Gender Issues, 25(1), 11–25. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12147-008-9051-y ‌ Ernst, F., Romanczuk-Seiferth, N., Köhler, S., Amelung, T., & Betzler, F. (2021). Students in the sex industry: Motivations, feelings, risks, and judgments. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 586235. Fishbach, A., & Woolley, K. (2021). Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior The Structure of Intrinsic Motivation. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-012420- ‌ Footer, K. H. A., White, R. H., Park, J. N., Decker, M. R., Lutnick, A., & Sherman, S. G. (2020). Entry to Sex Trade and Long-Term Vulnerabilities of Female Sex Workers Who Enter the Sex Trade Before the Age of Eighteen. Journal of Urban Health, 97(3), 406–417. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7305278/ Harcourt, C. (2005). The many faces of sex work. Sexually Transmitted Infections, 81(3), 201–206. https://doi.org/10.1136/sti.2004.012468 ‌ Huglstad, M., Halvorsen, I. L. I., Jonsson, H., & Nielsen, K. T. (2020). “Some of us actually choose to do this”: The meanings of sex work from the perspective of female sex workers in Denmark. Journal of Occupational Science, 29(1), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1080/14427591.2020.1830841. Vanwesenbeeck, I., Bakker, F., & Gesell, S. (2010). Sexual Health in the Netherlands: Main Results of a Population Survey Among Dutch Adults. International Journal of Sexual Health, 22(2), 55–71. https://doi.org/10.1080/19317610903425571 ‌ Vanwesenbeeck, I. (2013). Prostitution push and pull: Male and female perspectives. Journal of Sex Research, 50(1), 11-16. Maslow, A., & Lewis, K. J. (1987). Maslow's hierarchy of needs. Salenger Incorporated, 14(17), 987-990. https://www.justiceacademy.am/assets/uploads/Maslow.pdf McNamara, R. (2016). The trouble with whorephobia. Journal of Religion and Culture, 27(1), 13-34. McKeever, N. (2025). Is Sex Work Inherently Gendered? Hypatia, 40(3), 633–652. doi:10.1017/hyp.2024.56 ‌Redwood, R. (2018). Myths and Realities of Male Sex Work. Red light labour: Sex work regulation, agency, and resistance, 167-180.[https://books.google.com.au/books?hl=en&lr=&id=8GJoDwAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PA167&dq=Myths+and+Realities+of+Male+Sex+Work&ots=mQOUglmuLU&sig=XHi0ybe124LABeHMulfVUMeYsxw#v=onepage&q=Myths%20and%20Realities%20of%20Male%20Sex%20Work&f=false] Sex worker - Wikipedia. (2023). Wikipedia.Org. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sex_worker}} ==External links== [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/10.1086/324390.pdf?casa_token=lfbXJZ0pqcQAAAAA:Y2KROCBvBcyTR_OkV9GU9nGAnh5lp0VKsrro0wiLqGF_MeXybi6-z3pvrxj97OM6GMvGv6r_Zbmt_s9RvHKDiUw3JzDhAPWvsSz3uzNI4nXa_mNdM5o A Theory of Prostitution] (The University of Chicago Press) [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/24987949.pdf?refreqid=fastly-default%3Af21bffe92b59f3868c81a7143b186da7&ab_segments=&initiator=&acceptTC=1 AIDS in 1988] (JSTOR) [https://www.annualreviews.org/docserver/fulltext/psych/65/1/annurev-psych-010213-115057.pdf?expires=1790841225&id=id&accname=au&checksum=112378A7023548A83B7DDDA7288D0EA0 Gender Similarities and Differences] (The Annual Review of Psychology) [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/30048506.pdf?refreqid=fastly-default%3Abdd06e603789b9df6429bacfd93907fe&ab_segments=&initiator=&acceptTC=1 Human Trafficking] (JSTOR)‌ [http://cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/3EE28F1EAC9594C89B21F8E47C42D106/S0887536724000564a.pdf/is-sex-work-inherently-gendered.pdf Is Sex Work Inherently Gendered?] (Cambridge University Press) [https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00224499.2012.760189?casa_token=MwObuzJvcRUAAAAA:y2bj4pT8W0FJZBr3AYul37bEqXRu_jKD8-CBJDOU1N3Z_Y4WuAixv5SF9F0RPZVeCSrD3Ew5fSl9 New Pleasures and Old Dangers: Reinventing Male Sex Work] (Journal of Sex Research) [https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/19317610903425571?casa_token=sDZAxkVnpLsAAAAA:8IjuI8blrONnsvny4LV0C2Vk4C2ltfOlOt2_Kkf-G1EfBgrGwdhCLxG7959b6OAMuelLbyed8bd3 Sexual Health in the Netherlands: Main Results of a Population Survey Among Dutch Adults] (International Journal of Sexual Health) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Sex]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Work motivation]] daa1h5hqdag9k3kdcynp16dy869qcp3 0 331201 2835734 2834948 2026-10-04T02:56:07Z StudentUC2026 3105303 /* How do task values influence educational motivation? */ add ISTV 2835734 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Expectancy-value theory of educational motivation<br>''What is expectancy-value theory and how can it be applied to understand and enhance educational motivation?''}} __TOC__ ==Overview == {| style="width:100%; background:#FFE1F4; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#F9C3E5; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Imagine this scenario |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="background-color:#F6F4E7;{{Text color default}}; padding:8px; width:150px; float:right; text-align:center;"> [[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|150px|alt=A student reflecting on their motivation to learn]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn. </span> </div> You're sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin (see figure 1). After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals. This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz. This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals. |} The scenario above shows how small shifts in confidence and perceived value can make everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable. Many students experience fluctuating motivation during routine academic tasks, which can make learning feel overwhelming or discouraging. Expectancy-value theory helps explain this pattern by showing how confidence (expectancy beliefs) and perceived importance or usefulness (task values) shape a learner’s motivation. This theory provides a [[wikipedia:Social_cognition|social-cognitive]] explanation of why students choose to engage in learning activities and offers evidence-based strategies to strengthen both expectancy beliefs and task values. The following sections outline these core components and show how to apply them in educational settings to support more adaptive learning behaviours. {| style="width:100%; background:#CBF2D3; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;" |- ! style="background:#96E25B; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;" | Focus questions |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;" | * What is expectancy-value theory? * How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation? * How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? * How do task values influence educational motivation? * How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? |} == What is expectancy-value theory? == [[File:Situated Expectancy-Value Theory SEVT Diagram.png|thumb|right|450px|Figure 2. Conceptual diagram illustrating expectancy‑value theory (EVT). Diagram created by author.]] * Introduce Eccles & Wigfield (2002) and explain that expectancy-value theory (EVT) was developed within achievement motivation research, focusing on how students’ expectations for success and the value they place on tasks influence their motivation and choices (see Figure 2). * Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) describe expectancy-value theory as a major explanation of achievement motivation. The theory proposes that people are motivated when they believe they can succeed at a task and when they see the task as worthwhile. For example, a student is more likely to study for a maths test if they feel confident in their ability and if the test seems important, enjoyable, or useful. * Outline the key components of expectancy-value theory by explaining that motivation is shaped by two main factors: a person’s expectations for success and the value they attach to the task. Expectations reflect beliefs about one’s ability to perform well, while task value captures how important, enjoyable, or useful the activity feels. Together, these factors influence the choices students make and the effort they invest. * Although EVT is widely used in educational motivation research, scholars have noted several limitations. Pintrich (2003) argues that the theory places too much emphasis on rational decision-making and does not fully account for the emotional and social factors that influence student motivation. Other researchers highlight that EVT provides limited explanation of how expectancies and values develop over time or why they differ between students (Flake et al., 2015). These critiques suggest that EVT may not fully capture the complexity of real-world motivation. As shown in Table 1, expectancy-value theory consists of five core components that influence students’ motivation. '''Table 1.''' Key components of expectancy-value theory and their relevance to educational motivation. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" |- ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Component ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Definition ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Example in education |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Expectancy''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Belief about ability to succeed | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "I can pass this exam if I study." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;;{{Text color default}};" | '''Intrinsic value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Enjoyment or interest in the task | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "I enjoy learning psychology." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Utility value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Usefulness for future goals | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "This unit is required for my degree." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Attainment value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Importance to identity | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "Being good at maths matters to me." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Cost''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Negative aspects of engagement | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "This assignment is stressful and time-consuming." |} ==How do social-cognitive models explain educational motivation?== {{expand}} === How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? === * Expectancy beliefs refer to students’ judgments about how capable they are of successfully performing a task. In social cognitive models, these beliefs are central because they strongly predict academic choices, effort, and persistence. Eccles and Wigfield (2002) emphasise that expectancies for success are shaped by students’ prior achievement, self-concept, and perceptions of task difficulty. When students believe they can succeed, they are more likely to engage with learning activities and persist through challenges. * Introduce Bandura (1997), Pajares (1996), and Schunk and Pajares (2009) as key social cognitive researchers who demonstrate that expectancy beliefs strongly predict students’ effort, persistence, and academic performance. * Expectancy beliefs help explain educational motivation because students who believe they can succeed are more likely to engage with learning tasks, persist through challenges, and choose activities that support academic growth. This shows how social cognitive models account for differences in motivation across students with similar abilities. * Expectancy beliefs have been critiqued for focusing heavily on cognitive judgements and underestimating emotional and contextual influences on motivation. Research shows that confidence alone does not fully explain student engagement, particularly when anxiety, stress, or classroom climate reduce their willingness to participate (Pajares, 1996; Bandura, 1997). === How do task values influence educational motivation? === * Introduce Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) by explaining that task values describe how important, enjoyable, or useful students perceive a learning activity to be. * Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) explain that task values include intrinsic value (enjoyment), utility value (usefulness), attainment value (importance), and cost, which refers to the perceived negative aspects of engaging in a task. These values shape how worthwhile students believe a learning activity is. * Research shows that students are more motivated when they find a task enjoyable or personally meaningful (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). Utility value also increases motivation, with studies demonstrating that students work harder when they believe a task will support their future goals (Hulleman & Harackiewicz, 2009). * More recent work highlights the importance of cost, showing that high perceived effort, anxiety, or time demands can reduce motivation even when other values are high (Flake et al., 2015). This demonstrates that negative perceptions can undermine engagement despite strong intrinsic or utility value. * Task values help explain educational motivation because students are more likely to engage with learning activities, they find enjoyable, important, or useful. This shows how social cognitive models account for differences in motivation by focusing on how students evaluate the worth of academic tasks. * Intrincic situational task value introduces the idea that students are motivated when they expect a task to be enjoyable, interesting, or engaging in that specific moment. In SEVT, this is described as situated intrinsic value becuase enjoyment isn't treated as a stable personal trait, it develops from the situation the learner is placed in and the environment surrounding them * Task value research has been critiqued for focusing mainly on cognitive evaluations and overlooking how emotions, social pressures, and classroom climate shape students’ perceptions of value. Researchers also note that the different types of value can blur together in real learning situations, which makes it challenging to distinguish them clearly (Flake et al., 2015; Eccles, 2005{{ic|Use alphabetical order}}). Table #. Table caption goes here {| style="width:100%; background:#DBEAFA; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#B2E4FF; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | What's happening in this space? |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | '''The renaissance of cost'''<br> While early EVT research focused heavily on confidence and utility, contemporary studies increasingly emphasise the cost component. Recent work shows that psychological strain, performance anxiety, and time investment, captured across multidimensional cost categories such as effort, emotional strain, and opportunity costs, can meaningfully undermine high task values in demanding subjects like mathematics (Flake et al., 2015; Perez et al., 2014; Gaspard et al., 2015).<br> '''Real-time and dynamic motivation'''<br> Motivation is now often viewed as a shifting, context-sensitive process rather than a static mindset. Recent studies show that students’ values and expectancies vary across lessons and classroom environments, influenced by factors such as perceived support, peer interactions, and task characteristics, which aligns with EVT’s emphasis on how beliefs and values develop within specific learning contexts (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020; Lazarides & Raufelder, 2017; Dietrich et al., 2017).<br> '''Utility value interventions'''<br> Rather than a static mindset, academic motivation is increasingly understood as a dynamic, context-sensitive process. Grounded in contemporary situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT), empirical evidence demonstrates that students’ expectancies for success and task values show meaningful micro-fluctuations across days, lessons, and distinct learning spaces (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020; Dietrich et al., 2017). These real-time shifts are shaped by immediate environmental inputs, including classroom climate, peer dynamics, and specific task designs (Lazarides & Raufelder, 2017).<br> '''The move towards situated expectancy-value theory'''<br> Early EVT (Eccles et al., 1983) focused on stable beliefs about competence and task value. Later refinements clarified how social influences (teachers, parents, and peers) shape these beliefs. SEVT (2020) reframes motivation as dynamic and situated, showing that expectancies and values shift in response to classroom context, feedback, identity, and social interactions. |} == How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? == * Strengthening expectancy beliefs: EVT can enhance motivation by increasing students’ expectancy beliefs through clear feedback, modelling effective strategies, and providing structured support that builds confidence in their ability to succeed (Bandura, 1997; Schunk & Pajares, 2009). * Enhancing task values: Teachers can increase task values by emphasising the relevance, usefulness, and personal meaning of learning activities, helping students connect academic tasks to future goals and real‑world applications (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Hulleman & Harackiewicz, 2009). * Reducing perceived cost: EVT can be applied by reducing perceived cost, such as anxiety, workload pressure, or time demands, through supportive classroom climates, manageable task structures, and opportunities for autonomy (Flake et al., 2015). * A practical example of EVT in educational settings is the utility‑value intervention, where students reflect on how a learning task connects to their personal goals or future plans. This approach has been shown to boost motivation and academic performance, particularly for students with lower initial expectancy beliefs (Hulleman & Harackiewicz, 2009). * A critique of applying EVT in classrooms is that increasing task values or expectancy beliefs may not be effective if students face structural barriers such as poor teaching quality, limited resources, or high stress. EVT interventions can also be difficult to sustain over time without consistent support (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). == Knowledge checkpoint == {| style="width:50%; background:#F4CECE; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#E07F87; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | <big>Quiz</big> |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:2px; border:0;" | <div style="margin-top:-15px;"> <quiz display=simple> {Which component of expectancy-value theory refers to a student's belief about their ability to succeed? |type="()"} + Expectancy - Intrinsic value - Utility value - Cost {Which value component {{ic|of what?}} reflects how enjoyable or interesting a task is? |type="()"} - Attainment value + Intrinsic value - Utility value - Cost </quiz> </div> |} ==Conclusion== • Expectancy beliefs play a central role in educational motivation by shaping students’ confidence in their ability to succeed, influencing effort, persistence, and engagement (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). • Task values determine how important, interesting, or useful a learning activity feels, guiding students’ willingness to invest time and energy in academic tasks (Wigfield & Eccles, 2000). • Expectancy-value theory shows that motivation increases when students believe they can succeed and when they view tasks as meaningful, relevant, or aligned with personal goals (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). • Applying EVT in educational settings involves strengthening both expectancy beliefs and task values through supportive feedback, meaningful learning activities, and reduced perceived cost (Hulleman & Harackiewicz, 2009; Flake et al., 2015). • Together, these components provide a practical framework for understanding and improving student motivation in everyday classroom contexts (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). {| style="width:100%; background:#FEFB9F; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;" |- ! style="background:#FFD208; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;" | Take-home messages |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;" | * Further take home messages to be added to this feature box as the book chapter develops |} == See also == {{ic|Use bullet-points per Tutorial 2}} [[Achievement motivation]] (Book chapter 2011) [[wikipedia:Educational_psychology|Educational psychology]] (Wikipedia) [[wikipedia:Expectancy-value_theory|Expectancy-value theory]] (Wikipedia) [[wikipedia:Motivation|Motivation]] (Wikipedia) == External links == {{ic|Use bullet-points per Tutorial 2}} {{ic|Use alphabetical order}} [https://education.okstate.edu/site-files/documents/motivation-classrooms/motivation-minute-expectancy-value-theory.pdf Motivation minute: Expectancy-value theory] (Oklahoma State University, professional teaching resource) [https://www.simplypsychology.org/differences-between-extrinsic-and-intrinsic-motivation.html Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic Motivation: What’s the Difference?] (Verywell Mind article) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. W. H. Freeman. Canning, E. A., Harackiewicz, J. M., Priniski, S. J., Hecht, C. A., Tibbetts, Y., & Hyde, J. S. (2018). Improving performance and retention in introductory biology with a utility-value intervention. Journal of Educational Psychology, 110(6), 834–849. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000244 Dietrich, J., Viljaranta, J., Moeller, J., & Kracke, B. (2017). Situational expectancies and task values: Associations with students' effort. Learning and Instruction, 47, 53–64. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2016.10.009 Eccles, J. S. (2005). Subjective task value and the Eccles et al. model of achievement-related choices. In A. J. Elliot & C. S. Dweck (Eds.), Handbook of competence and motivation (pp. 105–121). Guilford Press. Eccles, J. S., Adler, T. F., Futterman, R., Goff, S. B., Kaczala, C. M., Meece, J. L., & Midgley, C. (1983). Expectancies, values, and academic behaviors. In J. T. Spence (Ed.), Achievement and achievement motives (pp. 75–146). W. H. Freeman. Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 109–132. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153 Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2020). From expectancy–value theory to situated expectancy–value theory: A developmental, social cognitive, and sociocultural perspective on motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 61, Article 101859. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101859 Flake, J. K., Barron, K. E., Hulleman, C., McCoach, B. D., & Welsh, M. E. (2015). Measuring cost: The forgotten component of expectancy-value theory. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 41, 232–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2015.03.002 Gaspard, H., Dicke, A. L., Flunger, B., Schreier, B., Häfner, I., Trautwein, U., & Nagengast, B. (2015). More value through greater differentiation: Gender differences in value beliefs about math. Journal of Educational Psychology, 107(3), 663–677. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000003 Harackiewicz, J. M., & Priniski, S. J. (2018). Improving student outcomes in higher education: The science of targeted intervention. Annual Review of Psychology, 69, 409–435. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-122216-011725 Hulleman, C. S., & Harackiewicz, J. M. (2009). Promoting interest and performance in high school science classes. Science, 326(5958), 1410–1412. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1177067 Lazowski, R. A., & Hulleman, C. S. (2016). Motivation Interventions in Education: A Meta-Analytic Review. Review of Educational Research, 86(2), 602–640. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654315617832 Pajares, F. (1996). Self-efficacy beliefs in academic settings. Review of Educational Research, 66(4), 543–578. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543066004543 Perez, T., Cromley, J. G., & Kaplan, A. (2014). The role of identity development, values, and costs in college STEM retention. Journal of Educational Psychology, 106(1), 315–329. Pintrich, P. R. (2003). A Motivational Science Perspective on the Role of Student Motivation in Learning and Teaching Contexts. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(4), 667–686. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.95.4.667 S00246164. (2025). Motivation Laptop.svg [SVG image]. Wikiversity. https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/File:Motivation_Laptop.svg Schunk, D. H., & Pajares, F. (2009). Self-efficacy theory. In K. R. Wentzel & A. Wigfield (Eds.), Handbook of motivation at school (pp. 35–53). Routledge. Wigfield, A., & Cambria, J. (2010). Students’ achievement values, goal orientations, and interest: Definitions, development, and relations to achievement outcomes. Developmental Review, 30, 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2009.12.001 Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 }} ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure * Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options: {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s) {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' Key components of expectancy-value theory and their relevance to educational motivation. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" |- ! Component !! Definition !! Example in education |- | '''Expectancy''' || Belief about ability to succeed || "I can pass this exam if I study." |- | '''Intrinsic value''' || Enjoyment or interest in the task || "I enjoy learning psychology." |- | '''Utility value''' || Usefulness for future goals || "This unit is required for my degree." |- | '''Attainment value''' || Importance to identity || "Being good at maths matters to me." |- | '''Cost''' || Negative aspects of engagement || "This assignment is stressful and time-consuming." |} ;Quizzes * One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> == Conclusion == *Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. ==External links== [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Education]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Motivation]] m861qoc2wl7xp5w66is9gqd8eemr37w 2835735 2835734 2026-10-04T02:59:58Z StudentUC2026 3105303 /* How do task values influence educational motivation? */ add to ISTV 2835735 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Expectancy-value theory of educational motivation<br>''What is expectancy-value theory and how can it be applied to understand and enhance educational motivation?''}} __TOC__ ==Overview == {| style="width:100%; background:#FFE1F4; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#F9C3E5; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Imagine this scenario |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="background-color:#F6F4E7;{{Text color default}}; padding:8px; width:150px; float:right; text-align:center;"> [[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|150px|alt=A student reflecting on their motivation to learn]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn. </span> </div> You're sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin (see figure 1). After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals. This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz. This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals. |} The scenario above shows how small shifts in confidence and perceived value can make everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable. Many students experience fluctuating motivation during routine academic tasks, which can make learning feel overwhelming or discouraging. Expectancy-value theory helps explain this pattern by showing how confidence (expectancy beliefs) and perceived importance or usefulness (task values) shape a learner’s motivation. This theory provides a [[wikipedia:Social_cognition|social-cognitive]] explanation of why students choose to engage in learning activities and offers evidence-based strategies to strengthen both expectancy beliefs and task values. The following sections outline these core components and show how to apply them in educational settings to support more adaptive learning behaviours. {| style="width:100%; background:#CBF2D3; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;" |- ! style="background:#96E25B; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;" | Focus questions |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;" | * What is expectancy-value theory? * How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation? * How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? * How do task values influence educational motivation? * How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? |} == What is expectancy-value theory? == [[File:Situated Expectancy-Value Theory SEVT Diagram.png|thumb|right|450px|Figure 2. Conceptual diagram illustrating expectancy‑value theory (EVT). Diagram created by author.]] * Introduce Eccles & Wigfield (2002) and explain that expectancy-value theory (EVT) was developed within achievement motivation research, focusing on how students’ expectations for success and the value they place on tasks influence their motivation and choices (see Figure 2). * Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) describe expectancy-value theory as a major explanation of achievement motivation. The theory proposes that people are motivated when they believe they can succeed at a task and when they see the task as worthwhile. For example, a student is more likely to study for a maths test if they feel confident in their ability and if the test seems important, enjoyable, or useful. * Outline the key components of expectancy-value theory by explaining that motivation is shaped by two main factors: a person’s expectations for success and the value they attach to the task. Expectations reflect beliefs about one’s ability to perform well, while task value captures how important, enjoyable, or useful the activity feels. Together, these factors influence the choices students make and the effort they invest. * Although EVT is widely used in educational motivation research, scholars have noted several limitations. Pintrich (2003) argues that the theory places too much emphasis on rational decision-making and does not fully account for the emotional and social factors that influence student motivation. Other researchers highlight that EVT provides limited explanation of how expectancies and values develop over time or why they differ between students (Flake et al., 2015). These critiques suggest that EVT may not fully capture the complexity of real-world motivation. As shown in Table 1, expectancy-value theory consists of five core components that influence students’ motivation. '''Table 1.''' Key components of expectancy-value theory and their relevance to educational motivation. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" |- ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Component ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Definition ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Example in education |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Expectancy''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Belief about ability to succeed | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "I can pass this exam if I study." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;;{{Text color default}};" | '''Intrinsic value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Enjoyment or interest in the task | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "I enjoy learning psychology." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Utility value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Usefulness for future goals | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "This unit is required for my degree." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Attainment value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Importance to identity | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "Being good at maths matters to me." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Cost''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Negative aspects of engagement | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "This assignment is stressful and time-consuming." |} ==How do social-cognitive models explain educational motivation?== {{expand}} === How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? === * Expectancy beliefs refer to students’ judgments about how capable they are of successfully performing a task. In social cognitive models, these beliefs are central because they strongly predict academic choices, effort, and persistence. Eccles and Wigfield (2002) emphasise that expectancies for success are shaped by students’ prior achievement, self-concept, and perceptions of task difficulty. When students believe they can succeed, they are more likely to engage with learning activities and persist through challenges. * Introduce Bandura (1997), Pajares (1996), and Schunk and Pajares (2009) as key social cognitive researchers who demonstrate that expectancy beliefs strongly predict students’ effort, persistence, and academic performance. * Expectancy beliefs help explain educational motivation because students who believe they can succeed are more likely to engage with learning tasks, persist through challenges, and choose activities that support academic growth. This shows how social cognitive models account for differences in motivation across students with similar abilities. * Expectancy beliefs have been critiqued for focusing heavily on cognitive judgements and underestimating emotional and contextual influences on motivation. Research shows that confidence alone does not fully explain student engagement, particularly when anxiety, stress, or classroom climate reduce their willingness to participate (Pajares, 1996; Bandura, 1997). === How do task values influence educational motivation? === * Introduce Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) by explaining that task values describe how important, enjoyable, or useful students perceive a learning activity to be. * Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) explain that task values include intrinsic value (enjoyment), utility value (usefulness), attainment value (importance), and cost, which refers to the perceived negative aspects of engaging in a task. These values shape how worthwhile students believe a learning activity is. * Research shows that students are more motivated when they find a task enjoyable or personally meaningful (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). Utility value also increases motivation, with studies demonstrating that students work harder when they believe a task will support their future goals (Hulleman & Harackiewicz, 2009). * More recent work highlights the importance of cost, showing that high perceived effort, anxiety, or time demands can reduce motivation even when other values are high (Flake et al., 2015). This demonstrates that negative perceptions can undermine engagement despite strong intrinsic or utility value. * Task values help explain educational motivation because students are more likely to engage with learning activities, they find enjoyable, important, or useful. This shows how social cognitive models account for differences in motivation by focusing on how students evaluate the worth of academic tasks. * Intrincic situational task value introduces the idea that students are motivated when they expect a task to be enjoyable, interesting, or engaging in that specific moment. In SEVT, this is described as situated intrinsic value becuase enjoyment isn't treated as a stable personal trait, it develops from the situation the learner is placed in and the environment surrounding them. Eccles and Wigfield (2020) argue that these contextual influences are central to how task values form and fluctuate, which is ultimately why the "S" was added to EVT, to emphasise that value is always shaped by the learner's developmental, cultural, and situational context. * Task value research has been critiqued for focusing mainly on cognitive evaluations and overlooking how emotions, social pressures, and classroom climate shape students’ perceptions of value. Researchers also note that the different types of value can blur together in real learning situations, which makes it challenging to distinguish them clearly (Flake et al., 2015; Eccles, 2005{{ic|Use alphabetical order}}). Table #. Table caption goes here {| style="width:100%; background:#DBEAFA; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#B2E4FF; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | What's happening in this space? |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | '''The renaissance of cost'''<br> While early EVT research focused heavily on confidence and utility, contemporary studies increasingly emphasise the cost component. Recent work shows that psychological strain, performance anxiety, and time investment, captured across multidimensional cost categories such as effort, emotional strain, and opportunity costs, can meaningfully undermine high task values in demanding subjects like mathematics (Flake et al., 2015; Perez et al., 2014; Gaspard et al., 2015).<br> '''Real-time and dynamic motivation'''<br> Motivation is now often viewed as a shifting, context-sensitive process rather than a static mindset. Recent studies show that students’ values and expectancies vary across lessons and classroom environments, influenced by factors such as perceived support, peer interactions, and task characteristics, which aligns with EVT’s emphasis on how beliefs and values develop within specific learning contexts (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020; Lazarides & Raufelder, 2017; Dietrich et al., 2017).<br> '''Utility value interventions'''<br> Rather than a static mindset, academic motivation is increasingly understood as a dynamic, context-sensitive process. Grounded in contemporary situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT), empirical evidence demonstrates that students’ expectancies for success and task values show meaningful micro-fluctuations across days, lessons, and distinct learning spaces (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020; Dietrich et al., 2017). These real-time shifts are shaped by immediate environmental inputs, including classroom climate, peer dynamics, and specific task designs (Lazarides & Raufelder, 2017).<br> '''The move towards situated expectancy-value theory'''<br> Early EVT (Eccles et al., 1983) focused on stable beliefs about competence and task value. Later refinements clarified how social influences (teachers, parents, and peers) shape these beliefs. SEVT (2020) reframes motivation as dynamic and situated, showing that expectancies and values shift in response to classroom context, feedback, identity, and social interactions. |} == How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? == * Strengthening expectancy beliefs: EVT can enhance motivation by increasing students’ expectancy beliefs through clear feedback, modelling effective strategies, and providing structured support that builds confidence in their ability to succeed (Bandura, 1997; Schunk & Pajares, 2009). * Enhancing task values: Teachers can increase task values by emphasising the relevance, usefulness, and personal meaning of learning activities, helping students connect academic tasks to future goals and real‑world applications (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Hulleman & Harackiewicz, 2009). * Reducing perceived cost: EVT can be applied by reducing perceived cost, such as anxiety, workload pressure, or time demands, through supportive classroom climates, manageable task structures, and opportunities for autonomy (Flake et al., 2015). * A practical example of EVT in educational settings is the utility‑value intervention, where students reflect on how a learning task connects to their personal goals or future plans. This approach has been shown to boost motivation and academic performance, particularly for students with lower initial expectancy beliefs (Hulleman & Harackiewicz, 2009). * A critique of applying EVT in classrooms is that increasing task values or expectancy beliefs may not be effective if students face structural barriers such as poor teaching quality, limited resources, or high stress. EVT interventions can also be difficult to sustain over time without consistent support (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). == Knowledge checkpoint == {| style="width:50%; background:#F4CECE; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#E07F87; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | <big>Quiz</big> |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:2px; border:0;" | <div style="margin-top:-15px;"> <quiz display=simple> {Which component of expectancy-value theory refers to a student's belief about their ability to succeed? |type="()"} + Expectancy - Intrinsic value - Utility value - Cost {Which value component {{ic|of what?}} reflects how enjoyable or interesting a task is? |type="()"} - Attainment value + Intrinsic value - Utility value - Cost </quiz> </div> |} ==Conclusion== • Expectancy beliefs play a central role in educational motivation by shaping students’ confidence in their ability to succeed, influencing effort, persistence, and engagement (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). • Task values determine how important, interesting, or useful a learning activity feels, guiding students’ willingness to invest time and energy in academic tasks (Wigfield & Eccles, 2000). • Expectancy-value theory shows that motivation increases when students believe they can succeed and when they view tasks as meaningful, relevant, or aligned with personal goals (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). • Applying EVT in educational settings involves strengthening both expectancy beliefs and task values through supportive feedback, meaningful learning activities, and reduced perceived cost (Hulleman & Harackiewicz, 2009; Flake et al., 2015). • Together, these components provide a practical framework for understanding and improving student motivation in everyday classroom contexts (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). {| style="width:100%; background:#FEFB9F; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;" |- ! style="background:#FFD208; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;" | Take-home messages |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;" | * Further take home messages to be added to this feature box as the book chapter develops |} == See also == {{ic|Use bullet-points per Tutorial 2}} [[Achievement motivation]] (Book chapter 2011) [[wikipedia:Educational_psychology|Educational psychology]] (Wikipedia) [[wikipedia:Expectancy-value_theory|Expectancy-value theory]] (Wikipedia) [[wikipedia:Motivation|Motivation]] (Wikipedia) == External links == {{ic|Use bullet-points per Tutorial 2}} {{ic|Use alphabetical order}} [https://education.okstate.edu/site-files/documents/motivation-classrooms/motivation-minute-expectancy-value-theory.pdf Motivation minute: Expectancy-value theory] (Oklahoma State University, professional teaching resource) [https://www.simplypsychology.org/differences-between-extrinsic-and-intrinsic-motivation.html Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic Motivation: What’s the Difference?] (Verywell Mind article) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. W. H. Freeman. Canning, E. A., Harackiewicz, J. M., Priniski, S. J., Hecht, C. A., Tibbetts, Y., & Hyde, J. S. (2018). Improving performance and retention in introductory biology with a utility-value intervention. Journal of Educational Psychology, 110(6), 834–849. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000244 Dietrich, J., Viljaranta, J., Moeller, J., & Kracke, B. (2017). Situational expectancies and task values: Associations with students' effort. Learning and Instruction, 47, 53–64. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2016.10.009 Eccles, J. S. (2005). Subjective task value and the Eccles et al. model of achievement-related choices. In A. J. Elliot & C. S. Dweck (Eds.), Handbook of competence and motivation (pp. 105–121). Guilford Press. Eccles, J. S., Adler, T. F., Futterman, R., Goff, S. B., Kaczala, C. M., Meece, J. L., & Midgley, C. (1983). Expectancies, values, and academic behaviors. In J. T. Spence (Ed.), Achievement and achievement motives (pp. 75–146). W. H. Freeman. Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 109–132. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153 Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2020). From expectancy–value theory to situated expectancy–value theory: A developmental, social cognitive, and sociocultural perspective on motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 61, Article 101859. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101859 Flake, J. K., Barron, K. E., Hulleman, C., McCoach, B. D., & Welsh, M. E. (2015). Measuring cost: The forgotten component of expectancy-value theory. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 41, 232–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2015.03.002 Gaspard, H., Dicke, A. L., Flunger, B., Schreier, B., Häfner, I., Trautwein, U., & Nagengast, B. (2015). More value through greater differentiation: Gender differences in value beliefs about math. Journal of Educational Psychology, 107(3), 663–677. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000003 Harackiewicz, J. M., & Priniski, S. J. (2018). Improving student outcomes in higher education: The science of targeted intervention. Annual Review of Psychology, 69, 409–435. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-122216-011725 Hulleman, C. S., & Harackiewicz, J. M. (2009). Promoting interest and performance in high school science classes. Science, 326(5958), 1410–1412. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1177067 Lazowski, R. A., & Hulleman, C. S. (2016). Motivation Interventions in Education: A Meta-Analytic Review. Review of Educational Research, 86(2), 602–640. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654315617832 Pajares, F. (1996). Self-efficacy beliefs in academic settings. Review of Educational Research, 66(4), 543–578. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543066004543 Perez, T., Cromley, J. G., & Kaplan, A. (2014). The role of identity development, values, and costs in college STEM retention. Journal of Educational Psychology, 106(1), 315–329. Pintrich, P. R. (2003). A Motivational Science Perspective on the Role of Student Motivation in Learning and Teaching Contexts. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(4), 667–686. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.95.4.667 S00246164. (2025). Motivation Laptop.svg [SVG image]. Wikiversity. https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/File:Motivation_Laptop.svg Schunk, D. H., & Pajares, F. (2009). Self-efficacy theory. In K. R. Wentzel & A. Wigfield (Eds.), Handbook of motivation at school (pp. 35–53). Routledge. Wigfield, A., & Cambria, J. (2010). Students’ achievement values, goal orientations, and interest: Definitions, development, and relations to achievement outcomes. Developmental Review, 30, 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2009.12.001 Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 }} ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure * Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options: {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s) {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' Key components of expectancy-value theory and their relevance to educational motivation. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" |- ! Component !! Definition !! Example in education |- | '''Expectancy''' || Belief about ability to succeed || "I can pass this exam if I study." |- | '''Intrinsic value''' || Enjoyment or interest in the task || "I enjoy learning psychology." |- | '''Utility value''' || Usefulness for future goals || "This unit is required for my degree." |- | '''Attainment value''' || Importance to identity || "Being good at maths matters to me." |- | '''Cost''' || Negative aspects of engagement || "This assignment is stressful and time-consuming." |} ;Quizzes * One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> == Conclusion == *Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. ==External links== [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Education]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Motivation]] hjvnemipr3zlooda9udee5korx1x87n 2835736 2835735 2026-10-04T03:07:26Z StudentUC2026 3105303 /* How do task values influence educational motivation? */ 2835736 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Expectancy-value theory of educational motivation<br>''What is expectancy-value theory and how can it be applied to understand and enhance educational motivation?''}} __TOC__ ==Overview == {| style="width:100%; background:#FFE1F4; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#F9C3E5; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Imagine this scenario |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="background-color:#F6F4E7;{{Text color default}}; padding:8px; width:150px; float:right; text-align:center;"> [[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|150px|alt=A student reflecting on their motivation to learn]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn. </span> </div> You're sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin (see figure 1). After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals. This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz. This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals. |} The scenario above shows how small shifts in confidence and perceived value can make everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable. Many students experience fluctuating motivation during routine academic tasks, which can make learning feel overwhelming or discouraging. Expectancy-value theory helps explain this pattern by showing how confidence (expectancy beliefs) and perceived importance or usefulness (task values) shape a learner’s motivation. This theory provides a [[wikipedia:Social_cognition|social-cognitive]] explanation of why students choose to engage in learning activities and offers evidence-based strategies to strengthen both expectancy beliefs and task values. The following sections outline these core components and show how to apply them in educational settings to support more adaptive learning behaviours. {| style="width:100%; background:#CBF2D3; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;" |- ! style="background:#96E25B; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;" | Focus questions |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;" | * What is expectancy-value theory? * How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation? * How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? * How do task values influence educational motivation? * How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? |} == What is expectancy-value theory? == [[File:Situated Expectancy-Value Theory SEVT Diagram.png|thumb|right|450px|Figure 2. Conceptual diagram illustrating expectancy‑value theory (EVT). Diagram created by author.]] * Introduce Eccles & Wigfield (2002) and explain that expectancy-value theory (EVT) was developed within achievement motivation research, focusing on how students’ expectations for success and the value they place on tasks influence their motivation and choices (see Figure 2). * Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) describe expectancy-value theory as a major explanation of achievement motivation. The theory proposes that people are motivated when they believe they can succeed at a task and when they see the task as worthwhile. For example, a student is more likely to study for a maths test if they feel confident in their ability and if the test seems important, enjoyable, or useful. * Outline the key components of expectancy-value theory by explaining that motivation is shaped by two main factors: a person’s expectations for success and the value they attach to the task. Expectations reflect beliefs about one’s ability to perform well, while task value captures how important, enjoyable, or useful the activity feels. Together, these factors influence the choices students make and the effort they invest. * Although EVT is widely used in educational motivation research, scholars have noted several limitations. Pintrich (2003) argues that the theory places too much emphasis on rational decision-making and does not fully account for the emotional and social factors that influence student motivation. Other researchers highlight that EVT provides limited explanation of how expectancies and values develop over time or why they differ between students (Flake et al., 2015). These critiques suggest that EVT may not fully capture the complexity of real-world motivation. As shown in Table 1, expectancy-value theory consists of five core components that influence students’ motivation. '''Table 1.''' Key components of expectancy-value theory and their relevance to educational motivation. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" |- ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Component ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Definition ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Example in education |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Expectancy''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Belief about ability to succeed | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "I can pass this exam if I study." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;;{{Text color default}};" | '''Intrinsic value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Enjoyment or interest in the task | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "I enjoy learning psychology." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Utility value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Usefulness for future goals | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "This unit is required for my degree." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Attainment value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Importance to identity | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "Being good at maths matters to me." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Cost''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Negative aspects of engagement | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "This assignment is stressful and time-consuming." |} ==How do social-cognitive models explain educational motivation?== {{expand}} === How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? === * Expectancy beliefs refer to students’ judgments about how capable they are of successfully performing a task. In social cognitive models, these beliefs are central because they strongly predict academic choices, effort, and persistence. Eccles and Wigfield (2002) emphasise that expectancies for success are shaped by students’ prior achievement, self-concept, and perceptions of task difficulty. When students believe they can succeed, they are more likely to engage with learning activities and persist through challenges. * Introduce Bandura (1997), Pajares (1996), and Schunk and Pajares (2009) as key social cognitive researchers who demonstrate that expectancy beliefs strongly predict students’ effort, persistence, and academic performance. * Expectancy beliefs help explain educational motivation because students who believe they can succeed are more likely to engage with learning tasks, persist through challenges, and choose activities that support academic growth. This shows how social cognitive models account for differences in motivation across students with similar abilities. * Expectancy beliefs have been critiqued for focusing heavily on cognitive judgements and underestimating emotional and contextual influences on motivation. Research shows that confidence alone does not fully explain student engagement, particularly when anxiety, stress, or classroom climate reduce their willingness to participate (Pajares, 1996; Bandura, 1997). === How do task values influence educational motivation? === * Introduce Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) by explaining that task values describe how important, enjoyable, or useful students perceive a learning activity to be. * Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) explain that task values include intrinsic value (enjoyment), utility value (usefulness), attainment value (importance), and cost, which refers to the perceived negative aspects of engaging in a task. These values shape how worthwhile students believe a learning activity is. * Research shows that students are more motivated when they find a task enjoyable or personally meaningful (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). Utility value also increases motivation, with studies demonstrating that students work harder when they believe a task will support their future goals (Hulleman & Harackiewicz, 2009). * More recent work highlights the importance of cost, showing that high perceived effort, anxiety, or time demands can reduce motivation even when other values are high (Flake et al., 2015). This demonstrates that negative perceptions can undermine engagement despite strong intrinsic or utility value. * Task values help explain educational motivation because students are more likely to engage with learning activities, they find enjoyable, important, or useful. This shows how social cognitive models account for differences in motivation by focusing on how students evaluate the worth of academic tasks. * Intrinsic subjective task value introduces the idea that students are motivated when they expect a task to be enjoyable, interesting, or engaging in that specific moment. In SEVT, this is described as situated intrinsic value becuase enjoyment isn't treated as a stable personal trait, it develops from the situation the learner is placed in and the environment surrounding them. Eccles and Wigfield (2020) argue that these contextual influences are central to how task values form and fluctuate, which is ultimately why the "S" was added to EVT, to emphasise that value is always shaped by the learner's developmental, cultural, and situational context. * Task value research has been critiqued for focusing mainly on cognitive evaluations and overlooking how emotions, social pressures, and classroom climate shape students’ perceptions of value. Researchers also note that the different types of value can blur together in real learning situations, which makes it challenging to distinguish them clearly (Flake et al., 2015; Eccles, 2005{{ic|Use alphabetical order}}). Table #. Table caption goes here {| style="width:100%; background:#DBEAFA; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#B2E4FF; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | What's happening in this space? |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | '''The renaissance of cost'''<br> While early EVT research focused heavily on confidence and utility, contemporary studies increasingly emphasise the cost component. Recent work shows that psychological strain, performance anxiety, and time investment, captured across multidimensional cost categories such as effort, emotional strain, and opportunity costs, can meaningfully undermine high task values in demanding subjects like mathematics (Flake et al., 2015; Perez et al., 2014; Gaspard et al., 2015).<br> '''Real-time and dynamic motivation'''<br> Motivation is now often viewed as a shifting, context-sensitive process rather than a static mindset. Recent studies show that students’ values and expectancies vary across lessons and classroom environments, influenced by factors such as perceived support, peer interactions, and task characteristics, which aligns with EVT’s emphasis on how beliefs and values develop within specific learning contexts (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020; Lazarides & Raufelder, 2017; Dietrich et al., 2017).<br> '''Utility value interventions'''<br> Rather than a static mindset, academic motivation is increasingly understood as a dynamic, context-sensitive process. Grounded in contemporary situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT), empirical evidence demonstrates that students’ expectancies for success and task values show meaningful micro-fluctuations across days, lessons, and distinct learning spaces (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020; Dietrich et al., 2017). These real-time shifts are shaped by immediate environmental inputs, including classroom climate, peer dynamics, and specific task designs (Lazarides & Raufelder, 2017).<br> '''The move towards situated expectancy-value theory'''<br> Early EVT (Eccles et al., 1983) focused on stable beliefs about competence and task value. Later refinements clarified how social influences (teachers, parents, and peers) shape these beliefs. SEVT (2020) reframes motivation as dynamic and situated, showing that expectancies and values shift in response to classroom context, feedback, identity, and social interactions. |} == How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? == * Strengthening expectancy beliefs: EVT can enhance motivation by increasing students’ expectancy beliefs through clear feedback, modelling effective strategies, and providing structured support that builds confidence in their ability to succeed (Bandura, 1997; Schunk & Pajares, 2009). * Enhancing task values: Teachers can increase task values by emphasising the relevance, usefulness, and personal meaning of learning activities, helping students connect academic tasks to future goals and real‑world applications (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Hulleman & Harackiewicz, 2009). * Reducing perceived cost: EVT can be applied by reducing perceived cost, such as anxiety, workload pressure, or time demands, through supportive classroom climates, manageable task structures, and opportunities for autonomy (Flake et al., 2015). * A practical example of EVT in educational settings is the utility‑value intervention, where students reflect on how a learning task connects to their personal goals or future plans. This approach has been shown to boost motivation and academic performance, particularly for students with lower initial expectancy beliefs (Hulleman & Harackiewicz, 2009). * A critique of applying EVT in classrooms is that increasing task values or expectancy beliefs may not be effective if students face structural barriers such as poor teaching quality, limited resources, or high stress. EVT interventions can also be difficult to sustain over time without consistent support (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). == Knowledge checkpoint == {| style="width:50%; background:#F4CECE; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#E07F87; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | <big>Quiz</big> |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:2px; border:0;" | <div style="margin-top:-15px;"> <quiz display=simple> {Which component of expectancy-value theory refers to a student's belief about their ability to succeed? |type="()"} + Expectancy - Intrinsic value - Utility value - Cost {Which value component {{ic|of what?}} reflects how enjoyable or interesting a task is? |type="()"} - Attainment value + Intrinsic value - Utility value - Cost </quiz> </div> |} ==Conclusion== • Expectancy beliefs play a central role in educational motivation by shaping students’ confidence in their ability to succeed, influencing effort, persistence, and engagement (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). • Task values determine how important, interesting, or useful a learning activity feels, guiding students’ willingness to invest time and energy in academic tasks (Wigfield & Eccles, 2000). • Expectancy-value theory shows that motivation increases when students believe they can succeed and when they view tasks as meaningful, relevant, or aligned with personal goals (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). • Applying EVT in educational settings involves strengthening both expectancy beliefs and task values through supportive feedback, meaningful learning activities, and reduced perceived cost (Hulleman & Harackiewicz, 2009; Flake et al., 2015). • Together, these components provide a practical framework for understanding and improving student motivation in everyday classroom contexts (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). {| style="width:100%; background:#FEFB9F; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;" |- ! style="background:#FFD208; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;" | Take-home messages |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;" | * Further take home messages to be added to this feature box as the book chapter develops |} == See also == {{ic|Use bullet-points per Tutorial 2}} [[Achievement motivation]] (Book chapter 2011) [[wikipedia:Educational_psychology|Educational psychology]] (Wikipedia) [[wikipedia:Expectancy-value_theory|Expectancy-value theory]] (Wikipedia) [[wikipedia:Motivation|Motivation]] (Wikipedia) == External links == {{ic|Use bullet-points per Tutorial 2}} {{ic|Use alphabetical order}} [https://education.okstate.edu/site-files/documents/motivation-classrooms/motivation-minute-expectancy-value-theory.pdf Motivation minute: Expectancy-value theory] (Oklahoma State University, professional teaching resource) [https://www.simplypsychology.org/differences-between-extrinsic-and-intrinsic-motivation.html Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic Motivation: What’s the Difference?] (Verywell Mind article) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. W. H. Freeman. Canning, E. A., Harackiewicz, J. M., Priniski, S. J., Hecht, C. A., Tibbetts, Y., & Hyde, J. S. (2018). Improving performance and retention in introductory biology with a utility-value intervention. Journal of Educational Psychology, 110(6), 834–849. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000244 Dietrich, J., Viljaranta, J., Moeller, J., & Kracke, B. (2017). Situational expectancies and task values: Associations with students' effort. Learning and Instruction, 47, 53–64. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2016.10.009 Eccles, J. S. (2005). Subjective task value and the Eccles et al. model of achievement-related choices. In A. J. Elliot & C. S. Dweck (Eds.), Handbook of competence and motivation (pp. 105–121). Guilford Press. Eccles, J. S., Adler, T. F., Futterman, R., Goff, S. B., Kaczala, C. M., Meece, J. L., & Midgley, C. (1983). Expectancies, values, and academic behaviors. In J. T. Spence (Ed.), Achievement and achievement motives (pp. 75–146). W. H. Freeman. Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 109–132. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153 Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2020). From expectancy–value theory to situated expectancy–value theory: A developmental, social cognitive, and sociocultural perspective on motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 61, Article 101859. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101859 Flake, J. K., Barron, K. E., Hulleman, C., McCoach, B. D., & Welsh, M. E. (2015). Measuring cost: The forgotten component of expectancy-value theory. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 41, 232–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2015.03.002 Gaspard, H., Dicke, A. L., Flunger, B., Schreier, B., Häfner, I., Trautwein, U., & Nagengast, B. (2015). More value through greater differentiation: Gender differences in value beliefs about math. Journal of Educational Psychology, 107(3), 663–677. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000003 Harackiewicz, J. M., & Priniski, S. J. (2018). Improving student outcomes in higher education: The science of targeted intervention. Annual Review of Psychology, 69, 409–435. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-122216-011725 Hulleman, C. S., & Harackiewicz, J. M. (2009). Promoting interest and performance in high school science classes. Science, 326(5958), 1410–1412. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1177067 Lazowski, R. A., & Hulleman, C. S. (2016). Motivation Interventions in Education: A Meta-Analytic Review. Review of Educational Research, 86(2), 602–640. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654315617832 Pajares, F. (1996). Self-efficacy beliefs in academic settings. Review of Educational Research, 66(4), 543–578. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543066004543 Perez, T., Cromley, J. G., & Kaplan, A. (2014). The role of identity development, values, and costs in college STEM retention. Journal of Educational Psychology, 106(1), 315–329. Pintrich, P. R. (2003). A Motivational Science Perspective on the Role of Student Motivation in Learning and Teaching Contexts. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(4), 667–686. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.95.4.667 S00246164. (2025). Motivation Laptop.svg [SVG image]. Wikiversity. https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/File:Motivation_Laptop.svg Schunk, D. H., & Pajares, F. (2009). Self-efficacy theory. In K. R. Wentzel & A. Wigfield (Eds.), Handbook of motivation at school (pp. 35–53). Routledge. Wigfield, A., & Cambria, J. (2010). Students’ achievement values, goal orientations, and interest: Definitions, development, and relations to achievement outcomes. Developmental Review, 30, 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2009.12.001 Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 }} ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure * Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options: {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s) {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' Key components of expectancy-value theory and their relevance to educational motivation. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" |- ! Component !! Definition !! Example in education |- | '''Expectancy''' || Belief about ability to succeed || "I can pass this exam if I study." |- | '''Intrinsic value''' || Enjoyment or interest in the task || "I enjoy learning psychology." |- | '''Utility value''' || Usefulness for future goals || "This unit is required for my degree." |- | '''Attainment value''' || Importance to identity || "Being good at maths matters to me." |- | '''Cost''' || Negative aspects of engagement || "This assignment is stressful and time-consuming." |} ;Quizzes * One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> == Conclusion == *Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. ==External links== [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Education]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Motivation]] j47ayv06837uffej5x6auw1dv546514 2835737 2835736 2026-10-04T03:30:50Z StudentUC2026 3105303 Generative artificial intelligence support (Microsoft Copilot) was used during the Topic Development stage to assist the author with sentence‑structure refinement, idea development, clarity feedback, and suggestions for improving written expression. Copilot also provided coding guidance for feature boxes and paraphrasing of evidence‑based research originally conducted and interpreted by the author. All theoretical content, analysis, and research contributions remain the work of the author. 2835737 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Expectancy-value theory of educational motivation:<br>What is expectancy-value theory and how can it be applied to understand and enhance educational motivation?}} __TOC__ ==Overview == {| style="width:100%; background:#FFE1F4; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#F9C3E5; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Imagine this scenario |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="background-color:#F6F4E7;{{Text color default}}; padding:8px; width:150px; float:right; text-align:center;"> [[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|150px|alt=A student reflecting on their motivation to learn]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn. </span> </div> You're sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin (see figure 1). After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals. This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz. This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals. |} The scenario above shows how small shifts in confidence and perceived value can make everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable. Many students experience fluctuating motivation during routine academic tasks, which can make learning feel overwhelming or discouraging. Expectancy-value theory helps explain this pattern by showing how confidence (expectancy beliefs) and perceived importance or usefulness (task values) shape a learner’s motivation. This theory provides a [[wikipedia:Social_cognition|social-cognitive]] explanation of why students choose to engage in learning activities and offers evidence-based strategies to strengthen both expectancy beliefs and task values. The following sections outline these core components and show how to apply them in educational settings to support more adaptive learning behaviours. {| style="width:100%; background:#CBF2D3; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;" |- ! style="background:#96E25B; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;" | Focus questions |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;" | * What is expectancy-value theory? * How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation? * How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? * How do task values influence educational motivation? * How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? |} == What is expectancy-value theory? == [[File:Situated Expectancy-Value Theory SEVT Diagram.png|thumb|right|450px|Figure 2. Conceptual diagram illustrating expectancy‑value theory (EVT). Diagram created by author.]] * Introduce Eccles & Wigfield (2002) and explain that expectancy-value theory (EVT) was developed within achievement motivation research, focusing on how students’ expectations for success and the value they place on tasks influence their motivation and choices (see Figure 2). * Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) describe expectancy-value theory as a major explanation of achievement motivation. The theory proposes that people are motivated when they believe they can succeed at a task and when they see the task as worthwhile. For example, a student is more likely to study for a maths test if they feel confident in their ability and if the test seems important, enjoyable, or useful. * Outline the key components of expectancy-value theory by explaining that motivation is shaped by two main factors: a person’s expectations for success and the value they attach to the task. Expectations reflect beliefs about one’s ability to perform well, while task value captures how important, enjoyable, or useful the activity feels. Together, these factors influence the choices students make and the effort they invest. * Although EVT is widely used in educational motivation research, scholars have noted several limitations. Pintrich (2003) argues that the theory places too much emphasis on rational decision-making and does not fully account for the emotional and social factors that influence student motivation. Other researchers highlight that EVT provides limited explanation of how expectancies and values develop over time or why they differ between students (Flake et al., 2015). These critiques suggest that EVT may not fully capture the complexity of real-world motivation. As shown in Table 1, expectancy-value theory consists of five core components that influence students’ motivation. '''Table 1.''' Key components of expectancy-value theory and their relevance to educational motivation. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" |- ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Component ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Definition ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Example in education |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Expectancy''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Belief about ability to succeed | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "I can pass this exam if I study." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;;{{Text color default}};" | '''Intrinsic value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Enjoyment or interest in the task | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "I enjoy learning psychology." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Utility value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Usefulness for future goals | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "This unit is required for my degree." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Attainment value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Importance to identity | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "Being good at maths matters to me." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Cost''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Negative aspects of engagement | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "This assignment is stressful and time-consuming." |} ==How do social-cognitive models explain educational motivation?== {{expand}} === How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? === * Expectancy beliefs refer to students’ judgments about how capable they are of successfully performing a task. In social cognitive models, these beliefs are central because they strongly predict academic choices, effort, and persistence. Eccles and Wigfield (2002) emphasise that expectancies for success are shaped by students’ prior achievement, self-concept, and perceptions of task difficulty. When students believe they can succeed, they are more likely to engage with learning activities and persist through challenges. * Introduce Bandura (1997), Pajares (1996), and Schunk and Pajares (2009) as key social cognitive researchers who demonstrate that expectancy beliefs strongly predict students’ effort, persistence, and academic performance. * Expectancy beliefs help explain educational motivation because students who believe they can succeed are more likely to engage with learning tasks, persist through challenges, and choose activities that support academic growth. This shows how social cognitive models account for differences in motivation across students with similar abilities. * Expectancy beliefs have been critiqued for focusing heavily on cognitive judgements and underestimating emotional and contextual influences on motivation. Research shows that confidence alone does not fully explain student engagement, particularly when anxiety, stress, or classroom climate reduce their willingness to participate (Pajares, 1996; Bandura, 1997). === How do task values influence educational motivation? === * Introduce Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) by explaining that task values describe how important, enjoyable, or useful students perceive a learning activity to be. * Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) explain that task values include intrinsic value (enjoyment), utility value (usefulness), attainment value (importance), and cost, which refers to the perceived negative aspects of engaging in a task. These values shape how worthwhile students believe a learning activity is. * Research shows that students are more motivated when they find a task enjoyable or personally meaningful (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). Utility value also increases motivation, with studies demonstrating that students work harder when they believe a task will support their future goals (Hulleman & Harackiewicz, 2009). * More recent work highlights the importance of cost, showing that high perceived effort, anxiety, or time demands can reduce motivation even when other values are high (Flake et al., 2015). This demonstrates that negative perceptions can undermine engagement despite strong intrinsic or utility value. * Task values help explain educational motivation because students are more likely to engage with learning activities, they find enjoyable, important, or useful. This shows how social cognitive models account for differences in motivation by focusing on how students evaluate the worth of academic tasks. * Intrinsic subjective task value introduces the idea that students are motivated when they expect a task to be enjoyable, interesting, or engaging in that specific moment. In SEVT, this is described as situated intrinsic value becuase enjoyment isn't treated as a stable personal trait, it develops from the situation the learner is placed in and the environment surrounding them. Eccles and Wigfield (2020) argue that these contextual influences are central to how task values form and fluctuate, which is ultimately why the "S" was added to EVT, to emphasise that value is always shaped by the learner's developmental, cultural, and situational context. * Task value research has been critiqued for focusing mainly on cognitive evaluations and overlooking how emotions, social pressures, and classroom climate shape students’ perceptions of value. Researchers also note that the different types of value can blur together in real learning situations, which makes it challenging to distinguish them clearly (Flake et al., 2015; Eccles, 2005{{ic|Use alphabetical order}}). Table #. Table caption goes here {| style="width:100%; background:#DBEAFA; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#B2E4FF; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | What's happening in this space? |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | '''The renaissance of cost'''<br> While early EVT research focused heavily on confidence and utility, contemporary studies increasingly emphasise the cost component. Recent work shows that psychological strain, performance anxiety, and time investment, captured across multidimensional cost categories such as effort, emotional strain, and opportunity costs, can meaningfully undermine high task values in demanding subjects like mathematics (Flake et al., 2015; Perez et al., 2014; Gaspard et al., 2015).<br> '''Real-time and dynamic motivation'''<br> Motivation is now often viewed as a shifting, context-sensitive process rather than a static mindset. Recent studies show that students’ values and expectancies vary across lessons and classroom environments, influenced by factors such as perceived support, peer interactions, and task characteristics, which aligns with EVT’s emphasis on how beliefs and values develop within specific learning contexts (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020; Lazarides & Raufelder, 2017; Dietrich et al., 2017).<br> '''Utility value interventions'''<br> Rather than a static mindset, academic motivation is increasingly understood as a dynamic, context-sensitive process. Grounded in contemporary situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT), empirical evidence demonstrates that students’ expectancies for success and task values show meaningful micro-fluctuations across days, lessons, and distinct learning spaces (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020; Dietrich et al., 2017). These real-time shifts are shaped by immediate environmental inputs, including classroom climate, peer dynamics, and specific task designs (Lazarides & Raufelder, 2017).<br> '''The move towards situated expectancy-value theory'''<br> Early EVT (Eccles et al., 1983) focused on stable beliefs about competence and task value. Later refinements clarified how social influences (teachers, parents, and peers) shape these beliefs. SEVT (2020) reframes motivation as dynamic and situated, showing that expectancies and values shift in response to classroom context, feedback, identity, and social interactions. |} == How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? == * Strengthening expectancy beliefs: EVT can enhance motivation by increasing students’ expectancy beliefs through clear feedback, modelling effective strategies, and providing structured support that builds confidence in their ability to succeed (Bandura, 1997; Schunk & Pajares, 2009). * Enhancing task values: Teachers can increase task values by emphasising the relevance, usefulness, and personal meaning of learning activities, helping students connect academic tasks to future goals and real‑world applications (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Hulleman & Harackiewicz, 2009). * Reducing perceived cost: EVT can be applied by reducing perceived cost, such as anxiety, workload pressure, or time demands, through supportive classroom climates, manageable task structures, and opportunities for autonomy (Flake et al., 2015). * A practical example of EVT in educational settings is the utility‑value intervention, where students reflect on how a learning task connects to their personal goals or future plans. This approach has been shown to boost motivation and academic performance, particularly for students with lower initial expectancy beliefs (Hulleman & Harackiewicz, 2009). * A critique of applying EVT in classrooms is that increasing task values or expectancy beliefs may not be effective if students face structural barriers such as poor teaching quality, limited resources, or high stress. EVT interventions can also be difficult to sustain over time without consistent support (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). == Knowledge checkpoint == {| style="width:50%; background:#F4CECE; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#E07F87; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | <big>Quiz</big> |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:2px; border:0;" | <div style="margin-top:-15px;"> <quiz display=simple> {Which component of expectancy-value theory refers to a student's belief about their ability to succeed? |type="()"} + Expectancy - Intrinsic value - Utility value - Cost {Which value component {{ic|of what?}} reflects how enjoyable or interesting a task is? |type="()"} - Attainment value + Intrinsic value - Utility value - Cost </quiz> </div> |} ==Conclusion== • Expectancy beliefs play a central role in educational motivation by shaping students’ confidence in their ability to succeed, influencing effort, persistence, and engagement (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). • Task values determine how important, interesting, or useful a learning activity feels, guiding students’ willingness to invest time and energy in academic tasks (Wigfield & Eccles, 2000). • Expectancy-value theory shows that motivation increases when students believe they can succeed and when they view tasks as meaningful, relevant, or aligned with personal goals (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). • Applying EVT in educational settings involves strengthening both expectancy beliefs and task values through supportive feedback, meaningful learning activities, and reduced perceived cost (Hulleman & Harackiewicz, 2009; Flake et al., 2015). • Together, these components provide a practical framework for understanding and improving student motivation in everyday classroom contexts (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). {| style="width:100%; background:#FEFB9F; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;" |- ! style="background:#FFD208; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;" | Take-home messages |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;" | * Further take home messages to be added to this feature box as the book chapter develops |} == See also == {{ic|Use bullet-points per Tutorial 2}} [[Achievement motivation]] (Book chapter 2011) [[wikipedia:Educational_psychology|Educational psychology]] (Wikipedia) [[wikipedia:Expectancy-value_theory|Expectancy-value theory]] (Wikipedia) [[wikipedia:Motivation|Motivation]] (Wikipedia) == External links == {{ic|Use bullet-points per Tutorial 2}} {{ic|Use alphabetical order}} [https://education.okstate.edu/site-files/documents/motivation-classrooms/motivation-minute-expectancy-value-theory.pdf Motivation minute: Expectancy-value theory] (Oklahoma State University, professional teaching resource) [https://www.simplypsychology.org/differences-between-extrinsic-and-intrinsic-motivation.html Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic Motivation: What’s the Difference?] (Verywell Mind article) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. W. H. Freeman. Canning, E. A., Harackiewicz, J. M., Priniski, S. J., Hecht, C. A., Tibbetts, Y., & Hyde, J. S. (2018). Improving performance and retention in introductory biology with a utility-value intervention. Journal of Educational Psychology, 110(6), 834–849. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000244 Dietrich, J., Viljaranta, J., Moeller, J., & Kracke, B. (2017). Situational expectancies and task values: Associations with students' effort. Learning and Instruction, 47, 53–64. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2016.10.009 Eccles, J. S. (2005). Subjective task value and the Eccles et al. model of achievement-related choices. In A. J. Elliot & C. S. Dweck (Eds.), Handbook of competence and motivation (pp. 105–121). Guilford Press. Eccles, J. S., Adler, T. F., Futterman, R., Goff, S. B., Kaczala, C. M., Meece, J. L., & Midgley, C. (1983). Expectancies, values, and academic behaviors. In J. T. Spence (Ed.), Achievement and achievement motives (pp. 75–146). W. H. Freeman. Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 109–132. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153 Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2020). From expectancy–value theory to situated expectancy–value theory: A developmental, social cognitive, and sociocultural perspective on motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 61, Article 101859. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101859 Flake, J. K., Barron, K. E., Hulleman, C., McCoach, B. D., & Welsh, M. E. (2015). Measuring cost: The forgotten component of expectancy-value theory. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 41, 232–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2015.03.002 Gaspard, H., Dicke, A. L., Flunger, B., Schreier, B., Häfner, I., Trautwein, U., & Nagengast, B. (2015). More value through greater differentiation: Gender differences in value beliefs about math. Journal of Educational Psychology, 107(3), 663–677. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000003 Harackiewicz, J. M., & Priniski, S. J. (2018). Improving student outcomes in higher education: The science of targeted intervention. Annual Review of Psychology, 69, 409–435. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-122216-011725 Hulleman, C. S., & Harackiewicz, J. M. (2009). Promoting interest and performance in high school science classes. Science, 326(5958), 1410–1412. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1177067 Lazowski, R. A., & Hulleman, C. S. (2016). Motivation Interventions in Education: A Meta-Analytic Review. Review of Educational Research, 86(2), 602–640. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654315617832 Pajares, F. (1996). Self-efficacy beliefs in academic settings. Review of Educational Research, 66(4), 543–578. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543066004543 Perez, T., Cromley, J. G., & Kaplan, A. (2014). The role of identity development, values, and costs in college STEM retention. Journal of Educational Psychology, 106(1), 315–329. Pintrich, P. R. (2003). A Motivational Science Perspective on the Role of Student Motivation in Learning and Teaching Contexts. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(4), 667–686. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.95.4.667 S00246164. (2025). Motivation Laptop.svg [SVG image]. Wikiversity. https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/File:Motivation_Laptop.svg Schunk, D. H., & Pajares, F. (2009). Self-efficacy theory. In K. R. Wentzel & A. Wigfield (Eds.), Handbook of motivation at school (pp. 35–53). Routledge. Wigfield, A., & Cambria, J. (2010). Students’ achievement values, goal orientations, and interest: Definitions, development, and relations to achievement outcomes. Developmental Review, 30, 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2009.12.001 Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 }} ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure * Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options: {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s) {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' Key components of expectancy-value theory and their relevance to educational motivation. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" |- ! Component !! Definition !! Example in education |- | '''Expectancy''' || Belief about ability to succeed || "I can pass this exam if I study." |- | '''Intrinsic value''' || Enjoyment or interest in the task || "I enjoy learning psychology." |- | '''Utility value''' || Usefulness for future goals || "This unit is required for my degree." |- | '''Attainment value''' || Importance to identity || "Being good at maths matters to me." |- | '''Cost''' || Negative aspects of engagement || "This assignment is stressful and time-consuming." |} ;Quizzes * One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> == Conclusion == *Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. ==External links== [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Education]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Motivation]] 1xzp5ivceg0vuaq3y0qxmh4go6s10al 2835738 2835737 2026-10-04T03:34:01Z StudentUC2026 3105303 /* See also */ 2835738 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Expectancy-value theory of educational motivation:<br>What is expectancy-value theory and how can it be applied to understand and enhance educational motivation?}} __TOC__ ==Overview == {| style="width:100%; background:#FFE1F4; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#F9C3E5; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Imagine this scenario |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="background-color:#F6F4E7;{{Text color default}}; padding:8px; width:150px; float:right; text-align:center;"> [[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|150px|alt=A student reflecting on their motivation to learn]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn. </span> </div> You're sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin (see figure 1). After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals. This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz. This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals. |} The scenario above shows how small shifts in confidence and perceived value can make everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable. Many students experience fluctuating motivation during routine academic tasks, which can make learning feel overwhelming or discouraging. Expectancy-value theory helps explain this pattern by showing how confidence (expectancy beliefs) and perceived importance or usefulness (task values) shape a learner’s motivation. This theory provides a [[wikipedia:Social_cognition|social-cognitive]] explanation of why students choose to engage in learning activities and offers evidence-based strategies to strengthen both expectancy beliefs and task values. The following sections outline these core components and show how to apply them in educational settings to support more adaptive learning behaviours. {| style="width:100%; background:#CBF2D3; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;" |- ! style="background:#96E25B; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;" | Focus questions |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;" | * What is expectancy-value theory? * How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation? * How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? * How do task values influence educational motivation? * How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? |} == What is expectancy-value theory? == [[File:Situated Expectancy-Value Theory SEVT Diagram.png|thumb|right|450px|Figure 2. Conceptual diagram illustrating expectancy‑value theory (EVT). Diagram created by author.]] * Introduce Eccles & Wigfield (2002) and explain that expectancy-value theory (EVT) was developed within achievement motivation research, focusing on how students’ expectations for success and the value they place on tasks influence their motivation and choices (see Figure 2). * Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) describe expectancy-value theory as a major explanation of achievement motivation. The theory proposes that people are motivated when they believe they can succeed at a task and when they see the task as worthwhile. For example, a student is more likely to study for a maths test if they feel confident in their ability and if the test seems important, enjoyable, or useful. * Outline the key components of expectancy-value theory by explaining that motivation is shaped by two main factors: a person’s expectations for success and the value they attach to the task. Expectations reflect beliefs about one’s ability to perform well, while task value captures how important, enjoyable, or useful the activity feels. Together, these factors influence the choices students make and the effort they invest. * Although EVT is widely used in educational motivation research, scholars have noted several limitations. Pintrich (2003) argues that the theory places too much emphasis on rational decision-making and does not fully account for the emotional and social factors that influence student motivation. Other researchers highlight that EVT provides limited explanation of how expectancies and values develop over time or why they differ between students (Flake et al., 2015). These critiques suggest that EVT may not fully capture the complexity of real-world motivation. As shown in Table 1, expectancy-value theory consists of five core components that influence students’ motivation. '''Table 1.''' Key components of expectancy-value theory and their relevance to educational motivation. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" |- ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Component ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Definition ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Example in education |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Expectancy''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Belief about ability to succeed | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "I can pass this exam if I study." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;;{{Text color default}};" | '''Intrinsic value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Enjoyment or interest in the task | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "I enjoy learning psychology." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Utility value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Usefulness for future goals | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "This unit is required for my degree." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Attainment value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Importance to identity | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "Being good at maths matters to me." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Cost''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Negative aspects of engagement | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "This assignment is stressful and time-consuming." |} ==How do social-cognitive models explain educational motivation?== {{expand}} === How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? === * Expectancy beliefs refer to students’ judgments about how capable they are of successfully performing a task. In social cognitive models, these beliefs are central because they strongly predict academic choices, effort, and persistence. Eccles and Wigfield (2002) emphasise that expectancies for success are shaped by students’ prior achievement, self-concept, and perceptions of task difficulty. When students believe they can succeed, they are more likely to engage with learning activities and persist through challenges. * Introduce Bandura (1997), Pajares (1996), and Schunk and Pajares (2009) as key social cognitive researchers who demonstrate that expectancy beliefs strongly predict students’ effort, persistence, and academic performance. * Expectancy beliefs help explain educational motivation because students who believe they can succeed are more likely to engage with learning tasks, persist through challenges, and choose activities that support academic growth. This shows how social cognitive models account for differences in motivation across students with similar abilities. * Expectancy beliefs have been critiqued for focusing heavily on cognitive judgements and underestimating emotional and contextual influences on motivation. Research shows that confidence alone does not fully explain student engagement, particularly when anxiety, stress, or classroom climate reduce their willingness to participate (Pajares, 1996; Bandura, 1997). === How do task values influence educational motivation? === * Introduce Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) by explaining that task values describe how important, enjoyable, or useful students perceive a learning activity to be. * Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) explain that task values include intrinsic value (enjoyment), utility value (usefulness), attainment value (importance), and cost, which refers to the perceived negative aspects of engaging in a task. These values shape how worthwhile students believe a learning activity is. * Research shows that students are more motivated when they find a task enjoyable or personally meaningful (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). Utility value also increases motivation, with studies demonstrating that students work harder when they believe a task will support their future goals (Hulleman & Harackiewicz, 2009). * More recent work highlights the importance of cost, showing that high perceived effort, anxiety, or time demands can reduce motivation even when other values are high (Flake et al., 2015). This demonstrates that negative perceptions can undermine engagement despite strong intrinsic or utility value. * Task values help explain educational motivation because students are more likely to engage with learning activities, they find enjoyable, important, or useful. This shows how social cognitive models account for differences in motivation by focusing on how students evaluate the worth of academic tasks. * Intrinsic subjective task value introduces the idea that students are motivated when they expect a task to be enjoyable, interesting, or engaging in that specific moment. In SEVT, this is described as situated intrinsic value becuase enjoyment isn't treated as a stable personal trait, it develops from the situation the learner is placed in and the environment surrounding them. Eccles and Wigfield (2020) argue that these contextual influences are central to how task values form and fluctuate, which is ultimately why the "S" was added to EVT, to emphasise that value is always shaped by the learner's developmental, cultural, and situational context. * Task value research has been critiqued for focusing mainly on cognitive evaluations and overlooking how emotions, social pressures, and classroom climate shape students’ perceptions of value. Researchers also note that the different types of value can blur together in real learning situations, which makes it challenging to distinguish them clearly (Flake et al., 2015; Eccles, 2005{{ic|Use alphabetical order}}). Table #. Table caption goes here {| style="width:100%; background:#DBEAFA; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#B2E4FF; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | What's happening in this space? |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | '''The renaissance of cost'''<br> While early EVT research focused heavily on confidence and utility, contemporary studies increasingly emphasise the cost component. Recent work shows that psychological strain, performance anxiety, and time investment, captured across multidimensional cost categories such as effort, emotional strain, and opportunity costs, can meaningfully undermine high task values in demanding subjects like mathematics (Flake et al., 2015; Perez et al., 2014; Gaspard et al., 2015).<br> '''Real-time and dynamic motivation'''<br> Motivation is now often viewed as a shifting, context-sensitive process rather than a static mindset. Recent studies show that students’ values and expectancies vary across lessons and classroom environments, influenced by factors such as perceived support, peer interactions, and task characteristics, which aligns with EVT’s emphasis on how beliefs and values develop within specific learning contexts (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020; Lazarides & Raufelder, 2017; Dietrich et al., 2017).<br> '''Utility value interventions'''<br> Rather than a static mindset, academic motivation is increasingly understood as a dynamic, context-sensitive process. Grounded in contemporary situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT), empirical evidence demonstrates that students’ expectancies for success and task values show meaningful micro-fluctuations across days, lessons, and distinct learning spaces (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020; Dietrich et al., 2017). These real-time shifts are shaped by immediate environmental inputs, including classroom climate, peer dynamics, and specific task designs (Lazarides & Raufelder, 2017).<br> '''The move towards situated expectancy-value theory'''<br> Early EVT (Eccles et al., 1983) focused on stable beliefs about competence and task value. Later refinements clarified how social influences (teachers, parents, and peers) shape these beliefs. SEVT (2020) reframes motivation as dynamic and situated, showing that expectancies and values shift in response to classroom context, feedback, identity, and social interactions. |} == How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? == * Strengthening expectancy beliefs: EVT can enhance motivation by increasing students’ expectancy beliefs through clear feedback, modelling effective strategies, and providing structured support that builds confidence in their ability to succeed (Bandura, 1997; Schunk & Pajares, 2009). * Enhancing task values: Teachers can increase task values by emphasising the relevance, usefulness, and personal meaning of learning activities, helping students connect academic tasks to future goals and real‑world applications (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Hulleman & Harackiewicz, 2009). * Reducing perceived cost: EVT can be applied by reducing perceived cost, such as anxiety, workload pressure, or time demands, through supportive classroom climates, manageable task structures, and opportunities for autonomy (Flake et al., 2015). * A practical example of EVT in educational settings is the utility‑value intervention, where students reflect on how a learning task connects to their personal goals or future plans. This approach has been shown to boost motivation and academic performance, particularly for students with lower initial expectancy beliefs (Hulleman & Harackiewicz, 2009). * A critique of applying EVT in classrooms is that increasing task values or expectancy beliefs may not be effective if students face structural barriers such as poor teaching quality, limited resources, or high stress. EVT interventions can also be difficult to sustain over time without consistent support (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). == Knowledge checkpoint == {| style="width:50%; background:#F4CECE; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#E07F87; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | <big>Quiz</big> |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:2px; border:0;" | <div style="margin-top:-15px;"> <quiz display=simple> {Which component of expectancy-value theory refers to a student's belief about their ability to succeed? |type="()"} + Expectancy - Intrinsic value - Utility value - Cost {Which value component {{ic|of what?}} reflects how enjoyable or interesting a task is? |type="()"} - Attainment value + Intrinsic value - Utility value - Cost </quiz> </div> |} ==Conclusion== • Expectancy beliefs play a central role in educational motivation by shaping students’ confidence in their ability to succeed, influencing effort, persistence, and engagement (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). • Task values determine how important, interesting, or useful a learning activity feels, guiding students’ willingness to invest time and energy in academic tasks (Wigfield & Eccles, 2000). • Expectancy-value theory shows that motivation increases when students believe they can succeed and when they view tasks as meaningful, relevant, or aligned with personal goals (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). • Applying EVT in educational settings involves strengthening both expectancy beliefs and task values through supportive feedback, meaningful learning activities, and reduced perceived cost (Hulleman & Harackiewicz, 2009; Flake et al., 2015). • Together, these components provide a practical framework for understanding and improving student motivation in everyday classroom contexts (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). {| style="width:100%; background:#FEFB9F; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;" |- ! style="background:#FFD208; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;" | Take-home messages |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;" | * Further take home messages to be added to this feature box as the book chapter develops |} == See also == {{ic|Use bullet-points per Tutorial 2}} *[[Achievement motivation]] (Book chapter 2011) *[[wikipedia:Educational_psychology|Educational psychology]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Expectancy-value_theory|Expectancy-value theory]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Motivation|Motivation]] (Wikipedia) == External links == {{ic|Use bullet-points per Tutorial 2}} {{ic|Use alphabetical order}} [https://education.okstate.edu/site-files/documents/motivation-classrooms/motivation-minute-expectancy-value-theory.pdf Motivation minute: Expectancy-value theory] (Oklahoma State University, professional teaching resource) [https://www.simplypsychology.org/differences-between-extrinsic-and-intrinsic-motivation.html Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic Motivation: What’s the Difference?] (Verywell Mind article) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. W. H. Freeman. Canning, E. A., Harackiewicz, J. M., Priniski, S. J., Hecht, C. A., Tibbetts, Y., & Hyde, J. S. (2018). Improving performance and retention in introductory biology with a utility-value intervention. Journal of Educational Psychology, 110(6), 834–849. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000244 Dietrich, J., Viljaranta, J., Moeller, J., & Kracke, B. (2017). Situational expectancies and task values: Associations with students' effort. Learning and Instruction, 47, 53–64. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2016.10.009 Eccles, J. S. (2005). Subjective task value and the Eccles et al. model of achievement-related choices. In A. J. Elliot & C. S. Dweck (Eds.), Handbook of competence and motivation (pp. 105–121). Guilford Press. Eccles, J. S., Adler, T. F., Futterman, R., Goff, S. B., Kaczala, C. M., Meece, J. L., & Midgley, C. (1983). Expectancies, values, and academic behaviors. In J. T. Spence (Ed.), Achievement and achievement motives (pp. 75–146). W. H. Freeman. Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 109–132. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153 Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2020). From expectancy–value theory to situated expectancy–value theory: A developmental, social cognitive, and sociocultural perspective on motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 61, Article 101859. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101859 Flake, J. K., Barron, K. E., Hulleman, C., McCoach, B. D., & Welsh, M. E. (2015). Measuring cost: The forgotten component of expectancy-value theory. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 41, 232–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2015.03.002 Gaspard, H., Dicke, A. L., Flunger, B., Schreier, B., Häfner, I., Trautwein, U., & Nagengast, B. (2015). More value through greater differentiation: Gender differences in value beliefs about math. Journal of Educational Psychology, 107(3), 663–677. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000003 Harackiewicz, J. M., & Priniski, S. J. (2018). Improving student outcomes in higher education: The science of targeted intervention. Annual Review of Psychology, 69, 409–435. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-122216-011725 Hulleman, C. S., & Harackiewicz, J. M. (2009). Promoting interest and performance in high school science classes. Science, 326(5958), 1410–1412. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1177067 Lazowski, R. A., & Hulleman, C. S. (2016). Motivation Interventions in Education: A Meta-Analytic Review. Review of Educational Research, 86(2), 602–640. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654315617832 Pajares, F. (1996). Self-efficacy beliefs in academic settings. Review of Educational Research, 66(4), 543–578. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543066004543 Perez, T., Cromley, J. G., & Kaplan, A. (2014). The role of identity development, values, and costs in college STEM retention. Journal of Educational Psychology, 106(1), 315–329. Pintrich, P. R. (2003). A Motivational Science Perspective on the Role of Student Motivation in Learning and Teaching Contexts. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(4), 667–686. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.95.4.667 S00246164. (2025). Motivation Laptop.svg [SVG image]. Wikiversity. https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/File:Motivation_Laptop.svg Schunk, D. H., & Pajares, F. (2009). Self-efficacy theory. In K. R. Wentzel & A. Wigfield (Eds.), Handbook of motivation at school (pp. 35–53). Routledge. Wigfield, A., & Cambria, J. (2010). Students’ achievement values, goal orientations, and interest: Definitions, development, and relations to achievement outcomes. Developmental Review, 30, 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2009.12.001 Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 }} ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure * Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options: {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s) {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' Key components of expectancy-value theory and their relevance to educational motivation. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" |- ! Component !! Definition !! Example in education |- | '''Expectancy''' || Belief about ability to succeed || "I can pass this exam if I study." |- | '''Intrinsic value''' || Enjoyment or interest in the task || "I enjoy learning psychology." |- | '''Utility value''' || Usefulness for future goals || "This unit is required for my degree." |- | '''Attainment value''' || Importance to identity || "Being good at maths matters to me." |- | '''Cost''' || Negative aspects of engagement || "This assignment is stressful and time-consuming." |} ;Quizzes * One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> == Conclusion == *Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. ==External links== [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Education]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Motivation]] 5vnvnv28pt7frckgzq6wsftq01hmi78 2835739 2835738 2026-10-04T03:35:00Z StudentUC2026 3105303 /* External links */ 2835739 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Expectancy-value theory of educational motivation:<br>What is expectancy-value theory and how can it be applied to understand and enhance educational motivation?}} __TOC__ ==Overview == {| style="width:100%; background:#FFE1F4; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#F9C3E5; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Imagine this scenario |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="background-color:#F6F4E7;{{Text color default}}; padding:8px; width:150px; float:right; text-align:center;"> [[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|150px|alt=A student reflecting on their motivation to learn]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn. </span> </div> You're sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin (see figure 1). After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals. This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz. This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals. |} The scenario above shows how small shifts in confidence and perceived value can make everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable. Many students experience fluctuating motivation during routine academic tasks, which can make learning feel overwhelming or discouraging. Expectancy-value theory helps explain this pattern by showing how confidence (expectancy beliefs) and perceived importance or usefulness (task values) shape a learner’s motivation. This theory provides a [[wikipedia:Social_cognition|social-cognitive]] explanation of why students choose to engage in learning activities and offers evidence-based strategies to strengthen both expectancy beliefs and task values. The following sections outline these core components and show how to apply them in educational settings to support more adaptive learning behaviours. {| style="width:100%; background:#CBF2D3; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;" |- ! style="background:#96E25B; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;" | Focus questions |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;" | * What is expectancy-value theory? * How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation? * How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? * How do task values influence educational motivation? * How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? |} == What is expectancy-value theory? == [[File:Situated Expectancy-Value Theory SEVT Diagram.png|thumb|right|450px|Figure 2. Conceptual diagram illustrating expectancy‑value theory (EVT). Diagram created by author.]] * Introduce Eccles & Wigfield (2002) and explain that expectancy-value theory (EVT) was developed within achievement motivation research, focusing on how students’ expectations for success and the value they place on tasks influence their motivation and choices (see Figure 2). * Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) describe expectancy-value theory as a major explanation of achievement motivation. The theory proposes that people are motivated when they believe they can succeed at a task and when they see the task as worthwhile. For example, a student is more likely to study for a maths test if they feel confident in their ability and if the test seems important, enjoyable, or useful. * Outline the key components of expectancy-value theory by explaining that motivation is shaped by two main factors: a person’s expectations for success and the value they attach to the task. Expectations reflect beliefs about one’s ability to perform well, while task value captures how important, enjoyable, or useful the activity feels. Together, these factors influence the choices students make and the effort they invest. * Although EVT is widely used in educational motivation research, scholars have noted several limitations. Pintrich (2003) argues that the theory places too much emphasis on rational decision-making and does not fully account for the emotional and social factors that influence student motivation. Other researchers highlight that EVT provides limited explanation of how expectancies and values develop over time or why they differ between students (Flake et al., 2015). These critiques suggest that EVT may not fully capture the complexity of real-world motivation. As shown in Table 1, expectancy-value theory consists of five core components that influence students’ motivation. '''Table 1.''' Key components of expectancy-value theory and their relevance to educational motivation. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" |- ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Component ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Definition ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Example in education |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Expectancy''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Belief about ability to succeed | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "I can pass this exam if I study." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;;{{Text color default}};" | '''Intrinsic value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Enjoyment or interest in the task | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "I enjoy learning psychology." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Utility value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Usefulness for future goals | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "This unit is required for my degree." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Attainment value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Importance to identity | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "Being good at maths matters to me." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Cost''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Negative aspects of engagement | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "This assignment is stressful and time-consuming." |} ==How do social-cognitive models explain educational motivation?== {{expand}} === How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? === * Expectancy beliefs refer to students’ judgments about how capable they are of successfully performing a task. In social cognitive models, these beliefs are central because they strongly predict academic choices, effort, and persistence. Eccles and Wigfield (2002) emphasise that expectancies for success are shaped by students’ prior achievement, self-concept, and perceptions of task difficulty. When students believe they can succeed, they are more likely to engage with learning activities and persist through challenges. * Introduce Bandura (1997), Pajares (1996), and Schunk and Pajares (2009) as key social cognitive researchers who demonstrate that expectancy beliefs strongly predict students’ effort, persistence, and academic performance. * Expectancy beliefs help explain educational motivation because students who believe they can succeed are more likely to engage with learning tasks, persist through challenges, and choose activities that support academic growth. This shows how social cognitive models account for differences in motivation across students with similar abilities. * Expectancy beliefs have been critiqued for focusing heavily on cognitive judgements and underestimating emotional and contextual influences on motivation. Research shows that confidence alone does not fully explain student engagement, particularly when anxiety, stress, or classroom climate reduce their willingness to participate (Pajares, 1996; Bandura, 1997). === How do task values influence educational motivation? === * Introduce Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) by explaining that task values describe how important, enjoyable, or useful students perceive a learning activity to be. * Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) explain that task values include intrinsic value (enjoyment), utility value (usefulness), attainment value (importance), and cost, which refers to the perceived negative aspects of engaging in a task. These values shape how worthwhile students believe a learning activity is. * Research shows that students are more motivated when they find a task enjoyable or personally meaningful (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). Utility value also increases motivation, with studies demonstrating that students work harder when they believe a task will support their future goals (Hulleman & Harackiewicz, 2009). * More recent work highlights the importance of cost, showing that high perceived effort, anxiety, or time demands can reduce motivation even when other values are high (Flake et al., 2015). This demonstrates that negative perceptions can undermine engagement despite strong intrinsic or utility value. * Task values help explain educational motivation because students are more likely to engage with learning activities, they find enjoyable, important, or useful. This shows how social cognitive models account for differences in motivation by focusing on how students evaluate the worth of academic tasks. * Intrinsic subjective task value introduces the idea that students are motivated when they expect a task to be enjoyable, interesting, or engaging in that specific moment. In SEVT, this is described as situated intrinsic value becuase enjoyment isn't treated as a stable personal trait, it develops from the situation the learner is placed in and the environment surrounding them. Eccles and Wigfield (2020) argue that these contextual influences are central to how task values form and fluctuate, which is ultimately why the "S" was added to EVT, to emphasise that value is always shaped by the learner's developmental, cultural, and situational context. * Task value research has been critiqued for focusing mainly on cognitive evaluations and overlooking how emotions, social pressures, and classroom climate shape students’ perceptions of value. Researchers also note that the different types of value can blur together in real learning situations, which makes it challenging to distinguish them clearly (Flake et al., 2015; Eccles, 2005{{ic|Use alphabetical order}}). Table #. Table caption goes here {| style="width:100%; background:#DBEAFA; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#B2E4FF; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | What's happening in this space? |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | '''The renaissance of cost'''<br> While early EVT research focused heavily on confidence and utility, contemporary studies increasingly emphasise the cost component. Recent work shows that psychological strain, performance anxiety, and time investment, captured across multidimensional cost categories such as effort, emotional strain, and opportunity costs, can meaningfully undermine high task values in demanding subjects like mathematics (Flake et al., 2015; Perez et al., 2014; Gaspard et al., 2015).<br> '''Real-time and dynamic motivation'''<br> Motivation is now often viewed as a shifting, context-sensitive process rather than a static mindset. Recent studies show that students’ values and expectancies vary across lessons and classroom environments, influenced by factors such as perceived support, peer interactions, and task characteristics, which aligns with EVT’s emphasis on how beliefs and values develop within specific learning contexts (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020; Lazarides & Raufelder, 2017; Dietrich et al., 2017).<br> '''Utility value interventions'''<br> Rather than a static mindset, academic motivation is increasingly understood as a dynamic, context-sensitive process. Grounded in contemporary situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT), empirical evidence demonstrates that students’ expectancies for success and task values show meaningful micro-fluctuations across days, lessons, and distinct learning spaces (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020; Dietrich et al., 2017). These real-time shifts are shaped by immediate environmental inputs, including classroom climate, peer dynamics, and specific task designs (Lazarides & Raufelder, 2017).<br> '''The move towards situated expectancy-value theory'''<br> Early EVT (Eccles et al., 1983) focused on stable beliefs about competence and task value. Later refinements clarified how social influences (teachers, parents, and peers) shape these beliefs. SEVT (2020) reframes motivation as dynamic and situated, showing that expectancies and values shift in response to classroom context, feedback, identity, and social interactions. |} == How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? == * Strengthening expectancy beliefs: EVT can enhance motivation by increasing students’ expectancy beliefs through clear feedback, modelling effective strategies, and providing structured support that builds confidence in their ability to succeed (Bandura, 1997; Schunk & Pajares, 2009). * Enhancing task values: Teachers can increase task values by emphasising the relevance, usefulness, and personal meaning of learning activities, helping students connect academic tasks to future goals and real‑world applications (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Hulleman & Harackiewicz, 2009). * Reducing perceived cost: EVT can be applied by reducing perceived cost, such as anxiety, workload pressure, or time demands, through supportive classroom climates, manageable task structures, and opportunities for autonomy (Flake et al., 2015). * A practical example of EVT in educational settings is the utility‑value intervention, where students reflect on how a learning task connects to their personal goals or future plans. This approach has been shown to boost motivation and academic performance, particularly for students with lower initial expectancy beliefs (Hulleman & Harackiewicz, 2009). * A critique of applying EVT in classrooms is that increasing task values or expectancy beliefs may not be effective if students face structural barriers such as poor teaching quality, limited resources, or high stress. EVT interventions can also be difficult to sustain over time without consistent support (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). == Knowledge checkpoint == {| style="width:50%; background:#F4CECE; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#E07F87; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | <big>Quiz</big> |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:2px; border:0;" | <div style="margin-top:-15px;"> <quiz display=simple> {Which component of expectancy-value theory refers to a student's belief about their ability to succeed? |type="()"} + Expectancy - Intrinsic value - Utility value - Cost {Which value component {{ic|of what?}} reflects how enjoyable or interesting a task is? |type="()"} - Attainment value + Intrinsic value - Utility value - Cost </quiz> </div> |} ==Conclusion== • Expectancy beliefs play a central role in educational motivation by shaping students’ confidence in their ability to succeed, influencing effort, persistence, and engagement (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). • Task values determine how important, interesting, or useful a learning activity feels, guiding students’ willingness to invest time and energy in academic tasks (Wigfield & Eccles, 2000). • Expectancy-value theory shows that motivation increases when students believe they can succeed and when they view tasks as meaningful, relevant, or aligned with personal goals (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). • Applying EVT in educational settings involves strengthening both expectancy beliefs and task values through supportive feedback, meaningful learning activities, and reduced perceived cost (Hulleman & Harackiewicz, 2009; Flake et al., 2015). • Together, these components provide a practical framework for understanding and improving student motivation in everyday classroom contexts (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). {| style="width:100%; background:#FEFB9F; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;" |- ! style="background:#FFD208; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;" | Take-home messages |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;" | * Further take home messages to be added to this feature box as the book chapter develops |} == See also == {{ic|Use bullet-points per Tutorial 2}} *[[Achievement motivation]] (Book chapter 2011) *[[wikipedia:Educational_psychology|Educational psychology]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Expectancy-value_theory|Expectancy-value theory]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Motivation|Motivation]] (Wikipedia) == External links == {{ic|Use bullet-points per Tutorial 2}} {{ic|Use alphabetical order}} *[https://www.simplypsychology.org/differences-between-extrinsic-and-intrinsic-motivation.html Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic Motivation: What’s the Difference?] (Verywell Mind article) *[https://education.okstate.edu/site-files/documents/motivation-classrooms/motivation-minute-expectancy-value-theory.pdf Motivation minute: Expectancy-value theory] (Oklahoma State University, professional teaching resource) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. W. H. Freeman. Canning, E. A., Harackiewicz, J. M., Priniski, S. J., Hecht, C. A., Tibbetts, Y., & Hyde, J. S. (2018). Improving performance and retention in introductory biology with a utility-value intervention. Journal of Educational Psychology, 110(6), 834–849. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000244 Dietrich, J., Viljaranta, J., Moeller, J., & Kracke, B. (2017). Situational expectancies and task values: Associations with students' effort. Learning and Instruction, 47, 53–64. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2016.10.009 Eccles, J. S. (2005). Subjective task value and the Eccles et al. model of achievement-related choices. In A. J. Elliot & C. S. Dweck (Eds.), Handbook of competence and motivation (pp. 105–121). Guilford Press. Eccles, J. S., Adler, T. F., Futterman, R., Goff, S. B., Kaczala, C. M., Meece, J. L., & Midgley, C. (1983). Expectancies, values, and academic behaviors. In J. T. Spence (Ed.), Achievement and achievement motives (pp. 75–146). W. H. Freeman. Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 109–132. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153 Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2020). From expectancy–value theory to situated expectancy–value theory: A developmental, social cognitive, and sociocultural perspective on motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 61, Article 101859. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101859 Flake, J. K., Barron, K. E., Hulleman, C., McCoach, B. D., & Welsh, M. E. (2015). Measuring cost: The forgotten component of expectancy-value theory. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 41, 232–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2015.03.002 Gaspard, H., Dicke, A. L., Flunger, B., Schreier, B., Häfner, I., Trautwein, U., & Nagengast, B. (2015). More value through greater differentiation: Gender differences in value beliefs about math. Journal of Educational Psychology, 107(3), 663–677. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000003 Harackiewicz, J. M., & Priniski, S. J. (2018). Improving student outcomes in higher education: The science of targeted intervention. Annual Review of Psychology, 69, 409–435. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-122216-011725 Hulleman, C. S., & Harackiewicz, J. M. (2009). Promoting interest and performance in high school science classes. Science, 326(5958), 1410–1412. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1177067 Lazowski, R. A., & Hulleman, C. S. (2016). Motivation Interventions in Education: A Meta-Analytic Review. Review of Educational Research, 86(2), 602–640. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654315617832 Pajares, F. (1996). Self-efficacy beliefs in academic settings. Review of Educational Research, 66(4), 543–578. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543066004543 Perez, T., Cromley, J. G., & Kaplan, A. (2014). The role of identity development, values, and costs in college STEM retention. Journal of Educational Psychology, 106(1), 315–329. Pintrich, P. R. (2003). A Motivational Science Perspective on the Role of Student Motivation in Learning and Teaching Contexts. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(4), 667–686. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.95.4.667 S00246164. (2025). Motivation Laptop.svg [SVG image]. Wikiversity. https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/File:Motivation_Laptop.svg Schunk, D. H., & Pajares, F. (2009). Self-efficacy theory. In K. R. Wentzel & A. Wigfield (Eds.), Handbook of motivation at school (pp. 35–53). Routledge. Wigfield, A., & Cambria, J. (2010). Students’ achievement values, goal orientations, and interest: Definitions, development, and relations to achievement outcomes. Developmental Review, 30, 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2009.12.001 Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 }} ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure * Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options: {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s) {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' Key components of expectancy-value theory and their relevance to educational motivation. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" |- ! Component !! Definition !! Example in education |- | '''Expectancy''' || Belief about ability to succeed || "I can pass this exam if I study." |- | '''Intrinsic value''' || Enjoyment or interest in the task || "I enjoy learning psychology." |- | '''Utility value''' || Usefulness for future goals || "This unit is required for my degree." |- | '''Attainment value''' || Importance to identity || "Being good at maths matters to me." |- | '''Cost''' || Negative aspects of engagement || "This assignment is stressful and time-consuming." |} ;Quizzes * One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> == Conclusion == *Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. ==External links== [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Education]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Motivation]] 1tjk39eni64kuwadc9eo2hvlz7r5ty9 2835740 2835739 2026-10-04T03:37:01Z StudentUC2026 3105303 Moving table 2835740 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Expectancy-value theory of educational motivation:<br>What is expectancy-value theory and how can it be applied to understand and enhance educational motivation?}} __TOC__ ==Overview == {| style="width:100%; background:#FFE1F4; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#F9C3E5; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Imagine this scenario |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="background-color:#F6F4E7;{{Text color default}}; padding:8px; width:150px; float:right; text-align:center;"> [[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|150px|alt=A student reflecting on their motivation to learn]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn. </span> </div> You're sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin (see figure 1). After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals. This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz. This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals. |} The scenario above shows how small shifts in confidence and perceived value can make everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable. Many students experience fluctuating motivation during routine academic tasks, which can make learning feel overwhelming or discouraging. Expectancy-value theory helps explain this pattern by showing how confidence (expectancy beliefs) and perceived importance or usefulness (task values) shape a learner’s motivation. This theory provides a [[wikipedia:Social_cognition|social-cognitive]] explanation of why students choose to engage in learning activities and offers evidence-based strategies to strengthen both expectancy beliefs and task values. The following sections outline these core components and show how to apply them in educational settings to support more adaptive learning behaviours. {| style="width:100%; background:#CBF2D3; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;" |- ! style="background:#96E25B; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;" | Focus questions |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;" | * What is expectancy-value theory? * How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation? * How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? * How do task values influence educational motivation? * How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? |} == What is expectancy-value theory? == [[File:Situated Expectancy-Value Theory SEVT Diagram.png|thumb|right|450px|Figure 2. Conceptual diagram illustrating expectancy‑value theory (EVT). Diagram created by author.]] * Introduce Eccles & Wigfield (2002) and explain that expectancy-value theory (EVT) was developed within achievement motivation research, focusing on how students’ expectations for success and the value they place on tasks influence their motivation and choices (see Figure 2). * Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) describe expectancy-value theory as a major explanation of achievement motivation. The theory proposes that people are motivated when they believe they can succeed at a task and when they see the task as worthwhile. For example, a student is more likely to study for a maths test if they feel confident in their ability and if the test seems important, enjoyable, or useful. * Outline the key components of expectancy-value theory by explaining that motivation is shaped by two main factors: a person’s expectations for success and the value they attach to the task. Expectations reflect beliefs about one’s ability to perform well, while task value captures how important, enjoyable, or useful the activity feels. Together, these factors influence the choices students make and the effort they invest. * Although EVT is widely used in educational motivation research, scholars have noted several limitations. Pintrich (2003) argues that the theory places too much emphasis on rational decision-making and does not fully account for the emotional and social factors that influence student motivation. Other researchers highlight that EVT provides limited explanation of how expectancies and values develop over time or why they differ between students (Flake et al., 2015). These critiques suggest that EVT may not fully capture the complexity of real-world motivation. As shown in Table 1, expectancy-value theory consists of five core components that influence students’ motivation. '''Table 1.''' Key components of expectancy-value theory and their relevance to educational motivation. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" |- ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Component ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Definition ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Example in education |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Expectancy''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Belief about ability to succeed | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "I can pass this exam if I study." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;;{{Text color default}};" | '''Intrinsic value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Enjoyment or interest in the task | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "I enjoy learning psychology." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Utility value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Usefulness for future goals | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "This unit is required for my degree." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Attainment value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Importance to identity | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "Being good at maths matters to me." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Cost''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Negative aspects of engagement | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "This assignment is stressful and time-consuming." |} ==How do social-cognitive models explain educational motivation?== {{expand}} === How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? === * Expectancy beliefs refer to students’ judgments about how capable they are of successfully performing a task. In social cognitive models, these beliefs are central because they strongly predict academic choices, effort, and persistence. Eccles and Wigfield (2002) emphasise that expectancies for success are shaped by students’ prior achievement, self-concept, and perceptions of task difficulty. When students believe they can succeed, they are more likely to engage with learning activities and persist through challenges. * Introduce Bandura (1997), Pajares (1996), and Schunk and Pajares (2009) as key social cognitive researchers who demonstrate that expectancy beliefs strongly predict students’ effort, persistence, and academic performance. * Expectancy beliefs help explain educational motivation because students who believe they can succeed are more likely to engage with learning tasks, persist through challenges, and choose activities that support academic growth. This shows how social cognitive models account for differences in motivation across students with similar abilities. * Expectancy beliefs have been critiqued for focusing heavily on cognitive judgements and underestimating emotional and contextual influences on motivation. Research shows that confidence alone does not fully explain student engagement, particularly when anxiety, stress, or classroom climate reduce their willingness to participate (Pajares, 1996; Bandura, 1997). === How do task values influence educational motivation? === * Introduce Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) by explaining that task values describe how important, enjoyable, or useful students perceive a learning activity to be. * Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) explain that task values include intrinsic value (enjoyment), utility value (usefulness), attainment value (importance), and cost, which refers to the perceived negative aspects of engaging in a task. These values shape how worthwhile students believe a learning activity is. * Research shows that students are more motivated when they find a task enjoyable or personally meaningful (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). Utility value also increases motivation, with studies demonstrating that students work harder when they believe a task will support their future goals (Hulleman & Harackiewicz, 2009). * More recent work highlights the importance of cost, showing that high perceived effort, anxiety, or time demands can reduce motivation even when other values are high (Flake et al., 2015). This demonstrates that negative perceptions can undermine engagement despite strong intrinsic or utility value. * Task values help explain educational motivation because students are more likely to engage with learning activities, they find enjoyable, important, or useful. This shows how social cognitive models account for differences in motivation by focusing on how students evaluate the worth of academic tasks. * Intrinsic subjective task value introduces the idea that students are motivated when they expect a task to be enjoyable, interesting, or engaging in that specific moment. In SEVT, this is described as situated intrinsic value becuase enjoyment isn't treated as a stable personal trait, it develops from the situation the learner is placed in and the environment surrounding them. Eccles and Wigfield (2020) argue that these contextual influences are central to how task values form and fluctuate, which is ultimately why the "S" was added to EVT, to emphasise that value is always shaped by the learner's developmental, cultural, and situational context. * Task value research has been critiqued for focusing mainly on cognitive evaluations and overlooking how emotions, social pressures, and classroom climate shape students’ perceptions of value. Researchers also note that the different types of value can blur together in real learning situations, which makes it challenging to distinguish them clearly (Flake et al., 2015; Eccles, 2005{{ic|Use alphabetical order}}). {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" |- ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Component ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Definition ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Example in education |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Expectancy''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Belief about ability to succeed | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "I can pass this exam if I study." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;;{{Text color default}};" | '''Intrinsic value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Enjoyment or interest in the task | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "I enjoy learning psychology." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Utility value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Usefulness for future goals | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "This unit is required for my degree." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Attainment value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Importance to identity | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "Being good at maths matters to me." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Cost''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Negative aspects of engagement | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "This assignment is stressful and time-consuming." |} '''Table 1.''' Key components of expectancy-value theory and their relevance to educational motivation. {| style="width:100%; background:#DBEAFA; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#B2E4FF; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | What's happening in this space? |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | '''The renaissance of cost'''<br> While early EVT research focused heavily on confidence and utility, contemporary studies increasingly emphasise the cost component. Recent work shows that psychological strain, performance anxiety, and time investment, captured across multidimensional cost categories such as effort, emotional strain, and opportunity costs, can meaningfully undermine high task values in demanding subjects like mathematics (Flake et al., 2015; Perez et al., 2014; Gaspard et al., 2015).<br> '''Real-time and dynamic motivation'''<br> Motivation is now often viewed as a shifting, context-sensitive process rather than a static mindset. Recent studies show that students’ values and expectancies vary across lessons and classroom environments, influenced by factors such as perceived support, peer interactions, and task characteristics, which aligns with EVT’s emphasis on how beliefs and values develop within specific learning contexts (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020; Lazarides & Raufelder, 2017; Dietrich et al., 2017).<br> '''Utility value interventions'''<br> Rather than a static mindset, academic motivation is increasingly understood as a dynamic, context-sensitive process. Grounded in contemporary situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT), empirical evidence demonstrates that students’ expectancies for success and task values show meaningful micro-fluctuations across days, lessons, and distinct learning spaces (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020; Dietrich et al., 2017). These real-time shifts are shaped by immediate environmental inputs, including classroom climate, peer dynamics, and specific task designs (Lazarides & Raufelder, 2017).<br> '''The move towards situated expectancy-value theory'''<br> Early EVT (Eccles et al., 1983) focused on stable beliefs about competence and task value. Later refinements clarified how social influences (teachers, parents, and peers) shape these beliefs. SEVT (2020) reframes motivation as dynamic and situated, showing that expectancies and values shift in response to classroom context, feedback, identity, and social interactions. |} == How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? == * Strengthening expectancy beliefs: EVT can enhance motivation by increasing students’ expectancy beliefs through clear feedback, modelling effective strategies, and providing structured support that builds confidence in their ability to succeed (Bandura, 1997; Schunk & Pajares, 2009). * Enhancing task values: Teachers can increase task values by emphasising the relevance, usefulness, and personal meaning of learning activities, helping students connect academic tasks to future goals and real‑world applications (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Hulleman & Harackiewicz, 2009). * Reducing perceived cost: EVT can be applied by reducing perceived cost, such as anxiety, workload pressure, or time demands, through supportive classroom climates, manageable task structures, and opportunities for autonomy (Flake et al., 2015). * A practical example of EVT in educational settings is the utility‑value intervention, where students reflect on how a learning task connects to their personal goals or future plans. This approach has been shown to boost motivation and academic performance, particularly for students with lower initial expectancy beliefs (Hulleman & Harackiewicz, 2009). * A critique of applying EVT in classrooms is that increasing task values or expectancy beliefs may not be effective if students face structural barriers such as poor teaching quality, limited resources, or high stress. EVT interventions can also be difficult to sustain over time without consistent support (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). == Knowledge checkpoint == {| style="width:50%; background:#F4CECE; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#E07F87; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | <big>Quiz</big> |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:2px; border:0;" | <div style="margin-top:-15px;"> <quiz display=simple> {Which component of expectancy-value theory refers to a student's belief about their ability to succeed? |type="()"} + Expectancy - Intrinsic value - Utility value - Cost {Which value component {{ic|of what?}} reflects how enjoyable or interesting a task is? |type="()"} - Attainment value + Intrinsic value - Utility value - Cost </quiz> </div> |} ==Conclusion== • Expectancy beliefs play a central role in educational motivation by shaping students’ confidence in their ability to succeed, influencing effort, persistence, and engagement (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). • Task values determine how important, interesting, or useful a learning activity feels, guiding students’ willingness to invest time and energy in academic tasks (Wigfield & Eccles, 2000). • Expectancy-value theory shows that motivation increases when students believe they can succeed and when they view tasks as meaningful, relevant, or aligned with personal goals (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). • Applying EVT in educational settings involves strengthening both expectancy beliefs and task values through supportive feedback, meaningful learning activities, and reduced perceived cost (Hulleman & Harackiewicz, 2009; Flake et al., 2015). • Together, these components provide a practical framework for understanding and improving student motivation in everyday classroom contexts (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). {| style="width:100%; background:#FEFB9F; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;" |- ! style="background:#FFD208; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;" | Take-home messages |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;" | * Further take home messages to be added to this feature box as the book chapter develops |} == See also == {{ic|Use bullet-points per Tutorial 2}} *[[Achievement motivation]] (Book chapter 2011) *[[wikipedia:Educational_psychology|Educational psychology]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Expectancy-value_theory|Expectancy-value theory]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Motivation|Motivation]] (Wikipedia) == External links == {{ic|Use bullet-points per Tutorial 2}} {{ic|Use alphabetical order}} *[https://www.simplypsychology.org/differences-between-extrinsic-and-intrinsic-motivation.html Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic Motivation: What’s the Difference?] (Verywell Mind article) *[https://education.okstate.edu/site-files/documents/motivation-classrooms/motivation-minute-expectancy-value-theory.pdf Motivation minute: Expectancy-value theory] (Oklahoma State University, professional teaching resource) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. W. H. Freeman. Canning, E. A., Harackiewicz, J. M., Priniski, S. J., Hecht, C. A., Tibbetts, Y., & Hyde, J. S. (2018). Improving performance and retention in introductory biology with a utility-value intervention. Journal of Educational Psychology, 110(6), 834–849. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000244 Dietrich, J., Viljaranta, J., Moeller, J., & Kracke, B. (2017). Situational expectancies and task values: Associations with students' effort. Learning and Instruction, 47, 53–64. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2016.10.009 Eccles, J. S. (2005). Subjective task value and the Eccles et al. model of achievement-related choices. In A. J. Elliot & C. S. Dweck (Eds.), Handbook of competence and motivation (pp. 105–121). Guilford Press. Eccles, J. S., Adler, T. F., Futterman, R., Goff, S. B., Kaczala, C. M., Meece, J. L., & Midgley, C. (1983). Expectancies, values, and academic behaviors. In J. T. Spence (Ed.), Achievement and achievement motives (pp. 75–146). W. H. Freeman. Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 109–132. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153 Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2020). From expectancy–value theory to situated expectancy–value theory: A developmental, social cognitive, and sociocultural perspective on motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 61, Article 101859. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101859 Flake, J. K., Barron, K. E., Hulleman, C., McCoach, B. D., & Welsh, M. E. (2015). Measuring cost: The forgotten component of expectancy-value theory. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 41, 232–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2015.03.002 Gaspard, H., Dicke, A. L., Flunger, B., Schreier, B., Häfner, I., Trautwein, U., & Nagengast, B. (2015). More value through greater differentiation: Gender differences in value beliefs about math. Journal of Educational Psychology, 107(3), 663–677. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000003 Harackiewicz, J. M., & Priniski, S. J. (2018). Improving student outcomes in higher education: The science of targeted intervention. Annual Review of Psychology, 69, 409–435. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-122216-011725 Hulleman, C. S., & Harackiewicz, J. M. (2009). Promoting interest and performance in high school science classes. Science, 326(5958), 1410–1412. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1177067 Lazowski, R. A., & Hulleman, C. S. (2016). Motivation Interventions in Education: A Meta-Analytic Review. Review of Educational Research, 86(2), 602–640. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654315617832 Pajares, F. (1996). Self-efficacy beliefs in academic settings. Review of Educational Research, 66(4), 543–578. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543066004543 Perez, T., Cromley, J. G., & Kaplan, A. (2014). The role of identity development, values, and costs in college STEM retention. Journal of Educational Psychology, 106(1), 315–329. Pintrich, P. R. (2003). A Motivational Science Perspective on the Role of Student Motivation in Learning and Teaching Contexts. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(4), 667–686. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.95.4.667 S00246164. (2025). Motivation Laptop.svg [SVG image]. Wikiversity. https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/File:Motivation_Laptop.svg Schunk, D. H., & Pajares, F. (2009). Self-efficacy theory. In K. R. Wentzel & A. Wigfield (Eds.), Handbook of motivation at school (pp. 35–53). Routledge. Wigfield, A., & Cambria, J. (2010). Students’ achievement values, goal orientations, and interest: Definitions, development, and relations to achievement outcomes. Developmental Review, 30, 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2009.12.001 Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 }} ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure * Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options: {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s) {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' Key components of expectancy-value theory and their relevance to educational motivation. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" |- ! Component !! Definition !! Example in education |- | '''Expectancy''' || Belief about ability to succeed || "I can pass this exam if I study." |- | '''Intrinsic value''' || Enjoyment or interest in the task || "I enjoy learning psychology." |- | '''Utility value''' || Usefulness for future goals || "This unit is required for my degree." |- | '''Attainment value''' || Importance to identity || "Being good at maths matters to me." |- | '''Cost''' || Negative aspects of engagement || "This assignment is stressful and time-consuming." |} ;Quizzes * One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> == Conclusion == *Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. ==External links== [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Education]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Motivation]] hljm4ne3uarm5zo50p8pcs01vnij9xe 2835741 2835740 2026-10-04T03:39:34Z StudentUC2026 3105303 Removing duplicate Table and fixing in text citation 2835741 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Expectancy-value theory of educational motivation:<br>What is expectancy-value theory and how can it be applied to understand and enhance educational motivation?}} __TOC__ ==Overview == {| style="width:100%; background:#FFE1F4; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#F9C3E5; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Imagine this scenario |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="background-color:#F6F4E7;{{Text color default}}; padding:8px; width:150px; float:right; text-align:center;"> [[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|150px|alt=A student reflecting on their motivation to learn]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn. </span> </div> You're sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin (see figure 1). After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals. This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz. This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals. |} The scenario above shows how small shifts in confidence and perceived value can make everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable. Many students experience fluctuating motivation during routine academic tasks, which can make learning feel overwhelming or discouraging. Expectancy-value theory helps explain this pattern by showing how confidence (expectancy beliefs) and perceived importance or usefulness (task values) shape a learner’s motivation. This theory provides a [[wikipedia:Social_cognition|social-cognitive]] explanation of why students choose to engage in learning activities and offers evidence-based strategies to strengthen both expectancy beliefs and task values. The following sections outline these core components and show how to apply them in educational settings to support more adaptive learning behaviours. {| style="width:100%; background:#CBF2D3; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;" |- ! style="background:#96E25B; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;" | Focus questions |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;" | * What is expectancy-value theory? * How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation? * How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? * How do task values influence educational motivation? * How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? |} == What is expectancy-value theory? == [[File:Situated Expectancy-Value Theory SEVT Diagram.png|thumb|right|450px|Figure 2. Conceptual diagram illustrating expectancy‑value theory (EVT). Diagram created by author.]] * Introduce Eccles & Wigfield (2002) and explain that expectancy-value theory (EVT) was developed within achievement motivation research, focusing on how students’ expectations for success and the value they place on tasks influence their motivation and choices (see Figure 2). * Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) describe expectancy-value theory as a major explanation of achievement motivation. The theory proposes that people are motivated when they believe they can succeed at a task and when they see the task as worthwhile. For example, a student is more likely to study for a maths test if they feel confident in their ability and if the test seems important, enjoyable, or useful. * Outline the key components of expectancy-value theory by explaining that motivation is shaped by two main factors: a person’s expectations for success and the value they attach to the task. Expectations reflect beliefs about one’s ability to perform well, while task value captures how important, enjoyable, or useful the activity feels. Together, these factors influence the choices students make and the effort they invest. * Although EVT is widely used in educational motivation research, scholars have noted several limitations. Pintrich (2003) argues that the theory places too much emphasis on rational decision-making and does not fully account for the emotional and social factors that influence student motivation. Other researchers highlight that EVT provides limited explanation of how expectancies and values develop over time or why they differ between students (Flake et al., 2015). These critiques suggest that EVT may not fully capture the complexity of real-world motivation. As shown in Table 1, expectancy-value theory consists of five core components that influence students’ motivation. ==How do social-cognitive models explain educational motivation?== {{expand}} === How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? === * Expectancy beliefs refer to students’ judgments about how capable they are of successfully performing a task. In social cognitive models, these beliefs are central because they strongly predict academic choices, effort, and persistence. Eccles and Wigfield (2002) emphasise that expectancies for success are shaped by students’ prior achievement, self-concept, and perceptions of task difficulty. When students believe they can succeed, they are more likely to engage with learning activities and persist through challenges. * Introduce Bandura (1997), Pajares (1996), and Schunk and Pajares (2009) as key social cognitive researchers who demonstrate that expectancy beliefs strongly predict students’ effort, persistence, and academic performance. * Expectancy beliefs help explain educational motivation because students who believe they can succeed are more likely to engage with learning tasks, persist through challenges, and choose activities that support academic growth. This shows how social cognitive models account for differences in motivation across students with similar abilities. * Expectancy beliefs have been critiqued for focusing heavily on cognitive judgements and underestimating emotional and contextual influences on motivation. Research shows that confidence alone does not fully explain student engagement, particularly when anxiety, stress, or classroom climate reduce their willingness to participate (Pajares, 1996; Bandura, 1997). === How do task values influence educational motivation? === * Introduce Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) by explaining that task values describe how important, enjoyable, or useful students perceive a learning activity to be. * Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) explain that task values include intrinsic value (enjoyment), utility value (usefulness), attainment value (importance), and cost, which refers to the perceived negative aspects of engaging in a task. These values shape how worthwhile students believe a learning activity is. * Research shows that students are more motivated when they find a task enjoyable or personally meaningful (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). Utility value also increases motivation, with studies demonstrating that students work harder when they believe a task will support their future goals (Hulleman & Harackiewicz, 2009). * More recent work highlights the importance of cost, showing that high perceived effort, anxiety, or time demands can reduce motivation even when other values are high (Flake et al., 2015). This demonstrates that negative perceptions can undermine engagement despite strong intrinsic or utility value. * Task values help explain educational motivation because students are more likely to engage with learning activities, they find enjoyable, important, or useful. This shows how social cognitive models account for differences in motivation by focusing on how students evaluate the worth of academic tasks. * Intrinsic subjective task value introduces the idea that students are motivated when they expect a task to be enjoyable, interesting, or engaging in that specific moment. In SEVT, this is described as situated intrinsic value becuase enjoyment isn't treated as a stable personal trait, it develops from the situation the learner is placed in and the environment surrounding them. Eccles and Wigfield (2020) argue that these contextual influences are central to how task values form and fluctuate, which is ultimately why the "S" was added to EVT, to emphasise that value is always shaped by the learner's developmental, cultural, and situational context. * Task value research has been critiqued for focusing mainly on cognitive evaluations and overlooking how emotions, social pressures, and classroom climate shape students’ perceptions of value. Researchers also note that the different types of value can blur together in real learning situations, which makes it challenging to distinguish them clearly (Eccles, 2005; Flake et al., 2015). {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" |- ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Component ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Definition ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Example in education |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Expectancy''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Belief about ability to succeed | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "I can pass this exam if I study." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;;{{Text color default}};" | '''Intrinsic value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Enjoyment or interest in the task | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "I enjoy learning psychology." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Utility value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Usefulness for future goals | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "This unit is required for my degree." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Attainment value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Importance to identity | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "Being good at maths matters to me." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Cost''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Negative aspects of engagement | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "This assignment is stressful and time-consuming." |} '''Table 1.''' Key components of expectancy-value theory and their relevance to educational motivation. {| style="width:100%; background:#DBEAFA; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#B2E4FF; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | What's happening in this space? |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | '''The renaissance of cost'''<br> While early EVT research focused heavily on confidence and utility, contemporary studies increasingly emphasise the cost component. Recent work shows that psychological strain, performance anxiety, and time investment, captured across multidimensional cost categories such as effort, emotional strain, and opportunity costs, can meaningfully undermine high task values in demanding subjects like mathematics (Flake et al., 2015; Perez et al., 2014; Gaspard et al., 2015).<br> '''Real-time and dynamic motivation'''<br> Motivation is now often viewed as a shifting, context-sensitive process rather than a static mindset. Recent studies show that students’ values and expectancies vary across lessons and classroom environments, influenced by factors such as perceived support, peer interactions, and task characteristics, which aligns with EVT’s emphasis on how beliefs and values develop within specific learning contexts (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020; Lazarides & Raufelder, 2017; Dietrich et al., 2017).<br> '''Utility value interventions'''<br> Rather than a static mindset, academic motivation is increasingly understood as a dynamic, context-sensitive process. Grounded in contemporary situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT), empirical evidence demonstrates that students’ expectancies for success and task values show meaningful micro-fluctuations across days, lessons, and distinct learning spaces (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020; Dietrich et al., 2017). These real-time shifts are shaped by immediate environmental inputs, including classroom climate, peer dynamics, and specific task designs (Lazarides & Raufelder, 2017).<br> '''The move towards situated expectancy-value theory'''<br> Early EVT (Eccles et al., 1983) focused on stable beliefs about competence and task value. Later refinements clarified how social influences (teachers, parents, and peers) shape these beliefs. SEVT (2020) reframes motivation as dynamic and situated, showing that expectancies and values shift in response to classroom context, feedback, identity, and social interactions. |} == How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? == * Strengthening expectancy beliefs: EVT can enhance motivation by increasing students’ expectancy beliefs through clear feedback, modelling effective strategies, and providing structured support that builds confidence in their ability to succeed (Bandura, 1997; Schunk & Pajares, 2009). * Enhancing task values: Teachers can increase task values by emphasising the relevance, usefulness, and personal meaning of learning activities, helping students connect academic tasks to future goals and real‑world applications (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Hulleman & Harackiewicz, 2009). * Reducing perceived cost: EVT can be applied by reducing perceived cost, such as anxiety, workload pressure, or time demands, through supportive classroom climates, manageable task structures, and opportunities for autonomy (Flake et al., 2015). * A practical example of EVT in educational settings is the utility‑value intervention, where students reflect on how a learning task connects to their personal goals or future plans. This approach has been shown to boost motivation and academic performance, particularly for students with lower initial expectancy beliefs (Hulleman & Harackiewicz, 2009). * A critique of applying EVT in classrooms is that increasing task values or expectancy beliefs may not be effective if students face structural barriers such as poor teaching quality, limited resources, or high stress. EVT interventions can also be difficult to sustain over time without consistent support (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). == Knowledge checkpoint == {| style="width:50%; background:#F4CECE; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#E07F87; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | <big>Quiz</big> |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:2px; border:0;" | <div style="margin-top:-15px;"> <quiz display=simple> {Which component of expectancy-value theory refers to a student's belief about their ability to succeed? |type="()"} + Expectancy - Intrinsic value - Utility value - Cost {Which value component {{ic|of what?}} reflects how enjoyable or interesting a task is? |type="()"} - Attainment value + Intrinsic value - Utility value - Cost </quiz> </div> |} ==Conclusion== • Expectancy beliefs play a central role in educational motivation by shaping students’ confidence in their ability to succeed, influencing effort, persistence, and engagement (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). • Task values determine how important, interesting, or useful a learning activity feels, guiding students’ willingness to invest time and energy in academic tasks (Wigfield & Eccles, 2000). • Expectancy-value theory shows that motivation increases when students believe they can succeed and when they view tasks as meaningful, relevant, or aligned with personal goals (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). • Applying EVT in educational settings involves strengthening both expectancy beliefs and task values through supportive feedback, meaningful learning activities, and reduced perceived cost (Hulleman & Harackiewicz, 2009; Flake et al., 2015). • Together, these components provide a practical framework for understanding and improving student motivation in everyday classroom contexts (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). {| style="width:100%; background:#FEFB9F; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;" |- ! style="background:#FFD208; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;" | Take-home messages |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;" | * Further take home messages to be added to this feature box as the book chapter develops |} == See also == {{ic|Use bullet-points per Tutorial 2}} *[[Achievement motivation]] (Book chapter 2011) *[[wikipedia:Educational_psychology|Educational psychology]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Expectancy-value_theory|Expectancy-value theory]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Motivation|Motivation]] (Wikipedia) == External links == {{ic|Use bullet-points per Tutorial 2}} {{ic|Use alphabetical order}} *[https://www.simplypsychology.org/differences-between-extrinsic-and-intrinsic-motivation.html Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic Motivation: What’s the Difference?] (Verywell Mind article) *[https://education.okstate.edu/site-files/documents/motivation-classrooms/motivation-minute-expectancy-value-theory.pdf Motivation minute: Expectancy-value theory] (Oklahoma State University, professional teaching resource) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. W. H. Freeman. Canning, E. A., Harackiewicz, J. M., Priniski, S. J., Hecht, C. A., Tibbetts, Y., & Hyde, J. S. (2018). Improving performance and retention in introductory biology with a utility-value intervention. Journal of Educational Psychology, 110(6), 834–849. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000244 Dietrich, J., Viljaranta, J., Moeller, J., & Kracke, B. (2017). Situational expectancies and task values: Associations with students' effort. Learning and Instruction, 47, 53–64. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2016.10.009 Eccles, J. S. (2005). Subjective task value and the Eccles et al. model of achievement-related choices. In A. J. Elliot & C. S. Dweck (Eds.), Handbook of competence and motivation (pp. 105–121). Guilford Press. Eccles, J. S., Adler, T. F., Futterman, R., Goff, S. B., Kaczala, C. M., Meece, J. L., & Midgley, C. (1983). Expectancies, values, and academic behaviors. In J. T. Spence (Ed.), Achievement and achievement motives (pp. 75–146). W. H. Freeman. Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 109–132. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153 Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2020). From expectancy–value theory to situated expectancy–value theory: A developmental, social cognitive, and sociocultural perspective on motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 61, Article 101859. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101859 Flake, J. K., Barron, K. E., Hulleman, C., McCoach, B. D., & Welsh, M. E. (2015). Measuring cost: The forgotten component of expectancy-value theory. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 41, 232–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2015.03.002 Gaspard, H., Dicke, A. L., Flunger, B., Schreier, B., Häfner, I., Trautwein, U., & Nagengast, B. (2015). More value through greater differentiation: Gender differences in value beliefs about math. Journal of Educational Psychology, 107(3), 663–677. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000003 Harackiewicz, J. M., & Priniski, S. J. (2018). Improving student outcomes in higher education: The science of targeted intervention. Annual Review of Psychology, 69, 409–435. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-122216-011725 Hulleman, C. S., & Harackiewicz, J. M. (2009). Promoting interest and performance in high school science classes. Science, 326(5958), 1410–1412. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1177067 Lazowski, R. A., & Hulleman, C. S. (2016). Motivation Interventions in Education: A Meta-Analytic Review. Review of Educational Research, 86(2), 602–640. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654315617832 Pajares, F. (1996). Self-efficacy beliefs in academic settings. Review of Educational Research, 66(4), 543–578. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543066004543 Perez, T., Cromley, J. G., & Kaplan, A. (2014). The role of identity development, values, and costs in college STEM retention. Journal of Educational Psychology, 106(1), 315–329. Pintrich, P. R. (2003). A Motivational Science Perspective on the Role of Student Motivation in Learning and Teaching Contexts. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(4), 667–686. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.95.4.667 S00246164. (2025). Motivation Laptop.svg [SVG image]. Wikiversity. https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/File:Motivation_Laptop.svg Schunk, D. H., & Pajares, F. (2009). Self-efficacy theory. In K. R. Wentzel & A. Wigfield (Eds.), Handbook of motivation at school (pp. 35–53). Routledge. Wigfield, A., & Cambria, J. (2010). Students’ achievement values, goal orientations, and interest: Definitions, development, and relations to achievement outcomes. Developmental Review, 30, 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2009.12.001 Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 }} ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure * Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options: {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s) {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' Key components of expectancy-value theory and their relevance to educational motivation. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" |- ! Component !! Definition !! Example in education |- | '''Expectancy''' || Belief about ability to succeed || "I can pass this exam if I study." |- | '''Intrinsic value''' || Enjoyment or interest in the task || "I enjoy learning psychology." |- | '''Utility value''' || Usefulness for future goals || "This unit is required for my degree." |- | '''Attainment value''' || Importance to identity || "Being good at maths matters to me." |- | '''Cost''' || Negative aspects of engagement || "This assignment is stressful and time-consuming." |} ;Quizzes * One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> == Conclusion == *Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. ==External links== [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Education]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Motivation]] fps26fqwftl4szi5cb1g60a76gi4yx7 2835749 2835741 2026-10-04T05:16:47Z StudentUC2026 3105303 /* External links */ 2835749 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Expectancy-value theory of educational motivation:<br>What is expectancy-value theory and how can it be applied to understand and enhance educational motivation?}} __TOC__ ==Overview == {| style="width:100%; background:#FFE1F4; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#F9C3E5; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Imagine this scenario |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="background-color:#F6F4E7;{{Text color default}}; padding:8px; width:150px; float:right; text-align:center;"> [[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|150px|alt=A student reflecting on their motivation to learn]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn. </span> </div> You're sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin (see figure 1). After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals. This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz. This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals. |} The scenario above shows how small shifts in confidence and perceived value can make everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable. Many students experience fluctuating motivation during routine academic tasks, which can make learning feel overwhelming or discouraging. Expectancy-value theory helps explain this pattern by showing how confidence (expectancy beliefs) and perceived importance or usefulness (task values) shape a learner’s motivation. This theory provides a [[wikipedia:Social_cognition|social-cognitive]] explanation of why students choose to engage in learning activities and offers evidence-based strategies to strengthen both expectancy beliefs and task values. The following sections outline these core components and show how to apply them in educational settings to support more adaptive learning behaviours. {| style="width:100%; background:#CBF2D3; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;" |- ! style="background:#96E25B; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;" | Focus questions |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;" | * What is expectancy-value theory? * How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation? * How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? * How do task values influence educational motivation? * How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? |} == What is expectancy-value theory? == [[File:Situated Expectancy-Value Theory SEVT Diagram.png|thumb|right|450px|Figure 2. Conceptual diagram illustrating expectancy‑value theory (EVT). Diagram created by author.]] * Introduce Eccles & Wigfield (2002) and explain that expectancy-value theory (EVT) was developed within achievement motivation research, focusing on how students’ expectations for success and the value they place on tasks influence their motivation and choices (see Figure 2). * Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) describe expectancy-value theory as a major explanation of achievement motivation. The theory proposes that people are motivated when they believe they can succeed at a task and when they see the task as worthwhile. For example, a student is more likely to study for a maths test if they feel confident in their ability and if the test seems important, enjoyable, or useful. * Outline the key components of expectancy-value theory by explaining that motivation is shaped by two main factors: a person’s expectations for success and the value they attach to the task. Expectations reflect beliefs about one’s ability to perform well, while task value captures how important, enjoyable, or useful the activity feels. Together, these factors influence the choices students make and the effort they invest. * Although EVT is widely used in educational motivation research, scholars have noted several limitations. Pintrich (2003) argues that the theory places too much emphasis on rational decision-making and does not fully account for the emotional and social factors that influence student motivation. Other researchers highlight that EVT provides limited explanation of how expectancies and values develop over time or why they differ between students (Flake et al., 2015). These critiques suggest that EVT may not fully capture the complexity of real-world motivation. As shown in Table 1, expectancy-value theory consists of five core components that influence students’ motivation. ==How do social-cognitive models explain educational motivation?== {{expand}} === How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? === * Expectancy beliefs refer to students’ judgments about how capable they are of successfully performing a task. In social cognitive models, these beliefs are central because they strongly predict academic choices, effort, and persistence. Eccles and Wigfield (2002) emphasise that expectancies for success are shaped by students’ prior achievement, self-concept, and perceptions of task difficulty. When students believe they can succeed, they are more likely to engage with learning activities and persist through challenges. * Introduce Bandura (1997), Pajares (1996), and Schunk and Pajares (2009) as key social cognitive researchers who demonstrate that expectancy beliefs strongly predict students’ effort, persistence, and academic performance. * Expectancy beliefs help explain educational motivation because students who believe they can succeed are more likely to engage with learning tasks, persist through challenges, and choose activities that support academic growth. This shows how social cognitive models account for differences in motivation across students with similar abilities. * Expectancy beliefs have been critiqued for focusing heavily on cognitive judgements and underestimating emotional and contextual influences on motivation. Research shows that confidence alone does not fully explain student engagement, particularly when anxiety, stress, or classroom climate reduce their willingness to participate (Pajares, 1996; Bandura, 1997). === How do task values influence educational motivation? === * Introduce Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) by explaining that task values describe how important, enjoyable, or useful students perceive a learning activity to be. * Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) explain that task values include intrinsic value (enjoyment), utility value (usefulness), attainment value (importance), and cost, which refers to the perceived negative aspects of engaging in a task. These values shape how worthwhile students believe a learning activity is. * Research shows that students are more motivated when they find a task enjoyable or personally meaningful (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). Utility value also increases motivation, with studies demonstrating that students work harder when they believe a task will support their future goals (Hulleman & Harackiewicz, 2009). * More recent work highlights the importance of cost, showing that high perceived effort, anxiety, or time demands can reduce motivation even when other values are high (Flake et al., 2015). This demonstrates that negative perceptions can undermine engagement despite strong intrinsic or utility value. * Task values help explain educational motivation because students are more likely to engage with learning activities, they find enjoyable, important, or useful. This shows how social cognitive models account for differences in motivation by focusing on how students evaluate the worth of academic tasks. * Intrinsic subjective task value introduces the idea that students are motivated when they expect a task to be enjoyable, interesting, or engaging in that specific moment. In SEVT, this is described as situated intrinsic value becuase enjoyment isn't treated as a stable personal trait, it develops from the situation the learner is placed in and the environment surrounding them. Eccles and Wigfield (2020) argue that these contextual influences are central to how task values form and fluctuate, which is ultimately why the "S" was added to EVT, to emphasise that value is always shaped by the learner's developmental, cultural, and situational context. * Task value research has been critiqued for focusing mainly on cognitive evaluations and overlooking how emotions, social pressures, and classroom climate shape students’ perceptions of value. Researchers also note that the different types of value can blur together in real learning situations, which makes it challenging to distinguish them clearly (Eccles, 2005; Flake et al., 2015). {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" |- ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Component ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Definition ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Example in education |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Expectancy''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Belief about ability to succeed | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "I can pass this exam if I study." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;;{{Text color default}};" | '''Intrinsic value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Enjoyment or interest in the task | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "I enjoy learning psychology." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Utility value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Usefulness for future goals | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "This unit is required for my degree." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Attainment value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Importance to identity | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "Being good at maths matters to me." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Cost''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Negative aspects of engagement | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "This assignment is stressful and time-consuming." |} '''Table 1.''' Key components of expectancy-value theory and their relevance to educational motivation. {| style="width:100%; background:#DBEAFA; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#B2E4FF; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | What's happening in this space? |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | '''The renaissance of cost'''<br> While early EVT research focused heavily on confidence and utility, contemporary studies increasingly emphasise the cost component. Recent work shows that psychological strain, performance anxiety, and time investment, captured across multidimensional cost categories such as effort, emotional strain, and opportunity costs, can meaningfully undermine high task values in demanding subjects like mathematics (Flake et al., 2015; Perez et al., 2014; Gaspard et al., 2015).<br> '''Real-time and dynamic motivation'''<br> Motivation is now often viewed as a shifting, context-sensitive process rather than a static mindset. Recent studies show that students’ values and expectancies vary across lessons and classroom environments, influenced by factors such as perceived support, peer interactions, and task characteristics, which aligns with EVT’s emphasis on how beliefs and values develop within specific learning contexts (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020; Lazarides & Raufelder, 2017; Dietrich et al., 2017).<br> '''Utility value interventions'''<br> Rather than a static mindset, academic motivation is increasingly understood as a dynamic, context-sensitive process. Grounded in contemporary situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT), empirical evidence demonstrates that students’ expectancies for success and task values show meaningful micro-fluctuations across days, lessons, and distinct learning spaces (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020; Dietrich et al., 2017). These real-time shifts are shaped by immediate environmental inputs, including classroom climate, peer dynamics, and specific task designs (Lazarides & Raufelder, 2017).<br> '''The move towards situated expectancy-value theory'''<br> Early EVT (Eccles et al., 1983) focused on stable beliefs about competence and task value. Later refinements clarified how social influences (teachers, parents, and peers) shape these beliefs. SEVT (2020) reframes motivation as dynamic and situated, showing that expectancies and values shift in response to classroom context, feedback, identity, and social interactions. |} == How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? == * Strengthening expectancy beliefs: EVT can enhance motivation by increasing students’ expectancy beliefs through clear feedback, modelling effective strategies, and providing structured support that builds confidence in their ability to succeed (Bandura, 1997; Schunk & Pajares, 2009). * Enhancing task values: Teachers can increase task values by emphasising the relevance, usefulness, and personal meaning of learning activities, helping students connect academic tasks to future goals and real‑world applications (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Hulleman & Harackiewicz, 2009). * Reducing perceived cost: EVT can be applied by reducing perceived cost, such as anxiety, workload pressure, or time demands, through supportive classroom climates, manageable task structures, and opportunities for autonomy (Flake et al., 2015). * A practical example of EVT in educational settings is the utility‑value intervention, where students reflect on how a learning task connects to their personal goals or future plans. This approach has been shown to boost motivation and academic performance, particularly for students with lower initial expectancy beliefs (Hulleman & Harackiewicz, 2009). * A critique of applying EVT in classrooms is that increasing task values or expectancy beliefs may not be effective if students face structural barriers such as poor teaching quality, limited resources, or high stress. EVT interventions can also be difficult to sustain over time without consistent support (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). == Knowledge checkpoint == {| style="width:50%; background:#F4CECE; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#E07F87; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | <big>Quiz</big> |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:2px; border:0;" | <div style="margin-top:-15px;"> <quiz display=simple> {Which component of expectancy-value theory refers to a student's belief about their ability to succeed? |type="()"} + Expectancy - Intrinsic value - Utility value - Cost {Which value component {{ic|of what?}} reflects how enjoyable or interesting a task is? |type="()"} - Attainment value + Intrinsic value - Utility value - Cost </quiz> </div> |} ==Conclusion== • Expectancy beliefs play a central role in educational motivation by shaping students’ confidence in their ability to succeed, influencing effort, persistence, and engagement (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). • Task values determine how important, interesting, or useful a learning activity feels, guiding students’ willingness to invest time and energy in academic tasks (Wigfield & Eccles, 2000). • Expectancy-value theory shows that motivation increases when students believe they can succeed and when they view tasks as meaningful, relevant, or aligned with personal goals (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). • Applying EVT in educational settings involves strengthening both expectancy beliefs and task values through supportive feedback, meaningful learning activities, and reduced perceived cost (Hulleman & Harackiewicz, 2009; Flake et al., 2015). • Together, these components provide a practical framework for understanding and improving student motivation in everyday classroom contexts (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). {| style="width:100%; background:#FEFB9F; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;" |- ! style="background:#FFD208; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;" | Take-home messages |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;" | * Further take home messages to be added to this feature box as the book chapter develops |} == See also == {{ic|Use bullet-points per Tutorial 2}} *[[Achievement motivation]] (Book chapter 2011) *[[wikipedia:Educational_psychology|Educational psychology]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Expectancy-value_theory|Expectancy-value theory]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Motivation|Motivation]] (Wikipedia) == External links == *[https://www.simplypsychology.org/differences-between-extrinsic-and-intrinsic-motivation.html Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic Motivation: What’s the Difference?] (Verywell Mind article) *[https://education.okstate.edu/site-files/documents/motivation-classrooms/motivation-minute-expectancy-value-theory.pdf Motivation minute: Expectancy-value theory] (Oklahoma State University, professional teaching resource) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. W. H. Freeman. Canning, E. A., Harackiewicz, J. M., Priniski, S. J., Hecht, C. A., Tibbetts, Y., & Hyde, J. S. (2018). Improving performance and retention in introductory biology with a utility-value intervention. Journal of Educational Psychology, 110(6), 834–849. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000244 Dietrich, J., Viljaranta, J., Moeller, J., & Kracke, B. (2017). Situational expectancies and task values: Associations with students' effort. Learning and Instruction, 47, 53–64. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2016.10.009 Eccles, J. S. (2005). Subjective task value and the Eccles et al. model of achievement-related choices. In A. J. Elliot & C. S. Dweck (Eds.), Handbook of competence and motivation (pp. 105–121). Guilford Press. Eccles, J. S., Adler, T. F., Futterman, R., Goff, S. B., Kaczala, C. M., Meece, J. L., & Midgley, C. (1983). Expectancies, values, and academic behaviors. In J. T. Spence (Ed.), Achievement and achievement motives (pp. 75–146). W. H. Freeman. Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 109–132. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153 Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2020). From expectancy–value theory to situated expectancy–value theory: A developmental, social cognitive, and sociocultural perspective on motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 61, Article 101859. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101859 Flake, J. K., Barron, K. E., Hulleman, C., McCoach, B. D., & Welsh, M. E. (2015). Measuring cost: The forgotten component of expectancy-value theory. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 41, 232–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2015.03.002 Gaspard, H., Dicke, A. L., Flunger, B., Schreier, B., Häfner, I., Trautwein, U., & Nagengast, B. (2015). More value through greater differentiation: Gender differences in value beliefs about math. Journal of Educational Psychology, 107(3), 663–677. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000003 Harackiewicz, J. M., & Priniski, S. J. (2018). Improving student outcomes in higher education: The science of targeted intervention. Annual Review of Psychology, 69, 409–435. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-122216-011725 Hulleman, C. S., & Harackiewicz, J. M. (2009). Promoting interest and performance in high school science classes. Science, 326(5958), 1410–1412. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1177067 Lazowski, R. A., & Hulleman, C. S. (2016). Motivation Interventions in Education: A Meta-Analytic Review. Review of Educational Research, 86(2), 602–640. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654315617832 Pajares, F. (1996). Self-efficacy beliefs in academic settings. Review of Educational Research, 66(4), 543–578. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543066004543 Perez, T., Cromley, J. G., & Kaplan, A. (2014). The role of identity development, values, and costs in college STEM retention. Journal of Educational Psychology, 106(1), 315–329. Pintrich, P. R. (2003). A Motivational Science Perspective on the Role of Student Motivation in Learning and Teaching Contexts. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(4), 667–686. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.95.4.667 S00246164. (2025). Motivation Laptop.svg [SVG image]. Wikiversity. https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/File:Motivation_Laptop.svg Schunk, D. H., & Pajares, F. (2009). Self-efficacy theory. In K. R. Wentzel & A. Wigfield (Eds.), Handbook of motivation at school (pp. 35–53). Routledge. Wigfield, A., & Cambria, J. (2010). Students’ achievement values, goal orientations, and interest: Definitions, development, and relations to achievement outcomes. Developmental Review, 30, 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2009.12.001 Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 }} ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure * Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options: {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s) {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' Key components of expectancy-value theory and their relevance to educational motivation. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" |- ! Component !! Definition !! Example in education |- | '''Expectancy''' || Belief about ability to succeed || "I can pass this exam if I study." |- | '''Intrinsic value''' || Enjoyment or interest in the task || "I enjoy learning psychology." |- | '''Utility value''' || Usefulness for future goals || "This unit is required for my degree." |- | '''Attainment value''' || Importance to identity || "Being good at maths matters to me." |- | '''Cost''' || Negative aspects of engagement || "This assignment is stressful and time-consuming." |} ;Quizzes * One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> == Conclusion == *Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. ==External links== [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Education]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Motivation]] gpw1c4jcv7vk6jvh9k8v7ak7jk82e40 2835750 2835749 2026-10-04T05:17:09Z StudentUC2026 3105303 /* See also */ 2835750 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Expectancy-value theory of educational motivation:<br>What is expectancy-value theory and how can it be applied to understand and enhance educational motivation?}} __TOC__ ==Overview == {| style="width:100%; background:#FFE1F4; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#F9C3E5; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Imagine this scenario |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="background-color:#F6F4E7;{{Text color default}}; padding:8px; width:150px; float:right; text-align:center;"> [[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|150px|alt=A student reflecting on their motivation to learn]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn. </span> </div> You're sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin (see figure 1). After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals. This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz. This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals. |} The scenario above shows how small shifts in confidence and perceived value can make everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable. Many students experience fluctuating motivation during routine academic tasks, which can make learning feel overwhelming or discouraging. Expectancy-value theory helps explain this pattern by showing how confidence (expectancy beliefs) and perceived importance or usefulness (task values) shape a learner’s motivation. This theory provides a [[wikipedia:Social_cognition|social-cognitive]] explanation of why students choose to engage in learning activities and offers evidence-based strategies to strengthen both expectancy beliefs and task values. The following sections outline these core components and show how to apply them in educational settings to support more adaptive learning behaviours. {| style="width:100%; background:#CBF2D3; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;" |- ! style="background:#96E25B; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;" | Focus questions |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;" | * What is expectancy-value theory? * How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation? * How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? * How do task values influence educational motivation? * How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? |} == What is expectancy-value theory? == [[File:Situated Expectancy-Value Theory SEVT Diagram.png|thumb|right|450px|Figure 2. Conceptual diagram illustrating expectancy‑value theory (EVT). Diagram created by author.]] * Introduce Eccles & Wigfield (2002) and explain that expectancy-value theory (EVT) was developed within achievement motivation research, focusing on how students’ expectations for success and the value they place on tasks influence their motivation and choices (see Figure 2). * Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) describe expectancy-value theory as a major explanation of achievement motivation. The theory proposes that people are motivated when they believe they can succeed at a task and when they see the task as worthwhile. For example, a student is more likely to study for a maths test if they feel confident in their ability and if the test seems important, enjoyable, or useful. * Outline the key components of expectancy-value theory by explaining that motivation is shaped by two main factors: a person’s expectations for success and the value they attach to the task. Expectations reflect beliefs about one’s ability to perform well, while task value captures how important, enjoyable, or useful the activity feels. Together, these factors influence the choices students make and the effort they invest. * Although EVT is widely used in educational motivation research, scholars have noted several limitations. Pintrich (2003) argues that the theory places too much emphasis on rational decision-making and does not fully account for the emotional and social factors that influence student motivation. Other researchers highlight that EVT provides limited explanation of how expectancies and values develop over time or why they differ between students (Flake et al., 2015). These critiques suggest that EVT may not fully capture the complexity of real-world motivation. As shown in Table 1, expectancy-value theory consists of five core components that influence students’ motivation. ==How do social-cognitive models explain educational motivation?== {{expand}} === How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? === * Expectancy beliefs refer to students’ judgments about how capable they are of successfully performing a task. In social cognitive models, these beliefs are central because they strongly predict academic choices, effort, and persistence. Eccles and Wigfield (2002) emphasise that expectancies for success are shaped by students’ prior achievement, self-concept, and perceptions of task difficulty. When students believe they can succeed, they are more likely to engage with learning activities and persist through challenges. * Introduce Bandura (1997), Pajares (1996), and Schunk and Pajares (2009) as key social cognitive researchers who demonstrate that expectancy beliefs strongly predict students’ effort, persistence, and academic performance. * Expectancy beliefs help explain educational motivation because students who believe they can succeed are more likely to engage with learning tasks, persist through challenges, and choose activities that support academic growth. This shows how social cognitive models account for differences in motivation across students with similar abilities. * Expectancy beliefs have been critiqued for focusing heavily on cognitive judgements and underestimating emotional and contextual influences on motivation. Research shows that confidence alone does not fully explain student engagement, particularly when anxiety, stress, or classroom climate reduce their willingness to participate (Pajares, 1996; Bandura, 1997). === How do task values influence educational motivation? === * Introduce Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) by explaining that task values describe how important, enjoyable, or useful students perceive a learning activity to be. * Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) explain that task values include intrinsic value (enjoyment), utility value (usefulness), attainment value (importance), and cost, which refers to the perceived negative aspects of engaging in a task. These values shape how worthwhile students believe a learning activity is. * Research shows that students are more motivated when they find a task enjoyable or personally meaningful (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). Utility value also increases motivation, with studies demonstrating that students work harder when they believe a task will support their future goals (Hulleman & Harackiewicz, 2009). * More recent work highlights the importance of cost, showing that high perceived effort, anxiety, or time demands can reduce motivation even when other values are high (Flake et al., 2015). This demonstrates that negative perceptions can undermine engagement despite strong intrinsic or utility value. * Task values help explain educational motivation because students are more likely to engage with learning activities, they find enjoyable, important, or useful. This shows how social cognitive models account for differences in motivation by focusing on how students evaluate the worth of academic tasks. * Intrinsic subjective task value introduces the idea that students are motivated when they expect a task to be enjoyable, interesting, or engaging in that specific moment. In SEVT, this is described as situated intrinsic value becuase enjoyment isn't treated as a stable personal trait, it develops from the situation the learner is placed in and the environment surrounding them. Eccles and Wigfield (2020) argue that these contextual influences are central to how task values form and fluctuate, which is ultimately why the "S" was added to EVT, to emphasise that value is always shaped by the learner's developmental, cultural, and situational context. * Task value research has been critiqued for focusing mainly on cognitive evaluations and overlooking how emotions, social pressures, and classroom climate shape students’ perceptions of value. Researchers also note that the different types of value can blur together in real learning situations, which makes it challenging to distinguish them clearly (Eccles, 2005; Flake et al., 2015). {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" |- ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Component ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Definition ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Example in education |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Expectancy''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Belief about ability to succeed | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "I can pass this exam if I study." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;;{{Text color default}};" | '''Intrinsic value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Enjoyment or interest in the task | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "I enjoy learning psychology." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Utility value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Usefulness for future goals | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "This unit is required for my degree." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Attainment value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Importance to identity | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "Being good at maths matters to me." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Cost''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Negative aspects of engagement | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "This assignment is stressful and time-consuming." |} '''Table 1.''' Key components of expectancy-value theory and their relevance to educational motivation. {| style="width:100%; background:#DBEAFA; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#B2E4FF; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | What's happening in this space? |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | '''The renaissance of cost'''<br> While early EVT research focused heavily on confidence and utility, contemporary studies increasingly emphasise the cost component. Recent work shows that psychological strain, performance anxiety, and time investment, captured across multidimensional cost categories such as effort, emotional strain, and opportunity costs, can meaningfully undermine high task values in demanding subjects like mathematics (Flake et al., 2015; Perez et al., 2014; Gaspard et al., 2015).<br> '''Real-time and dynamic motivation'''<br> Motivation is now often viewed as a shifting, context-sensitive process rather than a static mindset. Recent studies show that students’ values and expectancies vary across lessons and classroom environments, influenced by factors such as perceived support, peer interactions, and task characteristics, which aligns with EVT’s emphasis on how beliefs and values develop within specific learning contexts (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020; Lazarides & Raufelder, 2017; Dietrich et al., 2017).<br> '''Utility value interventions'''<br> Rather than a static mindset, academic motivation is increasingly understood as a dynamic, context-sensitive process. Grounded in contemporary situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT), empirical evidence demonstrates that students’ expectancies for success and task values show meaningful micro-fluctuations across days, lessons, and distinct learning spaces (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020; Dietrich et al., 2017). These real-time shifts are shaped by immediate environmental inputs, including classroom climate, peer dynamics, and specific task designs (Lazarides & Raufelder, 2017).<br> '''The move towards situated expectancy-value theory'''<br> Early EVT (Eccles et al., 1983) focused on stable beliefs about competence and task value. Later refinements clarified how social influences (teachers, parents, and peers) shape these beliefs. SEVT (2020) reframes motivation as dynamic and situated, showing that expectancies and values shift in response to classroom context, feedback, identity, and social interactions. |} == How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? == * Strengthening expectancy beliefs: EVT can enhance motivation by increasing students’ expectancy beliefs through clear feedback, modelling effective strategies, and providing structured support that builds confidence in their ability to succeed (Bandura, 1997; Schunk & Pajares, 2009). * Enhancing task values: Teachers can increase task values by emphasising the relevance, usefulness, and personal meaning of learning activities, helping students connect academic tasks to future goals and real‑world applications (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Hulleman & Harackiewicz, 2009). * Reducing perceived cost: EVT can be applied by reducing perceived cost, such as anxiety, workload pressure, or time demands, through supportive classroom climates, manageable task structures, and opportunities for autonomy (Flake et al., 2015). * A practical example of EVT in educational settings is the utility‑value intervention, where students reflect on how a learning task connects to their personal goals or future plans. This approach has been shown to boost motivation and academic performance, particularly for students with lower initial expectancy beliefs (Hulleman & Harackiewicz, 2009). * A critique of applying EVT in classrooms is that increasing task values or expectancy beliefs may not be effective if students face structural barriers such as poor teaching quality, limited resources, or high stress. EVT interventions can also be difficult to sustain over time without consistent support (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). == Knowledge checkpoint == {| style="width:50%; background:#F4CECE; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#E07F87; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | <big>Quiz</big> |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:2px; border:0;" | <div style="margin-top:-15px;"> <quiz display=simple> {Which component of expectancy-value theory refers to a student's belief about their ability to succeed? |type="()"} + Expectancy - Intrinsic value - Utility value - Cost {Which value component {{ic|of what?}} reflects how enjoyable or interesting a task is? |type="()"} - Attainment value + Intrinsic value - Utility value - Cost </quiz> </div> |} ==Conclusion== • Expectancy beliefs play a central role in educational motivation by shaping students’ confidence in their ability to succeed, influencing effort, persistence, and engagement (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). • Task values determine how important, interesting, or useful a learning activity feels, guiding students’ willingness to invest time and energy in academic tasks (Wigfield & Eccles, 2000). • Expectancy-value theory shows that motivation increases when students believe they can succeed and when they view tasks as meaningful, relevant, or aligned with personal goals (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). • Applying EVT in educational settings involves strengthening both expectancy beliefs and task values through supportive feedback, meaningful learning activities, and reduced perceived cost (Hulleman & Harackiewicz, 2009; Flake et al., 2015). • Together, these components provide a practical framework for understanding and improving student motivation in everyday classroom contexts (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). {| style="width:100%; background:#FEFB9F; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;" |- ! style="background:#FFD208; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;" | Take-home messages |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;" | * Further take home messages to be added to this feature box as the book chapter develops |} == See also == *[[Achievement motivation]] (Book chapter 2011) *[[wikipedia:Educational_psychology|Educational psychology]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Expectancy-value_theory|Expectancy-value theory]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Motivation|Motivation]] (Wikipedia) == External links == *[https://www.simplypsychology.org/differences-between-extrinsic-and-intrinsic-motivation.html Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic Motivation: What’s the Difference?] (Verywell Mind article) *[https://education.okstate.edu/site-files/documents/motivation-classrooms/motivation-minute-expectancy-value-theory.pdf Motivation minute: Expectancy-value theory] (Oklahoma State University, professional teaching resource) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. W. H. Freeman. Canning, E. A., Harackiewicz, J. M., Priniski, S. J., Hecht, C. A., Tibbetts, Y., & Hyde, J. S. (2018). Improving performance and retention in introductory biology with a utility-value intervention. Journal of Educational Psychology, 110(6), 834–849. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000244 Dietrich, J., Viljaranta, J., Moeller, J., & Kracke, B. (2017). Situational expectancies and task values: Associations with students' effort. Learning and Instruction, 47, 53–64. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2016.10.009 Eccles, J. S. (2005). Subjective task value and the Eccles et al. model of achievement-related choices. In A. J. Elliot & C. S. Dweck (Eds.), Handbook of competence and motivation (pp. 105–121). Guilford Press. Eccles, J. S., Adler, T. F., Futterman, R., Goff, S. B., Kaczala, C. M., Meece, J. L., & Midgley, C. (1983). Expectancies, values, and academic behaviors. In J. T. Spence (Ed.), Achievement and achievement motives (pp. 75–146). W. H. Freeman. Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 109–132. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153 Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2020). From expectancy–value theory to situated expectancy–value theory: A developmental, social cognitive, and sociocultural perspective on motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 61, Article 101859. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101859 Flake, J. K., Barron, K. E., Hulleman, C., McCoach, B. D., & Welsh, M. E. (2015). Measuring cost: The forgotten component of expectancy-value theory. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 41, 232–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2015.03.002 Gaspard, H., Dicke, A. L., Flunger, B., Schreier, B., Häfner, I., Trautwein, U., & Nagengast, B. (2015). More value through greater differentiation: Gender differences in value beliefs about math. Journal of Educational Psychology, 107(3), 663–677. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000003 Harackiewicz, J. M., & Priniski, S. J. (2018). Improving student outcomes in higher education: The science of targeted intervention. Annual Review of Psychology, 69, 409–435. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-122216-011725 Hulleman, C. S., & Harackiewicz, J. M. (2009). Promoting interest and performance in high school science classes. Science, 326(5958), 1410–1412. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1177067 Lazowski, R. A., & Hulleman, C. S. (2016). Motivation Interventions in Education: A Meta-Analytic Review. Review of Educational Research, 86(2), 602–640. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654315617832 Pajares, F. (1996). Self-efficacy beliefs in academic settings. Review of Educational Research, 66(4), 543–578. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543066004543 Perez, T., Cromley, J. G., & Kaplan, A. (2014). The role of identity development, values, and costs in college STEM retention. Journal of Educational Psychology, 106(1), 315–329. Pintrich, P. R. (2003). A Motivational Science Perspective on the Role of Student Motivation in Learning and Teaching Contexts. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(4), 667–686. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.95.4.667 S00246164. (2025). Motivation Laptop.svg [SVG image]. Wikiversity. https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/File:Motivation_Laptop.svg Schunk, D. H., & Pajares, F. (2009). Self-efficacy theory. In K. R. Wentzel & A. Wigfield (Eds.), Handbook of motivation at school (pp. 35–53). Routledge. Wigfield, A., & Cambria, J. (2010). Students’ achievement values, goal orientations, and interest: Definitions, development, and relations to achievement outcomes. Developmental Review, 30, 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2009.12.001 Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 }} ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure * Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options: {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s) {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' Key components of expectancy-value theory and their relevance to educational motivation. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" |- ! Component !! Definition !! Example in education |- | '''Expectancy''' || Belief about ability to succeed || "I can pass this exam if I study." |- | '''Intrinsic value''' || Enjoyment or interest in the task || "I enjoy learning psychology." |- | '''Utility value''' || Usefulness for future goals || "This unit is required for my degree." |- | '''Attainment value''' || Importance to identity || "Being good at maths matters to me." |- | '''Cost''' || Negative aspects of engagement || "This assignment is stressful and time-consuming." |} ;Quizzes * One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> == Conclusion == *Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. ==External links== [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Education]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Motivation]] g4kcazyoje9d3hhyzpa8j75fn6uk4ft 2 331218 2835776 2835449 2026-10-04T09:17:05Z StretchBeyond 3105744 2025 chapter grammar and syntax edits. 2835776 wikitext text/x-wiki == About Me == [[File:Stretch-Beyond Company Logo.png|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' Stretch Beyond: Strategic insight and psychological resilience for leaders navigating change and complexity.]] I am a military veteran, working to complete a Bachelor of Science in Psychology as part of a lifelong approach to learning. After a military career working with people around the world on a spectrum of operations, I wanted to better understand the human dimension and the science behind what makes us all tick. Along the way, I want to give back to the community where I can. I have an interest in veterans' PTSD, advocacy and international affairs. == Book Chapter == I am writing a book chapter titled [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment|Immersive Therapy for PTSD: How does it work and what are the effects?]] This chapter is an individual student contribution as part of a larger [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra] class effort in 2026 to write a book [[Motivation and emotion/Book]]. The 2026 book extends a Wikiversity book series started in 2010, with over 1,800 online book chapters on how psychological science can improve human lives. The book editor and University psychology unit convener is [[User:Jtneill|Dr. James Neill]][[File:PTSD.png|thumb|250x250px|'''Figure 2.''' PTSD can have a deep and lasting impact on our emotions.|left]] ==== Chapters I am working on: ==== ====== [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment|Immersive Therapy for PTSD: How does it work and what are the effects?]] ====== ====== [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment/Non-invasive brain stimulation techniques|High-frequency rTMS and 3MDR in the treatment of PTSD: An integrated physiological and clinical review]] ====== {{clear}} == Social Contributions == #'''18 Aug 26:''' Grammar and content editing improvements on 2025 chapter, Defence mechanisms and emotion regulation. Edits at https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FDefence_mechanisms_and_emotion_regulation&diff=2822629&oldid=2763661 # '''18 Aug 26:''' Grammar and content editing improvements on 2025 chapter, Neurodivergence and trauma. Edits at https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FNeurodivergence_and_trauma&diff=2822636&oldid=2812805 # '''19 Aug 26:''' Grammar and content editing improvements on 2025 chapter, Incentive theory of motivation. Edits at<nowiki/>https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FIncentive_theory_of_motivation&diff=2822844&oldid=2814898 # '''19 Aug 26:''' UC Canvas Discussion: Introduced the book chapter intent to the class and welcomed anyone with sim<nowiki/>ilar topics or interests to contribute. I offered the same. https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/456450 # '''20 Aug 26:''' Comment: Supported another Wiki user by providing some peer-reviewed ideas on starter references f<nowiki/>or a Chapter page. [[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Perfectionism and procrastination#Reference material]] # '''20 Aug 26:''' Comment: Supported another Wiki user by providing some peer-reviewed ideas on starter references f<nowiki/>or a Chapter page.[[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Irritability#Reference material]] # '''22 Aug 26:''' Grammar and content editing improvements on 2025 chapter, Mental health in astronauts. Edits at [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FMental_health_in_astronauts&diff=2824159&oldid=2804667 ht]<nowiki/>[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FMental_health_in_astronauts&diff=2824159&oldid=2804667 tps://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FMental_health_in_astronauts&diff=2824159&oldid=2804667] # '''25 Aug 26:''' Comment: Supported another Wiki user by providing some peer-reviewed ideas on starter references f<nowiki/>or a Chapter page.[[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Feedback literacy#Reference]] # '''25 Aug 26''': UC Canvas Discussion: Responded to student topic query.[https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/457190 https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/201]<nowiki/>[https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/457190 43/discussion_topics/457190] # '''26 Aug 26:''' Comment: Supported another Wiki user by providing some external link ideas for a Chapter page.[[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Dark empathy#Reference|Talk]]<nowiki/>[[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Dark empathy#Reference|:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Dark empathy#Reference]] # '''26 Aug 26:''' UC Canvas Discussion: Responded to student topic query with data from a Random Game of Dice scenar<nowiki/>io.https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/457412 # '''27 Aug 26:''' Wiki thanks and editing conversation: [[User talk:Jtneill#Punctuation change in book title]] # '''28 Aug 26:''' UC Canvas Discussion: Responded to student topic query<nowiki/> https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/457809 # '''4 Sep 26:''' Comment: Included creation of graphics for Wiki page.[[c:File:Avoidance_and_Processing_Cycles.png|ht]]<nowiki/>[[c:File:Avoidance_and_Processing_Cycles.png|tps://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Avoidance_and_Processing_Cycles.png]] # '''4 Sep 26:''' Comment: Assisted other Wiki user by adding a quiz temp<nowiki/>late to their chapter page https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FBuilding_therapeutic_alliance&diff=2831108&oldid=2830050 # '''8 Sep 26:''' Comment: Assisted other Wiki user by adding a quiz temp<nowiki/>late to their chapter page https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FSelf-concept_and_motivation&diff=2832141&oldid=2831622 # '''9 Sep 26:''' Comment: Assisted another Wiki user by adding a quiz te<nowiki/>mplate to their chapter page<nowiki/>https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FOutdoor_play_and_children%27s_emotional_well-being&diff=2832147&oldid=2828722 # '''9 Sep 26:''' UC Canvas Discussion: Responded to student topic query <nowiki/>https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/457888 # '''11 Sep 26:''' UC Canvas Discussion: Chapter word count question - in<nowiki/>cludes great response advice from other contributors on tools and techniques https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/461216 # '''14 Sep:''' Comment: Assisted another Wiki user by adding some advice<nowiki/> on prediction error references [[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Fear extinction#Prediction Error and Extinction]] # '''15 Sep 26:''' Correspondence: Email exchange between chapter author <nowiki/>and Professor Vermetten, who is credited with creating the 3MDR therapy and referenced in the chapter. "I have looked at the Wikiversity page and think you are on the right path. You have brought together the concepts of immersion, embodiment, motivation, and trauma-focused treatment in a thoughtful and relevant way." # '''16 Sep 26:''' Grammar and content editing improvements on 2025 chapt<nowiki/>er due to links with PTSD and prediction error ,https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FNeuroscience_of_unexpected_positive_outcomes&diff=2833368&oldid=2762078 # '''16 Sep 26:''' UC Canvas Discussion: Responded to student request for<nowiki/> chapter feedback on impulsivity and sensation seeking https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/461607 # '''16 Sep 26:''' UC Canvas Discussion: Responded to student request for<nowiki/> chapter feedback on brain implants for chronic pain<nowiki/>https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/457902 # '''17 Sep 26:''' UC Canvas Discussion: Chapter referencing question abo<nowiki/>ut integration of non-academic journal sources neede<nowiki/>d to source financial market analysis relating to immersive PTSD forecasts. https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/462166 # '''21 Sep 26:''' Comment: Assisted another Wiki user by making formatti<nowiki/>ng changes in chapter heading styles to create page <nowiki/>menu. https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FHypothalamus_and_homeostatic_motivation&diff=2834144&oldid=2833547 # '''21 Sep 26:''' UC Canvas discussion: Chapter feedback provided on UC <nowiki/>Canvas at the request of the author.[https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/457901 https://uclearn.]<nowiki/>[https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/457901 canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/457901] # '''21 Sep 26:''' UC Canvas discussion: Assisted user with search for li<nowiki/>terature. Provided a number of contemporary meta-ana<nowiki/>lyses and systetemic reviews from the library that may help their research. https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/459237 # '''23 Sep 26:''' UC Canvas discussion: From combat to cognition - a lay<nowiki/>person's insights into motivation [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/456345 https://uclearn.ca]<nowiki/>[https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/456345 nberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/456345] # '''24 Sep 26:''' UC Canvas discussion: What do you really want to learn<nowiki/> about - Body language and non-verbal communication[https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/455261 h]<nowiki/>[https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/455261 ttps://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/455261] # '''25 Sep 26:''' Added sub-page content to consolidate additional readi<nowiki/>ng, learning and research that I have done between P<nowiki/>TSD treatment and physiological psychology involving non-invasive brain stimulation: [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment/Non-invasive brain stimulation techniques]] # '''27 Sep 26:''' Wiki editing of another chapter: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FSelf-concept_and_motivation&diff=2834628&oldid=2834606 https://en.wikiversit]<nowiki/>[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FSelf-concept_and_motivation&diff=2834628&oldid=2834606 y.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBoo]<nowiki/>[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FSelf-concept_and_motivation&diff=2834628&oldid=2834606 k%2F2026%2FSelf-concept_and_motivation&diff=2834628&oldid=2834606] # '''27 Sep 26:''' UC Canvas discussion: Chapter feedback provided on UC <nowiki/>Canvas at the request of the author [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/463438 https://uclearn.]<nowiki/>[https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/463438 canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/463438] # '''28 Sep 26:''' Wiki discussion page - thanked another user for their <nowiki/>excellent, constructive feedback.[[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment|Talk:Motivation and]]<nowiki/> [[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment|emotion/Book/2026/Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment]] # '''30 Sep 26:''' Wiki grammar improvements to 2025 book chapter. [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FAmygdala_and_fear_motivation&diff=2835083&oldid=2755846 https:]<nowiki/>[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FAmygdala_and_fear_motivation&diff=2835083&oldid=2755846 //en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_an]<nowiki/>[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FAmygdala_and_fear_motivation&diff=2835083&oldid=2755846 d_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FAmygdala_and_fear_motivation&diff=2835083&oldid=2755846] # '''2 Oct 26:''' Wiki improvements to 2025 book chapter.[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FEmotional_intelligence_and_emotional_wellbeing&diff=2835427&oldid=2835270 https://en.wikiv]<nowiki/>[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FEmotional_intelligence_and_emotional_wellbeing&diff=2835427&oldid=2835270 ersity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%]<nowiki/>[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FEmotional_intelligence_and_emotional_wellbeing&diff=2835427&oldid=2835270 2FBook%2F2026%2FEmotional_intelligence_and_emotional_wellbeing&diff=2835427&oldid=2835270] # '''2 Oct 26:''' UC Canvas discussion - Initiated chapter referencing hi<nowiki/>nts for Wiki editing[https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/464585 https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/]<nowiki/>[https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/464585 courses/20143/discussion_topics/464585] # '''4 Oct 26:''' Wiki improvements to 2025 book chapter. [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FDefensive_avoidance_and_goal_pursuit&diff=2835775&oldid=2771141 https://en.wiki]<nowiki/>[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FDefensive_avoidance_and_goal_pursuit&diff=2835775&oldid=2771141 versity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion]<nowiki/>[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FDefensive_avoidance_and_goal_pursuit&diff=2835775&oldid=2771141 %2FBook%2F2025%2FDefensive_avoidance_and_goal_pursuit&diff=2835775&oldid=2771141] 7xmn3c6yjdwnyeo5a7c3o8lfirzd8c8 0 331234 2835679 2835633 2026-10-03T12:03:40Z Mymunu 3106327 /* Strengths and limitations of current research */ 2835679 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being:<br>How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {| class="wikitable" |'''Case study: Part 1'''[[File:School children happily playing in playground.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. Children engaged in outdoor play, where social interactions, choice and control on the situation can create different emotional experiences.]]Imagine that... A child arrives at playground and joins a group of children who are already playing. The children are making their own game and deciding the rules as they play. At first, the child enjoys choosing where and what to play. During the game, another child changes the rules of the game and argument breaks out. The child becomes frustrated and walks away from the activity. After watching for a short time, the child returns, suggests a new idea to continue the game and re-joins the group. How might experiences like this during outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being? Emotional regulation provides one psychological framework for understanding how children may respond to situations like this during play (see figure 1). |} Outdoor play can involve more than physical movement. It can occur across playgrounds, gardens, streets and natural spaces. Outdoor play includes exploration, social interaction, choice, challenge, and engagement with the surrounding environment (Dodd et al., 2026; Pereira et al., 2024). As shown in the case study part 1, outdoor play can involve emotional situations such as [[Aggression|frustration]], disagreement, uncertainty or excitement. Gross's (2015) [[emotional regulation]] provides a [[psychological]] explanation for how children may recognise and respond to these emotional situations. Outdoor play experiences are also shaped by the environment where play takes place. Different physical and social environments can provide different opportunities for play, which means the same outdoor space may not provide the same opportunities for every child (Morgenthaler et al., 2024).This chapter examines how [[Emotional regulation|emotional,]] [[Cognitive psychology|cognitive]], social and environmental processes may help explain the relationship between outdoor play and children's [https://w.wiki/AHG6 emotional well-being.] {| class="wikitable" | ;[[File:Bulb Idea Flat Icon GIF Animation.gif|alt=Focus questions|left|99x99px|thumb]] '''Focus questions''' * '''What are outdoor play and children's emotional well-being?''' * '''How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being?''' * '''How do social and environmental conditions shape children's outdoor play experiences?''' * '''What does recent research show about outdoor play and children's emotional well-being?''' * '''How can families, communities and schools support outdoor play opportunities that may benefit children's emotional well-being?''' |} == '''Understanding outdoor play and children's emotional well-being''' == [[File:Water-outdoor-people-girl-play-boy-938233.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. ''Outdoor play can provide opportunities to explore, make choices, interact with others and respond to changing situations through activities such as water play.''|214x214px]] Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being are not measured as single and consistent concepts across recent research. Outdoor play may be examined as voluntary and intrinsically motivated activity, self directed play, parent reported outdoor play, or device-measured outdoor play (Binno et al., 2025; Davenport et al., 2025; Dodd et al., 2026). It should also be distinguished from outdoor moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) because these measures do not represent the same behaviour (Davenport et al., 2025). Children's emotional well-being is also examined through different outcomes, which include [https://w.wiki/7YC8 emotional dysregulation], social-emotional competence, positive and negative affect, and internalising or externalising symptoms (Dodd et al., 2026; Ferguson et al., 2025; Lee et al., 2025; Poulos et al., 2026). These differences need to be considered when findings across the studies are compared. === Outdoor play === Outdoor play is voluntary and and intrinsically motivated activity that occurs in outdoor environments such as gardens, playgrounds, parks and natural spaces (Dodd et al., 2026). Free play can be also self-directed, allowing children to interact freely with the environment and have [https://w.wiki/4NyU autonomy] to make choices about their activities (Biino et al., 2025). Outdoor play should not be treated as the same as outdoor physical activity. The recent research outdoor play and outdoor moderate- to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) were examined as separate measures (Davenport et al., 2025). This distinction is important because outdoor play intensity of physical activity do not represent the same behaviour. === Children's emotional well-being === Children's emotional well-being is not represented by a single common outcome across recent outdoor play research. Emotional dysregulation has been examined in relation to the amount and timing of outdoor play (Lee et al., 2025), while social-emotional competence includes social emotional difficulties and [[Prosocial behavior/Keywords/Definitions|prosocial behaviour]] (Ferguson et al., 2025). Other studies have examined positive and negative affect following recess (Poulos et al., 2026) and trajectories of internalising and externalising symptoms across childhood (Dodd et al., 2026). These outcomes represent different aspects and timeframes of emotional functioning, so they should not be treated as equivalent when findings are compared. '''Table 1''' ''Emotional outcomes examined in recent research on outdoor play and children's emotional well-being'' {| class="wikitable" |+ !Study !Outcome examined !What the outcome represents |- |Lee et al. (2025) |Emotional dysregulation |Difficulties in emotional regulation; examined in relation to the amount of timing of outdoor play |- |Ferguson et al. (2025) |Social-emotional competence |Social-emotional difficulties and prosocial behaviour |- |Poulos et al. (2026) |Positive and negative affect |Children's affect following recess across different settings |- |Dodd et al. (2026) |Internalising and externalising symptoms |Internalising: emotional symptoms and peer problems Externalising: conduct problems and hyperactivity- inattention |} Note. Outcome descriptions are based on the measures and constructs reported in the above cited studies. See Table 1. As shown in Table 1, the studies do not measure the same aspect or time frame of children's emotional functioning. Affect immediately following recess should not be treated as equivalent to emotional dysregulation measured over time or trajectories of internalising and externalising symptoms across childhood. This difference need to be considered when findings across studies are compared. '''Case study: part 2''' ''What is being measured?'' {| class="wikitable" | valign="top" |[[File:Children marbles.jpg|thumb|221x221px|'''Figure 3'''. ''Children's immediate emotional responses during outdoor play is different from long-term emotional functioning.'']]The child in the Case study: Part 1 becomes frustrated when the rules of the game change. This immediate emotional response is different from a longer-term pattern of emotional dysregulation or internalising symptoms. Research on outdoor play measures these outcomes across different time frames and contexts. When findings are compared, it is important to consider which aspect of emotional well-being is measured. {{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}} <quiz display=simple> {A child's positive or negative affect immediately after recess represents the same emotional outcome as longer-term internalising or externalising symptoms. |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} |} == '''How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being?''' == Outdoor play may be related to children's emotional well-being through emotional, cognitive, and social processes (Dodd et al., 2026). Possible pathways discussed in the recent research include cognitive, social and emotional skills, social interaction, physical activity, connection with the nature and adventurous play (Dodd et al., 2026). However, these pathways have not all been directly tested as mechanisms, and many of the outdoor play research remain observational (Dodd et al., 2026; de Lannoy et al., 2023). Psychological theory can help to explain how and why outdoor play experiences may influence children's emotional well-being. Although the evidence does not yet show that psychological processes cause the relationship between outdoor play and children's emotional well-being. Emotion involves more than subjective feelings. Scherer (2005) described emotion as coordinated changes across cognitive appraisal, physiological responses, action tendencies, expression and subjective feelings. Therefore, physiological responses are one component of an emotional response rather than a separate explanation for the effects of outdoor play. Scherer (2005) did not examine outdoor play, so this framework does not provide evidence that outdoor play changes children's physiological responses or emotional well-being. === '''Emotion regulation''' === Emotion regulation provides a psychological framework for understanding how children may manage emotional situations during outdoor play. Gross (2015) described emotion regulation as a process involving identification, selection and implementation. Identification concerns deciding whether to regulate an emotion, selection concerns selecting regulation strategy and implementation concerns applying chosen response into practice. Gross (2015) also described situation selection, situation modification, attentional deployment cognitive change and response modulation. During outdoor play, children may experience frustration, conflict, disagreement, uncertainty or changes to their activity. Gross's framework can be applied to these situations to consider how the children recognise an emotional response, choose strategies to manage and act on chosen strategies. However, Gross (2015) did not examine outdoor play, so applying the framework does not show that outdoor play improves children's emotion regulation. Broader research on children's play has also examined emotional functioning. Veraksa et al. (2025) systematically reviewed 33 studies on non-therapeutic play among children aged 3 to 7 and identified evidence involving emotional regulation, emotional intelligence, and negative emotional symptoms. The review included outdoor play alongside several other forms of play, so its findings should not be interpreted as evidence that outdoor play alone improves emotion regulation. {| class="wikitable" | valign="top" |'''Case study: Part 3'''[[File:14Y Ncdc july 5th-802.jpg|thumb|202x202px|'''Figure 4'''. ''Children can respond differently to emotional situations that occur during outdoor play.'']]When the rules of game change, the child becomes frustrated and decides to step away. After a short time the child returns and suggests a different way to continue the game (see Figure 4). Suggesting a change to the game can be considered an example of situation modification. This shows how Gross's emotion regulation framework can be applied to an emotional situation during outdoor play. {{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}} <quiz display=simple> {What does Gross (2015) emotion regulation framework show when it is applied to the outdoor-play scenario?. |type="()"} -A. Outdoor play causes better emotion regulation. +B. Situation modification can help explain how the child responds to the situation. -C. Children regulate emotions better outdoors than indoors. -D. Stepping away from play always improves emotional well-being. </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} |} === '''Working memory and cognitive process''' === Working memory can be one cognitive process involved in the association between outdoor play and emotional dysregulation. Lee et al. (2025) examined 325 preschool children and tested working memory as a statistical mediator. Outdoor play was examined across three periods of the day; wake up to noon, noon to 6 pm, and 6 pm to bedtime. The findings differed according to the timing of outdoor play. More outdoor play between noon and 6 pm was associated with lower emotional dysregulation. In contrast, more outdoor play before noon and after 6 pm was associated with higher emotional dysregulation. Afternoon outdoor play was also associated with better working memory, and better working memory was associated with lower emotional dysregulation. When working memory was included in the analysis, the association between afternoon outdoor play and emotional dysregulation was no longer statistically significant. Lee et al. (2025) reported this as full mediation. This suggests that working memory may be involved in the association between afternoon outdoor play and lower emotional dysregulation. However, the study was observational, so the mediation analysis does not show that outdoor play caused better working memory or lower emotional dysregulation. Johnstone et al. (2022) reviewed 36 studies of nature-based [[early childhood education]]. The review found very low certainty evidence for some social, emotional, and cognitive outcomes, including [[self-regulation]], while findings for attention were inconsistent. Although, the review examined nature-based early childhood education rather than outdoor play. Therefore, it does not show that working memory explains the association between outdoor play and children's [https://w.wiki/AHG6 emotional well-being]. == '''How do social and environmental conditions influence on children's outdoor play experiences?''' == [[File:2026-10-03 214531-relationship between child and environment.png|alt=Note. Original conceptual summary is based on Beekhuizen et al. (2025) and Gibson (1979)|right|381x381px|'''Figure 5.''' Children's opportunities for outdoor play can be different according to personal, interacting and environmental factors and the relationship between the child and the environment. ]] Outdoor play opportunities depend on social and physical environments. Children may have access to same outdoor space but may not have same opportunities for play. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified personal, interacting and environmental factors that could support or restrict inclusive outdoor play. These difference can be considered through [https://w.wiki/VYfL affordance theory], which examines the opportunities for action through the relationship between an individual and the environment (Gibson, 1979). === Affordance theory and outdoor play environments === [https://w.wiki/VYfL Affordance theory] was developed by Gibson (1979) to explain the opportunities for action that an environment provides in relation to the person using it. In outdoor play, the opportunities provided by a space can depend on its physical features and how a child is able to use those features. Morgenthaler et al. (2024) applied affordance theory to children's outdoor play and examined outdoor play transactions through environmental taxonomy of outdoor play space features. Their review identified 14 categories of spaces and 284 play opportunities linked to different environmental features. Morgenthaler et al. (2024) showed that different spaces and objects can afford different forms of play, which means two children using the same outdoor play space may not experience the same play opportunities. Therefore, the theory provides a way of understanding differences between children and their use of an outdoor environment. However this study examined the opportunities for play rather than children's well-being. Pereira et al. (2024) also examined features of outdoor play spaces in a systematic review of 51 articles representing 45 primary studies. The review examined features such as fixed structures, natural elements, floor markings, loose equipment and available play areas. Some positive effects were reported, but there was substantial heterogeneity between studies. The studies differed in the environmental features examined, outcomes measures, and study methods, which made difficult to draw a clear conclusions about the effect of individual play space features (Pereira et al., 2024).Therefore, the review does not show that one particular environmental feature improves children's [https://w.wiki/AHG6 emotional well-being]. '''Table 2''' ''Examples of environmental features and possible affordances'' {| class="wikitable" |+ !Environmental feature !Possible affordance for play |- |Fixed structures (e.g. climbing frame) |Can provide opportunity in different forms of physical activity. For example, climbing, physical play, risk-taking |- |Natural elements (e.g. tree, rocks, sand) |Environmental features can provide opportunities for exploratory play, imaginative play, sensory experiences |- |Floor markings (e.g. painted games) |Can support structured activities like rule based play, footy, tennis, etc. |- |Loose equipment (e.g. balls, tyre, boxes) |Movable environmental features that can be used during constructive play, imaginative play, creative problem solving play |- |Open play area |Running, group play, or flexible use |} Note. This table is an original synthesis based on environmental features described by Pereira et al. (2024) and affordance framework applied by Morgenthaler et al. (2024). Environmental features can afford more than one type of play and the opportunities may vary between children. {| class="wikitable" | valign="top" |'''Case study: Part 4 Same space, different opportunities''' Kim and Leo are both at the same school playground during recess. The playground has a climbing structure, a sand pit area and open natural space. * Kim quickly joins a group of children using a climbing frame. The climbing frame structure provides opportunities for physical play and social interactions. * Leo uses a sand pit with other child. He plays with loose materials and creates a sand castle and other different structures. The environment gives him an opportunity for imaginative play and social play. These examples show how the same outdoor space can afford different forms of play for different children, depending on their interests, skills and social context. {{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}} <quiz display=simple> {Which statement best applies affordance theory to the example?. |type="()"} -A. The playground causes children to be more physically active. +B. The same playground can provide different opportunities for play depending on the child and how they use the environment. -C. Climbing structures always lead to better emotional well-being. -D. Open spaces are only useful for social play. </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} |} === '''Social relationship and inclusion''' === Social relationships can shape whether children are able to join and continue outdoor play (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified making contact and growing up together as interacting factors in inclusive outdoor play. Familiarity with other children could make it easier to approach, communicate and play together, while joining unfamiliar children or existing game could be difficult. [https://w.wiki/WDsJ Affective social competence (ASC)] provides a psychological framework for understanding these social interactions (Halberstadt et al., 2001). The ASC model involves experiencing, sending and receiving affect, together with awareness, identification, working within the social context and regulation. These processes may be relevant when a child tries to enter a peer group, recognise other children's emotions and manage their own response during play. Gal-Szabo et al. (2018) used the ASC model as theoretical foundation when examining children's emotional knowledge and social behaviour during preschool free play. The study found that situational understanding of the emotions was negatively related to uninvolved behaviour and was marginally positively related to more social play. However, the study examined preschool free play rather than specific outdoor play. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) also found that children with disabilities experienced more barriers related to making contact, adapting play and physical play environment. These findings suggest that participation in outdoor play depends on both social interaction and children's ability to respond within the play situation, but they do not establish that social play causes better emotional well-being (Beekhuizen et al., 2025; Gal-Szabo et al., 2018). === '''Autonomy, parents and time''' === [https://w.wiki/4NyU Autonomy] can shape how children experience outdoor play (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified autonomy as a personal factor in inclusive outdoor play. Some children valued having independence over what they do and who they play with. Some children with disabilities wanted opportunities to play outside independently without direct parental involvement. Autonomy during play may also have an emotional function. Veraksa et al. (2025), in a systematic review of non-therapeutic play, identified autonomy as one feature through which play may support emotional regulation and coping. However, the review examined several forms of play and does not show that autonomy during outdoor play specially improves children's emotional well-being. Parental support can also make outdoor play possible. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) found that parental involvement could support children's participation when a child needed help to access or participate in outdoor play. Time constraints also affected opportunities for outdoor play. Some children had less time to play outdoors because of parents' work schedule, after school arrangements or longer travel distance between home and school (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). These constraints could limit opportunities for outdoor play even when children wanted greater independence. === '''Outdoor environments and accessibility''' === Outdoor play environments can support or restrict children's participation (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified both physical and social features of outdoor environments as relevant to inclusive play. Children discussed safety, including traffic near playgrounds and disputes with other children. Accessibility was particularly important for children with disabilities because opportunities for inclusive outdoor play could be affected by play environments and physical abilities. Pereira et al. (2024) also showed that heterogeneity between studies limited clear conclusions about the effects of individual outdoor play space features.. Gibson et al. (2017) systematically reviewed five studies of loose-parts play (LPP) interventions with primary school aged children. The review found limited quantitative evidence to determine whether loose-parts interventions affected children's cognitive, social or emotional development. Together, these findings show that features of outdoor environments can support or restrict opportunities for play. However, current evidence does not establish that a particular environmental feature that improves children's emotional well-being (Beekhuizen et al., 2025; Gibson et al., 2017; Pereira et al., 2024). {| class="wikitable" | valign="top" |'''Case study: Part 5 Same play space, different experiences''' {| class="wikitable" |Kim and Leo use the same school playground. Kim already knows many children and easily joins a group activity. Leo uses a mobility device and finds that some areas of the playground are difficult to access. Leo also does not know many children who are already playing. He prefers to play independently when possible. |} The two children have access to the same playground space, but their opportunities to participate are different. There experiences are shaped by more than the physical space alone. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) also identified making contact, familiarity, autonomy and accessibility as factors that could support or restrict inclusive outdoor play. Physical accessibility may affect whether a child can use part of playground, while familiarity with other children may affect whether the child can enter social play. Parental support may also help participation in some situations, while the child may still value greater independence {{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}} <quiz display=simple> {Why might two children have different outdoor-play experiences even they use the same playground?. |type="()"} +A. Physical, social and personal factors can affect how children are able to participate. -B. Outdoor spaces provide the same opportunities for every child. -C. Accessibility is the only factor that affects outdoor play.. -D. Children who know other children always have better emotional well-being. </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} |} == '''What does recent research show about outdoor play and children's emotional well-being?''' == Recent research does not show a consistent association between outdoor play and children's emotional well-being. The findings are mixed across different emotional outcomes measured, the timing and context of outdoor play, children's behaviours, and the methods used to measure outdoor play. These differences are significant when interpreting whether outdoor play is associated with better emotional well-being. The recent studies shows this variation. More frequent outdoor play has been associated with better social-emotional competence (Ferguson et al., 2025) while association with emotional dysregulation differed according to the timing and context of outdoor play (Lee et al., 2025). Positive affect was also higher after outdoor play and and gymnasium recess than after classroom recess, but no significant differences in negative affect between settings (Poulos et al.,2026). Longer-term evidence also examines a different aspect of emotional functioning. More frequent outdoor play during the preschool years was associated with a greater likelihood of following a low and stable trajectory of internalising and externalising symptoms through childhood (Dodd et al., 2026). However, the studies differ in children's ages, research designs, measures of outdoor play and emotional outcomes. Therefore, the evidence should not be interpreted as showing one consistent effect across all children or forms of emotional well-being. === '''Consistency of recent research findings''' === Recent findings are not consistent across all emotional and developmental outcomes. Ferguson et al. (2025) found that more frequent outdoor play was associated with better social-emotional competence, including lower difficulties and greater [[Prosocial Behaviour|prosocial behaviour]]. In contrast, Davenport et al. (2025) found that most associations between outdoor play and the physical, [[Cognitive psychology|cognitive]] and social-emotional developmental indicators examined were not statistically significant. These differences show that positive association with outdoor play are not found across all developmental outcomes. Findings can also differ according to the emotional outcome being measured. Poulos et al. (2026) found higher positive affect after outdoor and gymnasium recess than after classroom recess, but no significant differences in negative affect between the three recess settings. Lee et al. (2025) found that more afternoon outdoor play was associated with lower emotional dysregulation, while more outdoor play earlier and later in the day was associated with higher emotional dysregulation. These findings suggest that the association can differ according to both the emotional outcome and the timing of outdoor play. The time period being examined also differs between studies. Dodd et al. (2026) found that more frequent outdoor play during the preschool years was associated with lower odds of belonging to less favourable internalising and externalising symptom trajectory across childhood. This is different from Poulos et al. (2026), who examined children's emotional states immediately after the recess. Therefore, recent research includes both immediate emotional outcomes and longer-term patterns of emotional functioning. Associations may vary across children and play contexts. Ferguson et al. (2025) reported differences according to ethnicity and whether outdoor play occurred on school days or weekends. Together, these findings suggest that the association between outdoor play and emotional well-being is not same across outcome.The studies differ in children's age, research designs, measures of outdoor play, and emotional outcomes. Thus, findings should not be treated as evidence of one single effect. === '''Strengths and limitations of current research''' === The strength of the evidence also differs according to research design. Dodd et al. (2026) used longitudinal data from 4,151 children and measured outdoor play during the preschool years at approximately 2, 3 and 4 years old, while internalising and externalising symptoms trajectories were measured later through to age 8. This strengthens the evidence about temporal ordering because outdoor play was measured before the later emotional outcomes. However, longitudinal evidence does not establish cause and effect, and the study relied on parent-reported measures. Causal interpretation is also limited in other studies. Lee et al. (2025) used observational data and considered the possibility of reverse causation when interpreting associations between the timing of outdoor play and emotional dysregulation. This means the findings cannot establish whether outdoor play influenced emotional dysregulation or whether children's emotional functioning influenced when they played outdoors. Measurement of outdoor play is another important consideration. Davenport et al. (2025) used both parent-reported and device-measured outdoor play and examined whether associations were independent of outdoor moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA). This is important because outdoor play and outdoor physical activity are related but should not be treated as interchangeable measures. However, the sample was relatively small (N=107) and most tested associations with developmental outcomes were not statistically significant. Limitations are also present across the wider outdoor-play literature. De Lannoy et al. (2023) identified 275 Canadian outdoor-play publications and found that cross-sectional designs were the most common. Mental and emotional development had also received less research attention than physical health and development. This suggests that the evidence base for emotional well-being is less developed than some other areas of outdoor-play research. T'''able 3''' '''''Comparison of recent research''''' {| class="wikitable" |+ !Study !Research method !Research strength !Limitation |- | <small>Lee et al. (2025)</small> |Observational; 6 month follow-up |Examined the timing of outdoor play and tested working memory as a statistical mediator of the association with emotional dysregulation. |Observational mediation cannot establish causation; the study also considered possible reverse causation when interpreting timing-related findings. |- |Ferguson et al. (2025) |Cross sectional; multi ethnic urban cohort (N=2,568) |Large sample allowed associations to be examined across population groups and school-day/weekend outdoor play. |Cross-sectional design cannot establish temporal direction; associations also differed across some groups and play contexts. |- |Davenport et al. (2025) |Observational; preschool sample (N=107) |Used both parent-reported and device-measured outdoor play and distinguished outdoor play from outdoor moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) |Small sample and most tested associations with developmental outcomes were not statistically significant. |- |Dodd et al. (2026) |Longitudinal cohort (N = 4,151) |Outdoor play was measured in the preschool years before later internalising and externalising symptom trajectories. |Outdoor play and symptoms relied on parent reported measures, and the observational design does not establish causations. |- |Poulos et al. (2026) |Recess comparison study (N=317) |Compared children's positive and negative affect following outdoor, gymnasium and classroom recess |Examined immediate affect during an extreme-heat context; higher positive affect was also found after gymnasium recess, so the result was not specific to outdoor recess. |} As shown in Table 3, the recent evidence has different methodological strengths and limitations. Longitudinal designs provide stronger evidence about temporal ordering than cross-sectional design studies, while device-based measures can address some limitations of parent report. However, much of the evidence remains observational, and differences in emotional outcomes, measures of outdoor play and play contexts limit the direct comparison between studies. Future research could benefit from more consistent measures of outdoor play, stronger longitudinal and experimental designs and greater attention to emotional outcomes across different children and play contexts. {| class="wikitable" | valign="top" |{{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}} <quiz display=simple> {Why should the recent findings not be interpreted as showing single consistent effect of outdoor play on children's emotional well-being? |type="()"} -A. Because all the studies used different countries. +B. Because studies differed in emotional outcomes, measures of outdoor play, timing, context and research design. -C. Because longitudinal studies are always more reliable and accurate. -D. Because outdoor play only affects positive outcomes. </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} |} == '''How do families, communities and schools support outdoor play opportunities?''' == [[File:Coalition Builds New Playground in One Day for Chicora-Cherokee Community (11054532905).jpg|thumb|325x325px|Figure 5. Families, communities and school can shape children's opportunities for play.]] Outdoor play opportunities are shaped by children's social and physical environments. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified parents, outdoor play environments, communities and time constraints as environmental factors in inclusive outdoor play. The study also identified autonomy, growing up together, making contact and adapting ways of playing as factors that affected participation. The 2025 Position Statement on Active Outdoor Play recommends increasing opportunities for active outdoor play where people live, learn, work and play (Lee et al., 2025). It also recommends collaboration across sectors and settings to support equitable access. Together, these findings provide a broader context for considering the roles of families, communities and schools. These influences can operate across family, community and school settings (see Figure 5). === '''Families''' === Parents can influence whether children have opportunities to play outdoors. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified parents as an environmental factor in inclusive outdoor play. Children with disabilities described parents as important in encouraging participation. For some children, parents also helped to explain their disability to other children (Beekhuizen et al., 2025).   Broader research also identifies parental factors in children's outdoor play. A systematic review of 21 peer reviewed studies involving children aged 0 to 12 years found that the importance placed on outdoor play was associated with how much time children spent playing outdoors (Boxberger and Reimers, 2019). Evidence for parental encouragement and support was less consistent across children (Boxberger and Reimers, 2019). This suggests that family influence is not limited to direct encouragement. Parents' attitude towards outdoor play may shape children's opportunities to play outdoors. However, the review identified some associations but does not show that parental attitude caused greater outdoor play. Parental support can also involve allowing children to have some independence during outdoor play. Support can make participation possible, but it does not always require direct parental involvement (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). This is particularly relevant when children want more control over how and where they play. Research on independent mobility also shows that children and parents may differ in how much independence they prefer (Han et al., 2022). The study identified different patterns in children's and parents' preferences for independent mobility. These findings show that parental support and autonomy do not always involve the same level of parental involvement. Some children may need support to access or join outdoor play while also wanting greater independence. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) also recommended providing children and parents with knowledge about disabilities and possible adaptations that could support participation. Time constraints can also limit family-level opportunities for outdoor play. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) reported that some children had less time to play outdoors because of parents' work schedules, after-school arrangements and longer travel between home and school. This means that opportunities for outdoor play can be restricted even when children want to play and parents are supportive. === '''Communities''' === Community conditions can affect whether children have safe and inclusive opportunities for outdoor play. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) described physical and social safety as important for inclusive outdoor play. Some playground structures also made participation difficult for children with disabilities. A systematic review of 25 studies found that both physical and social neighbourhood factors were associated with children's outdoor play (Visser & van Aalst, 2022). Social factors included perceived safety, social cohesion and the presence of other children. However, the studies did not identify one neighbourhood feature that consistently explained children's outdoor play across all settings. The social environment may also affect whether children can join others. Children with disabilities described smaller communities, including villages and schools, as places where children and parents could become more familiar with disability. Greater familiarity was associated with greater acceptance and stronger connections with other children (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). Observational research also shows that physical access alone does not explain inclusive outdoor play. Beekhuizen et al. (2026) observed 63 children with and without disabilities during six inclusive outdoor-play sessions and found children with disabilities had lower playfulness scores than children without disabilities. Unfamiliarity could also restrict social inclusion because children preferred to play with peers they already knew. This means providing the same outdoor space does not necessarily provide the same opportunity to participate. The 2025 Position Statement on Active Outdoor Play recommends collaboration across sectors and settings to support equitable access to active outdoor play (Lee et al., 2025). The reviewed findings show why both physical and social conditions matter. Children need places that can be accessed, but familiarity, safety and opportunities to join others can also affect participation. However, the evidence does not show that one community feature alone will increase outdoor play or improve emotional well-being. === '''Schools''' === Schools can provide opportunities for children with and without disabilities to become more familiar with one another. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified growing up together and making contact as interacting factors in inclusive outdoor play. Children described familiarity with other children as making contact easier. School circumstances can also affect the time available for outdoor play. Some children attending special primary education described long travel times between school and home as reducing their opportunities to play outdoors. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified these experiences as part of time constraints. The physical school environment can also be changed to support outdoor activity and socio-emotional outcomes. Bikomeye et al. (2021) systematically reviewed six experimental studies of schoolyard greening. The interventions involved adding greenery and natural elements to schoolyards. Across the included studies, the review reported generally positive findings for physical activity and socio-emotional health. However, the review included only six studies. Schoolyard greening is also a specific intervention and should not be treated as evidence that all forms of outdoor play improve children's emotional well-being. Recess provides another school setting in which children's emotional experiences have been examined directly. Poulos et al. (2026) studied 317 Year 4 and 5 children during extreme heat. Positive affect was higher after outdoor and gymnasium recess than after classroom recess. There were no significant differences in negative affect between the three settings. Poulos et al. (2026) also identified implications for school health, policy and equity. The study discussed heat-adaptive infrastructure as one way to support access to recess environments during extreme heat. However, the findings do not show that outdoor recess is always better than indoor recess because positive affect was also higher after gymnasium recess. {{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Quiz}} <quiz display=simple> {Which statement best reflects how families, communities and school can support children's outdoor play opportunities? |type="()"} + Support can involve accessible environments, safety, familiarity, appropriate parental support and opportunities for children to participate with some independence. - Providing the same outdoor space gives every child the same opportunity to participate. -Schoolyard greening alone is enough to improve children's emotional well-being. -Outdoor recess always produces better emotional outcomes than indoor recess. </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} == '''Conclusion''' == Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being are not represented by single, consistent concepts across recent research. Outdoor play should be distinguished from outdoor physical activity, while emotional well-being has been examined through emotional dysregulation, social-emotional competence, positive and negative affect, and internalising and externalising symptoms. These differences are important because findings across studies do not represent the same emotional outcomes or time frames. Outdoor play may be related to children's emotional well-being through several psychological processes, but the strength of evidence differs across them. Gross's (2015) emotion regulation framework helps explain how children may respond to emotional situations during play, while working memory provides more direct evidence of a possible cognitive process in the association between afternoon outdoor play and lower emotional dysregulation (Lee et al., 2025). However, these findings do not establish that outdoor play causes better emotion regulation or emotional well-being. Recent research also does not show one consistent effect across all children, outcomes or play contexts. Some studies report associations with better social-emotional competence, lower-risk symptom trajectories or higher positive affect, while other findings are mixed or non-significant (Davenport et al., 2025; Dodd et al., 2026; Ferguson et al., 2025). Differences in research design, measurement, timing and context therefore need to be considered when interpreting the evidence. Children's opportunities for outdoor play are also shaped by their social and physical environments. Accessibility, familiarity, autonomy, parental support, safety and opportunities to join other children can influence whether the same outdoor space provides the same opportunity to participate. Families, communities and schools can therefore support outdoor play by considering both access to outdoor spaces and the conditions that allow children to participate in ways that suit their needs and circumstances. Overall, current research suggests that outdoor play is associated with some aspects of children's emotional well-being, but the relationship is more complex than simply spending more time outdoors. The relation between outdoor play and children's emotional well-being varies depending on how outdoor play is measured, timing, context and children's opportunities to participate. ==See also== {{ic|Use bullet points as shown in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]}} https://www-taylorfrancis-com.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/books/mono/10.4324/9781003349655/right-child-play-naomi-lott Book Chapter, 2 {{ic|Move to References and cite}} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotional_dysregulation<nowiki/>- Wikipedia article {{ic|Use an internal links as shown in Tutorial 2}} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autonomy<nowiki/>- Wikipedia article {{ic|Use an internal links as shown in Tutorial 2}} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Longitudinal_study<nowiki/>-Wikipedia article {{ic|Use an internal links as shown in Tutorial 2}} [[Cognitive psychology|https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Cognitive_psychology]]-Wikipedia article https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affordance<nowiki/>-Wikipedia article {{ic|Use an internal links as shown in Tutorial 2}} ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Beekhuizen, R. Q., Bolster, E. A. M., Gorter, J. W., Henry, N. L., Visser, K., Wittink, H., Kotte, E. M. W., Sol, M. E., & Bloemen, M. A. T. (2025). Play Together? Unveiling Facilitators and Barriers to Inclusive Outdoor Play for Dutch Children With and Without Disabilities: A Qualitative Study. Child: Care, Health & Development, 51(6), Article e70154. https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.70154 Biino, V., Pesce, C., & Martins, C. (2025). Motor Skill Development at Preschool Age in Girls and Boys: The Role of Outdoor Free Play. Children, 12(5), Article 594. https://doi.org/10.3390/children12050594 Davenport, C., Kuzik, N., Larouche, R., & Carson, V. (2025). The Associations Between Parental-Reported and Device-Based Measured Outdoor Play and Health Indicators of Physical, Cognitive, and Social–Emotional Development in Preschool-Aged Children. Pediatric Exercise Science, 37(2), 102–111. https://doi.org/10.1123/pes.2023-0119 de Lannoy, L., Barbeau, K., Seguin, N., & Tremblay, M. S. (2023). Scoping review of children’s and youth’s outdoor play publications in Canada. Chronic Diseases in Canada, 43(1), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.24095/hpcdp.43.1.01 Dodd, H. F., Cordwell, K., Hesketh, K., Johnstone, A., de la Torre-Luque, A., & McCrorie, P. (2026). Early outdoor play predicts trajectories of child mental health in a population-based cohort. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.70175 Ferguson, M., Teyhan, A., Lovell, R., Dodd, H., Wheeler, B., & McEachan, R. (2025). The association between park visits, outdoor play and child social-emotional competency in a multi-ethnic, urban cohort. Wellbeing, Space and Society, 9, Article 100293. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wss.2025.100293 Gibson, J.L., Cornell, M. & Gill, T. A Systematic Review of Research into the Impact of Loose Parts Play on Children’s Cognitive, Social and Emotional Development. School Mental Health 9, 295–309 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12310-017-9220-9 Gross, J. J. (2015). Emotion Regulation: Current Status and Future Prospects. Psychological Inquiry, 26(1), 1–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/1047840X.2014.940781 Lee, E.-Y., de Lannoy, L., Kim, Y.-B., Rathod, A., James, M. E., Lopes, O., Nasrallah, B., Thankarajah, A., Adjei-Boadi, D., de Barros, M. I. A., Duncan, S., Miller, R. M., Mygind, L., Vanderloo, L. M., Wang, P.-Y., & Tremblay, M. S. (2025). 2025 Position statement on active outdoor play. The International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 22(1), Article 117. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12966-025-01813-9 Lee, J. J., Flouri, E., & Jackson, Y. (2025). The Role of Timing and Amount of Outdoor Play in Emotional Dysregulation in Preschool Children. Child: Care, Health & Development, 51(1), Article e70020. https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.70020 Morgenthaler, T., Lynch, H., Loebach, J., Pentland, D., & Schulze, C. (2024). Using the Theory of Affordances to Understand Environment–Play Transactions: Environmental Taxonomy of Outdoor Play Space Features—A Scoping Review. The American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 78(4), Article 7804185120. https://doi.org/10.5014/ajot.2024.050606 Pereira, J. V., Vila-Nova, F., Veiga, G., Lopes, F., & Cordovil, R. (2024). Associations between outdoor play features and children’s behavior and health: A systematic review. Health & Place, 87, Article 103235. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healthplace.2024.103235 Poulos, A., Hassan, U. A., Wilson, K., Price, P. M., Vanos, J., & Quilla, J. (2026). Differences in Schoolchildren’s Emotional State After Indoor Versus Outdoor Recess in Extreme‐Heat Weather. The Journal of School Health, 96(4), Article e70135. https://doi.org/10.1111/josh.70135 }} ==External links== {{ic|Use bullet points as shown in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]}} https://www.child-encyclopedia.com/outdoor-play<nowiki/>-Encyclopedia in early childhood development https://www.outdoorplaycanada.ca/wp-content/uploads/2026/03/The-2025-AOP10-Position-Statement.pdf<nowiki/>-Position Statement https://www.who.int/news/item/24-04-2019-to-grow-up-healthy-children-need-to-sit-less-and-play-more<nowiki/>-World Health Organisation [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Children]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Nature]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Well-being]] hxiddamqryx6rl7y4l5osbck9wevfln 2835680 2835679 2026-10-03T12:14:32Z Mymunu 3106327 /* How do social and environmental conditions influence on children's outdoor play experiences? */ 2835680 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being:<br>How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {| class="wikitable" |'''Case study: Part 1'''[[File:School children happily playing in playground.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. Children engaged in outdoor play, where social interactions, choice and control on the situation can create different emotional experiences.]]Imagine that... A child arrives at playground and joins a group of children who are already playing. The children are making their own game and deciding the rules as they play. At first, the child enjoys choosing where and what to play. During the game, another child changes the rules of the game and argument breaks out. The child becomes frustrated and walks away from the activity. After watching for a short time, the child returns, suggests a new idea to continue the game and re-joins the group. How might experiences like this during outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being? Emotional regulation provides one psychological framework for understanding how children may respond to situations like this during play (see figure 1). |} Outdoor play can involve more than physical movement. It can occur across playgrounds, gardens, streets and natural spaces. Outdoor play includes exploration, social interaction, choice, challenge, and engagement with the surrounding environment (Dodd et al., 2026; Pereira et al., 2024). As shown in the case study part 1, outdoor play can involve emotional situations such as [[Aggression|frustration]], disagreement, uncertainty or excitement. Gross's (2015) [[emotional regulation]] provides a [[psychological]] explanation for how children may recognise and respond to these emotional situations. Outdoor play experiences are also shaped by the environment where play takes place. Different physical and social environments can provide different opportunities for play, which means the same outdoor space may not provide the same opportunities for every child (Morgenthaler et al., 2024).This chapter examines how [[Emotional regulation|emotional,]] [[Cognitive psychology|cognitive]], social and environmental processes may help explain the relationship between outdoor play and children's [https://w.wiki/AHG6 emotional well-being.] {| class="wikitable" | ;[[File:Bulb Idea Flat Icon GIF Animation.gif|alt=Focus questions|left|99x99px|thumb]] '''Focus questions''' * '''What are outdoor play and children's emotional well-being?''' * '''How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being?''' * '''How do social and environmental conditions shape children's outdoor play experiences?''' * '''What does recent research show about outdoor play and children's emotional well-being?''' * '''How can families, communities and schools support outdoor play opportunities that may benefit children's emotional well-being?''' |} == '''Understanding outdoor play and children's emotional well-being''' == [[File:Water-outdoor-people-girl-play-boy-938233.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. ''Outdoor play can provide opportunities to explore, make choices, interact with others and respond to changing situations through activities such as water play.''|214x214px]] Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being are not measured as single and consistent concepts across recent research. Outdoor play may be examined as voluntary and intrinsically motivated activity, self directed play, parent reported outdoor play, or device-measured outdoor play (Binno et al., 2025; Davenport et al., 2025; Dodd et al., 2026). It should also be distinguished from outdoor moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) because these measures do not represent the same behaviour (Davenport et al., 2025). Children's emotional well-being is also examined through different outcomes, which include [https://w.wiki/7YC8 emotional dysregulation], social-emotional competence, positive and negative affect, and internalising or externalising symptoms (Dodd et al., 2026; Ferguson et al., 2025; Lee et al., 2025; Poulos et al., 2026). These differences need to be considered when findings across the studies are compared. === Outdoor play === Outdoor play is voluntary and and intrinsically motivated activity that occurs in outdoor environments such as gardens, playgrounds, parks and natural spaces (Dodd et al., 2026). Free play can be also self-directed, allowing children to interact freely with the environment and have [https://w.wiki/4NyU autonomy] to make choices about their activities (Biino et al., 2025). Outdoor play should not be treated as the same as outdoor physical activity. The recent research outdoor play and outdoor moderate- to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) were examined as separate measures (Davenport et al., 2025). This distinction is important because outdoor play intensity of physical activity do not represent the same behaviour. === Children's emotional well-being === Children's emotional well-being is not represented by a single common outcome across recent outdoor play research. Emotional dysregulation has been examined in relation to the amount and timing of outdoor play (Lee et al., 2025), while social-emotional competence includes social emotional difficulties and [[Prosocial behavior/Keywords/Definitions|prosocial behaviour]] (Ferguson et al., 2025). Other studies have examined positive and negative affect following recess (Poulos et al., 2026) and trajectories of internalising and externalising symptoms across childhood (Dodd et al., 2026). These outcomes represent different aspects and timeframes of emotional functioning, so they should not be treated as equivalent when findings are compared. '''Table 1''' ''Emotional outcomes examined in recent research on outdoor play and children's emotional well-being'' {| class="wikitable" |+ !Study !Outcome examined !What the outcome represents |- |Lee et al. (2025) |Emotional dysregulation |Difficulties in emotional regulation; examined in relation to the amount of timing of outdoor play |- |Ferguson et al. (2025) |Social-emotional competence |Social-emotional difficulties and prosocial behaviour |- |Poulos et al. (2026) |Positive and negative affect |Children's affect following recess across different settings |- |Dodd et al. (2026) |Internalising and externalising symptoms |Internalising: emotional symptoms and peer problems Externalising: conduct problems and hyperactivity- inattention |} Note. Outcome descriptions are based on the measures and constructs reported in the above cited studies. See Table 1. As shown in Table 1, the studies do not measure the same aspect or time frame of children's emotional functioning. Affect immediately following recess should not be treated as equivalent to emotional dysregulation measured over time or trajectories of internalising and externalising symptoms across childhood. This difference need to be considered when findings across studies are compared. '''Case study: part 2''' ''What is being measured?'' {| class="wikitable" | valign="top" |[[File:Children marbles.jpg|thumb|221x221px|'''Figure 3'''. ''Children's immediate emotional responses during outdoor play is different from long-term emotional functioning.'']]The child in the Case study: Part 1 becomes frustrated when the rules of the game change. This immediate emotional response is different from a longer-term pattern of emotional dysregulation or internalising symptoms. Research on outdoor play measures these outcomes across different time frames and contexts. When findings are compared, it is important to consider which aspect of emotional well-being is measured. {{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}} <quiz display=simple> {A child's positive or negative affect immediately after recess represents the same emotional outcome as longer-term internalising or externalising symptoms. |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} |} == '''How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being?''' == Outdoor play may be related to children's emotional well-being through emotional, cognitive, and social processes (Dodd et al., 2026). Possible pathways discussed in the recent research include cognitive, social and emotional skills, social interaction, physical activity, connection with the nature and adventurous play (Dodd et al., 2026). However, these pathways have not all been directly tested as mechanisms, and many of the outdoor play research remain observational (Dodd et al., 2026; de Lannoy et al., 2023). Psychological theory can help to explain how and why outdoor play experiences may influence children's emotional well-being. Although the evidence does not yet show that psychological processes cause the relationship between outdoor play and children's emotional well-being. Emotion involves more than subjective feelings. Scherer (2005) described emotion as coordinated changes across cognitive appraisal, physiological responses, action tendencies, expression and subjective feelings. Therefore, physiological responses are one component of an emotional response rather than a separate explanation for the effects of outdoor play. Scherer (2005) did not examine outdoor play, so this framework does not provide evidence that outdoor play changes children's physiological responses or emotional well-being. === '''Emotion regulation''' === Emotion regulation provides a psychological framework for understanding how children may manage emotional situations during outdoor play. Gross (2015) described emotion regulation as a process involving identification, selection and implementation. Identification concerns deciding whether to regulate an emotion, selection concerns selecting regulation strategy and implementation concerns applying chosen response into practice. Gross (2015) also described situation selection, situation modification, attentional deployment cognitive change and response modulation. During outdoor play, children may experience frustration, conflict, disagreement, uncertainty or changes to their activity. Gross's framework can be applied to these situations to consider how the children recognise an emotional response, choose strategies to manage and act on chosen strategies. However, Gross (2015) did not examine outdoor play, so applying the framework does not show that outdoor play improves children's emotion regulation. Broader research on children's play has also examined emotional functioning. Veraksa et al. (2025) systematically reviewed 33 studies on non-therapeutic play among children aged 3 to 7 and identified evidence involving emotional regulation, emotional intelligence, and negative emotional symptoms. The review included outdoor play alongside several other forms of play, so its findings should not be interpreted as evidence that outdoor play alone improves emotion regulation. {| class="wikitable" | valign="top" |'''Case study: Part 3'''[[File:14Y Ncdc july 5th-802.jpg|thumb|202x202px|'''Figure 4'''. ''Children can respond differently to emotional situations that occur during outdoor play.'']]When the rules of game change, the child becomes frustrated and decides to step away. After a short time the child returns and suggests a different way to continue the game (see Figure 4). Suggesting a change to the game can be considered an example of situation modification. This shows how Gross's emotion regulation framework can be applied to an emotional situation during outdoor play. {{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}} <quiz display=simple> {What does Gross (2015) emotion regulation framework show when it is applied to the outdoor-play scenario?. |type="()"} -A. Outdoor play causes better emotion regulation. +B. Situation modification can help explain how the child responds to the situation. -C. Children regulate emotions better outdoors than indoors. -D. Stepping away from play always improves emotional well-being. </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} |} === '''Working memory and cognitive process''' === Working memory can be one cognitive process involved in the association between outdoor play and emotional dysregulation. Lee et al. (2025) examined 325 preschool children and tested working memory as a statistical mediator. Outdoor play was examined across three periods of the day; wake up to noon, noon to 6 pm, and 6 pm to bedtime. The findings differed according to the timing of outdoor play. More outdoor play between noon and 6 pm was associated with lower emotional dysregulation. In contrast, more outdoor play before noon and after 6 pm was associated with higher emotional dysregulation. Afternoon outdoor play was also associated with better working memory, and better working memory was associated with lower emotional dysregulation. When working memory was included in the analysis, the association between afternoon outdoor play and emotional dysregulation was no longer statistically significant. Lee et al. (2025) reported this as full mediation. This suggests that working memory may be involved in the association between afternoon outdoor play and lower emotional dysregulation. However, the study was observational, so the mediation analysis does not show that outdoor play caused better working memory or lower emotional dysregulation. Johnstone et al. (2022) reviewed 36 studies of nature-based [[early childhood education]]. The review found very low certainty evidence for some social, emotional, and cognitive outcomes, including [[self-regulation]], while findings for attention were inconsistent. Although, the review examined nature-based early childhood education rather than outdoor play. Therefore, it does not show that working memory explains the association between outdoor play and children's [https://w.wiki/AHG6 emotional well-being]. == '''How do social and environmental conditions influence on children's outdoor play experiences?''' == [[File:2026-10-03 214531-relationship between child and environment.png|thumb|284x284px|'''Figure 5.''' Children's opportunities for outdoor play can be different according to personal, interacting and environmental factors and the relationship between the child and the environment. Note. Original conceptual summary is based on Beekhuizen et al. (2025) and Gibson (1979).]] Outdoor play opportunities depend on social and physical environments. Children may have access to same outdoor space but may not have same opportunities for play. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified personal, interacting and environmental factors that could support or restrict inclusive outdoor play. These difference can be considered through [https://w.wiki/VYfL affordance theory], which examines the opportunities for action through the relationship between an individual and the environment (Gibson, 1979). === Affordance theory and outdoor play environments === [https://w.wiki/VYfL Affordance theory] was developed by Gibson (1979) to explain the opportunities for action that an environment provides in relation to the person using it. In outdoor play, the opportunities provided by a space can depend on its physical features and how a child is able to use those features. Morgenthaler et al. (2024) applied affordance theory to children's outdoor play and examined outdoor play transactions through environmental taxonomy of outdoor play space features. Their review identified 14 categories of spaces and 284 play opportunities linked to different environmental features. Morgenthaler et al. (2024) showed that different spaces and objects can afford different forms of play, which means two children using the same outdoor play space may not experience the same play opportunities. Therefore, the theory provides a way of understanding differences between children and their use of an outdoor environment. However this study examined the opportunities for play rather than children's well-being. Pereira et al. (2024) also examined features of outdoor play spaces in a systematic review of 51 articles representing 45 primary studies. The review examined features such as fixed structures, natural elements, floor markings, loose equipment and available play areas. Some positive effects were reported, but there was substantial heterogeneity between studies. The studies differed in the environmental features examined, outcomes measures, and study methods, which made difficult to draw a clear conclusions about the effect of individual play space features (Pereira et al., 2024).Therefore, the review does not show that one particular environmental feature improves children's [https://w.wiki/AHG6 emotional well-being]. '''Table 2''' ''Examples of environmental features and possible affordances'' {| class="wikitable" |+ !Environmental feature !Possible affordance for play |- |Fixed structures (e.g. climbing frame) |Can provide opportunity in different forms of physical activity. For example, climbing, physical play, risk-taking |- |Natural elements (e.g. tree, rocks, sand) |Environmental features can provide opportunities for exploratory play, imaginative play, sensory experiences |- |Floor markings (e.g. painted games) |Can support structured activities like rule based play, footy, tennis, etc. |- |Loose equipment (e.g. balls, tyre, boxes) |Movable environmental features that can be used during constructive play, imaginative play, creative problem solving play |- |Open play area |Running, group play, or flexible use |} Note. This table is an original synthesis based on environmental features described by Pereira et al. (2024) and affordance framework applied by Morgenthaler et al. (2024). Environmental features can afford more than one type of play and the opportunities may vary between children. {| class="wikitable" | valign="top" |'''Case study: Part 4 Same space, different opportunities''' Kim and Leo are both at the same school playground during recess. The playground has a climbing structure, a sand pit area and open natural space. * Kim quickly joins a group of children using a climbing frame. The climbing frame structure provides opportunities for physical play and social interactions. * Leo uses a sand pit with other child. He plays with loose materials and creates a sand castle and other different structures. The environment gives him an opportunity for imaginative play and social play. These examples show how the same outdoor space can afford different forms of play for different children, depending on their interests, skills and social context. {{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}} <quiz display=simple> {Which statement best applies affordance theory to the example?. |type="()"} -A. The playground causes children to be more physically active. +B. The same playground can provide different opportunities for play depending on the child and how they use the environment. -C. Climbing structures always lead to better emotional well-being. -D. Open spaces are only useful for social play. </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} |} === '''Social relationship and inclusion''' === Social relationships can shape whether children are able to join and continue outdoor play (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified making contact and growing up together as interacting factors in inclusive outdoor play. Familiarity with other children could make it easier to approach, communicate and play together, while joining unfamiliar children or existing game could be difficult. [https://w.wiki/WDsJ Affective social competence (ASC)] provides a psychological framework for understanding these social interactions (Halberstadt et al., 2001). The ASC model involves experiencing, sending and receiving affect, together with awareness, identification, working within the social context and regulation. These processes may be relevant when a child tries to enter a peer group, recognise other children's emotions and manage their own response during play. Gal-Szabo et al. (2018) used the ASC model as theoretical foundation when examining children's emotional knowledge and social behaviour during preschool free play. The study found that situational understanding of the emotions was negatively related to uninvolved behaviour and was marginally positively related to more social play. However, the study examined preschool free play rather than specific outdoor play. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) also found that children with disabilities experienced more barriers related to making contact, adapting play and physical play environment. These findings suggest that participation in outdoor play depends on both social interaction and children's ability to respond within the play situation, but they do not establish that social play causes better emotional well-being (Beekhuizen et al., 2025; Gal-Szabo et al., 2018). === '''Autonomy, parents and time''' === [https://w.wiki/4NyU Autonomy] can shape how children experience outdoor play (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified autonomy as a personal factor in inclusive outdoor play. Some children valued having independence over what they do and who they play with. Some children with disabilities wanted opportunities to play outside independently without direct parental involvement. Autonomy during play may also have an emotional function. Veraksa et al. (2025), in a systematic review of non-therapeutic play, identified autonomy as one feature through which play may support emotional regulation and coping. However, the review examined several forms of play and does not show that autonomy during outdoor play specially improves children's emotional well-being. Parental support can also make outdoor play possible. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) found that parental involvement could support children's participation when a child needed help to access or participate in outdoor play. Time constraints also affected opportunities for outdoor play. Some children had less time to play outdoors because of parents' work schedule, after school arrangements or longer travel distance between home and school (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). These constraints could limit opportunities for outdoor play even when children wanted greater independence. === '''Outdoor environments and accessibility''' === Outdoor play environments can support or restrict children's participation (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified both physical and social features of outdoor environments as relevant to inclusive play. Children discussed safety, including traffic near playgrounds and disputes with other children. Accessibility was particularly important for children with disabilities because opportunities for inclusive outdoor play could be affected by play environments and physical abilities. Pereira et al. (2024) also showed that heterogeneity between studies limited clear conclusions about the effects of individual outdoor play space features.. Gibson et al. (2017) systematically reviewed five studies of loose-parts play (LPP) interventions with primary school aged children. The review found limited quantitative evidence to determine whether loose-parts interventions affected children's cognitive, social or emotional development. Together, these findings show that features of outdoor environments can support or restrict opportunities for play. However, current evidence does not establish that a particular environmental feature that improves children's emotional well-being (Beekhuizen et al., 2025; Gibson et al., 2017; Pereira et al., 2024). {| class="wikitable" | valign="top" |'''Case study: Part 5 Same play space, different experiences''' {| class="wikitable" |Kim and Leo use the same school playground. Kim already knows many children and easily joins a group activity. Leo uses a mobility device and finds that some areas of the playground are difficult to access. Leo also does not know many children who are already playing. He prefers to play independently when possible. |} The two children have access to the same playground space, but their opportunities to participate are different. There experiences are shaped by more than the physical space alone. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) also identified making contact, familiarity, autonomy and accessibility as factors that could support or restrict inclusive outdoor play. Physical accessibility may affect whether a child can use part of playground, while familiarity with other children may affect whether the child can enter social play. Parental support may also help participation in some situations, while the child may still value greater independence {{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}} <quiz display=simple> {Why might two children have different outdoor-play experiences even they use the same playground?. |type="()"} +A. Physical, social and personal factors can affect how children are able to participate. -B. Outdoor spaces provide the same opportunities for every child. -C. Accessibility is the only factor that affects outdoor play.. -D. Children who know other children always have better emotional well-being. </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} |} == '''What does recent research show about outdoor play and children's emotional well-being?''' == Recent research does not show a consistent association between outdoor play and children's emotional well-being. The findings are mixed across different emotional outcomes measured, the timing and context of outdoor play, children's behaviours, and the methods used to measure outdoor play. These differences are significant when interpreting whether outdoor play is associated with better emotional well-being. The recent studies shows this variation. More frequent outdoor play has been associated with better social-emotional competence (Ferguson et al., 2025) while association with emotional dysregulation differed according to the timing and context of outdoor play (Lee et al., 2025). Positive affect was also higher after outdoor play and and gymnasium recess than after classroom recess, but no significant differences in negative affect between settings (Poulos et al.,2026). Longer-term evidence also examines a different aspect of emotional functioning. More frequent outdoor play during the preschool years was associated with a greater likelihood of following a low and stable trajectory of internalising and externalising symptoms through childhood (Dodd et al., 2026). However, the studies differ in children's ages, research designs, measures of outdoor play and emotional outcomes. Therefore, the evidence should not be interpreted as showing one consistent effect across all children or forms of emotional well-being. === '''Consistency of recent research findings''' === Recent findings are not consistent across all emotional and developmental outcomes. Ferguson et al. (2025) found that more frequent outdoor play was associated with better social-emotional competence, including lower difficulties and greater [[Prosocial Behaviour|prosocial behaviour]]. In contrast, Davenport et al. (2025) found that most associations between outdoor play and the physical, [[Cognitive psychology|cognitive]] and social-emotional developmental indicators examined were not statistically significant. These differences show that positive association with outdoor play are not found across all developmental outcomes. Findings can also differ according to the emotional outcome being measured. Poulos et al. (2026) found higher positive affect after outdoor and gymnasium recess than after classroom recess, but no significant differences in negative affect between the three recess settings. Lee et al. (2025) found that more afternoon outdoor play was associated with lower emotional dysregulation, while more outdoor play earlier and later in the day was associated with higher emotional dysregulation. These findings suggest that the association can differ according to both the emotional outcome and the timing of outdoor play. The time period being examined also differs between studies. Dodd et al. (2026) found that more frequent outdoor play during the preschool years was associated with lower odds of belonging to less favourable internalising and externalising symptom trajectory across childhood. This is different from Poulos et al. (2026), who examined children's emotional states immediately after the recess. Therefore, recent research includes both immediate emotional outcomes and longer-term patterns of emotional functioning. Associations may vary across children and play contexts. Ferguson et al. (2025) reported differences according to ethnicity and whether outdoor play occurred on school days or weekends. Together, these findings suggest that the association between outdoor play and emotional well-being is not same across outcome.The studies differ in children's age, research designs, measures of outdoor play, and emotional outcomes. Thus, findings should not be treated as evidence of one single effect. === '''Strengths and limitations of current research''' === The strength of the evidence also differs according to research design. Dodd et al. (2026) used longitudinal data from 4,151 children and measured outdoor play during the preschool years at approximately 2, 3 and 4 years old, while internalising and externalising symptoms trajectories were measured later through to age 8. This strengthens the evidence about temporal ordering because outdoor play was measured before the later emotional outcomes. However, longitudinal evidence does not establish cause and effect, and the study relied on parent-reported measures. Causal interpretation is also limited in other studies. Lee et al. (2025) used observational data and considered the possibility of reverse causation when interpreting associations between the timing of outdoor play and emotional dysregulation. This means the findings cannot establish whether outdoor play influenced emotional dysregulation or whether children's emotional functioning influenced when they played outdoors. Measurement of outdoor play is another important consideration. Davenport et al. (2025) used both parent-reported and device-measured outdoor play and examined whether associations were independent of outdoor moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA). This is important because outdoor play and outdoor physical activity are related but should not be treated as interchangeable measures. However, the sample was relatively small (N=107) and most tested associations with developmental outcomes were not statistically significant. Limitations are also present across the wider outdoor-play literature. De Lannoy et al. (2023) identified 275 Canadian outdoor-play publications and found that cross-sectional designs were the most common. Mental and emotional development had also received less research attention than physical health and development. This suggests that the evidence base for emotional well-being is less developed than some other areas of outdoor-play research. T'''able 3''' '''''Comparison of recent research''''' {| class="wikitable" |+ !Study !Research method !Research strength !Limitation |- | <small>Lee et al. (2025)</small> |Observational; 6 month follow-up |Examined the timing of outdoor play and tested working memory as a statistical mediator of the association with emotional dysregulation. |Observational mediation cannot establish causation; the study also considered possible reverse causation when interpreting timing-related findings. |- |Ferguson et al. (2025) |Cross sectional; multi ethnic urban cohort (N=2,568) |Large sample allowed associations to be examined across population groups and school-day/weekend outdoor play. |Cross-sectional design cannot establish temporal direction; associations also differed across some groups and play contexts. |- |Davenport et al. (2025) |Observational; preschool sample (N=107) |Used both parent-reported and device-measured outdoor play and distinguished outdoor play from outdoor moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) |Small sample and most tested associations with developmental outcomes were not statistically significant. |- |Dodd et al. (2026) |Longitudinal cohort (N = 4,151) |Outdoor play was measured in the preschool years before later internalising and externalising symptom trajectories. |Outdoor play and symptoms relied on parent reported measures, and the observational design does not establish causations. |- |Poulos et al. (2026) |Recess comparison study (N=317) |Compared children's positive and negative affect following outdoor, gymnasium and classroom recess |Examined immediate affect during an extreme-heat context; higher positive affect was also found after gymnasium recess, so the result was not specific to outdoor recess. |} As shown in Table 3, the recent evidence has different methodological strengths and limitations. Longitudinal designs provide stronger evidence about temporal ordering than cross-sectional design studies, while device-based measures can address some limitations of parent report. However, much of the evidence remains observational, and differences in emotional outcomes, measures of outdoor play and play contexts limit the direct comparison between studies. Future research could benefit from more consistent measures of outdoor play, stronger longitudinal and experimental designs and greater attention to emotional outcomes across different children and play contexts. {| class="wikitable" | valign="top" |{{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}} <quiz display=simple> {Why should the recent findings not be interpreted as showing single consistent effect of outdoor play on children's emotional well-being? |type="()"} -A. Because all the studies used different countries. +B. Because studies differed in emotional outcomes, measures of outdoor play, timing, context and research design. -C. Because longitudinal studies are always more reliable and accurate. -D. Because outdoor play only affects positive outcomes. </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} |} == '''How do families, communities and schools support outdoor play opportunities?''' == [[File:Coalition Builds New Playground in One Day for Chicora-Cherokee Community (11054532905).jpg|thumb|325x325px|Figure 5. Families, communities and school can shape children's opportunities for play.]] Outdoor play opportunities are shaped by children's social and physical environments. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified parents, outdoor play environments, communities and time constraints as environmental factors in inclusive outdoor play. The study also identified autonomy, growing up together, making contact and adapting ways of playing as factors that affected participation. The 2025 Position Statement on Active Outdoor Play recommends increasing opportunities for active outdoor play where people live, learn, work and play (Lee et al., 2025). It also recommends collaboration across sectors and settings to support equitable access. Together, these findings provide a broader context for considering the roles of families, communities and schools. These influences can operate across family, community and school settings (see Figure 5). === '''Families''' === Parents can influence whether children have opportunities to play outdoors. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified parents as an environmental factor in inclusive outdoor play. Children with disabilities described parents as important in encouraging participation. For some children, parents also helped to explain their disability to other children (Beekhuizen et al., 2025).   Broader research also identifies parental factors in children's outdoor play. A systematic review of 21 peer reviewed studies involving children aged 0 to 12 years found that the importance placed on outdoor play was associated with how much time children spent playing outdoors (Boxberger and Reimers, 2019). Evidence for parental encouragement and support was less consistent across children (Boxberger and Reimers, 2019). This suggests that family influence is not limited to direct encouragement. Parents' attitude towards outdoor play may shape children's opportunities to play outdoors. However, the review identified some associations but does not show that parental attitude caused greater outdoor play. Parental support can also involve allowing children to have some independence during outdoor play. Support can make participation possible, but it does not always require direct parental involvement (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). This is particularly relevant when children want more control over how and where they play. Research on independent mobility also shows that children and parents may differ in how much independence they prefer (Han et al., 2022). The study identified different patterns in children's and parents' preferences for independent mobility. These findings show that parental support and autonomy do not always involve the same level of parental involvement. Some children may need support to access or join outdoor play while also wanting greater independence. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) also recommended providing children and parents with knowledge about disabilities and possible adaptations that could support participation. Time constraints can also limit family-level opportunities for outdoor play. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) reported that some children had less time to play outdoors because of parents' work schedules, after-school arrangements and longer travel between home and school. This means that opportunities for outdoor play can be restricted even when children want to play and parents are supportive. === '''Communities''' === Community conditions can affect whether children have safe and inclusive opportunities for outdoor play. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) described physical and social safety as important for inclusive outdoor play. Some playground structures also made participation difficult for children with disabilities. A systematic review of 25 studies found that both physical and social neighbourhood factors were associated with children's outdoor play (Visser & van Aalst, 2022). Social factors included perceived safety, social cohesion and the presence of other children. However, the studies did not identify one neighbourhood feature that consistently explained children's outdoor play across all settings. The social environment may also affect whether children can join others. Children with disabilities described smaller communities, including villages and schools, as places where children and parents could become more familiar with disability. Greater familiarity was associated with greater acceptance and stronger connections with other children (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). Observational research also shows that physical access alone does not explain inclusive outdoor play. Beekhuizen et al. (2026) observed 63 children with and without disabilities during six inclusive outdoor-play sessions and found children with disabilities had lower playfulness scores than children without disabilities. Unfamiliarity could also restrict social inclusion because children preferred to play with peers they already knew. This means providing the same outdoor space does not necessarily provide the same opportunity to participate. The 2025 Position Statement on Active Outdoor Play recommends collaboration across sectors and settings to support equitable access to active outdoor play (Lee et al., 2025). The reviewed findings show why both physical and social conditions matter. Children need places that can be accessed, but familiarity, safety and opportunities to join others can also affect participation. However, the evidence does not show that one community feature alone will increase outdoor play or improve emotional well-being. === '''Schools''' === Schools can provide opportunities for children with and without disabilities to become more familiar with one another. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified growing up together and making contact as interacting factors in inclusive outdoor play. Children described familiarity with other children as making contact easier. School circumstances can also affect the time available for outdoor play. Some children attending special primary education described long travel times between school and home as reducing their opportunities to play outdoors. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified these experiences as part of time constraints. The physical school environment can also be changed to support outdoor activity and socio-emotional outcomes. Bikomeye et al. (2021) systematically reviewed six experimental studies of schoolyard greening. The interventions involved adding greenery and natural elements to schoolyards. Across the included studies, the review reported generally positive findings for physical activity and socio-emotional health. However, the review included only six studies. Schoolyard greening is also a specific intervention and should not be treated as evidence that all forms of outdoor play improve children's emotional well-being. Recess provides another school setting in which children's emotional experiences have been examined directly. Poulos et al. (2026) studied 317 Year 4 and 5 children during extreme heat. Positive affect was higher after outdoor and gymnasium recess than after classroom recess. There were no significant differences in negative affect between the three settings. Poulos et al. (2026) also identified implications for school health, policy and equity. The study discussed heat-adaptive infrastructure as one way to support access to recess environments during extreme heat. However, the findings do not show that outdoor recess is always better than indoor recess because positive affect was also higher after gymnasium recess. {{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Quiz}} <quiz display=simple> {Which statement best reflects how families, communities and school can support children's outdoor play opportunities? |type="()"} + Support can involve accessible environments, safety, familiarity, appropriate parental support and opportunities for children to participate with some independence. - Providing the same outdoor space gives every child the same opportunity to participate. -Schoolyard greening alone is enough to improve children's emotional well-being. -Outdoor recess always produces better emotional outcomes than indoor recess. </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} == '''Conclusion''' == Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being are not represented by single, consistent concepts across recent research. Outdoor play should be distinguished from outdoor physical activity, while emotional well-being has been examined through emotional dysregulation, social-emotional competence, positive and negative affect, and internalising and externalising symptoms. These differences are important because findings across studies do not represent the same emotional outcomes or time frames. Outdoor play may be related to children's emotional well-being through several psychological processes, but the strength of evidence differs across them. Gross's (2015) emotion regulation framework helps explain how children may respond to emotional situations during play, while working memory provides more direct evidence of a possible cognitive process in the association between afternoon outdoor play and lower emotional dysregulation (Lee et al., 2025). However, these findings do not establish that outdoor play causes better emotion regulation or emotional well-being. Recent research also does not show one consistent effect across all children, outcomes or play contexts. Some studies report associations with better social-emotional competence, lower-risk symptom trajectories or higher positive affect, while other findings are mixed or non-significant (Davenport et al., 2025; Dodd et al., 2026; Ferguson et al., 2025). Differences in research design, measurement, timing and context therefore need to be considered when interpreting the evidence. Children's opportunities for outdoor play are also shaped by their social and physical environments. Accessibility, familiarity, autonomy, parental support, safety and opportunities to join other children can influence whether the same outdoor space provides the same opportunity to participate. Families, communities and schools can therefore support outdoor play by considering both access to outdoor spaces and the conditions that allow children to participate in ways that suit their needs and circumstances. Overall, current research suggests that outdoor play is associated with some aspects of children's emotional well-being, but the relationship is more complex than simply spending more time outdoors. The relation between outdoor play and children's emotional well-being varies depending on how outdoor play is measured, timing, context and children's opportunities to participate. ==See also== {{ic|Use bullet points as shown in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]}} https://www-taylorfrancis-com.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/books/mono/10.4324/9781003349655/right-child-play-naomi-lott Book Chapter, 2 {{ic|Move to References and cite}} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotional_dysregulation<nowiki/>- Wikipedia article {{ic|Use an internal links as shown in Tutorial 2}} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autonomy<nowiki/>- Wikipedia article {{ic|Use an internal links as shown in Tutorial 2}} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Longitudinal_study<nowiki/>-Wikipedia article {{ic|Use an internal links as shown in Tutorial 2}} [[Cognitive psychology|https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Cognitive_psychology]]-Wikipedia article https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affordance<nowiki/>-Wikipedia article {{ic|Use an internal links as shown in Tutorial 2}} ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Beekhuizen, R. Q., Bolster, E. A. M., Gorter, J. W., Henry, N. L., Visser, K., Wittink, H., Kotte, E. M. W., Sol, M. E., & Bloemen, M. A. T. (2025). Play Together? Unveiling Facilitators and Barriers to Inclusive Outdoor Play for Dutch Children With and Without Disabilities: A Qualitative Study. Child: Care, Health & Development, 51(6), Article e70154. https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.70154 Biino, V., Pesce, C., & Martins, C. (2025). Motor Skill Development at Preschool Age in Girls and Boys: The Role of Outdoor Free Play. Children, 12(5), Article 594. https://doi.org/10.3390/children12050594 Davenport, C., Kuzik, N., Larouche, R., & Carson, V. (2025). The Associations Between Parental-Reported and Device-Based Measured Outdoor Play and Health Indicators of Physical, Cognitive, and Social–Emotional Development in Preschool-Aged Children. Pediatric Exercise Science, 37(2), 102–111. https://doi.org/10.1123/pes.2023-0119 de Lannoy, L., Barbeau, K., Seguin, N., & Tremblay, M. S. (2023). Scoping review of children’s and youth’s outdoor play publications in Canada. Chronic Diseases in Canada, 43(1), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.24095/hpcdp.43.1.01 Dodd, H. F., Cordwell, K., Hesketh, K., Johnstone, A., de la Torre-Luque, A., & McCrorie, P. (2026). Early outdoor play predicts trajectories of child mental health in a population-based cohort. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.70175 Ferguson, M., Teyhan, A., Lovell, R., Dodd, H., Wheeler, B., & McEachan, R. (2025). The association between park visits, outdoor play and child social-emotional competency in a multi-ethnic, urban cohort. Wellbeing, Space and Society, 9, Article 100293. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wss.2025.100293 Gibson, J.L., Cornell, M. & Gill, T. A Systematic Review of Research into the Impact of Loose Parts Play on Children’s Cognitive, Social and Emotional Development. School Mental Health 9, 295–309 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12310-017-9220-9 Gross, J. J. (2015). Emotion Regulation: Current Status and Future Prospects. Psychological Inquiry, 26(1), 1–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/1047840X.2014.940781 Lee, E.-Y., de Lannoy, L., Kim, Y.-B., Rathod, A., James, M. E., Lopes, O., Nasrallah, B., Thankarajah, A., Adjei-Boadi, D., de Barros, M. I. A., Duncan, S., Miller, R. M., Mygind, L., Vanderloo, L. M., Wang, P.-Y., & Tremblay, M. S. (2025). 2025 Position statement on active outdoor play. The International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 22(1), Article 117. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12966-025-01813-9 Lee, J. J., Flouri, E., & Jackson, Y. (2025). The Role of Timing and Amount of Outdoor Play in Emotional Dysregulation in Preschool Children. Child: Care, Health & Development, 51(1), Article e70020. https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.70020 Morgenthaler, T., Lynch, H., Loebach, J., Pentland, D., & Schulze, C. (2024). Using the Theory of Affordances to Understand Environment–Play Transactions: Environmental Taxonomy of Outdoor Play Space Features—A Scoping Review. The American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 78(4), Article 7804185120. https://doi.org/10.5014/ajot.2024.050606 Pereira, J. V., Vila-Nova, F., Veiga, G., Lopes, F., & Cordovil, R. (2024). Associations between outdoor play features and children’s behavior and health: A systematic review. Health & Place, 87, Article 103235. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healthplace.2024.103235 Poulos, A., Hassan, U. A., Wilson, K., Price, P. M., Vanos, J., & Quilla, J. (2026). Differences in Schoolchildren’s Emotional State After Indoor Versus Outdoor Recess in Extreme‐Heat Weather. The Journal of School Health, 96(4), Article e70135. https://doi.org/10.1111/josh.70135 }} ==External links== {{ic|Use bullet points as shown in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]}} https://www.child-encyclopedia.com/outdoor-play<nowiki/>-Encyclopedia in early childhood development https://www.outdoorplaycanada.ca/wp-content/uploads/2026/03/The-2025-AOP10-Position-Statement.pdf<nowiki/>-Position Statement https://www.who.int/news/item/24-04-2019-to-grow-up-healthy-children-need-to-sit-less-and-play-more<nowiki/>-World Health Organisation [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Children]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Nature]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Well-being]] 162hvzl9hm2ym2nqbx37vpyk6kksejp 2835681 2835680 2026-10-03T12:15:23Z Mymunu 3106327 /* How do social and environmental conditions influence on children's outdoor play experiences? */ 2835681 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being:<br>How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {| class="wikitable" |'''Case study: Part 1'''[[File:School children happily playing in playground.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. Children engaged in outdoor play, where social interactions, choice and control on the situation can create different emotional experiences.]]Imagine that... A child arrives at playground and joins a group of children who are already playing. The children are making their own game and deciding the rules as they play. At first, the child enjoys choosing where and what to play. During the game, another child changes the rules of the game and argument breaks out. The child becomes frustrated and walks away from the activity. After watching for a short time, the child returns, suggests a new idea to continue the game and re-joins the group. How might experiences like this during outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being? Emotional regulation provides one psychological framework for understanding how children may respond to situations like this during play (see figure 1). |} Outdoor play can involve more than physical movement. It can occur across playgrounds, gardens, streets and natural spaces. Outdoor play includes exploration, social interaction, choice, challenge, and engagement with the surrounding environment (Dodd et al., 2026; Pereira et al., 2024). As shown in the case study part 1, outdoor play can involve emotional situations such as [[Aggression|frustration]], disagreement, uncertainty or excitement. Gross's (2015) [[emotional regulation]] provides a [[psychological]] explanation for how children may recognise and respond to these emotional situations. Outdoor play experiences are also shaped by the environment where play takes place. Different physical and social environments can provide different opportunities for play, which means the same outdoor space may not provide the same opportunities for every child (Morgenthaler et al., 2024).This chapter examines how [[Emotional regulation|emotional,]] [[Cognitive psychology|cognitive]], social and environmental processes may help explain the relationship between outdoor play and children's [https://w.wiki/AHG6 emotional well-being.] {| class="wikitable" | ;[[File:Bulb Idea Flat Icon GIF Animation.gif|alt=Focus questions|left|99x99px|thumb]] '''Focus questions''' * '''What are outdoor play and children's emotional well-being?''' * '''How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being?''' * '''How do social and environmental conditions shape children's outdoor play experiences?''' * '''What does recent research show about outdoor play and children's emotional well-being?''' * '''How can families, communities and schools support outdoor play opportunities that may benefit children's emotional well-being?''' |} == '''Understanding outdoor play and children's emotional well-being''' == [[File:Water-outdoor-people-girl-play-boy-938233.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. ''Outdoor play can provide opportunities to explore, make choices, interact with others and respond to changing situations through activities such as water play.''|214x214px]] Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being are not measured as single and consistent concepts across recent research. Outdoor play may be examined as voluntary and intrinsically motivated activity, self directed play, parent reported outdoor play, or device-measured outdoor play (Binno et al., 2025; Davenport et al., 2025; Dodd et al., 2026). It should also be distinguished from outdoor moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) because these measures do not represent the same behaviour (Davenport et al., 2025). Children's emotional well-being is also examined through different outcomes, which include [https://w.wiki/7YC8 emotional dysregulation], social-emotional competence, positive and negative affect, and internalising or externalising symptoms (Dodd et al., 2026; Ferguson et al., 2025; Lee et al., 2025; Poulos et al., 2026). These differences need to be considered when findings across the studies are compared. === Outdoor play === Outdoor play is voluntary and and intrinsically motivated activity that occurs in outdoor environments such as gardens, playgrounds, parks and natural spaces (Dodd et al., 2026). Free play can be also self-directed, allowing children to interact freely with the environment and have [https://w.wiki/4NyU autonomy] to make choices about their activities (Biino et al., 2025). Outdoor play should not be treated as the same as outdoor physical activity. The recent research outdoor play and outdoor moderate- to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) were examined as separate measures (Davenport et al., 2025). This distinction is important because outdoor play intensity of physical activity do not represent the same behaviour. === Children's emotional well-being === Children's emotional well-being is not represented by a single common outcome across recent outdoor play research. Emotional dysregulation has been examined in relation to the amount and timing of outdoor play (Lee et al., 2025), while social-emotional competence includes social emotional difficulties and [[Prosocial behavior/Keywords/Definitions|prosocial behaviour]] (Ferguson et al., 2025). Other studies have examined positive and negative affect following recess (Poulos et al., 2026) and trajectories of internalising and externalising symptoms across childhood (Dodd et al., 2026). These outcomes represent different aspects and timeframes of emotional functioning, so they should not be treated as equivalent when findings are compared. '''Table 1''' ''Emotional outcomes examined in recent research on outdoor play and children's emotional well-being'' {| class="wikitable" |+ !Study !Outcome examined !What the outcome represents |- |Lee et al. (2025) |Emotional dysregulation |Difficulties in emotional regulation; examined in relation to the amount of timing of outdoor play |- |Ferguson et al. (2025) |Social-emotional competence |Social-emotional difficulties and prosocial behaviour |- |Poulos et al. (2026) |Positive and negative affect |Children's affect following recess across different settings |- |Dodd et al. (2026) |Internalising and externalising symptoms |Internalising: emotional symptoms and peer problems Externalising: conduct problems and hyperactivity- inattention |} Note. Outcome descriptions are based on the measures and constructs reported in the above cited studies. See Table 1. As shown in Table 1, the studies do not measure the same aspect or time frame of children's emotional functioning. Affect immediately following recess should not be treated as equivalent to emotional dysregulation measured over time or trajectories of internalising and externalising symptoms across childhood. This difference need to be considered when findings across studies are compared. '''Case study: part 2''' ''What is being measured?'' {| class="wikitable" | valign="top" |[[File:Children marbles.jpg|thumb|221x221px|'''Figure 3'''. ''Children's immediate emotional responses during outdoor play is different from long-term emotional functioning.'']]The child in the Case study: Part 1 becomes frustrated when the rules of the game change. This immediate emotional response is different from a longer-term pattern of emotional dysregulation or internalising symptoms. Research on outdoor play measures these outcomes across different time frames and contexts. When findings are compared, it is important to consider which aspect of emotional well-being is measured. {{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}} <quiz display=simple> {A child's positive or negative affect immediately after recess represents the same emotional outcome as longer-term internalising or externalising symptoms. |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} |} == '''How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being?''' == Outdoor play may be related to children's emotional well-being through emotional, cognitive, and social processes (Dodd et al., 2026). Possible pathways discussed in the recent research include cognitive, social and emotional skills, social interaction, physical activity, connection with the nature and adventurous play (Dodd et al., 2026). However, these pathways have not all been directly tested as mechanisms, and many of the outdoor play research remain observational (Dodd et al., 2026; de Lannoy et al., 2023). Psychological theory can help to explain how and why outdoor play experiences may influence children's emotional well-being. Although the evidence does not yet show that psychological processes cause the relationship between outdoor play and children's emotional well-being. Emotion involves more than subjective feelings. Scherer (2005) described emotion as coordinated changes across cognitive appraisal, physiological responses, action tendencies, expression and subjective feelings. Therefore, physiological responses are one component of an emotional response rather than a separate explanation for the effects of outdoor play. Scherer (2005) did not examine outdoor play, so this framework does not provide evidence that outdoor play changes children's physiological responses or emotional well-being. === '''Emotion regulation''' === Emotion regulation provides a psychological framework for understanding how children may manage emotional situations during outdoor play. Gross (2015) described emotion regulation as a process involving identification, selection and implementation. Identification concerns deciding whether to regulate an emotion, selection concerns selecting regulation strategy and implementation concerns applying chosen response into practice. Gross (2015) also described situation selection, situation modification, attentional deployment cognitive change and response modulation. During outdoor play, children may experience frustration, conflict, disagreement, uncertainty or changes to their activity. Gross's framework can be applied to these situations to consider how the children recognise an emotional response, choose strategies to manage and act on chosen strategies. However, Gross (2015) did not examine outdoor play, so applying the framework does not show that outdoor play improves children's emotion regulation. Broader research on children's play has also examined emotional functioning. Veraksa et al. (2025) systematically reviewed 33 studies on non-therapeutic play among children aged 3 to 7 and identified evidence involving emotional regulation, emotional intelligence, and negative emotional symptoms. The review included outdoor play alongside several other forms of play, so its findings should not be interpreted as evidence that outdoor play alone improves emotion regulation. {| class="wikitable" | valign="top" |'''Case study: Part 3'''[[File:14Y Ncdc july 5th-802.jpg|thumb|202x202px|'''Figure 4'''. ''Children can respond differently to emotional situations that occur during outdoor play.'']]When the rules of game change, the child becomes frustrated and decides to step away. After a short time the child returns and suggests a different way to continue the game (see Figure 4). Suggesting a change to the game can be considered an example of situation modification. This shows how Gross's emotion regulation framework can be applied to an emotional situation during outdoor play. {{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}} <quiz display=simple> {What does Gross (2015) emotion regulation framework show when it is applied to the outdoor-play scenario?. |type="()"} -A. Outdoor play causes better emotion regulation. +B. Situation modification can help explain how the child responds to the situation. -C. Children regulate emotions better outdoors than indoors. -D. Stepping away from play always improves emotional well-being. </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} |} === '''Working memory and cognitive process''' === Working memory can be one cognitive process involved in the association between outdoor play and emotional dysregulation. Lee et al. (2025) examined 325 preschool children and tested working memory as a statistical mediator. Outdoor play was examined across three periods of the day; wake up to noon, noon to 6 pm, and 6 pm to bedtime. The findings differed according to the timing of outdoor play. More outdoor play between noon and 6 pm was associated with lower emotional dysregulation. In contrast, more outdoor play before noon and after 6 pm was associated with higher emotional dysregulation. Afternoon outdoor play was also associated with better working memory, and better working memory was associated with lower emotional dysregulation. When working memory was included in the analysis, the association between afternoon outdoor play and emotional dysregulation was no longer statistically significant. Lee et al. (2025) reported this as full mediation. This suggests that working memory may be involved in the association between afternoon outdoor play and lower emotional dysregulation. However, the study was observational, so the mediation analysis does not show that outdoor play caused better working memory or lower emotional dysregulation. Johnstone et al. (2022) reviewed 36 studies of nature-based [[early childhood education]]. The review found very low certainty evidence for some social, emotional, and cognitive outcomes, including [[self-regulation]], while findings for attention were inconsistent. Although, the review examined nature-based early childhood education rather than outdoor play. Therefore, it does not show that working memory explains the association between outdoor play and children's [https://w.wiki/AHG6 emotional well-being]. == '''How do social and environmental conditions influence on children's outdoor play experiences?''' == [[File:2026-10-03 214531-relationship between child and environment.png|thumb|284x284px|'''Figure 5.''' Children's opportunities for outdoor play can be different according to personal, interacting and environmental factors and the relationship between the child and the environment. Note. Original conceptual summary is based on Beekhuizen et al. (2025) and Gibson (1979).]] Outdoor play opportunities depend on social and physical environments. Children may have access to same outdoor space but may not have same opportunities for play. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified personal, interacting and environmental factors that could support or restrict inclusive outdoor play. These difference can be considered through [https://w.wiki/VYfL affordance theory], which examines the opportunities for action through the relationship between an individual and the environment (Gibson, 1979). See Figure 5. === Affordance theory and outdoor play environments === [https://w.wiki/VYfL Affordance theory] was developed by Gibson (1979) to explain the opportunities for action that an environment provides in relation to the person using it. In outdoor play, the opportunities provided by a space can depend on its physical features and how a child is able to use those features. Morgenthaler et al. (2024) applied affordance theory to children's outdoor play and examined outdoor play transactions through environmental taxonomy of outdoor play space features. Their review identified 14 categories of spaces and 284 play opportunities linked to different environmental features. Morgenthaler et al. (2024) showed that different spaces and objects can afford different forms of play, which means two children using the same outdoor play space may not experience the same play opportunities. Therefore, the theory provides a way of understanding differences between children and their use of an outdoor environment. However this study examined the opportunities for play rather than children's well-being. Pereira et al. (2024) also examined features of outdoor play spaces in a systematic review of 51 articles representing 45 primary studies. The review examined features such as fixed structures, natural elements, floor markings, loose equipment and available play areas. Some positive effects were reported, but there was substantial heterogeneity between studies. The studies differed in the environmental features examined, outcomes measures, and study methods, which made difficult to draw a clear conclusions about the effect of individual play space features (Pereira et al., 2024).Therefore, the review does not show that one particular environmental feature improves children's [https://w.wiki/AHG6 emotional well-being]. '''Table 2''' ''Examples of environmental features and possible affordances'' {| class="wikitable" |+ !Environmental feature !Possible affordance for play |- |Fixed structures (e.g. climbing frame) |Can provide opportunity in different forms of physical activity. For example, climbing, physical play, risk-taking |- |Natural elements (e.g. tree, rocks, sand) |Environmental features can provide opportunities for exploratory play, imaginative play, sensory experiences |- |Floor markings (e.g. painted games) |Can support structured activities like rule based play, footy, tennis, etc. |- |Loose equipment (e.g. balls, tyre, boxes) |Movable environmental features that can be used during constructive play, imaginative play, creative problem solving play |- |Open play area |Running, group play, or flexible use |} Note. This table is an original synthesis based on environmental features described by Pereira et al. (2024) and affordance framework applied by Morgenthaler et al. (2024). Environmental features can afford more than one type of play and the opportunities may vary between children. {| class="wikitable" | valign="top" |'''Case study: Part 4 Same space, different opportunities''' Kim and Leo are both at the same school playground during recess. The playground has a climbing structure, a sand pit area and open natural space. * Kim quickly joins a group of children using a climbing frame. The climbing frame structure provides opportunities for physical play and social interactions. * Leo uses a sand pit with other child. He plays with loose materials and creates a sand castle and other different structures. The environment gives him an opportunity for imaginative play and social play. These examples show how the same outdoor space can afford different forms of play for different children, depending on their interests, skills and social context. {{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}} <quiz display=simple> {Which statement best applies affordance theory to the example?. |type="()"} -A. The playground causes children to be more physically active. +B. The same playground can provide different opportunities for play depending on the child and how they use the environment. -C. Climbing structures always lead to better emotional well-being. -D. Open spaces are only useful for social play. </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} |} === '''Social relationship and inclusion''' === Social relationships can shape whether children are able to join and continue outdoor play (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified making contact and growing up together as interacting factors in inclusive outdoor play. Familiarity with other children could make it easier to approach, communicate and play together, while joining unfamiliar children or existing game could be difficult. [https://w.wiki/WDsJ Affective social competence (ASC)] provides a psychological framework for understanding these social interactions (Halberstadt et al., 2001). The ASC model involves experiencing, sending and receiving affect, together with awareness, identification, working within the social context and regulation. These processes may be relevant when a child tries to enter a peer group, recognise other children's emotions and manage their own response during play. Gal-Szabo et al. (2018) used the ASC model as theoretical foundation when examining children's emotional knowledge and social behaviour during preschool free play. The study found that situational understanding of the emotions was negatively related to uninvolved behaviour and was marginally positively related to more social play. However, the study examined preschool free play rather than specific outdoor play. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) also found that children with disabilities experienced more barriers related to making contact, adapting play and physical play environment. These findings suggest that participation in outdoor play depends on both social interaction and children's ability to respond within the play situation, but they do not establish that social play causes better emotional well-being (Beekhuizen et al., 2025; Gal-Szabo et al., 2018). === '''Autonomy, parents and time''' === [https://w.wiki/4NyU Autonomy] can shape how children experience outdoor play (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified autonomy as a personal factor in inclusive outdoor play. Some children valued having independence over what they do and who they play with. Some children with disabilities wanted opportunities to play outside independently without direct parental involvement. Autonomy during play may also have an emotional function. Veraksa et al. (2025), in a systematic review of non-therapeutic play, identified autonomy as one feature through which play may support emotional regulation and coping. However, the review examined several forms of play and does not show that autonomy during outdoor play specially improves children's emotional well-being. Parental support can also make outdoor play possible. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) found that parental involvement could support children's participation when a child needed help to access or participate in outdoor play. Time constraints also affected opportunities for outdoor play. Some children had less time to play outdoors because of parents' work schedule, after school arrangements or longer travel distance between home and school (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). These constraints could limit opportunities for outdoor play even when children wanted greater independence. === '''Outdoor environments and accessibility''' === Outdoor play environments can support or restrict children's participation (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified both physical and social features of outdoor environments as relevant to inclusive play. Children discussed safety, including traffic near playgrounds and disputes with other children. Accessibility was particularly important for children with disabilities because opportunities for inclusive outdoor play could be affected by play environments and physical abilities. Pereira et al. (2024) also showed that heterogeneity between studies limited clear conclusions about the effects of individual outdoor play space features.. Gibson et al. (2017) systematically reviewed five studies of loose-parts play (LPP) interventions with primary school aged children. The review found limited quantitative evidence to determine whether loose-parts interventions affected children's cognitive, social or emotional development. Together, these findings show that features of outdoor environments can support or restrict opportunities for play. However, current evidence does not establish that a particular environmental feature that improves children's emotional well-being (Beekhuizen et al., 2025; Gibson et al., 2017; Pereira et al., 2024). {| class="wikitable" | valign="top" |'''Case study: Part 5 Same play space, different experiences''' {| class="wikitable" |Kim and Leo use the same school playground. Kim already knows many children and easily joins a group activity. Leo uses a mobility device and finds that some areas of the playground are difficult to access. Leo also does not know many children who are already playing. He prefers to play independently when possible. |} The two children have access to the same playground space, but their opportunities to participate are different. There experiences are shaped by more than the physical space alone. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) also identified making contact, familiarity, autonomy and accessibility as factors that could support or restrict inclusive outdoor play. Physical accessibility may affect whether a child can use part of playground, while familiarity with other children may affect whether the child can enter social play. Parental support may also help participation in some situations, while the child may still value greater independence {{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}} <quiz display=simple> {Why might two children have different outdoor-play experiences even they use the same playground?. |type="()"} +A. Physical, social and personal factors can affect how children are able to participate. -B. Outdoor spaces provide the same opportunities for every child. -C. Accessibility is the only factor that affects outdoor play.. -D. Children who know other children always have better emotional well-being. </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} |} == '''What does recent research show about outdoor play and children's emotional well-being?''' == Recent research does not show a consistent association between outdoor play and children's emotional well-being. The findings are mixed across different emotional outcomes measured, the timing and context of outdoor play, children's behaviours, and the methods used to measure outdoor play. These differences are significant when interpreting whether outdoor play is associated with better emotional well-being. The recent studies shows this variation. More frequent outdoor play has been associated with better social-emotional competence (Ferguson et al., 2025) while association with emotional dysregulation differed according to the timing and context of outdoor play (Lee et al., 2025). Positive affect was also higher after outdoor play and and gymnasium recess than after classroom recess, but no significant differences in negative affect between settings (Poulos et al.,2026). Longer-term evidence also examines a different aspect of emotional functioning. More frequent outdoor play during the preschool years was associated with a greater likelihood of following a low and stable trajectory of internalising and externalising symptoms through childhood (Dodd et al., 2026). However, the studies differ in children's ages, research designs, measures of outdoor play and emotional outcomes. Therefore, the evidence should not be interpreted as showing one consistent effect across all children or forms of emotional well-being. === '''Consistency of recent research findings''' === Recent findings are not consistent across all emotional and developmental outcomes. Ferguson et al. (2025) found that more frequent outdoor play was associated with better social-emotional competence, including lower difficulties and greater [[Prosocial Behaviour|prosocial behaviour]]. In contrast, Davenport et al. (2025) found that most associations between outdoor play and the physical, [[Cognitive psychology|cognitive]] and social-emotional developmental indicators examined were not statistically significant. These differences show that positive association with outdoor play are not found across all developmental outcomes. Findings can also differ according to the emotional outcome being measured. Poulos et al. (2026) found higher positive affect after outdoor and gymnasium recess than after classroom recess, but no significant differences in negative affect between the three recess settings. Lee et al. (2025) found that more afternoon outdoor play was associated with lower emotional dysregulation, while more outdoor play earlier and later in the day was associated with higher emotional dysregulation. These findings suggest that the association can differ according to both the emotional outcome and the timing of outdoor play. The time period being examined also differs between studies. Dodd et al. (2026) found that more frequent outdoor play during the preschool years was associated with lower odds of belonging to less favourable internalising and externalising symptom trajectory across childhood. This is different from Poulos et al. (2026), who examined children's emotional states immediately after the recess. Therefore, recent research includes both immediate emotional outcomes and longer-term patterns of emotional functioning. Associations may vary across children and play contexts. Ferguson et al. (2025) reported differences according to ethnicity and whether outdoor play occurred on school days or weekends. Together, these findings suggest that the association between outdoor play and emotional well-being is not same across outcome.The studies differ in children's age, research designs, measures of outdoor play, and emotional outcomes. Thus, findings should not be treated as evidence of one single effect. === '''Strengths and limitations of current research''' === The strength of the evidence also differs according to research design. Dodd et al. (2026) used longitudinal data from 4,151 children and measured outdoor play during the preschool years at approximately 2, 3 and 4 years old, while internalising and externalising symptoms trajectories were measured later through to age 8. This strengthens the evidence about temporal ordering because outdoor play was measured before the later emotional outcomes. However, longitudinal evidence does not establish cause and effect, and the study relied on parent-reported measures. Causal interpretation is also limited in other studies. Lee et al. (2025) used observational data and considered the possibility of reverse causation when interpreting associations between the timing of outdoor play and emotional dysregulation. This means the findings cannot establish whether outdoor play influenced emotional dysregulation or whether children's emotional functioning influenced when they played outdoors. Measurement of outdoor play is another important consideration. Davenport et al. (2025) used both parent-reported and device-measured outdoor play and examined whether associations were independent of outdoor moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA). This is important because outdoor play and outdoor physical activity are related but should not be treated as interchangeable measures. However, the sample was relatively small (N=107) and most tested associations with developmental outcomes were not statistically significant. Limitations are also present across the wider outdoor-play literature. De Lannoy et al. (2023) identified 275 Canadian outdoor-play publications and found that cross-sectional designs were the most common. Mental and emotional development had also received less research attention than physical health and development. This suggests that the evidence base for emotional well-being is less developed than some other areas of outdoor-play research. T'''able 3''' '''''Comparison of recent research''''' {| class="wikitable" |+ !Study !Research method !Research strength !Limitation |- | <small>Lee et al. (2025)</small> |Observational; 6 month follow-up |Examined the timing of outdoor play and tested working memory as a statistical mediator of the association with emotional dysregulation. |Observational mediation cannot establish causation; the study also considered possible reverse causation when interpreting timing-related findings. |- |Ferguson et al. (2025) |Cross sectional; multi ethnic urban cohort (N=2,568) |Large sample allowed associations to be examined across population groups and school-day/weekend outdoor play. |Cross-sectional design cannot establish temporal direction; associations also differed across some groups and play contexts. |- |Davenport et al. (2025) |Observational; preschool sample (N=107) |Used both parent-reported and device-measured outdoor play and distinguished outdoor play from outdoor moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) |Small sample and most tested associations with developmental outcomes were not statistically significant. |- |Dodd et al. (2026) |Longitudinal cohort (N = 4,151) |Outdoor play was measured in the preschool years before later internalising and externalising symptom trajectories. |Outdoor play and symptoms relied on parent reported measures, and the observational design does not establish causations. |- |Poulos et al. (2026) |Recess comparison study (N=317) |Compared children's positive and negative affect following outdoor, gymnasium and classroom recess |Examined immediate affect during an extreme-heat context; higher positive affect was also found after gymnasium recess, so the result was not specific to outdoor recess. |} As shown in Table 3, the recent evidence has different methodological strengths and limitations. Longitudinal designs provide stronger evidence about temporal ordering than cross-sectional design studies, while device-based measures can address some limitations of parent report. However, much of the evidence remains observational, and differences in emotional outcomes, measures of outdoor play and play contexts limit the direct comparison between studies. Future research could benefit from more consistent measures of outdoor play, stronger longitudinal and experimental designs and greater attention to emotional outcomes across different children and play contexts. {| class="wikitable" | valign="top" |{{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}} <quiz display=simple> {Why should the recent findings not be interpreted as showing single consistent effect of outdoor play on children's emotional well-being? |type="()"} -A. Because all the studies used different countries. +B. Because studies differed in emotional outcomes, measures of outdoor play, timing, context and research design. -C. Because longitudinal studies are always more reliable and accurate. -D. Because outdoor play only affects positive outcomes. </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} |} == '''How do families, communities and schools support outdoor play opportunities?''' == [[File:Coalition Builds New Playground in One Day for Chicora-Cherokee Community (11054532905).jpg|thumb|325x325px|Figure 5. Families, communities and school can shape children's opportunities for play.]] Outdoor play opportunities are shaped by children's social and physical environments. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified parents, outdoor play environments, communities and time constraints as environmental factors in inclusive outdoor play. The study also identified autonomy, growing up together, making contact and adapting ways of playing as factors that affected participation. The 2025 Position Statement on Active Outdoor Play recommends increasing opportunities for active outdoor play where people live, learn, work and play (Lee et al., 2025). It also recommends collaboration across sectors and settings to support equitable access. Together, these findings provide a broader context for considering the roles of families, communities and schools. These influences can operate across family, community and school settings (see Figure 5). === '''Families''' === Parents can influence whether children have opportunities to play outdoors. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified parents as an environmental factor in inclusive outdoor play. Children with disabilities described parents as important in encouraging participation. For some children, parents also helped to explain their disability to other children (Beekhuizen et al., 2025).   Broader research also identifies parental factors in children's outdoor play. A systematic review of 21 peer reviewed studies involving children aged 0 to 12 years found that the importance placed on outdoor play was associated with how much time children spent playing outdoors (Boxberger and Reimers, 2019). Evidence for parental encouragement and support was less consistent across children (Boxberger and Reimers, 2019). This suggests that family influence is not limited to direct encouragement. Parents' attitude towards outdoor play may shape children's opportunities to play outdoors. However, the review identified some associations but does not show that parental attitude caused greater outdoor play. Parental support can also involve allowing children to have some independence during outdoor play. Support can make participation possible, but it does not always require direct parental involvement (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). This is particularly relevant when children want more control over how and where they play. Research on independent mobility also shows that children and parents may differ in how much independence they prefer (Han et al., 2022). The study identified different patterns in children's and parents' preferences for independent mobility. These findings show that parental support and autonomy do not always involve the same level of parental involvement. Some children may need support to access or join outdoor play while also wanting greater independence. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) also recommended providing children and parents with knowledge about disabilities and possible adaptations that could support participation. Time constraints can also limit family-level opportunities for outdoor play. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) reported that some children had less time to play outdoors because of parents' work schedules, after-school arrangements and longer travel between home and school. This means that opportunities for outdoor play can be restricted even when children want to play and parents are supportive. === '''Communities''' === Community conditions can affect whether children have safe and inclusive opportunities for outdoor play. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) described physical and social safety as important for inclusive outdoor play. Some playground structures also made participation difficult for children with disabilities. A systematic review of 25 studies found that both physical and social neighbourhood factors were associated with children's outdoor play (Visser & van Aalst, 2022). Social factors included perceived safety, social cohesion and the presence of other children. However, the studies did not identify one neighbourhood feature that consistently explained children's outdoor play across all settings. The social environment may also affect whether children can join others. Children with disabilities described smaller communities, including villages and schools, as places where children and parents could become more familiar with disability. Greater familiarity was associated with greater acceptance and stronger connections with other children (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). Observational research also shows that physical access alone does not explain inclusive outdoor play. Beekhuizen et al. (2026) observed 63 children with and without disabilities during six inclusive outdoor-play sessions and found children with disabilities had lower playfulness scores than children without disabilities. Unfamiliarity could also restrict social inclusion because children preferred to play with peers they already knew. This means providing the same outdoor space does not necessarily provide the same opportunity to participate. The 2025 Position Statement on Active Outdoor Play recommends collaboration across sectors and settings to support equitable access to active outdoor play (Lee et al., 2025). The reviewed findings show why both physical and social conditions matter. Children need places that can be accessed, but familiarity, safety and opportunities to join others can also affect participation. However, the evidence does not show that one community feature alone will increase outdoor play or improve emotional well-being. === '''Schools''' === Schools can provide opportunities for children with and without disabilities to become more familiar with one another. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified growing up together and making contact as interacting factors in inclusive outdoor play. Children described familiarity with other children as making contact easier. School circumstances can also affect the time available for outdoor play. Some children attending special primary education described long travel times between school and home as reducing their opportunities to play outdoors. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified these experiences as part of time constraints. The physical school environment can also be changed to support outdoor activity and socio-emotional outcomes. Bikomeye et al. (2021) systematically reviewed six experimental studies of schoolyard greening. The interventions involved adding greenery and natural elements to schoolyards. Across the included studies, the review reported generally positive findings for physical activity and socio-emotional health. However, the review included only six studies. Schoolyard greening is also a specific intervention and should not be treated as evidence that all forms of outdoor play improve children's emotional well-being. Recess provides another school setting in which children's emotional experiences have been examined directly. Poulos et al. (2026) studied 317 Year 4 and 5 children during extreme heat. Positive affect was higher after outdoor and gymnasium recess than after classroom recess. There were no significant differences in negative affect between the three settings. Poulos et al. (2026) also identified implications for school health, policy and equity. The study discussed heat-adaptive infrastructure as one way to support access to recess environments during extreme heat. However, the findings do not show that outdoor recess is always better than indoor recess because positive affect was also higher after gymnasium recess. {{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Quiz}} <quiz display=simple> {Which statement best reflects how families, communities and school can support children's outdoor play opportunities? |type="()"} + Support can involve accessible environments, safety, familiarity, appropriate parental support and opportunities for children to participate with some independence. - Providing the same outdoor space gives every child the same opportunity to participate. -Schoolyard greening alone is enough to improve children's emotional well-being. -Outdoor recess always produces better emotional outcomes than indoor recess. </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} == '''Conclusion''' == Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being are not represented by single, consistent concepts across recent research. Outdoor play should be distinguished from outdoor physical activity, while emotional well-being has been examined through emotional dysregulation, social-emotional competence, positive and negative affect, and internalising and externalising symptoms. These differences are important because findings across studies do not represent the same emotional outcomes or time frames. Outdoor play may be related to children's emotional well-being through several psychological processes, but the strength of evidence differs across them. Gross's (2015) emotion regulation framework helps explain how children may respond to emotional situations during play, while working memory provides more direct evidence of a possible cognitive process in the association between afternoon outdoor play and lower emotional dysregulation (Lee et al., 2025). However, these findings do not establish that outdoor play causes better emotion regulation or emotional well-being. Recent research also does not show one consistent effect across all children, outcomes or play contexts. Some studies report associations with better social-emotional competence, lower-risk symptom trajectories or higher positive affect, while other findings are mixed or non-significant (Davenport et al., 2025; Dodd et al., 2026; Ferguson et al., 2025). Differences in research design, measurement, timing and context therefore need to be considered when interpreting the evidence. Children's opportunities for outdoor play are also shaped by their social and physical environments. Accessibility, familiarity, autonomy, parental support, safety and opportunities to join other children can influence whether the same outdoor space provides the same opportunity to participate. Families, communities and schools can therefore support outdoor play by considering both access to outdoor spaces and the conditions that allow children to participate in ways that suit their needs and circumstances. Overall, current research suggests that outdoor play is associated with some aspects of children's emotional well-being, but the relationship is more complex than simply spending more time outdoors. The relation between outdoor play and children's emotional well-being varies depending on how outdoor play is measured, timing, context and children's opportunities to participate. ==See also== {{ic|Use bullet points as shown in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]}} https://www-taylorfrancis-com.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/books/mono/10.4324/9781003349655/right-child-play-naomi-lott Book Chapter, 2 {{ic|Move to References and cite}} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotional_dysregulation<nowiki/>- Wikipedia article {{ic|Use an internal links as shown in Tutorial 2}} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autonomy<nowiki/>- Wikipedia article {{ic|Use an internal links as shown in Tutorial 2}} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Longitudinal_study<nowiki/>-Wikipedia article {{ic|Use an internal links as shown in Tutorial 2}} [[Cognitive psychology|https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Cognitive_psychology]]-Wikipedia article https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affordance<nowiki/>-Wikipedia article {{ic|Use an internal links as shown in Tutorial 2}} ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Beekhuizen, R. Q., Bolster, E. A. M., Gorter, J. W., Henry, N. L., Visser, K., Wittink, H., Kotte, E. M. W., Sol, M. E., & Bloemen, M. A. T. (2025). Play Together? Unveiling Facilitators and Barriers to Inclusive Outdoor Play for Dutch Children With and Without Disabilities: A Qualitative Study. Child: Care, Health & Development, 51(6), Article e70154. https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.70154 Biino, V., Pesce, C., & Martins, C. (2025). Motor Skill Development at Preschool Age in Girls and Boys: The Role of Outdoor Free Play. Children, 12(5), Article 594. https://doi.org/10.3390/children12050594 Davenport, C., Kuzik, N., Larouche, R., & Carson, V. (2025). The Associations Between Parental-Reported and Device-Based Measured Outdoor Play and Health Indicators of Physical, Cognitive, and Social–Emotional Development in Preschool-Aged Children. Pediatric Exercise Science, 37(2), 102–111. https://doi.org/10.1123/pes.2023-0119 de Lannoy, L., Barbeau, K., Seguin, N., & Tremblay, M. S. (2023). Scoping review of children’s and youth’s outdoor play publications in Canada. Chronic Diseases in Canada, 43(1), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.24095/hpcdp.43.1.01 Dodd, H. F., Cordwell, K., Hesketh, K., Johnstone, A., de la Torre-Luque, A., & McCrorie, P. (2026). Early outdoor play predicts trajectories of child mental health in a population-based cohort. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.70175 Ferguson, M., Teyhan, A., Lovell, R., Dodd, H., Wheeler, B., & McEachan, R. (2025). The association between park visits, outdoor play and child social-emotional competency in a multi-ethnic, urban cohort. Wellbeing, Space and Society, 9, Article 100293. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wss.2025.100293 Gibson, J.L., Cornell, M. & Gill, T. A Systematic Review of Research into the Impact of Loose Parts Play on Children’s Cognitive, Social and Emotional Development. School Mental Health 9, 295–309 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12310-017-9220-9 Gross, J. J. (2015). Emotion Regulation: Current Status and Future Prospects. Psychological Inquiry, 26(1), 1–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/1047840X.2014.940781 Lee, E.-Y., de Lannoy, L., Kim, Y.-B., Rathod, A., James, M. E., Lopes, O., Nasrallah, B., Thankarajah, A., Adjei-Boadi, D., de Barros, M. I. A., Duncan, S., Miller, R. M., Mygind, L., Vanderloo, L. M., Wang, P.-Y., & Tremblay, M. S. (2025). 2025 Position statement on active outdoor play. The International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 22(1), Article 117. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12966-025-01813-9 Lee, J. J., Flouri, E., & Jackson, Y. (2025). The Role of Timing and Amount of Outdoor Play in Emotional Dysregulation in Preschool Children. Child: Care, Health & Development, 51(1), Article e70020. https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.70020 Morgenthaler, T., Lynch, H., Loebach, J., Pentland, D., & Schulze, C. (2024). Using the Theory of Affordances to Understand Environment–Play Transactions: Environmental Taxonomy of Outdoor Play Space Features—A Scoping Review. The American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 78(4), Article 7804185120. https://doi.org/10.5014/ajot.2024.050606 Pereira, J. V., Vila-Nova, F., Veiga, G., Lopes, F., & Cordovil, R. (2024). Associations between outdoor play features and children’s behavior and health: A systematic review. Health & Place, 87, Article 103235. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healthplace.2024.103235 Poulos, A., Hassan, U. A., Wilson, K., Price, P. M., Vanos, J., & Quilla, J. (2026). Differences in Schoolchildren’s Emotional State After Indoor Versus Outdoor Recess in Extreme‐Heat Weather. The Journal of School Health, 96(4), Article e70135. https://doi.org/10.1111/josh.70135 }} ==External links== {{ic|Use bullet points as shown in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]}} https://www.child-encyclopedia.com/outdoor-play<nowiki/>-Encyclopedia in early childhood development https://www.outdoorplaycanada.ca/wp-content/uploads/2026/03/The-2025-AOP10-Position-Statement.pdf<nowiki/>-Position Statement https://www.who.int/news/item/24-04-2019-to-grow-up-healthy-children-need-to-sit-less-and-play-more<nowiki/>-World Health Organisation [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Children]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Nature]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Well-being]] 4mhcoe98sq9w5o2ugdl2hypetzkx9d3 2835689 2835681 2026-10-03T12:43:17Z Mymunu 3106327 /* How do social and environmental conditions influence on children's outdoor play experiences? */ 2835689 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being:<br>How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {| class="wikitable" |'''Case study: Part 1'''[[File:School children happily playing in playground.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. Children engaged in outdoor play, where social interactions, choice and control on the situation can create different emotional experiences.]]Imagine that... A child arrives at playground and joins a group of children who are already playing. The children are making their own game and deciding the rules as they play. At first, the child enjoys choosing where and what to play. During the game, another child changes the rules of the game and argument breaks out. The child becomes frustrated and walks away from the activity. After watching for a short time, the child returns, suggests a new idea to continue the game and re-joins the group. How might experiences like this during outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being? Emotional regulation provides one psychological framework for understanding how children may respond to situations like this during play (see figure 1). |} Outdoor play can involve more than physical movement. It can occur across playgrounds, gardens, streets and natural spaces. Outdoor play includes exploration, social interaction, choice, challenge, and engagement with the surrounding environment (Dodd et al., 2026; Pereira et al., 2024). As shown in the case study part 1, outdoor play can involve emotional situations such as [[Aggression|frustration]], disagreement, uncertainty or excitement. Gross's (2015) [[emotional regulation]] provides a [[psychological]] explanation for how children may recognise and respond to these emotional situations. Outdoor play experiences are also shaped by the environment where play takes place. Different physical and social environments can provide different opportunities for play, which means the same outdoor space may not provide the same opportunities for every child (Morgenthaler et al., 2024).This chapter examines how [[Emotional regulation|emotional,]] [[Cognitive psychology|cognitive]], social and environmental processes may help explain the relationship between outdoor play and children's [https://w.wiki/AHG6 emotional well-being.] {| class="wikitable" | ;[[File:Bulb Idea Flat Icon GIF Animation.gif|alt=Focus questions|left|99x99px|thumb]] '''Focus questions''' * '''What are outdoor play and children's emotional well-being?''' * '''How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being?''' * '''How do social and environmental conditions shape children's outdoor play experiences?''' * '''What does recent research show about outdoor play and children's emotional well-being?''' * '''How can families, communities and schools support outdoor play opportunities that may benefit children's emotional well-being?''' |} == '''Understanding outdoor play and children's emotional well-being''' == [[File:Water-outdoor-people-girl-play-boy-938233.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. ''Outdoor play can provide opportunities to explore, make choices, interact with others and respond to changing situations through activities such as water play.''|214x214px]] Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being are not measured as single and consistent concepts across recent research. Outdoor play may be examined as voluntary and intrinsically motivated activity, self directed play, parent reported outdoor play, or device-measured outdoor play (Binno et al., 2025; Davenport et al., 2025; Dodd et al., 2026). It should also be distinguished from outdoor moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) because these measures do not represent the same behaviour (Davenport et al., 2025). Children's emotional well-being is also examined through different outcomes, which include [https://w.wiki/7YC8 emotional dysregulation], social-emotional competence, positive and negative affect, and internalising or externalising symptoms (Dodd et al., 2026; Ferguson et al., 2025; Lee et al., 2025; Poulos et al., 2026). These differences need to be considered when findings across the studies are compared. === Outdoor play === Outdoor play is voluntary and and intrinsically motivated activity that occurs in outdoor environments such as gardens, playgrounds, parks and natural spaces (Dodd et al., 2026). Free play can be also self-directed, allowing children to interact freely with the environment and have [https://w.wiki/4NyU autonomy] to make choices about their activities (Biino et al., 2025). Outdoor play should not be treated as the same as outdoor physical activity. The recent research outdoor play and outdoor moderate- to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) were examined as separate measures (Davenport et al., 2025). This distinction is important because outdoor play intensity of physical activity do not represent the same behaviour. === Children's emotional well-being === Children's emotional well-being is not represented by a single common outcome across recent outdoor play research. Emotional dysregulation has been examined in relation to the amount and timing of outdoor play (Lee et al., 2025), while social-emotional competence includes social emotional difficulties and [[Prosocial behavior/Keywords/Definitions|prosocial behaviour]] (Ferguson et al., 2025). Other studies have examined positive and negative affect following recess (Poulos et al., 2026) and trajectories of internalising and externalising symptoms across childhood (Dodd et al., 2026). These outcomes represent different aspects and timeframes of emotional functioning, so they should not be treated as equivalent when findings are compared. '''Table 1''' ''Emotional outcomes examined in recent research on outdoor play and children's emotional well-being'' {| class="wikitable" |+ !Study !Outcome examined !What the outcome represents |- |Lee et al. (2025) |Emotional dysregulation |Difficulties in emotional regulation; examined in relation to the amount of timing of outdoor play |- |Ferguson et al. (2025) |Social-emotional competence |Social-emotional difficulties and prosocial behaviour |- |Poulos et al. (2026) |Positive and negative affect |Children's affect following recess across different settings |- |Dodd et al. (2026) |Internalising and externalising symptoms |Internalising: emotional symptoms and peer problems Externalising: conduct problems and hyperactivity- inattention |} Note. Outcome descriptions are based on the measures and constructs reported in the above cited studies. See Table 1. As shown in Table 1, the studies do not measure the same aspect or time frame of children's emotional functioning. Affect immediately following recess should not be treated as equivalent to emotional dysregulation measured over time or trajectories of internalising and externalising symptoms across childhood. This difference need to be considered when findings across studies are compared. '''Case study: part 2''' ''What is being measured?'' {| class="wikitable" | valign="top" |[[File:Children marbles.jpg|thumb|221x221px|'''Figure 3'''. ''Children's immediate emotional responses during outdoor play is different from long-term emotional functioning.'']]The child in the Case study: Part 1 becomes frustrated when the rules of the game change. This immediate emotional response is different from a longer-term pattern of emotional dysregulation or internalising symptoms. Research on outdoor play measures these outcomes across different time frames and contexts. When findings are compared, it is important to consider which aspect of emotional well-being is measured. {{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}} <quiz display=simple> {A child's positive or negative affect immediately after recess represents the same emotional outcome as longer-term internalising or externalising symptoms. |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} |} == '''How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being?''' == Outdoor play may be related to children's emotional well-being through emotional, cognitive, and social processes (Dodd et al., 2026). Possible pathways discussed in the recent research include cognitive, social and emotional skills, social interaction, physical activity, connection with the nature and adventurous play (Dodd et al., 2026). However, these pathways have not all been directly tested as mechanisms, and many of the outdoor play research remain observational (Dodd et al., 2026; de Lannoy et al., 2023). Psychological theory can help to explain how and why outdoor play experiences may influence children's emotional well-being. Although the evidence does not yet show that psychological processes cause the relationship between outdoor play and children's emotional well-being. Emotion involves more than subjective feelings. Scherer (2005) described emotion as coordinated changes across cognitive appraisal, physiological responses, action tendencies, expression and subjective feelings. Therefore, physiological responses are one component of an emotional response rather than a separate explanation for the effects of outdoor play. Scherer (2005) did not examine outdoor play, so this framework does not provide evidence that outdoor play changes children's physiological responses or emotional well-being. === '''Emotion regulation''' === Emotion regulation provides a psychological framework for understanding how children may manage emotional situations during outdoor play. Gross (2015) described emotion regulation as a process involving identification, selection and implementation. Identification concerns deciding whether to regulate an emotion, selection concerns selecting regulation strategy and implementation concerns applying chosen response into practice. Gross (2015) also described situation selection, situation modification, attentional deployment cognitive change and response modulation. During outdoor play, children may experience frustration, conflict, disagreement, uncertainty or changes to their activity. Gross's framework can be applied to these situations to consider how the children recognise an emotional response, choose strategies to manage and act on chosen strategies. However, Gross (2015) did not examine outdoor play, so applying the framework does not show that outdoor play improves children's emotion regulation. Broader research on children's play has also examined emotional functioning. Veraksa et al. (2025) systematically reviewed 33 studies on non-therapeutic play among children aged 3 to 7 and identified evidence involving emotional regulation, emotional intelligence, and negative emotional symptoms. The review included outdoor play alongside several other forms of play, so its findings should not be interpreted as evidence that outdoor play alone improves emotion regulation. {| class="wikitable" | valign="top" |'''Case study: Part 3'''[[File:14Y Ncdc july 5th-802.jpg|thumb|202x202px|'''Figure 4'''. ''Children can respond differently to emotional situations that occur during outdoor play.'']]When the rules of game change, the child becomes frustrated and decides to step away. After a short time the child returns and suggests a different way to continue the game (see Figure 4). Suggesting a change to the game can be considered an example of situation modification. This shows how Gross's emotion regulation framework can be applied to an emotional situation during outdoor play. {{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}} <quiz display=simple> {What does Gross (2015) emotion regulation framework show when it is applied to the outdoor-play scenario?. |type="()"} -A. Outdoor play causes better emotion regulation. +B. Situation modification can help explain how the child responds to the situation. -C. Children regulate emotions better outdoors than indoors. -D. Stepping away from play always improves emotional well-being. </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} |} === '''Working memory and cognitive process''' === Working memory can be one cognitive process involved in the association between outdoor play and emotional dysregulation. Lee et al. (2025) examined 325 preschool children and tested working memory as a statistical mediator. Outdoor play was examined across three periods of the day; wake up to noon, noon to 6 pm, and 6 pm to bedtime. The findings differed according to the timing of outdoor play. More outdoor play between noon and 6 pm was associated with lower emotional dysregulation. In contrast, more outdoor play before noon and after 6 pm was associated with higher emotional dysregulation. Afternoon outdoor play was also associated with better working memory, and better working memory was associated with lower emotional dysregulation. When working memory was included in the analysis, the association between afternoon outdoor play and emotional dysregulation was no longer statistically significant. Lee et al. (2025) reported this as full mediation. This suggests that working memory may be involved in the association between afternoon outdoor play and lower emotional dysregulation. However, the study was observational, so the mediation analysis does not show that outdoor play caused better working memory or lower emotional dysregulation. Johnstone et al. (2022) reviewed 36 studies of nature-based [[early childhood education]]. The review found very low certainty evidence for some social, emotional, and cognitive outcomes, including [[self-regulation]], while findings for attention were inconsistent. Although, the review examined nature-based early childhood education rather than outdoor play. Therefore, it does not show that working memory explains the association between outdoor play and children's [https://w.wiki/AHG6 emotional well-being]. Table 2 ''Psychological processes considered in the relationship between outdoor play and children's emotional well-being'' {| class="wikitable" !Process !Contribution !Evidence considered in this chapter !Limitations |- |Emotion components |Emotion involves cognitive appraisal, physiological responses, action tendencies, expression and subjective feelings (Scherer, 2005) |This provides a broader psychological understanding of emotional responses |Scherer (2005) did not examine outdoor play, so it does not show that outdoor play changes children's physiological responses or emotional well-being. |- |Emotion regulation |Gross's (2015) framework can be applied to emotional situations during outdoor play, including frustration, disagreement and changes to an activity. |The framework helps explain how children may recognise an emotional response, choose a strategy and act on that strategy. |Gross (2015) did not examine outdoor play, so applying the framework does not show that outdoor play improves emotion regulation. |- |Working memory |Lee et al. (2025) examined working memory as a statistical mediator between outdoor play and emotional dysregulation. |Afternoon outdoor play was associated with better working memory, and better working memory was associated with lower emotional dysregulation. |The study was observational, so the mediation analysis does not show that outdoor play caused better working memory or lower emotional dysregulation. |- |Play and emotional functioning |Veraksa et al. (2025) reviewed 33 studies of non-therapeutic play involving emotional regulation, emotional intelligence and negative emotional symptoms. |The review provides broader evidence linking play with emotional functioning. |The review included several forms of play, so it should not be interpreted as evidence that outdoor play alone improves emotion regulation. |- |Nature-based early childhood education |Johnstone et al. (2022) reviewed 36 studies and reported very low certainty evidence for some social, emotional and cognitive outcomes, including self-regulation. |The review provides broader evidence about cognitive and emotional outcomes in nature-based education. |Nature-based early childhood education is not the same as outdoor play and does not show that working memory explains the association between outdoor play and emotional well-being. |} Note. The sources discussed above provide different types of evidence. Some provide psychological frameworks, while other provide direct outdoor-play research and broader evidence about outdoor play and children's emotional well-being. == '''How do social and environmental conditions influence on children's outdoor play experiences?''' == [[File:2026-10-03 214531-relationship between child and environment.png|thumb|284x284px|'''Figure 5.''' Children's opportunities for outdoor play can be different according to personal, interacting and environmental factors and the relationship between the child and the environment. Note. Original conceptual summary is based on Beekhuizen et al. (2025) and Gibson (1979).]] Outdoor play opportunities depend on social and physical environments. Children may have access to same outdoor space but may not have same opportunities for play. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified personal, interacting and environmental factors that could support or restrict inclusive outdoor play. These difference can be considered through [https://w.wiki/VYfL affordance theory], which examines the opportunities for action through the relationship between an individual and the environment (Gibson, 1979). See Figure 5. === Affordance theory and outdoor play environments === [https://w.wiki/VYfL Affordance theory] was developed by Gibson (1979) to explain the opportunities for action that an environment provides in relation to the person using it. In outdoor play, the opportunities provided by a space can depend on its physical features and how a child is able to use those features. Morgenthaler et al. (2024) applied affordance theory to children's outdoor play and examined outdoor play transactions through environmental taxonomy of outdoor play space features. Their review identified 14 categories of spaces and 284 play opportunities linked to different environmental features. Morgenthaler et al. (2024) showed that different spaces and objects can afford different forms of play, which means two children using the same outdoor play space may not experience the same play opportunities. Therefore, the theory provides a way of understanding differences between children and their use of an outdoor environment. However this study examined the opportunities for play rather than children's well-being. Pereira et al. (2024) also examined features of outdoor play spaces in a systematic review of 51 articles representing 45 primary studies. The review examined features such as fixed structures, natural elements, floor markings, loose equipment and available play areas. Some positive effects were reported, but there was substantial heterogeneity between studies. The studies differed in the environmental features examined, outcomes measures, and study methods, which made difficult to draw a clear conclusions about the effect of individual play space features (Pereira et al., 2024).Therefore, the review does not show that one particular environmental feature improves children's [https://w.wiki/AHG6 emotional well-being]. '''Table 2''' ''Examples of environmental features and possible affordances'' {| class="wikitable" |+ !Environmental feature !Possible affordance for play |- |Fixed structures (e.g. climbing frame) |Can provide opportunity in different forms of physical activity. For example, climbing, physical play, risk-taking |- |Natural elements (e.g. tree, rocks, sand) |Environmental features can provide opportunities for exploratory play, imaginative play, sensory experiences |- |Floor markings (e.g. painted games) |Can support structured activities like rule based play, footy, tennis, etc. |- |Loose equipment (e.g. balls, tyre, boxes) |Movable environmental features that can be used during constructive play, imaginative play, creative problem solving play |- |Open play area |Running, group play, or flexible use |} Note. This table is an original synthesis based on environmental features described by Pereira et al. (2024) and affordance framework applied by Morgenthaler et al. (2024). Environmental features can afford more than one type of play and the opportunities may vary between children. {| class="wikitable" | valign="top" |'''Case study: Part 4 Same space, different opportunities''' Kim and Leo are both at the same school playground during recess. The playground has a climbing structure, a sand pit area and open natural space. * Kim quickly joins a group of children using a climbing frame. The climbing frame structure provides opportunities for physical play and social interactions. * Leo uses a sand pit with other child. He plays with loose materials and creates a sand castle and other different structures. The environment gives him an opportunity for imaginative play and social play. These examples show how the same outdoor space can afford different forms of play for different children, depending on their interests, skills and social context. {{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}} <quiz display=simple> {Which statement best applies affordance theory to the example?. |type="()"} -A. The playground causes children to be more physically active. +B. The same playground can provide different opportunities for play depending on the child and how they use the environment. -C. Climbing structures always lead to better emotional well-being. -D. Open spaces are only useful for social play. </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} |} === '''Social relationship and inclusion''' === Social relationships can shape whether children are able to join and continue outdoor play (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified making contact and growing up together as interacting factors in inclusive outdoor play. Familiarity with other children could make it easier to approach, communicate and play together, while joining unfamiliar children or existing game could be difficult. [https://w.wiki/WDsJ Affective social competence (ASC)] provides a psychological framework for understanding these social interactions (Halberstadt et al., 2001). The ASC model involves experiencing, sending and receiving affect, together with awareness, identification, working within the social context and regulation. These processes may be relevant when a child tries to enter a peer group, recognise other children's emotions and manage their own response during play. Gal-Szabo et al. (2018) used the ASC model as theoretical foundation when examining children's emotional knowledge and social behaviour during preschool free play. The study found that situational understanding of the emotions was negatively related to uninvolved behaviour and was marginally positively related to more social play. However, the study examined preschool free play rather than specific outdoor play. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) also found that children with disabilities experienced more barriers related to making contact, adapting play and physical play environment. These findings suggest that participation in outdoor play depends on both social interaction and children's ability to respond within the play situation, but they do not establish that social play causes better emotional well-being (Beekhuizen et al., 2025; Gal-Szabo et al., 2018). === '''Autonomy, parents and time''' === [https://w.wiki/4NyU Autonomy] can shape how children experience outdoor play (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified autonomy as a personal factor in inclusive outdoor play. Some children valued having independence over what they do and who they play with. Some children with disabilities wanted opportunities to play outside independently without direct parental involvement. Autonomy during play may also have an emotional function. Veraksa et al. (2025), in a systematic review of non-therapeutic play, identified autonomy as one feature through which play may support emotional regulation and coping. However, the review examined several forms of play and does not show that autonomy during outdoor play specially improves children's emotional well-being. Parental support can also make outdoor play possible. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) found that parental involvement could support children's participation when a child needed help to access or participate in outdoor play. Time constraints also affected opportunities for outdoor play. Some children had less time to play outdoors because of parents' work schedule, after school arrangements or longer travel distance between home and school (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). These constraints could limit opportunities for outdoor play even when children wanted greater independence. === '''Outdoor environments and accessibility''' === Outdoor play environments can support or restrict children's participation (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified both physical and social features of outdoor environments as relevant to inclusive play. Children discussed safety, including traffic near playgrounds and disputes with other children. Accessibility was particularly important for children with disabilities because opportunities for inclusive outdoor play could be affected by play environments and physical abilities. Pereira et al. (2024) also showed that heterogeneity between studies limited clear conclusions about the effects of individual outdoor play space features.. Gibson et al. (2017) systematically reviewed five studies of loose-parts play (LPP) interventions with primary school aged children. The review found limited quantitative evidence to determine whether loose-parts interventions affected children's cognitive, social or emotional development. Together, these findings show that features of outdoor environments can support or restrict opportunities for play. However, current evidence does not establish that a particular environmental feature that improves children's emotional well-being (Beekhuizen et al., 2025; Gibson et al., 2017; Pereira et al., 2024). {| class="wikitable" | valign="top" |'''Case study: Part 5 Same play space, different experiences''' {| class="wikitable" |Kim and Leo use the same school playground. Kim already knows many children and easily joins a group activity. Leo uses a mobility device and finds that some areas of the playground are difficult to access. Leo also does not know many children who are already playing. He prefers to play independently when possible. |} The two children have access to the same playground space, but their opportunities to participate are different. There experiences are shaped by more than the physical space alone. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) also identified making contact, familiarity, autonomy and accessibility as factors that could support or restrict inclusive outdoor play. Physical accessibility may affect whether a child can use part of playground, while familiarity with other children may affect whether the child can enter social play. Parental support may also help participation in some situations, while the child may still value greater independence {{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}} <quiz display=simple> {Why might two children have different outdoor-play experiences even they use the same playground?. |type="()"} +A. Physical, social and personal factors can affect how children are able to participate. -B. Outdoor spaces provide the same opportunities for every child. -C. Accessibility is the only factor that affects outdoor play.. -D. Children who know other children always have better emotional well-being. </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} |} == '''What does recent research show about outdoor play and children's emotional well-being?''' == Recent research does not show a consistent association between outdoor play and children's emotional well-being. The findings are mixed across different emotional outcomes measured, the timing and context of outdoor play, children's behaviours, and the methods used to measure outdoor play. These differences are significant when interpreting whether outdoor play is associated with better emotional well-being. The recent studies shows this variation. More frequent outdoor play has been associated with better social-emotional competence (Ferguson et al., 2025) while association with emotional dysregulation differed according to the timing and context of outdoor play (Lee et al., 2025). Positive affect was also higher after outdoor play and and gymnasium recess than after classroom recess, but no significant differences in negative affect between settings (Poulos et al.,2026). Longer-term evidence also examines a different aspect of emotional functioning. More frequent outdoor play during the preschool years was associated with a greater likelihood of following a low and stable trajectory of internalising and externalising symptoms through childhood (Dodd et al., 2026). However, the studies differ in children's ages, research designs, measures of outdoor play and emotional outcomes. Therefore, the evidence should not be interpreted as showing one consistent effect across all children or forms of emotional well-being. === '''Consistency of recent research findings''' === Recent findings are not consistent across all emotional and developmental outcomes. Ferguson et al. (2025) found that more frequent outdoor play was associated with better social-emotional competence, including lower difficulties and greater [[Prosocial Behaviour|prosocial behaviour]]. In contrast, Davenport et al. (2025) found that most associations between outdoor play and the physical, [[Cognitive psychology|cognitive]] and social-emotional developmental indicators examined were not statistically significant. These differences show that positive association with outdoor play are not found across all developmental outcomes. Findings can also differ according to the emotional outcome being measured. Poulos et al. (2026) found higher positive affect after outdoor and gymnasium recess than after classroom recess, but no significant differences in negative affect between the three recess settings. Lee et al. (2025) found that more afternoon outdoor play was associated with lower emotional dysregulation, while more outdoor play earlier and later in the day was associated with higher emotional dysregulation. These findings suggest that the association can differ according to both the emotional outcome and the timing of outdoor play. The time period being examined also differs between studies. Dodd et al. (2026) found that more frequent outdoor play during the preschool years was associated with lower odds of belonging to less favourable internalising and externalising symptom trajectory across childhood. This is different from Poulos et al. (2026), who examined children's emotional states immediately after the recess. Therefore, recent research includes both immediate emotional outcomes and longer-term patterns of emotional functioning. Associations may vary across children and play contexts. Ferguson et al. (2025) reported differences according to ethnicity and whether outdoor play occurred on school days or weekends. Together, these findings suggest that the association between outdoor play and emotional well-being is not same across outcome.The studies differ in children's age, research designs, measures of outdoor play, and emotional outcomes. Thus, findings should not be treated as evidence of one single effect. === '''Strengths and limitations of current research''' === The strength of the evidence also differs according to research design. Dodd et al. (2026) used longitudinal data from 4,151 children and measured outdoor play during the preschool years at approximately 2, 3 and 4 years old, while internalising and externalising symptoms trajectories were measured later through to age 8. This strengthens the evidence about temporal ordering because outdoor play was measured before the later emotional outcomes. However, longitudinal evidence does not establish cause and effect, and the study relied on parent-reported measures. Causal interpretation is also limited in other studies. Lee et al. (2025) used observational data and considered the possibility of reverse causation when interpreting associations between the timing of outdoor play and emotional dysregulation. This means the findings cannot establish whether outdoor play influenced emotional dysregulation or whether children's emotional functioning influenced when they played outdoors. Measurement of outdoor play is another important consideration. Davenport et al. (2025) used both parent-reported and device-measured outdoor play and examined whether associations were independent of outdoor moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA). This is important because outdoor play and outdoor physical activity are related but should not be treated as interchangeable measures. However, the sample was relatively small (N=107) and most tested associations with developmental outcomes were not statistically significant. Limitations are also present across the wider outdoor-play literature. De Lannoy et al. (2023) identified 275 Canadian outdoor-play publications and found that cross-sectional designs were the most common. Mental and emotional development had also received less research attention than physical health and development. This suggests that the evidence base for emotional well-being is less developed than some other areas of outdoor-play research. T'''able 3''' '''''Comparison of recent research''''' {| class="wikitable" |+ !Study !Research method !Research strength !Limitation |- | <small>Lee et al. (2025)</small> |Observational; 6 month follow-up |Examined the timing of outdoor play and tested working memory as a statistical mediator of the association with emotional dysregulation. |Observational mediation cannot establish causation; the study also considered possible reverse causation when interpreting timing-related findings. |- |Ferguson et al. (2025) |Cross sectional; multi ethnic urban cohort (N=2,568) |Large sample allowed associations to be examined across population groups and school-day/weekend outdoor play. |Cross-sectional design cannot establish temporal direction; associations also differed across some groups and play contexts. |- |Davenport et al. (2025) |Observational; preschool sample (N=107) |Used both parent-reported and device-measured outdoor play and distinguished outdoor play from outdoor moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) |Small sample and most tested associations with developmental outcomes were not statistically significant. |- |Dodd et al. (2026) |Longitudinal cohort (N = 4,151) |Outdoor play was measured in the preschool years before later internalising and externalising symptom trajectories. |Outdoor play and symptoms relied on parent reported measures, and the observational design does not establish causations. |- |Poulos et al. (2026) |Recess comparison study (N=317) |Compared children's positive and negative affect following outdoor, gymnasium and classroom recess |Examined immediate affect during an extreme-heat context; higher positive affect was also found after gymnasium recess, so the result was not specific to outdoor recess. |} As shown in Table 3, the recent evidence has different methodological strengths and limitations. Longitudinal designs provide stronger evidence about temporal ordering than cross-sectional design studies, while device-based measures can address some limitations of parent report. However, much of the evidence remains observational, and differences in emotional outcomes, measures of outdoor play and play contexts limit the direct comparison between studies. Future research could benefit from more consistent measures of outdoor play, stronger longitudinal and experimental designs and greater attention to emotional outcomes across different children and play contexts. {| class="wikitable" | valign="top" |{{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}} <quiz display=simple> {Why should the recent findings not be interpreted as showing single consistent effect of outdoor play on children's emotional well-being? |type="()"} -A. Because all the studies used different countries. +B. Because studies differed in emotional outcomes, measures of outdoor play, timing, context and research design. -C. Because longitudinal studies are always more reliable and accurate. -D. Because outdoor play only affects positive outcomes. </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} |} == '''How do families, communities and schools support outdoor play opportunities?''' == [[File:Coalition Builds New Playground in One Day for Chicora-Cherokee Community (11054532905).jpg|thumb|325x325px|Figure 5. Families, communities and school can shape children's opportunities for play.]] Outdoor play opportunities are shaped by children's social and physical environments. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified parents, outdoor play environments, communities and time constraints as environmental factors in inclusive outdoor play. The study also identified autonomy, growing up together, making contact and adapting ways of playing as factors that affected participation. The 2025 Position Statement on Active Outdoor Play recommends increasing opportunities for active outdoor play where people live, learn, work and play (Lee et al., 2025). It also recommends collaboration across sectors and settings to support equitable access. Together, these findings provide a broader context for considering the roles of families, communities and schools. These influences can operate across family, community and school settings (see Figure 5). === '''Families''' === Parents can influence whether children have opportunities to play outdoors. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified parents as an environmental factor in inclusive outdoor play. Children with disabilities described parents as important in encouraging participation. For some children, parents also helped to explain their disability to other children (Beekhuizen et al., 2025).   Broader research also identifies parental factors in children's outdoor play. A systematic review of 21 peer reviewed studies involving children aged 0 to 12 years found that the importance placed on outdoor play was associated with how much time children spent playing outdoors (Boxberger and Reimers, 2019). Evidence for parental encouragement and support was less consistent across children (Boxberger and Reimers, 2019). This suggests that family influence is not limited to direct encouragement. Parents' attitude towards outdoor play may shape children's opportunities to play outdoors. However, the review identified some associations but does not show that parental attitude caused greater outdoor play. Parental support can also involve allowing children to have some independence during outdoor play. Support can make participation possible, but it does not always require direct parental involvement (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). This is particularly relevant when children want more control over how and where they play. Research on independent mobility also shows that children and parents may differ in how much independence they prefer (Han et al., 2022). The study identified different patterns in children's and parents' preferences for independent mobility. These findings show that parental support and autonomy do not always involve the same level of parental involvement. Some children may need support to access or join outdoor play while also wanting greater independence. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) also recommended providing children and parents with knowledge about disabilities and possible adaptations that could support participation. Time constraints can also limit family-level opportunities for outdoor play. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) reported that some children had less time to play outdoors because of parents' work schedules, after-school arrangements and longer travel between home and school. This means that opportunities for outdoor play can be restricted even when children want to play and parents are supportive. === '''Communities''' === Community conditions can affect whether children have safe and inclusive opportunities for outdoor play. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) described physical and social safety as important for inclusive outdoor play. Some playground structures also made participation difficult for children with disabilities. A systematic review of 25 studies found that both physical and social neighbourhood factors were associated with children's outdoor play (Visser & van Aalst, 2022). Social factors included perceived safety, social cohesion and the presence of other children. However, the studies did not identify one neighbourhood feature that consistently explained children's outdoor play across all settings. The social environment may also affect whether children can join others. Children with disabilities described smaller communities, including villages and schools, as places where children and parents could become more familiar with disability. Greater familiarity was associated with greater acceptance and stronger connections with other children (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). Observational research also shows that physical access alone does not explain inclusive outdoor play. Beekhuizen et al. (2026) observed 63 children with and without disabilities during six inclusive outdoor-play sessions and found children with disabilities had lower playfulness scores than children without disabilities. Unfamiliarity could also restrict social inclusion because children preferred to play with peers they already knew. This means providing the same outdoor space does not necessarily provide the same opportunity to participate. The 2025 Position Statement on Active Outdoor Play recommends collaboration across sectors and settings to support equitable access to active outdoor play (Lee et al., 2025). The reviewed findings show why both physical and social conditions matter. Children need places that can be accessed, but familiarity, safety and opportunities to join others can also affect participation. However, the evidence does not show that one community feature alone will increase outdoor play or improve emotional well-being. === '''Schools''' === Schools can provide opportunities for children with and without disabilities to become more familiar with one another. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified growing up together and making contact as interacting factors in inclusive outdoor play. Children described familiarity with other children as making contact easier. School circumstances can also affect the time available for outdoor play. Some children attending special primary education described long travel times between school and home as reducing their opportunities to play outdoors. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified these experiences as part of time constraints. The physical school environment can also be changed to support outdoor activity and socio-emotional outcomes. Bikomeye et al. (2021) systematically reviewed six experimental studies of schoolyard greening. The interventions involved adding greenery and natural elements to schoolyards. Across the included studies, the review reported generally positive findings for physical activity and socio-emotional health. However, the review included only six studies. Schoolyard greening is also a specific intervention and should not be treated as evidence that all forms of outdoor play improve children's emotional well-being. Recess provides another school setting in which children's emotional experiences have been examined directly. Poulos et al. (2026) studied 317 Year 4 and 5 children during extreme heat. Positive affect was higher after outdoor and gymnasium recess than after classroom recess. There were no significant differences in negative affect between the three settings. Poulos et al. (2026) also identified implications for school health, policy and equity. The study discussed heat-adaptive infrastructure as one way to support access to recess environments during extreme heat. However, the findings do not show that outdoor recess is always better than indoor recess because positive affect was also higher after gymnasium recess. {{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Quiz}} <quiz display=simple> {Which statement best reflects how families, communities and school can support children's outdoor play opportunities? |type="()"} + Support can involve accessible environments, safety, familiarity, appropriate parental support and opportunities for children to participate with some independence. - Providing the same outdoor space gives every child the same opportunity to participate. -Schoolyard greening alone is enough to improve children's emotional well-being. -Outdoor recess always produces better emotional outcomes than indoor recess. </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} == '''Conclusion''' == Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being are not represented by single, consistent concepts across recent research. Outdoor play should be distinguished from outdoor physical activity, while emotional well-being has been examined through emotional dysregulation, social-emotional competence, positive and negative affect, and internalising and externalising symptoms. These differences are important because findings across studies do not represent the same emotional outcomes or time frames. Outdoor play may be related to children's emotional well-being through several psychological processes, but the strength of evidence differs across them. Gross's (2015) emotion regulation framework helps explain how children may respond to emotional situations during play, while working memory provides more direct evidence of a possible cognitive process in the association between afternoon outdoor play and lower emotional dysregulation (Lee et al., 2025). However, these findings do not establish that outdoor play causes better emotion regulation or emotional well-being. Recent research also does not show one consistent effect across all children, outcomes or play contexts. Some studies report associations with better social-emotional competence, lower-risk symptom trajectories or higher positive affect, while other findings are mixed or non-significant (Davenport et al., 2025; Dodd et al., 2026; Ferguson et al., 2025). Differences in research design, measurement, timing and context therefore need to be considered when interpreting the evidence. Children's opportunities for outdoor play are also shaped by their social and physical environments. Accessibility, familiarity, autonomy, parental support, safety and opportunities to join other children can influence whether the same outdoor space provides the same opportunity to participate. Families, communities and schools can therefore support outdoor play by considering both access to outdoor spaces and the conditions that allow children to participate in ways that suit their needs and circumstances. Overall, current research suggests that outdoor play is associated with some aspects of children's emotional well-being, but the relationship is more complex than simply spending more time outdoors. The relation between outdoor play and children's emotional well-being varies depending on how outdoor play is measured, timing, context and children's opportunities to participate. ==See also== {{ic|Use bullet points as shown in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]}} https://www-taylorfrancis-com.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/books/mono/10.4324/9781003349655/right-child-play-naomi-lott Book Chapter, 2 {{ic|Move to References and cite}} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotional_dysregulation<nowiki/>- Wikipedia article {{ic|Use an internal links as shown in Tutorial 2}} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autonomy<nowiki/>- Wikipedia article {{ic|Use an internal links as shown in Tutorial 2}} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Longitudinal_study<nowiki/>-Wikipedia article {{ic|Use an internal links as shown in Tutorial 2}} [[Cognitive psychology|https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Cognitive_psychology]]-Wikipedia article https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affordance<nowiki/>-Wikipedia article {{ic|Use an internal links as shown in Tutorial 2}} ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Beekhuizen, R. Q., Bolster, E. A. M., Gorter, J. W., Henry, N. L., Visser, K., Wittink, H., Kotte, E. M. W., Sol, M. E., & Bloemen, M. A. T. (2025). Play Together? Unveiling Facilitators and Barriers to Inclusive Outdoor Play for Dutch Children With and Without Disabilities: A Qualitative Study. Child: Care, Health & Development, 51(6), Article e70154. https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.70154 Biino, V., Pesce, C., & Martins, C. (2025). Motor Skill Development at Preschool Age in Girls and Boys: The Role of Outdoor Free Play. Children, 12(5), Article 594. https://doi.org/10.3390/children12050594 Davenport, C., Kuzik, N., Larouche, R., & Carson, V. (2025). The Associations Between Parental-Reported and Device-Based Measured Outdoor Play and Health Indicators of Physical, Cognitive, and Social–Emotional Development in Preschool-Aged Children. Pediatric Exercise Science, 37(2), 102–111. https://doi.org/10.1123/pes.2023-0119 de Lannoy, L., Barbeau, K., Seguin, N., & Tremblay, M. S. (2023). Scoping review of children’s and youth’s outdoor play publications in Canada. Chronic Diseases in Canada, 43(1), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.24095/hpcdp.43.1.01 Dodd, H. F., Cordwell, K., Hesketh, K., Johnstone, A., de la Torre-Luque, A., & McCrorie, P. (2026). Early outdoor play predicts trajectories of child mental health in a population-based cohort. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.70175 Ferguson, M., Teyhan, A., Lovell, R., Dodd, H., Wheeler, B., & McEachan, R. (2025). The association between park visits, outdoor play and child social-emotional competency in a multi-ethnic, urban cohort. Wellbeing, Space and Society, 9, Article 100293. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wss.2025.100293 Gibson, J.L., Cornell, M. & Gill, T. A Systematic Review of Research into the Impact of Loose Parts Play on Children’s Cognitive, Social and Emotional Development. School Mental Health 9, 295–309 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12310-017-9220-9 Gross, J. J. (2015). Emotion Regulation: Current Status and Future Prospects. Psychological Inquiry, 26(1), 1–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/1047840X.2014.940781 Lee, E.-Y., de Lannoy, L., Kim, Y.-B., Rathod, A., James, M. E., Lopes, O., Nasrallah, B., Thankarajah, A., Adjei-Boadi, D., de Barros, M. I. A., Duncan, S., Miller, R. M., Mygind, L., Vanderloo, L. M., Wang, P.-Y., & Tremblay, M. S. (2025). 2025 Position statement on active outdoor play. The International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 22(1), Article 117. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12966-025-01813-9 Lee, J. J., Flouri, E., & Jackson, Y. (2025). The Role of Timing and Amount of Outdoor Play in Emotional Dysregulation in Preschool Children. Child: Care, Health & Development, 51(1), Article e70020. https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.70020 Morgenthaler, T., Lynch, H., Loebach, J., Pentland, D., & Schulze, C. (2024). Using the Theory of Affordances to Understand Environment–Play Transactions: Environmental Taxonomy of Outdoor Play Space Features—A Scoping Review. The American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 78(4), Article 7804185120. https://doi.org/10.5014/ajot.2024.050606 Pereira, J. V., Vila-Nova, F., Veiga, G., Lopes, F., & Cordovil, R. (2024). Associations between outdoor play features and children’s behavior and health: A systematic review. Health & Place, 87, Article 103235. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healthplace.2024.103235 Poulos, A., Hassan, U. A., Wilson, K., Price, P. M., Vanos, J., & Quilla, J. (2026). Differences in Schoolchildren’s Emotional State After Indoor Versus Outdoor Recess in Extreme‐Heat Weather. The Journal of School Health, 96(4), Article e70135. https://doi.org/10.1111/josh.70135 }} ==External links== {{ic|Use bullet points as shown in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]}} https://www.child-encyclopedia.com/outdoor-play<nowiki/>-Encyclopedia in early childhood development https://www.outdoorplaycanada.ca/wp-content/uploads/2026/03/The-2025-AOP10-Position-Statement.pdf<nowiki/>-Position Statement https://www.who.int/news/item/24-04-2019-to-grow-up-healthy-children-need-to-sit-less-and-play-more<nowiki/>-World Health Organisation [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Children]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Nature]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Well-being]] rhjdx5ebnjfdthjy7vga7v93czdxf36 2835690 2835689 2026-10-03T12:43:45Z Mymunu 3106327 /* Working memory and cognitive process */ 2835690 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being:<br>How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {| class="wikitable" |'''Case study: Part 1'''[[File:School children happily playing in playground.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. Children engaged in outdoor play, where social interactions, choice and control on the situation can create different emotional experiences.]]Imagine that... A child arrives at playground and joins a group of children who are already playing. The children are making their own game and deciding the rules as they play. At first, the child enjoys choosing where and what to play. During the game, another child changes the rules of the game and argument breaks out. The child becomes frustrated and walks away from the activity. After watching for a short time, the child returns, suggests a new idea to continue the game and re-joins the group. How might experiences like this during outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being? Emotional regulation provides one psychological framework for understanding how children may respond to situations like this during play (see figure 1). |} Outdoor play can involve more than physical movement. It can occur across playgrounds, gardens, streets and natural spaces. Outdoor play includes exploration, social interaction, choice, challenge, and engagement with the surrounding environment (Dodd et al., 2026; Pereira et al., 2024). As shown in the case study part 1, outdoor play can involve emotional situations such as [[Aggression|frustration]], disagreement, uncertainty or excitement. Gross's (2015) [[emotional regulation]] provides a [[psychological]] explanation for how children may recognise and respond to these emotional situations. Outdoor play experiences are also shaped by the environment where play takes place. Different physical and social environments can provide different opportunities for play, which means the same outdoor space may not provide the same opportunities for every child (Morgenthaler et al., 2024).This chapter examines how [[Emotional regulation|emotional,]] [[Cognitive psychology|cognitive]], social and environmental processes may help explain the relationship between outdoor play and children's [https://w.wiki/AHG6 emotional well-being.] {| class="wikitable" | ;[[File:Bulb Idea Flat Icon GIF Animation.gif|alt=Focus questions|left|99x99px|thumb]] '''Focus questions''' * '''What are outdoor play and children's emotional well-being?''' * '''How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being?''' * '''How do social and environmental conditions shape children's outdoor play experiences?''' * '''What does recent research show about outdoor play and children's emotional well-being?''' * '''How can families, communities and schools support outdoor play opportunities that may benefit children's emotional well-being?''' |} == '''Understanding outdoor play and children's emotional well-being''' == [[File:Water-outdoor-people-girl-play-boy-938233.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. ''Outdoor play can provide opportunities to explore, make choices, interact with others and respond to changing situations through activities such as water play.''|214x214px]] Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being are not measured as single and consistent concepts across recent research. Outdoor play may be examined as voluntary and intrinsically motivated activity, self directed play, parent reported outdoor play, or device-measured outdoor play (Binno et al., 2025; Davenport et al., 2025; Dodd et al., 2026). It should also be distinguished from outdoor moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) because these measures do not represent the same behaviour (Davenport et al., 2025). Children's emotional well-being is also examined through different outcomes, which include [https://w.wiki/7YC8 emotional dysregulation], social-emotional competence, positive and negative affect, and internalising or externalising symptoms (Dodd et al., 2026; Ferguson et al., 2025; Lee et al., 2025; Poulos et al., 2026). These differences need to be considered when findings across the studies are compared. === Outdoor play === Outdoor play is voluntary and and intrinsically motivated activity that occurs in outdoor environments such as gardens, playgrounds, parks and natural spaces (Dodd et al., 2026). Free play can be also self-directed, allowing children to interact freely with the environment and have [https://w.wiki/4NyU autonomy] to make choices about their activities (Biino et al., 2025). Outdoor play should not be treated as the same as outdoor physical activity. The recent research outdoor play and outdoor moderate- to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) were examined as separate measures (Davenport et al., 2025). This distinction is important because outdoor play intensity of physical activity do not represent the same behaviour. === Children's emotional well-being === Children's emotional well-being is not represented by a single common outcome across recent outdoor play research. Emotional dysregulation has been examined in relation to the amount and timing of outdoor play (Lee et al., 2025), while social-emotional competence includes social emotional difficulties and [[Prosocial behavior/Keywords/Definitions|prosocial behaviour]] (Ferguson et al., 2025). Other studies have examined positive and negative affect following recess (Poulos et al., 2026) and trajectories of internalising and externalising symptoms across childhood (Dodd et al., 2026). These outcomes represent different aspects and timeframes of emotional functioning, so they should not be treated as equivalent when findings are compared. '''Table 1''' ''Emotional outcomes examined in recent research on outdoor play and children's emotional well-being'' {| class="wikitable" |+ !Study !Outcome examined !What the outcome represents |- |Lee et al. (2025) |Emotional dysregulation |Difficulties in emotional regulation; examined in relation to the amount of timing of outdoor play |- |Ferguson et al. (2025) |Social-emotional competence |Social-emotional difficulties and prosocial behaviour |- |Poulos et al. (2026) |Positive and negative affect |Children's affect following recess across different settings |- |Dodd et al. (2026) |Internalising and externalising symptoms |Internalising: emotional symptoms and peer problems Externalising: conduct problems and hyperactivity- inattention |} Note. Outcome descriptions are based on the measures and constructs reported in the above cited studies. See Table 1. As shown in Table 1, the studies do not measure the same aspect or time frame of children's emotional functioning. Affect immediately following recess should not be treated as equivalent to emotional dysregulation measured over time or trajectories of internalising and externalising symptoms across childhood. This difference need to be considered when findings across studies are compared. '''Case study: part 2''' ''What is being measured?'' {| class="wikitable" | valign="top" |[[File:Children marbles.jpg|thumb|221x221px|'''Figure 3'''. ''Children's immediate emotional responses during outdoor play is different from long-term emotional functioning.'']]The child in the Case study: Part 1 becomes frustrated when the rules of the game change. This immediate emotional response is different from a longer-term pattern of emotional dysregulation or internalising symptoms. Research on outdoor play measures these outcomes across different time frames and contexts. When findings are compared, it is important to consider which aspect of emotional well-being is measured. {{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}} <quiz display=simple> {A child's positive or negative affect immediately after recess represents the same emotional outcome as longer-term internalising or externalising symptoms. |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} |} == '''How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being?''' == Outdoor play may be related to children's emotional well-being through emotional, cognitive, and social processes (Dodd et al., 2026). Possible pathways discussed in the recent research include cognitive, social and emotional skills, social interaction, physical activity, connection with the nature and adventurous play (Dodd et al., 2026). However, these pathways have not all been directly tested as mechanisms, and many of the outdoor play research remain observational (Dodd et al., 2026; de Lannoy et al., 2023). Psychological theory can help to explain how and why outdoor play experiences may influence children's emotional well-being. Although the evidence does not yet show that psychological processes cause the relationship between outdoor play and children's emotional well-being. Emotion involves more than subjective feelings. Scherer (2005) described emotion as coordinated changes across cognitive appraisal, physiological responses, action tendencies, expression and subjective feelings. Therefore, physiological responses are one component of an emotional response rather than a separate explanation for the effects of outdoor play. Scherer (2005) did not examine outdoor play, so this framework does not provide evidence that outdoor play changes children's physiological responses or emotional well-being. === '''Emotion regulation''' === Emotion regulation provides a psychological framework for understanding how children may manage emotional situations during outdoor play. Gross (2015) described emotion regulation as a process involving identification, selection and implementation. Identification concerns deciding whether to regulate an emotion, selection concerns selecting regulation strategy and implementation concerns applying chosen response into practice. Gross (2015) also described situation selection, situation modification, attentional deployment cognitive change and response modulation. During outdoor play, children may experience frustration, conflict, disagreement, uncertainty or changes to their activity. Gross's framework can be applied to these situations to consider how the children recognise an emotional response, choose strategies to manage and act on chosen strategies. However, Gross (2015) did not examine outdoor play, so applying the framework does not show that outdoor play improves children's emotion regulation. Broader research on children's play has also examined emotional functioning. Veraksa et al. (2025) systematically reviewed 33 studies on non-therapeutic play among children aged 3 to 7 and identified evidence involving emotional regulation, emotional intelligence, and negative emotional symptoms. The review included outdoor play alongside several other forms of play, so its findings should not be interpreted as evidence that outdoor play alone improves emotion regulation. {| class="wikitable" | valign="top" |'''Case study: Part 3'''[[File:14Y Ncdc july 5th-802.jpg|thumb|202x202px|'''Figure 4'''. ''Children can respond differently to emotional situations that occur during outdoor play.'']]When the rules of game change, the child becomes frustrated and decides to step away. After a short time the child returns and suggests a different way to continue the game (see Figure 4). Suggesting a change to the game can be considered an example of situation modification. This shows how Gross's emotion regulation framework can be applied to an emotional situation during outdoor play. {{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}} <quiz display=simple> {What does Gross (2015) emotion regulation framework show when it is applied to the outdoor-play scenario?. |type="()"} -A. Outdoor play causes better emotion regulation. +B. Situation modification can help explain how the child responds to the situation. -C. Children regulate emotions better outdoors than indoors. -D. Stepping away from play always improves emotional well-being. </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} |} === '''Working memory and cognitive process''' === Working memory can be one cognitive process involved in the association between outdoor play and emotional dysregulation. Lee et al. (2025) examined 325 preschool children and tested working memory as a statistical mediator. Outdoor play was examined across three periods of the day; wake up to noon, noon to 6 pm, and 6 pm to bedtime. The findings differed according to the timing of outdoor play. More outdoor play between noon and 6 pm was associated with lower emotional dysregulation. In contrast, more outdoor play before noon and after 6 pm was associated with higher emotional dysregulation. Afternoon outdoor play was also associated with better working memory, and better working memory was associated with lower emotional dysregulation. When working memory was included in the analysis, the association between afternoon outdoor play and emotional dysregulation was no longer statistically significant. Lee et al. (2025) reported this as full mediation. This suggests that working memory may be involved in the association between afternoon outdoor play and lower emotional dysregulation. However, the study was observational, so the mediation analysis does not show that outdoor play caused better working memory or lower emotional dysregulation. Johnstone et al. (2022) reviewed 36 studies of nature-based [[early childhood education]]. The review found very low certainty evidence for some social, emotional, and cognitive outcomes, including [[self-regulation]], while findings for attention were inconsistent. Although, the review examined nature-based early childhood education rather than outdoor play. Therefore, it does not show that working memory explains the association between outdoor play and children's [https://w.wiki/AHG6 emotional well-being]. '''Table 2''' ''Psychological processes considered in the relationship between outdoor play and children's emotional well-being'' {| class="wikitable" !Process !Contribution !Evidence considered in this chapter !Limitations |- |Emotion components |Emotion involves cognitive appraisal, physiological responses, action tendencies, expression and subjective feelings (Scherer, 2005) |This provides a broader psychological understanding of emotional responses |Scherer (2005) did not examine outdoor play, so it does not show that outdoor play changes children's physiological responses or emotional well-being. |- |Emotion regulation |Gross's (2015) framework can be applied to emotional situations during outdoor play, including frustration, disagreement and changes to an activity. |The framework helps explain how children may recognise an emotional response, choose a strategy and act on that strategy. |Gross (2015) did not examine outdoor play, so applying the framework does not show that outdoor play improves emotion regulation. |- |Working memory |Lee et al. (2025) examined working memory as a statistical mediator between outdoor play and emotional dysregulation. |Afternoon outdoor play was associated with better working memory, and better working memory was associated with lower emotional dysregulation. |The study was observational, so the mediation analysis does not show that outdoor play caused better working memory or lower emotional dysregulation. |- |Play and emotional functioning |Veraksa et al. (2025) reviewed 33 studies of non-therapeutic play involving emotional regulation, emotional intelligence and negative emotional symptoms. |The review provides broader evidence linking play with emotional functioning. |The review included several forms of play, so it should not be interpreted as evidence that outdoor play alone improves emotion regulation. |- |Nature-based early childhood education |Johnstone et al. (2022) reviewed 36 studies and reported very low certainty evidence for some social, emotional and cognitive outcomes, including self-regulation. |The review provides broader evidence about cognitive and emotional outcomes in nature-based education. |Nature-based early childhood education is not the same as outdoor play and does not show that working memory explains the association between outdoor play and emotional well-being. |} Note. The sources discussed above provide different types of evidence. Some provide psychological frameworks, while other provide direct outdoor-play research and broader evidence about outdoor play and children's emotional well-being. == '''How do social and environmental conditions influence on children's outdoor play experiences?''' == [[File:2026-10-03 214531-relationship between child and environment.png|thumb|284x284px|'''Figure 5.''' Children's opportunities for outdoor play can be different according to personal, interacting and environmental factors and the relationship between the child and the environment. Note. Original conceptual summary is based on Beekhuizen et al. (2025) and Gibson (1979).]] Outdoor play opportunities depend on social and physical environments. Children may have access to same outdoor space but may not have same opportunities for play. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified personal, interacting and environmental factors that could support or restrict inclusive outdoor play. These difference can be considered through [https://w.wiki/VYfL affordance theory], which examines the opportunities for action through the relationship between an individual and the environment (Gibson, 1979). See Figure 5. === Affordance theory and outdoor play environments === [https://w.wiki/VYfL Affordance theory] was developed by Gibson (1979) to explain the opportunities for action that an environment provides in relation to the person using it. In outdoor play, the opportunities provided by a space can depend on its physical features and how a child is able to use those features. Morgenthaler et al. (2024) applied affordance theory to children's outdoor play and examined outdoor play transactions through environmental taxonomy of outdoor play space features. Their review identified 14 categories of spaces and 284 play opportunities linked to different environmental features. Morgenthaler et al. (2024) showed that different spaces and objects can afford different forms of play, which means two children using the same outdoor play space may not experience the same play opportunities. Therefore, the theory provides a way of understanding differences between children and their use of an outdoor environment. However this study examined the opportunities for play rather than children's well-being. Pereira et al. (2024) also examined features of outdoor play spaces in a systematic review of 51 articles representing 45 primary studies. The review examined features such as fixed structures, natural elements, floor markings, loose equipment and available play areas. Some positive effects were reported, but there was substantial heterogeneity between studies. The studies differed in the environmental features examined, outcomes measures, and study methods, which made difficult to draw a clear conclusions about the effect of individual play space features (Pereira et al., 2024).Therefore, the review does not show that one particular environmental feature improves children's [https://w.wiki/AHG6 emotional well-being]. '''Table 2''' ''Examples of environmental features and possible affordances'' {| class="wikitable" |+ !Environmental feature !Possible affordance for play |- |Fixed structures (e.g. climbing frame) |Can provide opportunity in different forms of physical activity. For example, climbing, physical play, risk-taking |- |Natural elements (e.g. tree, rocks, sand) |Environmental features can provide opportunities for exploratory play, imaginative play, sensory experiences |- |Floor markings (e.g. painted games) |Can support structured activities like rule based play, footy, tennis, etc. |- |Loose equipment (e.g. balls, tyre, boxes) |Movable environmental features that can be used during constructive play, imaginative play, creative problem solving play |- |Open play area |Running, group play, or flexible use |} Note. This table is an original synthesis based on environmental features described by Pereira et al. (2024) and affordance framework applied by Morgenthaler et al. (2024). Environmental features can afford more than one type of play and the opportunities may vary between children. {| class="wikitable" | valign="top" |'''Case study: Part 4 Same space, different opportunities''' Kim and Leo are both at the same school playground during recess. The playground has a climbing structure, a sand pit area and open natural space. * Kim quickly joins a group of children using a climbing frame. The climbing frame structure provides opportunities for physical play and social interactions. * Leo uses a sand pit with other child. He plays with loose materials and creates a sand castle and other different structures. The environment gives him an opportunity for imaginative play and social play. These examples show how the same outdoor space can afford different forms of play for different children, depending on their interests, skills and social context. {{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}} <quiz display=simple> {Which statement best applies affordance theory to the example?. |type="()"} -A. The playground causes children to be more physically active. +B. The same playground can provide different opportunities for play depending on the child and how they use the environment. -C. Climbing structures always lead to better emotional well-being. -D. Open spaces are only useful for social play. </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} |} === '''Social relationship and inclusion''' === Social relationships can shape whether children are able to join and continue outdoor play (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified making contact and growing up together as interacting factors in inclusive outdoor play. Familiarity with other children could make it easier to approach, communicate and play together, while joining unfamiliar children or existing game could be difficult. [https://w.wiki/WDsJ Affective social competence (ASC)] provides a psychological framework for understanding these social interactions (Halberstadt et al., 2001). The ASC model involves experiencing, sending and receiving affect, together with awareness, identification, working within the social context and regulation. These processes may be relevant when a child tries to enter a peer group, recognise other children's emotions and manage their own response during play. Gal-Szabo et al. (2018) used the ASC model as theoretical foundation when examining children's emotional knowledge and social behaviour during preschool free play. The study found that situational understanding of the emotions was negatively related to uninvolved behaviour and was marginally positively related to more social play. However, the study examined preschool free play rather than specific outdoor play. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) also found that children with disabilities experienced more barriers related to making contact, adapting play and physical play environment. These findings suggest that participation in outdoor play depends on both social interaction and children's ability to respond within the play situation, but they do not establish that social play causes better emotional well-being (Beekhuizen et al., 2025; Gal-Szabo et al., 2018). === '''Autonomy, parents and time''' === [https://w.wiki/4NyU Autonomy] can shape how children experience outdoor play (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified autonomy as a personal factor in inclusive outdoor play. Some children valued having independence over what they do and who they play with. Some children with disabilities wanted opportunities to play outside independently without direct parental involvement. Autonomy during play may also have an emotional function. Veraksa et al. (2025), in a systematic review of non-therapeutic play, identified autonomy as one feature through which play may support emotional regulation and coping. However, the review examined several forms of play and does not show that autonomy during outdoor play specially improves children's emotional well-being. Parental support can also make outdoor play possible. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) found that parental involvement could support children's participation when a child needed help to access or participate in outdoor play. Time constraints also affected opportunities for outdoor play. Some children had less time to play outdoors because of parents' work schedule, after school arrangements or longer travel distance between home and school (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). These constraints could limit opportunities for outdoor play even when children wanted greater independence. === '''Outdoor environments and accessibility''' === Outdoor play environments can support or restrict children's participation (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified both physical and social features of outdoor environments as relevant to inclusive play. Children discussed safety, including traffic near playgrounds and disputes with other children. Accessibility was particularly important for children with disabilities because opportunities for inclusive outdoor play could be affected by play environments and physical abilities. Pereira et al. (2024) also showed that heterogeneity between studies limited clear conclusions about the effects of individual outdoor play space features.. Gibson et al. (2017) systematically reviewed five studies of loose-parts play (LPP) interventions with primary school aged children. The review found limited quantitative evidence to determine whether loose-parts interventions affected children's cognitive, social or emotional development. Together, these findings show that features of outdoor environments can support or restrict opportunities for play. However, current evidence does not establish that a particular environmental feature that improves children's emotional well-being (Beekhuizen et al., 2025; Gibson et al., 2017; Pereira et al., 2024). {| class="wikitable" | valign="top" |'''Case study: Part 5 Same play space, different experiences''' {| class="wikitable" |Kim and Leo use the same school playground. Kim already knows many children and easily joins a group activity. Leo uses a mobility device and finds that some areas of the playground are difficult to access. Leo also does not know many children who are already playing. He prefers to play independently when possible. |} The two children have access to the same playground space, but their opportunities to participate are different. There experiences are shaped by more than the physical space alone. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) also identified making contact, familiarity, autonomy and accessibility as factors that could support or restrict inclusive outdoor play. Physical accessibility may affect whether a child can use part of playground, while familiarity with other children may affect whether the child can enter social play. Parental support may also help participation in some situations, while the child may still value greater independence {{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}} <quiz display=simple> {Why might two children have different outdoor-play experiences even they use the same playground?. |type="()"} +A. Physical, social and personal factors can affect how children are able to participate. -B. Outdoor spaces provide the same opportunities for every child. -C. Accessibility is the only factor that affects outdoor play.. -D. Children who know other children always have better emotional well-being. </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} |} == '''What does recent research show about outdoor play and children's emotional well-being?''' == Recent research does not show a consistent association between outdoor play and children's emotional well-being. The findings are mixed across different emotional outcomes measured, the timing and context of outdoor play, children's behaviours, and the methods used to measure outdoor play. These differences are significant when interpreting whether outdoor play is associated with better emotional well-being. The recent studies shows this variation. More frequent outdoor play has been associated with better social-emotional competence (Ferguson et al., 2025) while association with emotional dysregulation differed according to the timing and context of outdoor play (Lee et al., 2025). Positive affect was also higher after outdoor play and and gymnasium recess than after classroom recess, but no significant differences in negative affect between settings (Poulos et al.,2026). Longer-term evidence also examines a different aspect of emotional functioning. More frequent outdoor play during the preschool years was associated with a greater likelihood of following a low and stable trajectory of internalising and externalising symptoms through childhood (Dodd et al., 2026). However, the studies differ in children's ages, research designs, measures of outdoor play and emotional outcomes. Therefore, the evidence should not be interpreted as showing one consistent effect across all children or forms of emotional well-being. === '''Consistency of recent research findings''' === Recent findings are not consistent across all emotional and developmental outcomes. Ferguson et al. (2025) found that more frequent outdoor play was associated with better social-emotional competence, including lower difficulties and greater [[Prosocial Behaviour|prosocial behaviour]]. In contrast, Davenport et al. (2025) found that most associations between outdoor play and the physical, [[Cognitive psychology|cognitive]] and social-emotional developmental indicators examined were not statistically significant. These differences show that positive association with outdoor play are not found across all developmental outcomes. Findings can also differ according to the emotional outcome being measured. Poulos et al. (2026) found higher positive affect after outdoor and gymnasium recess than after classroom recess, but no significant differences in negative affect between the three recess settings. Lee et al. (2025) found that more afternoon outdoor play was associated with lower emotional dysregulation, while more outdoor play earlier and later in the day was associated with higher emotional dysregulation. These findings suggest that the association can differ according to both the emotional outcome and the timing of outdoor play. The time period being examined also differs between studies. Dodd et al. (2026) found that more frequent outdoor play during the preschool years was associated with lower odds of belonging to less favourable internalising and externalising symptom trajectory across childhood. This is different from Poulos et al. (2026), who examined children's emotional states immediately after the recess. Therefore, recent research includes both immediate emotional outcomes and longer-term patterns of emotional functioning. Associations may vary across children and play contexts. Ferguson et al. (2025) reported differences according to ethnicity and whether outdoor play occurred on school days or weekends. Together, these findings suggest that the association between outdoor play and emotional well-being is not same across outcome.The studies differ in children's age, research designs, measures of outdoor play, and emotional outcomes. Thus, findings should not be treated as evidence of one single effect. === '''Strengths and limitations of current research''' === The strength of the evidence also differs according to research design. Dodd et al. (2026) used longitudinal data from 4,151 children and measured outdoor play during the preschool years at approximately 2, 3 and 4 years old, while internalising and externalising symptoms trajectories were measured later through to age 8. This strengthens the evidence about temporal ordering because outdoor play was measured before the later emotional outcomes. However, longitudinal evidence does not establish cause and effect, and the study relied on parent-reported measures. Causal interpretation is also limited in other studies. Lee et al. (2025) used observational data and considered the possibility of reverse causation when interpreting associations between the timing of outdoor play and emotional dysregulation. This means the findings cannot establish whether outdoor play influenced emotional dysregulation or whether children's emotional functioning influenced when they played outdoors. Measurement of outdoor play is another important consideration. Davenport et al. (2025) used both parent-reported and device-measured outdoor play and examined whether associations were independent of outdoor moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA). This is important because outdoor play and outdoor physical activity are related but should not be treated as interchangeable measures. However, the sample was relatively small (N=107) and most tested associations with developmental outcomes were not statistically significant. Limitations are also present across the wider outdoor-play literature. De Lannoy et al. (2023) identified 275 Canadian outdoor-play publications and found that cross-sectional designs were the most common. Mental and emotional development had also received less research attention than physical health and development. This suggests that the evidence base for emotional well-being is less developed than some other areas of outdoor-play research. T'''able 3''' '''''Comparison of recent research''''' {| class="wikitable" |+ !Study !Research method !Research strength !Limitation |- | <small>Lee et al. (2025)</small> |Observational; 6 month follow-up |Examined the timing of outdoor play and tested working memory as a statistical mediator of the association with emotional dysregulation. |Observational mediation cannot establish causation; the study also considered possible reverse causation when interpreting timing-related findings. |- |Ferguson et al. (2025) |Cross sectional; multi ethnic urban cohort (N=2,568) |Large sample allowed associations to be examined across population groups and school-day/weekend outdoor play. |Cross-sectional design cannot establish temporal direction; associations also differed across some groups and play contexts. |- |Davenport et al. (2025) |Observational; preschool sample (N=107) |Used both parent-reported and device-measured outdoor play and distinguished outdoor play from outdoor moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) |Small sample and most tested associations with developmental outcomes were not statistically significant. |- |Dodd et al. (2026) |Longitudinal cohort (N = 4,151) |Outdoor play was measured in the preschool years before later internalising and externalising symptom trajectories. |Outdoor play and symptoms relied on parent reported measures, and the observational design does not establish causations. |- |Poulos et al. (2026) |Recess comparison study (N=317) |Compared children's positive and negative affect following outdoor, gymnasium and classroom recess |Examined immediate affect during an extreme-heat context; higher positive affect was also found after gymnasium recess, so the result was not specific to outdoor recess. |} As shown in Table 3, the recent evidence has different methodological strengths and limitations. Longitudinal designs provide stronger evidence about temporal ordering than cross-sectional design studies, while device-based measures can address some limitations of parent report. However, much of the evidence remains observational, and differences in emotional outcomes, measures of outdoor play and play contexts limit the direct comparison between studies. Future research could benefit from more consistent measures of outdoor play, stronger longitudinal and experimental designs and greater attention to emotional outcomes across different children and play contexts. {| class="wikitable" | valign="top" |{{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}} <quiz display=simple> {Why should the recent findings not be interpreted as showing single consistent effect of outdoor play on children's emotional well-being? |type="()"} -A. Because all the studies used different countries. +B. Because studies differed in emotional outcomes, measures of outdoor play, timing, context and research design. -C. Because longitudinal studies are always more reliable and accurate. -D. Because outdoor play only affects positive outcomes. </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} |} == '''How do families, communities and schools support outdoor play opportunities?''' == [[File:Coalition Builds New Playground in One Day for Chicora-Cherokee Community (11054532905).jpg|thumb|325x325px|Figure 5. Families, communities and school can shape children's opportunities for play.]] Outdoor play opportunities are shaped by children's social and physical environments. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified parents, outdoor play environments, communities and time constraints as environmental factors in inclusive outdoor play. The study also identified autonomy, growing up together, making contact and adapting ways of playing as factors that affected participation. The 2025 Position Statement on Active Outdoor Play recommends increasing opportunities for active outdoor play where people live, learn, work and play (Lee et al., 2025). It also recommends collaboration across sectors and settings to support equitable access. Together, these findings provide a broader context for considering the roles of families, communities and schools. These influences can operate across family, community and school settings (see Figure 5). === '''Families''' === Parents can influence whether children have opportunities to play outdoors. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified parents as an environmental factor in inclusive outdoor play. Children with disabilities described parents as important in encouraging participation. For some children, parents also helped to explain their disability to other children (Beekhuizen et al., 2025).   Broader research also identifies parental factors in children's outdoor play. A systematic review of 21 peer reviewed studies involving children aged 0 to 12 years found that the importance placed on outdoor play was associated with how much time children spent playing outdoors (Boxberger and Reimers, 2019). Evidence for parental encouragement and support was less consistent across children (Boxberger and Reimers, 2019). This suggests that family influence is not limited to direct encouragement. Parents' attitude towards outdoor play may shape children's opportunities to play outdoors. However, the review identified some associations but does not show that parental attitude caused greater outdoor play. Parental support can also involve allowing children to have some independence during outdoor play. Support can make participation possible, but it does not always require direct parental involvement (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). This is particularly relevant when children want more control over how and where they play. Research on independent mobility also shows that children and parents may differ in how much independence they prefer (Han et al., 2022). The study identified different patterns in children's and parents' preferences for independent mobility. These findings show that parental support and autonomy do not always involve the same level of parental involvement. Some children may need support to access or join outdoor play while also wanting greater independence. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) also recommended providing children and parents with knowledge about disabilities and possible adaptations that could support participation. Time constraints can also limit family-level opportunities for outdoor play. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) reported that some children had less time to play outdoors because of parents' work schedules, after-school arrangements and longer travel between home and school. This means that opportunities for outdoor play can be restricted even when children want to play and parents are supportive. === '''Communities''' === Community conditions can affect whether children have safe and inclusive opportunities for outdoor play. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) described physical and social safety as important for inclusive outdoor play. Some playground structures also made participation difficult for children with disabilities. A systematic review of 25 studies found that both physical and social neighbourhood factors were associated with children's outdoor play (Visser & van Aalst, 2022). Social factors included perceived safety, social cohesion and the presence of other children. However, the studies did not identify one neighbourhood feature that consistently explained children's outdoor play across all settings. The social environment may also affect whether children can join others. Children with disabilities described smaller communities, including villages and schools, as places where children and parents could become more familiar with disability. Greater familiarity was associated with greater acceptance and stronger connections with other children (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). Observational research also shows that physical access alone does not explain inclusive outdoor play. Beekhuizen et al. (2026) observed 63 children with and without disabilities during six inclusive outdoor-play sessions and found children with disabilities had lower playfulness scores than children without disabilities. Unfamiliarity could also restrict social inclusion because children preferred to play with peers they already knew. This means providing the same outdoor space does not necessarily provide the same opportunity to participate. The 2025 Position Statement on Active Outdoor Play recommends collaboration across sectors and settings to support equitable access to active outdoor play (Lee et al., 2025). The reviewed findings show why both physical and social conditions matter. Children need places that can be accessed, but familiarity, safety and opportunities to join others can also affect participation. However, the evidence does not show that one community feature alone will increase outdoor play or improve emotional well-being. === '''Schools''' === Schools can provide opportunities for children with and without disabilities to become more familiar with one another. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified growing up together and making contact as interacting factors in inclusive outdoor play. Children described familiarity with other children as making contact easier. School circumstances can also affect the time available for outdoor play. Some children attending special primary education described long travel times between school and home as reducing their opportunities to play outdoors. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified these experiences as part of time constraints. The physical school environment can also be changed to support outdoor activity and socio-emotional outcomes. Bikomeye et al. (2021) systematically reviewed six experimental studies of schoolyard greening. The interventions involved adding greenery and natural elements to schoolyards. Across the included studies, the review reported generally positive findings for physical activity and socio-emotional health. However, the review included only six studies. Schoolyard greening is also a specific intervention and should not be treated as evidence that all forms of outdoor play improve children's emotional well-being. Recess provides another school setting in which children's emotional experiences have been examined directly. Poulos et al. (2026) studied 317 Year 4 and 5 children during extreme heat. Positive affect was higher after outdoor and gymnasium recess than after classroom recess. There were no significant differences in negative affect between the three settings. Poulos et al. (2026) also identified implications for school health, policy and equity. The study discussed heat-adaptive infrastructure as one way to support access to recess environments during extreme heat. However, the findings do not show that outdoor recess is always better than indoor recess because positive affect was also higher after gymnasium recess. {{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Quiz}} <quiz display=simple> {Which statement best reflects how families, communities and school can support children's outdoor play opportunities? |type="()"} + Support can involve accessible environments, safety, familiarity, appropriate parental support and opportunities for children to participate with some independence. - Providing the same outdoor space gives every child the same opportunity to participate. -Schoolyard greening alone is enough to improve children's emotional well-being. -Outdoor recess always produces better emotional outcomes than indoor recess. </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} == '''Conclusion''' == Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being are not represented by single, consistent concepts across recent research. Outdoor play should be distinguished from outdoor physical activity, while emotional well-being has been examined through emotional dysregulation, social-emotional competence, positive and negative affect, and internalising and externalising symptoms. These differences are important because findings across studies do not represent the same emotional outcomes or time frames. Outdoor play may be related to children's emotional well-being through several psychological processes, but the strength of evidence differs across them. Gross's (2015) emotion regulation framework helps explain how children may respond to emotional situations during play, while working memory provides more direct evidence of a possible cognitive process in the association between afternoon outdoor play and lower emotional dysregulation (Lee et al., 2025). However, these findings do not establish that outdoor play causes better emotion regulation or emotional well-being. Recent research also does not show one consistent effect across all children, outcomes or play contexts. Some studies report associations with better social-emotional competence, lower-risk symptom trajectories or higher positive affect, while other findings are mixed or non-significant (Davenport et al., 2025; Dodd et al., 2026; Ferguson et al., 2025). Differences in research design, measurement, timing and context therefore need to be considered when interpreting the evidence. Children's opportunities for outdoor play are also shaped by their social and physical environments. Accessibility, familiarity, autonomy, parental support, safety and opportunities to join other children can influence whether the same outdoor space provides the same opportunity to participate. Families, communities and schools can therefore support outdoor play by considering both access to outdoor spaces and the conditions that allow children to participate in ways that suit their needs and circumstances. Overall, current research suggests that outdoor play is associated with some aspects of children's emotional well-being, but the relationship is more complex than simply spending more time outdoors. The relation between outdoor play and children's emotional well-being varies depending on how outdoor play is measured, timing, context and children's opportunities to participate. ==See also== {{ic|Use bullet points as shown in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]}} https://www-taylorfrancis-com.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/books/mono/10.4324/9781003349655/right-child-play-naomi-lott Book Chapter, 2 {{ic|Move to References and cite}} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotional_dysregulation<nowiki/>- Wikipedia article {{ic|Use an internal links as shown in Tutorial 2}} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autonomy<nowiki/>- Wikipedia article {{ic|Use an internal links as shown in Tutorial 2}} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Longitudinal_study<nowiki/>-Wikipedia article {{ic|Use an internal links as shown in Tutorial 2}} [[Cognitive psychology|https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Cognitive_psychology]]-Wikipedia article https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affordance<nowiki/>-Wikipedia article {{ic|Use an internal links as shown in Tutorial 2}} ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Beekhuizen, R. Q., Bolster, E. A. M., Gorter, J. W., Henry, N. L., Visser, K., Wittink, H., Kotte, E. M. W., Sol, M. E., & Bloemen, M. A. T. (2025). Play Together? Unveiling Facilitators and Barriers to Inclusive Outdoor Play for Dutch Children With and Without Disabilities: A Qualitative Study. Child: Care, Health & Development, 51(6), Article e70154. https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.70154 Biino, V., Pesce, C., & Martins, C. (2025). Motor Skill Development at Preschool Age in Girls and Boys: The Role of Outdoor Free Play. Children, 12(5), Article 594. https://doi.org/10.3390/children12050594 Davenport, C., Kuzik, N., Larouche, R., & Carson, V. (2025). The Associations Between Parental-Reported and Device-Based Measured Outdoor Play and Health Indicators of Physical, Cognitive, and Social–Emotional Development in Preschool-Aged Children. Pediatric Exercise Science, 37(2), 102–111. https://doi.org/10.1123/pes.2023-0119 de Lannoy, L., Barbeau, K., Seguin, N., & Tremblay, M. S. (2023). Scoping review of children’s and youth’s outdoor play publications in Canada. Chronic Diseases in Canada, 43(1), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.24095/hpcdp.43.1.01 Dodd, H. F., Cordwell, K., Hesketh, K., Johnstone, A., de la Torre-Luque, A., & McCrorie, P. (2026). Early outdoor play predicts trajectories of child mental health in a population-based cohort. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.70175 Ferguson, M., Teyhan, A., Lovell, R., Dodd, H., Wheeler, B., & McEachan, R. (2025). The association between park visits, outdoor play and child social-emotional competency in a multi-ethnic, urban cohort. Wellbeing, Space and Society, 9, Article 100293. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wss.2025.100293 Gibson, J.L., Cornell, M. & Gill, T. A Systematic Review of Research into the Impact of Loose Parts Play on Children’s Cognitive, Social and Emotional Development. School Mental Health 9, 295–309 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12310-017-9220-9 Gross, J. J. (2015). Emotion Regulation: Current Status and Future Prospects. Psychological Inquiry, 26(1), 1–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/1047840X.2014.940781 Lee, E.-Y., de Lannoy, L., Kim, Y.-B., Rathod, A., James, M. E., Lopes, O., Nasrallah, B., Thankarajah, A., Adjei-Boadi, D., de Barros, M. I. A., Duncan, S., Miller, R. M., Mygind, L., Vanderloo, L. M., Wang, P.-Y., & Tremblay, M. S. (2025). 2025 Position statement on active outdoor play. The International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 22(1), Article 117. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12966-025-01813-9 Lee, J. J., Flouri, E., & Jackson, Y. (2025). The Role of Timing and Amount of Outdoor Play in Emotional Dysregulation in Preschool Children. Child: Care, Health & Development, 51(1), Article e70020. https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.70020 Morgenthaler, T., Lynch, H., Loebach, J., Pentland, D., & Schulze, C. (2024). Using the Theory of Affordances to Understand Environment–Play Transactions: Environmental Taxonomy of Outdoor Play Space Features—A Scoping Review. The American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 78(4), Article 7804185120. https://doi.org/10.5014/ajot.2024.050606 Pereira, J. V., Vila-Nova, F., Veiga, G., Lopes, F., & Cordovil, R. (2024). Associations between outdoor play features and children’s behavior and health: A systematic review. Health & Place, 87, Article 103235. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healthplace.2024.103235 Poulos, A., Hassan, U. A., Wilson, K., Price, P. M., Vanos, J., & Quilla, J. (2026). Differences in Schoolchildren’s Emotional State After Indoor Versus Outdoor Recess in Extreme‐Heat Weather. The Journal of School Health, 96(4), Article e70135. https://doi.org/10.1111/josh.70135 }} ==External links== {{ic|Use bullet points as shown in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]}} https://www.child-encyclopedia.com/outdoor-play<nowiki/>-Encyclopedia in early childhood development https://www.outdoorplaycanada.ca/wp-content/uploads/2026/03/The-2025-AOP10-Position-Statement.pdf<nowiki/>-Position Statement https://www.who.int/news/item/24-04-2019-to-grow-up-healthy-children-need-to-sit-less-and-play-more<nowiki/>-World Health Organisation [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Children]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Nature]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Well-being]] rrxlhz03kii1vp6tametdu9wxuob8sn 2835691 2835690 2026-10-03T12:45:29Z Mymunu 3106327 /* Affordance theory and outdoor play environments */ 2835691 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being:<br>How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {| class="wikitable" |'''Case study: Part 1'''[[File:School children happily playing in playground.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. Children engaged in outdoor play, where social interactions, choice and control on the situation can create different emotional experiences.]]Imagine that... A child arrives at playground and joins a group of children who are already playing. The children are making their own game and deciding the rules as they play. At first, the child enjoys choosing where and what to play. During the game, another child changes the rules of the game and argument breaks out. The child becomes frustrated and walks away from the activity. After watching for a short time, the child returns, suggests a new idea to continue the game and re-joins the group. How might experiences like this during outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being? Emotional regulation provides one psychological framework for understanding how children may respond to situations like this during play (see figure 1). |} Outdoor play can involve more than physical movement. It can occur across playgrounds, gardens, streets and natural spaces. Outdoor play includes exploration, social interaction, choice, challenge, and engagement with the surrounding environment (Dodd et al., 2026; Pereira et al., 2024). As shown in the case study part 1, outdoor play can involve emotional situations such as [[Aggression|frustration]], disagreement, uncertainty or excitement. Gross's (2015) [[emotional regulation]] provides a [[psychological]] explanation for how children may recognise and respond to these emotional situations. Outdoor play experiences are also shaped by the environment where play takes place. Different physical and social environments can provide different opportunities for play, which means the same outdoor space may not provide the same opportunities for every child (Morgenthaler et al., 2024).This chapter examines how [[Emotional regulation|emotional,]] [[Cognitive psychology|cognitive]], social and environmental processes may help explain the relationship between outdoor play and children's [https://w.wiki/AHG6 emotional well-being.] {| class="wikitable" | ;[[File:Bulb Idea Flat Icon GIF Animation.gif|alt=Focus questions|left|99x99px|thumb]] '''Focus questions''' * '''What are outdoor play and children's emotional well-being?''' * '''How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being?''' * '''How do social and environmental conditions shape children's outdoor play experiences?''' * '''What does recent research show about outdoor play and children's emotional well-being?''' * '''How can families, communities and schools support outdoor play opportunities that may benefit children's emotional well-being?''' |} == '''Understanding outdoor play and children's emotional well-being''' == [[File:Water-outdoor-people-girl-play-boy-938233.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. ''Outdoor play can provide opportunities to explore, make choices, interact with others and respond to changing situations through activities such as water play.''|214x214px]] Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being are not measured as single and consistent concepts across recent research. Outdoor play may be examined as voluntary and intrinsically motivated activity, self directed play, parent reported outdoor play, or device-measured outdoor play (Binno et al., 2025; Davenport et al., 2025; Dodd et al., 2026). It should also be distinguished from outdoor moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) because these measures do not represent the same behaviour (Davenport et al., 2025). Children's emotional well-being is also examined through different outcomes, which include [https://w.wiki/7YC8 emotional dysregulation], social-emotional competence, positive and negative affect, and internalising or externalising symptoms (Dodd et al., 2026; Ferguson et al., 2025; Lee et al., 2025; Poulos et al., 2026). These differences need to be considered when findings across the studies are compared. === Outdoor play === Outdoor play is voluntary and and intrinsically motivated activity that occurs in outdoor environments such as gardens, playgrounds, parks and natural spaces (Dodd et al., 2026). Free play can be also self-directed, allowing children to interact freely with the environment and have [https://w.wiki/4NyU autonomy] to make choices about their activities (Biino et al., 2025). Outdoor play should not be treated as the same as outdoor physical activity. The recent research outdoor play and outdoor moderate- to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) were examined as separate measures (Davenport et al., 2025). This distinction is important because outdoor play intensity of physical activity do not represent the same behaviour. === Children's emotional well-being === Children's emotional well-being is not represented by a single common outcome across recent outdoor play research. Emotional dysregulation has been examined in relation to the amount and timing of outdoor play (Lee et al., 2025), while social-emotional competence includes social emotional difficulties and [[Prosocial behavior/Keywords/Definitions|prosocial behaviour]] (Ferguson et al., 2025). Other studies have examined positive and negative affect following recess (Poulos et al., 2026) and trajectories of internalising and externalising symptoms across childhood (Dodd et al., 2026). These outcomes represent different aspects and timeframes of emotional functioning, so they should not be treated as equivalent when findings are compared. '''Table 1''' ''Emotional outcomes examined in recent research on outdoor play and children's emotional well-being'' {| class="wikitable" |+ !Study !Outcome examined !What the outcome represents |- |Lee et al. (2025) |Emotional dysregulation |Difficulties in emotional regulation; examined in relation to the amount of timing of outdoor play |- |Ferguson et al. (2025) |Social-emotional competence |Social-emotional difficulties and prosocial behaviour |- |Poulos et al. (2026) |Positive and negative affect |Children's affect following recess across different settings |- |Dodd et al. (2026) |Internalising and externalising symptoms |Internalising: emotional symptoms and peer problems Externalising: conduct problems and hyperactivity- inattention |} Note. Outcome descriptions are based on the measures and constructs reported in the above cited studies. See Table 1. As shown in Table 1, the studies do not measure the same aspect or time frame of children's emotional functioning. Affect immediately following recess should not be treated as equivalent to emotional dysregulation measured over time or trajectories of internalising and externalising symptoms across childhood. This difference need to be considered when findings across studies are compared. '''Case study: part 2''' ''What is being measured?'' {| class="wikitable" | valign="top" |[[File:Children marbles.jpg|thumb|221x221px|'''Figure 3'''. ''Children's immediate emotional responses during outdoor play is different from long-term emotional functioning.'']]The child in the Case study: Part 1 becomes frustrated when the rules of the game change. This immediate emotional response is different from a longer-term pattern of emotional dysregulation or internalising symptoms. Research on outdoor play measures these outcomes across different time frames and contexts. When findings are compared, it is important to consider which aspect of emotional well-being is measured. {{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}} <quiz display=simple> {A child's positive or negative affect immediately after recess represents the same emotional outcome as longer-term internalising or externalising symptoms. |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} |} == '''How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being?''' == Outdoor play may be related to children's emotional well-being through emotional, cognitive, and social processes (Dodd et al., 2026). Possible pathways discussed in the recent research include cognitive, social and emotional skills, social interaction, physical activity, connection with the nature and adventurous play (Dodd et al., 2026). However, these pathways have not all been directly tested as mechanisms, and many of the outdoor play research remain observational (Dodd et al., 2026; de Lannoy et al., 2023). Psychological theory can help to explain how and why outdoor play experiences may influence children's emotional well-being. Although the evidence does not yet show that psychological processes cause the relationship between outdoor play and children's emotional well-being. Emotion involves more than subjective feelings. Scherer (2005) described emotion as coordinated changes across cognitive appraisal, physiological responses, action tendencies, expression and subjective feelings. Therefore, physiological responses are one component of an emotional response rather than a separate explanation for the effects of outdoor play. Scherer (2005) did not examine outdoor play, so this framework does not provide evidence that outdoor play changes children's physiological responses or emotional well-being. === '''Emotion regulation''' === Emotion regulation provides a psychological framework for understanding how children may manage emotional situations during outdoor play. Gross (2015) described emotion regulation as a process involving identification, selection and implementation. Identification concerns deciding whether to regulate an emotion, selection concerns selecting regulation strategy and implementation concerns applying chosen response into practice. Gross (2015) also described situation selection, situation modification, attentional deployment cognitive change and response modulation. During outdoor play, children may experience frustration, conflict, disagreement, uncertainty or changes to their activity. Gross's framework can be applied to these situations to consider how the children recognise an emotional response, choose strategies to manage and act on chosen strategies. However, Gross (2015) did not examine outdoor play, so applying the framework does not show that outdoor play improves children's emotion regulation. Broader research on children's play has also examined emotional functioning. Veraksa et al. (2025) systematically reviewed 33 studies on non-therapeutic play among children aged 3 to 7 and identified evidence involving emotional regulation, emotional intelligence, and negative emotional symptoms. The review included outdoor play alongside several other forms of play, so its findings should not be interpreted as evidence that outdoor play alone improves emotion regulation. {| class="wikitable" | valign="top" |'''Case study: Part 3'''[[File:14Y Ncdc july 5th-802.jpg|thumb|202x202px|'''Figure 4'''. ''Children can respond differently to emotional situations that occur during outdoor play.'']]When the rules of game change, the child becomes frustrated and decides to step away. After a short time the child returns and suggests a different way to continue the game (see Figure 4). Suggesting a change to the game can be considered an example of situation modification. This shows how Gross's emotion regulation framework can be applied to an emotional situation during outdoor play. {{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}} <quiz display=simple> {What does Gross (2015) emotion regulation framework show when it is applied to the outdoor-play scenario?. |type="()"} -A. Outdoor play causes better emotion regulation. +B. Situation modification can help explain how the child responds to the situation. -C. Children regulate emotions better outdoors than indoors. -D. Stepping away from play always improves emotional well-being. </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} |} === '''Working memory and cognitive process''' === Working memory can be one cognitive process involved in the association between outdoor play and emotional dysregulation. Lee et al. (2025) examined 325 preschool children and tested working memory as a statistical mediator. Outdoor play was examined across three periods of the day; wake up to noon, noon to 6 pm, and 6 pm to bedtime. The findings differed according to the timing of outdoor play. More outdoor play between noon and 6 pm was associated with lower emotional dysregulation. In contrast, more outdoor play before noon and after 6 pm was associated with higher emotional dysregulation. Afternoon outdoor play was also associated with better working memory, and better working memory was associated with lower emotional dysregulation. When working memory was included in the analysis, the association between afternoon outdoor play and emotional dysregulation was no longer statistically significant. Lee et al. (2025) reported this as full mediation. This suggests that working memory may be involved in the association between afternoon outdoor play and lower emotional dysregulation. However, the study was observational, so the mediation analysis does not show that outdoor play caused better working memory or lower emotional dysregulation. Johnstone et al. (2022) reviewed 36 studies of nature-based [[early childhood education]]. The review found very low certainty evidence for some social, emotional, and cognitive outcomes, including [[self-regulation]], while findings for attention were inconsistent. Although, the review examined nature-based early childhood education rather than outdoor play. Therefore, it does not show that working memory explains the association between outdoor play and children's [https://w.wiki/AHG6 emotional well-being]. '''Table 2''' ''Psychological processes considered in the relationship between outdoor play and children's emotional well-being'' {| class="wikitable" !Process !Contribution !Evidence considered in this chapter !Limitations |- |Emotion components |Emotion involves cognitive appraisal, physiological responses, action tendencies, expression and subjective feelings (Scherer, 2005) |This provides a broader psychological understanding of emotional responses |Scherer (2005) did not examine outdoor play, so it does not show that outdoor play changes children's physiological responses or emotional well-being. |- |Emotion regulation |Gross's (2015) framework can be applied to emotional situations during outdoor play, including frustration, disagreement and changes to an activity. |The framework helps explain how children may recognise an emotional response, choose a strategy and act on that strategy. |Gross (2015) did not examine outdoor play, so applying the framework does not show that outdoor play improves emotion regulation. |- |Working memory |Lee et al. (2025) examined working memory as a statistical mediator between outdoor play and emotional dysregulation. |Afternoon outdoor play was associated with better working memory, and better working memory was associated with lower emotional dysregulation. |The study was observational, so the mediation analysis does not show that outdoor play caused better working memory or lower emotional dysregulation. |- |Play and emotional functioning |Veraksa et al. (2025) reviewed 33 studies of non-therapeutic play involving emotional regulation, emotional intelligence and negative emotional symptoms. |The review provides broader evidence linking play with emotional functioning. |The review included several forms of play, so it should not be interpreted as evidence that outdoor play alone improves emotion regulation. |- |Nature-based early childhood education |Johnstone et al. (2022) reviewed 36 studies and reported very low certainty evidence for some social, emotional and cognitive outcomes, including self-regulation. |The review provides broader evidence about cognitive and emotional outcomes in nature-based education. |Nature-based early childhood education is not the same as outdoor play and does not show that working memory explains the association between outdoor play and emotional well-being. |} Note. The sources discussed above provide different types of evidence. Some provide psychological frameworks, while other provide direct outdoor-play research and broader evidence about outdoor play and children's emotional well-being. == '''How do social and environmental conditions influence on children's outdoor play experiences?''' == [[File:2026-10-03 214531-relationship between child and environment.png|thumb|284x284px|'''Figure 5.''' Children's opportunities for outdoor play can be different according to personal, interacting and environmental factors and the relationship between the child and the environment. Note. Original conceptual summary is based on Beekhuizen et al. (2025) and Gibson (1979).]] Outdoor play opportunities depend on social and physical environments. Children may have access to same outdoor space but may not have same opportunities for play. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified personal, interacting and environmental factors that could support or restrict inclusive outdoor play. These difference can be considered through [https://w.wiki/VYfL affordance theory], which examines the opportunities for action through the relationship between an individual and the environment (Gibson, 1979). See Figure 5. === Affordance theory and outdoor play environments === [https://w.wiki/VYfL Affordance theory] was developed by Gibson (1979) to explain the opportunities for action that an environment provides in relation to the person using it. In outdoor play, the opportunities provided by a space can depend on its physical features and how a child is able to use those features. Morgenthaler et al. (2024) applied affordance theory to children's outdoor play and examined outdoor play transactions through environmental taxonomy of outdoor play space features. Their review identified 14 categories of spaces and 284 play opportunities linked to different environmental features. Morgenthaler et al. (2024) showed that different spaces and objects can afford different forms of play, which means two children using the same outdoor play space may not experience the same play opportunities. Therefore, the theory provides a way of understanding differences between children and their use of an outdoor environment. However this study examined the opportunities for play rather than children's well-being. Pereira et al. (2024) also examined features of outdoor play spaces in a systematic review of 51 articles representing 45 primary studies. The review examined features such as fixed structures, natural elements, floor markings, loose equipment and available play areas. Some positive effects were reported, but there was substantial heterogeneity between studies. The studies differed in the environmental features examined, outcomes measures, and study methods, which made difficult to draw a clear conclusions about the effect of individual play space features (Pereira et al., 2024).Therefore, the review does not show that one particular environmental feature improves children's [https://w.wiki/AHG6 emotional well-being]. '''Table 3''' ''Examples of environmental features and possible affordances'' {| class="wikitable" |+ !Environmental feature !Possible affordance for play |- |Fixed structures (e.g. climbing frame) |Can provide opportunity in different forms of physical activity. For example, climbing, physical play, risk-taking |- |Natural elements (e.g. tree, rocks, sand) |Environmental features can provide opportunities for exploratory play, imaginative play, sensory experiences |- |Floor markings (e.g. painted games) |Can support structured activities like rule based play, footy, tennis, etc. |- |Loose equipment (e.g. balls, tyre, boxes) |Movable environmental features that can be used during constructive play, imaginative play, creative problem solving play |- |Open play area |Running, group play, or flexible use |} Note. This table is an original synthesis based on environmental features described by Pereira et al. (2024) and affordance framework applied by Morgenthaler et al. (2024). Environmental features can afford more than one type of play and the opportunities may vary between children. {| class="wikitable" | valign="top" |'''Case study: Part 4 Same space, different opportunities''' Kim and Leo are both at the same school playground during recess. The playground has a climbing structure, a sand pit area and open natural space. * Kim quickly joins a group of children using a climbing frame. The climbing frame structure provides opportunities for physical play and social interactions. * Leo uses a sand pit with other child. He plays with loose materials and creates a sand castle and other different structures. The environment gives him an opportunity for imaginative play and social play. These examples show how the same outdoor space can afford different forms of play for different children, depending on their interests, skills and social context. {{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}} <quiz display=simple> {Which statement best applies affordance theory to the example?. |type="()"} -A. The playground causes children to be more physically active. +B. The same playground can provide different opportunities for play depending on the child and how they use the environment. -C. Climbing structures always lead to better emotional well-being. -D. Open spaces are only useful for social play. </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} |} === '''Social relationship and inclusion''' === Social relationships can shape whether children are able to join and continue outdoor play (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified making contact and growing up together as interacting factors in inclusive outdoor play. Familiarity with other children could make it easier to approach, communicate and play together, while joining unfamiliar children or existing game could be difficult. [https://w.wiki/WDsJ Affective social competence (ASC)] provides a psychological framework for understanding these social interactions (Halberstadt et al., 2001). The ASC model involves experiencing, sending and receiving affect, together with awareness, identification, working within the social context and regulation. These processes may be relevant when a child tries to enter a peer group, recognise other children's emotions and manage their own response during play. Gal-Szabo et al. (2018) used the ASC model as theoretical foundation when examining children's emotional knowledge and social behaviour during preschool free play. The study found that situational understanding of the emotions was negatively related to uninvolved behaviour and was marginally positively related to more social play. However, the study examined preschool free play rather than specific outdoor play. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) also found that children with disabilities experienced more barriers related to making contact, adapting play and physical play environment. These findings suggest that participation in outdoor play depends on both social interaction and children's ability to respond within the play situation, but they do not establish that social play causes better emotional well-being (Beekhuizen et al., 2025; Gal-Szabo et al., 2018). === '''Autonomy, parents and time''' === [https://w.wiki/4NyU Autonomy] can shape how children experience outdoor play (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified autonomy as a personal factor in inclusive outdoor play. Some children valued having independence over what they do and who they play with. Some children with disabilities wanted opportunities to play outside independently without direct parental involvement. Autonomy during play may also have an emotional function. Veraksa et al. (2025), in a systematic review of non-therapeutic play, identified autonomy as one feature through which play may support emotional regulation and coping. However, the review examined several forms of play and does not show that autonomy during outdoor play specially improves children's emotional well-being. Parental support can also make outdoor play possible. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) found that parental involvement could support children's participation when a child needed help to access or participate in outdoor play. Time constraints also affected opportunities for outdoor play. Some children had less time to play outdoors because of parents' work schedule, after school arrangements or longer travel distance between home and school (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). These constraints could limit opportunities for outdoor play even when children wanted greater independence. === '''Outdoor environments and accessibility''' === Outdoor play environments can support or restrict children's participation (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified both physical and social features of outdoor environments as relevant to inclusive play. Children discussed safety, including traffic near playgrounds and disputes with other children. Accessibility was particularly important for children with disabilities because opportunities for inclusive outdoor play could be affected by play environments and physical abilities. Pereira et al. (2024) also showed that heterogeneity between studies limited clear conclusions about the effects of individual outdoor play space features.. Gibson et al. (2017) systematically reviewed five studies of loose-parts play (LPP) interventions with primary school aged children. The review found limited quantitative evidence to determine whether loose-parts interventions affected children's cognitive, social or emotional development. Together, these findings show that features of outdoor environments can support or restrict opportunities for play. However, current evidence does not establish that a particular environmental feature that improves children's emotional well-being (Beekhuizen et al., 2025; Gibson et al., 2017; Pereira et al., 2024). {| class="wikitable" | valign="top" |'''Case study: Part 5 Same play space, different experiences''' {| class="wikitable" |Kim and Leo use the same school playground. Kim already knows many children and easily joins a group activity. Leo uses a mobility device and finds that some areas of the playground are difficult to access. Leo also does not know many children who are already playing. He prefers to play independently when possible. |} The two children have access to the same playground space, but their opportunities to participate are different. There experiences are shaped by more than the physical space alone. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) also identified making contact, familiarity, autonomy and accessibility as factors that could support or restrict inclusive outdoor play. Physical accessibility may affect whether a child can use part of playground, while familiarity with other children may affect whether the child can enter social play. Parental support may also help participation in some situations, while the child may still value greater independence {{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}} <quiz display=simple> {Why might two children have different outdoor-play experiences even they use the same playground?. |type="()"} +A. Physical, social and personal factors can affect how children are able to participate. -B. Outdoor spaces provide the same opportunities for every child. -C. Accessibility is the only factor that affects outdoor play.. -D. Children who know other children always have better emotional well-being. </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} |} == '''What does recent research show about outdoor play and children's emotional well-being?''' == Recent research does not show a consistent association between outdoor play and children's emotional well-being. The findings are mixed across different emotional outcomes measured, the timing and context of outdoor play, children's behaviours, and the methods used to measure outdoor play. These differences are significant when interpreting whether outdoor play is associated with better emotional well-being. The recent studies shows this variation. More frequent outdoor play has been associated with better social-emotional competence (Ferguson et al., 2025) while association with emotional dysregulation differed according to the timing and context of outdoor play (Lee et al., 2025). Positive affect was also higher after outdoor play and and gymnasium recess than after classroom recess, but no significant differences in negative affect between settings (Poulos et al.,2026). Longer-term evidence also examines a different aspect of emotional functioning. More frequent outdoor play during the preschool years was associated with a greater likelihood of following a low and stable trajectory of internalising and externalising symptoms through childhood (Dodd et al., 2026). However, the studies differ in children's ages, research designs, measures of outdoor play and emotional outcomes. Therefore, the evidence should not be interpreted as showing one consistent effect across all children or forms of emotional well-being. === '''Consistency of recent research findings''' === Recent findings are not consistent across all emotional and developmental outcomes. Ferguson et al. (2025) found that more frequent outdoor play was associated with better social-emotional competence, including lower difficulties and greater [[Prosocial Behaviour|prosocial behaviour]]. In contrast, Davenport et al. (2025) found that most associations between outdoor play and the physical, [[Cognitive psychology|cognitive]] and social-emotional developmental indicators examined were not statistically significant. These differences show that positive association with outdoor play are not found across all developmental outcomes. Findings can also differ according to the emotional outcome being measured. Poulos et al. (2026) found higher positive affect after outdoor and gymnasium recess than after classroom recess, but no significant differences in negative affect between the three recess settings. Lee et al. (2025) found that more afternoon outdoor play was associated with lower emotional dysregulation, while more outdoor play earlier and later in the day was associated with higher emotional dysregulation. These findings suggest that the association can differ according to both the emotional outcome and the timing of outdoor play. The time period being examined also differs between studies. Dodd et al. (2026) found that more frequent outdoor play during the preschool years was associated with lower odds of belonging to less favourable internalising and externalising symptom trajectory across childhood. This is different from Poulos et al. (2026), who examined children's emotional states immediately after the recess. Therefore, recent research includes both immediate emotional outcomes and longer-term patterns of emotional functioning. Associations may vary across children and play contexts. Ferguson et al. (2025) reported differences according to ethnicity and whether outdoor play occurred on school days or weekends. Together, these findings suggest that the association between outdoor play and emotional well-being is not same across outcome.The studies differ in children's age, research designs, measures of outdoor play, and emotional outcomes. Thus, findings should not be treated as evidence of one single effect. === '''Strengths and limitations of current research''' === The strength of the evidence also differs according to research design. Dodd et al. (2026) used longitudinal data from 4,151 children and measured outdoor play during the preschool years at approximately 2, 3 and 4 years old, while internalising and externalising symptoms trajectories were measured later through to age 8. This strengthens the evidence about temporal ordering because outdoor play was measured before the later emotional outcomes. However, longitudinal evidence does not establish cause and effect, and the study relied on parent-reported measures. Causal interpretation is also limited in other studies. Lee et al. (2025) used observational data and considered the possibility of reverse causation when interpreting associations between the timing of outdoor play and emotional dysregulation. This means the findings cannot establish whether outdoor play influenced emotional dysregulation or whether children's emotional functioning influenced when they played outdoors. Measurement of outdoor play is another important consideration. Davenport et al. (2025) used both parent-reported and device-measured outdoor play and examined whether associations were independent of outdoor moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA). This is important because outdoor play and outdoor physical activity are related but should not be treated as interchangeable measures. However, the sample was relatively small (N=107) and most tested associations with developmental outcomes were not statistically significant. Limitations are also present across the wider outdoor-play literature. De Lannoy et al. (2023) identified 275 Canadian outdoor-play publications and found that cross-sectional designs were the most common. Mental and emotional development had also received less research attention than physical health and development. This suggests that the evidence base for emotional well-being is less developed than some other areas of outdoor-play research. T'''able 4''' '''''Comparison of recent research''''' {| class="wikitable" |+ !Study !Research method !Research strength !Limitation |- | <small>Lee et al. (2025)</small> |Observational; 6 month follow-up |Examined the timing of outdoor play and tested working memory as a statistical mediator of the association with emotional dysregulation. |Observational mediation cannot establish causation; the study also considered possible reverse causation when interpreting timing-related findings. |- |Ferguson et al. (2025) |Cross sectional; multi ethnic urban cohort (N=2,568) |Large sample allowed associations to be examined across population groups and school-day/weekend outdoor play. |Cross-sectional design cannot establish temporal direction; associations also differed across some groups and play contexts. |- |Davenport et al. (2025) |Observational; preschool sample (N=107) |Used both parent-reported and device-measured outdoor play and distinguished outdoor play from outdoor moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) |Small sample and most tested associations with developmental outcomes were not statistically significant. |- |Dodd et al. (2026) |Longitudinal cohort (N = 4,151) |Outdoor play was measured in the preschool years before later internalising and externalising symptom trajectories. |Outdoor play and symptoms relied on parent reported measures, and the observational design does not establish causations. |- |Poulos et al. (2026) |Recess comparison study (N=317) |Compared children's positive and negative affect following outdoor, gymnasium and classroom recess |Examined immediate affect during an extreme-heat context; higher positive affect was also found after gymnasium recess, so the result was not specific to outdoor recess. |} As shown in Table 4, the recent evidence has different methodological strengths and limitations. Longitudinal designs provide stronger evidence about temporal ordering than cross-sectional design studies, while device-based measures can address some limitations of parent report. However, much of the evidence remains observational, and differences in emotional outcomes, measures of outdoor play and play contexts limit the direct comparison between studies. Future research could benefit from more consistent measures of outdoor play, stronger longitudinal and experimental designs and greater attention to emotional outcomes across different children and play contexts. {| class="wikitable" | valign="top" |{{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}} <quiz display=simple> {Why should the recent findings not be interpreted as showing single consistent effect of outdoor play on children's emotional well-being? |type="()"} -A. Because all the studies used different countries. +B. Because studies differed in emotional outcomes, measures of outdoor play, timing, context and research design. -C. Because longitudinal studies are always more reliable and accurate. -D. Because outdoor play only affects positive outcomes. </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} |} == '''How do families, communities and schools support outdoor play opportunities?''' == [[File:Coalition Builds New Playground in One Day for Chicora-Cherokee Community (11054532905).jpg|thumb|325x325px|Figure 6. Families, communities and school can shape children's opportunities for play.]] Outdoor play opportunities are shaped by children's social and physical environments. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified parents, outdoor play environments, communities and time constraints as environmental factors in inclusive outdoor play. The study also identified autonomy, growing up together, making contact and adapting ways of playing as factors that affected participation. The 2025 Position Statement on Active Outdoor Play recommends increasing opportunities for active outdoor play where people live, learn, work and play (Lee et al., 2025). It also recommends collaboration across sectors and settings to support equitable access. Together, these findings provide a broader context for considering the roles of families, communities and schools. These influences can operate across family, community and school settings (see Figure 5). === '''Families''' === Parents can influence whether children have opportunities to play outdoors. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified parents as an environmental factor in inclusive outdoor play. Children with disabilities described parents as important in encouraging participation. For some children, parents also helped to explain their disability to other children (Beekhuizen et al., 2025).   Broader research also identifies parental factors in children's outdoor play. A systematic review of 21 peer reviewed studies involving children aged 0 to 12 years found that the importance placed on outdoor play was associated with how much time children spent playing outdoors (Boxberger and Reimers, 2019). Evidence for parental encouragement and support was less consistent across children (Boxberger and Reimers, 2019). This suggests that family influence is not limited to direct encouragement. Parents' attitude towards outdoor play may shape children's opportunities to play outdoors. However, the review identified some associations but does not show that parental attitude caused greater outdoor play. Parental support can also involve allowing children to have some independence during outdoor play. Support can make participation possible, but it does not always require direct parental involvement (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). This is particularly relevant when children want more control over how and where they play. Research on independent mobility also shows that children and parents may differ in how much independence they prefer (Han et al., 2022). The study identified different patterns in children's and parents' preferences for independent mobility. These findings show that parental support and autonomy do not always involve the same level of parental involvement. Some children may need support to access or join outdoor play while also wanting greater independence. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) also recommended providing children and parents with knowledge about disabilities and possible adaptations that could support participation. Time constraints can also limit family-level opportunities for outdoor play. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) reported that some children had less time to play outdoors because of parents' work schedules, after-school arrangements and longer travel between home and school. This means that opportunities for outdoor play can be restricted even when children want to play and parents are supportive. === '''Communities''' === Community conditions can affect whether children have safe and inclusive opportunities for outdoor play. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) described physical and social safety as important for inclusive outdoor play. Some playground structures also made participation difficult for children with disabilities. A systematic review of 25 studies found that both physical and social neighbourhood factors were associated with children's outdoor play (Visser & van Aalst, 2022). Social factors included perceived safety, social cohesion and the presence of other children. However, the studies did not identify one neighbourhood feature that consistently explained children's outdoor play across all settings. The social environment may also affect whether children can join others. Children with disabilities described smaller communities, including villages and schools, as places where children and parents could become more familiar with disability. Greater familiarity was associated with greater acceptance and stronger connections with other children (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). Observational research also shows that physical access alone does not explain inclusive outdoor play. Beekhuizen et al. (2026) observed 63 children with and without disabilities during six inclusive outdoor-play sessions and found children with disabilities had lower playfulness scores than children without disabilities. Unfamiliarity could also restrict social inclusion because children preferred to play with peers they already knew. This means providing the same outdoor space does not necessarily provide the same opportunity to participate. The 2025 Position Statement on Active Outdoor Play recommends collaboration across sectors and settings to support equitable access to active outdoor play (Lee et al., 2025). The reviewed findings show why both physical and social conditions matter. Children need places that can be accessed, but familiarity, safety and opportunities to join others can also affect participation. However, the evidence does not show that one community feature alone will increase outdoor play or improve emotional well-being. === '''Schools''' === Schools can provide opportunities for children with and without disabilities to become more familiar with one another. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified growing up together and making contact as interacting factors in inclusive outdoor play. Children described familiarity with other children as making contact easier. School circumstances can also affect the time available for outdoor play. Some children attending special primary education described long travel times between school and home as reducing their opportunities to play outdoors. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified these experiences as part of time constraints. The physical school environment can also be changed to support outdoor activity and socio-emotional outcomes. Bikomeye et al. (2021) systematically reviewed six experimental studies of schoolyard greening. The interventions involved adding greenery and natural elements to schoolyards. Across the included studies, the review reported generally positive findings for physical activity and socio-emotional health. However, the review included only six studies. Schoolyard greening is also a specific intervention and should not be treated as evidence that all forms of outdoor play improve children's emotional well-being. Recess provides another school setting in which children's emotional experiences have been examined directly. Poulos et al. (2026) studied 317 Year 4 and 5 children during extreme heat. Positive affect was higher after outdoor and gymnasium recess than after classroom recess. There were no significant differences in negative affect between the three settings. Poulos et al. (2026) also identified implications for school health, policy and equity. The study discussed heat-adaptive infrastructure as one way to support access to recess environments during extreme heat. However, the findings do not show that outdoor recess is always better than indoor recess because positive affect was also higher after gymnasium recess. {{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Quiz}} <quiz display=simple> {Which statement best reflects how families, communities and school can support children's outdoor play opportunities? |type="()"} + Support can involve accessible environments, safety, familiarity, appropriate parental support and opportunities for children to participate with some independence. - Providing the same outdoor space gives every child the same opportunity to participate. -Schoolyard greening alone is enough to improve children's emotional well-being. -Outdoor recess always produces better emotional outcomes than indoor recess. </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} == '''Conclusion''' == Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being are not represented by single, consistent concepts across recent research. Outdoor play should be distinguished from outdoor physical activity, while emotional well-being has been examined through emotional dysregulation, social-emotional competence, positive and negative affect, and internalising and externalising symptoms. These differences are important because findings across studies do not represent the same emotional outcomes or time frames. Outdoor play may be related to children's emotional well-being through several psychological processes, but the strength of evidence differs across them. Gross's (2015) emotion regulation framework helps explain how children may respond to emotional situations during play, while working memory provides more direct evidence of a possible cognitive process in the association between afternoon outdoor play and lower emotional dysregulation (Lee et al., 2025). However, these findings do not establish that outdoor play causes better emotion regulation or emotional well-being. Recent research also does not show one consistent effect across all children, outcomes or play contexts. Some studies report associations with better social-emotional competence, lower-risk symptom trajectories or higher positive affect, while other findings are mixed or non-significant (Davenport et al., 2025; Dodd et al., 2026; Ferguson et al., 2025). Differences in research design, measurement, timing and context therefore need to be considered when interpreting the evidence. Children's opportunities for outdoor play are also shaped by their social and physical environments. Accessibility, familiarity, autonomy, parental support, safety and opportunities to join other children can influence whether the same outdoor space provides the same opportunity to participate. Families, communities and schools can therefore support outdoor play by considering both access to outdoor spaces and the conditions that allow children to participate in ways that suit their needs and circumstances. Overall, current research suggests that outdoor play is associated with some aspects of children's emotional well-being, but the relationship is more complex than simply spending more time outdoors. The relation between outdoor play and children's emotional well-being varies depending on how outdoor play is measured, timing, context and children's opportunities to participate. ==See also== {{ic|Use bullet points as shown in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]}} https://www-taylorfrancis-com.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/books/mono/10.4324/9781003349655/right-child-play-naomi-lott Book Chapter, 2 {{ic|Move to References and cite}} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotional_dysregulation<nowiki/>- Wikipedia article {{ic|Use an internal links as shown in Tutorial 2}} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autonomy<nowiki/>- Wikipedia article {{ic|Use an internal links as shown in Tutorial 2}} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Longitudinal_study<nowiki/>-Wikipedia article {{ic|Use an internal links as shown in Tutorial 2}} [[Cognitive psychology|https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Cognitive_psychology]]-Wikipedia article https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affordance<nowiki/>-Wikipedia article {{ic|Use an internal links as shown in Tutorial 2}} ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Beekhuizen, R. Q., Bolster, E. A. M., Gorter, J. W., Henry, N. L., Visser, K., Wittink, H., Kotte, E. M. W., Sol, M. E., & Bloemen, M. A. T. (2025). Play Together? Unveiling Facilitators and Barriers to Inclusive Outdoor Play for Dutch Children With and Without Disabilities: A Qualitative Study. Child: Care, Health & Development, 51(6), Article e70154. https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.70154 Biino, V., Pesce, C., & Martins, C. (2025). Motor Skill Development at Preschool Age in Girls and Boys: The Role of Outdoor Free Play. Children, 12(5), Article 594. https://doi.org/10.3390/children12050594 Davenport, C., Kuzik, N., Larouche, R., & Carson, V. (2025). The Associations Between Parental-Reported and Device-Based Measured Outdoor Play and Health Indicators of Physical, Cognitive, and Social–Emotional Development in Preschool-Aged Children. Pediatric Exercise Science, 37(2), 102–111. https://doi.org/10.1123/pes.2023-0119 de Lannoy, L., Barbeau, K., Seguin, N., & Tremblay, M. S. (2023). Scoping review of children’s and youth’s outdoor play publications in Canada. Chronic Diseases in Canada, 43(1), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.24095/hpcdp.43.1.01 Dodd, H. F., Cordwell, K., Hesketh, K., Johnstone, A., de la Torre-Luque, A., & McCrorie, P. (2026). Early outdoor play predicts trajectories of child mental health in a population-based cohort. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.70175 Ferguson, M., Teyhan, A., Lovell, R., Dodd, H., Wheeler, B., & McEachan, R. (2025). The association between park visits, outdoor play and child social-emotional competency in a multi-ethnic, urban cohort. Wellbeing, Space and Society, 9, Article 100293. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wss.2025.100293 Gibson, J.L., Cornell, M. & Gill, T. A Systematic Review of Research into the Impact of Loose Parts Play on Children’s Cognitive, Social and Emotional Development. School Mental Health 9, 295–309 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12310-017-9220-9 Gross, J. J. (2015). Emotion Regulation: Current Status and Future Prospects. Psychological Inquiry, 26(1), 1–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/1047840X.2014.940781 Lee, E.-Y., de Lannoy, L., Kim, Y.-B., Rathod, A., James, M. E., Lopes, O., Nasrallah, B., Thankarajah, A., Adjei-Boadi, D., de Barros, M. I. A., Duncan, S., Miller, R. M., Mygind, L., Vanderloo, L. M., Wang, P.-Y., & Tremblay, M. S. (2025). 2025 Position statement on active outdoor play. The International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 22(1), Article 117. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12966-025-01813-9 Lee, J. J., Flouri, E., & Jackson, Y. (2025). The Role of Timing and Amount of Outdoor Play in Emotional Dysregulation in Preschool Children. Child: Care, Health & Development, 51(1), Article e70020. https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.70020 Morgenthaler, T., Lynch, H., Loebach, J., Pentland, D., & Schulze, C. (2024). Using the Theory of Affordances to Understand Environment–Play Transactions: Environmental Taxonomy of Outdoor Play Space Features—A Scoping Review. The American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 78(4), Article 7804185120. https://doi.org/10.5014/ajot.2024.050606 Pereira, J. V., Vila-Nova, F., Veiga, G., Lopes, F., & Cordovil, R. (2024). Associations between outdoor play features and children’s behavior and health: A systematic review. Health & Place, 87, Article 103235. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healthplace.2024.103235 Poulos, A., Hassan, U. A., Wilson, K., Price, P. M., Vanos, J., & Quilla, J. (2026). Differences in Schoolchildren’s Emotional State After Indoor Versus Outdoor Recess in Extreme‐Heat Weather. The Journal of School Health, 96(4), Article e70135. https://doi.org/10.1111/josh.70135 }} ==External links== {{ic|Use bullet points as shown in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]}} https://www.child-encyclopedia.com/outdoor-play<nowiki/>-Encyclopedia in early childhood development https://www.outdoorplaycanada.ca/wp-content/uploads/2026/03/The-2025-AOP10-Position-Statement.pdf<nowiki/>-Position Statement https://www.who.int/news/item/24-04-2019-to-grow-up-healthy-children-need-to-sit-less-and-play-more<nowiki/>-World Health Organisation [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Children]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Nature]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Well-being]] qu2hf7xococwfb8vmulxteevdlp8sss 2835693 2835691 2026-10-03T13:15:44Z Mymunu 3106327 /* External links */ 2835693 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being:<br>How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {| class="wikitable" |'''Case study: Part 1'''[[File:School children happily playing in playground.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. Children engaged in outdoor play, where social interactions, choice and control on the situation can create different emotional experiences.]]Imagine that... A child arrives at playground and joins a group of children who are already playing. The children are making their own game and deciding the rules as they play. At first, the child enjoys choosing where and what to play. During the game, another child changes the rules of the game and argument breaks out. The child becomes frustrated and walks away from the activity. After watching for a short time, the child returns, suggests a new idea to continue the game and re-joins the group. How might experiences like this during outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being? Emotional regulation provides one psychological framework for understanding how children may respond to situations like this during play (see figure 1). |} Outdoor play can involve more than physical movement. It can occur across playgrounds, gardens, streets and natural spaces. Outdoor play includes exploration, social interaction, choice, challenge, and engagement with the surrounding environment (Dodd et al., 2026; Pereira et al., 2024). As shown in the case study part 1, outdoor play can involve emotional situations such as [[Aggression|frustration]], disagreement, uncertainty or excitement. Gross's (2015) [[emotional regulation]] provides a [[psychological]] explanation for how children may recognise and respond to these emotional situations. Outdoor play experiences are also shaped by the environment where play takes place. Different physical and social environments can provide different opportunities for play, which means the same outdoor space may not provide the same opportunities for every child (Morgenthaler et al., 2024).This chapter examines how [[Emotional regulation|emotional,]] [[Cognitive psychology|cognitive]], social and environmental processes may help explain the relationship between outdoor play and children's [https://w.wiki/AHG6 emotional well-being.] {| class="wikitable" | ;[[File:Bulb Idea Flat Icon GIF Animation.gif|alt=Focus questions|left|99x99px|thumb]] '''Focus questions''' * '''What are outdoor play and children's emotional well-being?''' * '''How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being?''' * '''How do social and environmental conditions shape children's outdoor play experiences?''' * '''What does recent research show about outdoor play and children's emotional well-being?''' * '''How can families, communities and schools support outdoor play opportunities that may benefit children's emotional well-being?''' |} == '''Understanding outdoor play and children's emotional well-being''' == [[File:Water-outdoor-people-girl-play-boy-938233.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. ''Outdoor play can provide opportunities to explore, make choices, interact with others and respond to changing situations through activities such as water play.''|214x214px]] Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being are not measured as single and consistent concepts across recent research. Outdoor play may be examined as voluntary and intrinsically motivated activity, self directed play, parent reported outdoor play, or device-measured outdoor play (Binno et al., 2025; Davenport et al., 2025; Dodd et al., 2026). It should also be distinguished from outdoor moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) because these measures do not represent the same behaviour (Davenport et al., 2025). Children's emotional well-being is also examined through different outcomes, which include [https://w.wiki/7YC8 emotional dysregulation], social-emotional competence, positive and negative affect, and internalising or externalising symptoms (Dodd et al., 2026; Ferguson et al., 2025; Lee et al., 2025; Poulos et al., 2026). These differences need to be considered when findings across the studies are compared. === Outdoor play === Outdoor play is voluntary and and intrinsically motivated activity that occurs in outdoor environments such as gardens, playgrounds, parks and natural spaces (Dodd et al., 2026). Free play can be also self-directed, allowing children to interact freely with the environment and have [https://w.wiki/4NyU autonomy] to make choices about their activities (Biino et al., 2025). Outdoor play should not be treated as the same as outdoor physical activity. The recent research outdoor play and outdoor moderate- to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) were examined as separate measures (Davenport et al., 2025). This distinction is important because outdoor play intensity of physical activity do not represent the same behaviour. === Children's emotional well-being === Children's emotional well-being is not represented by a single common outcome across recent outdoor play research. Emotional dysregulation has been examined in relation to the amount and timing of outdoor play (Lee et al., 2025), while social-emotional competence includes social emotional difficulties and [[Prosocial behavior/Keywords/Definitions|prosocial behaviour]] (Ferguson et al., 2025). Other studies have examined positive and negative affect following recess (Poulos et al., 2026) and trajectories of internalising and externalising symptoms across childhood (Dodd et al., 2026). These outcomes represent different aspects and timeframes of emotional functioning, so they should not be treated as equivalent when findings are compared. '''Table 1''' ''Emotional outcomes examined in recent research on outdoor play and children's emotional well-being'' {| class="wikitable" |+ !Study !Outcome examined !What the outcome represents |- |Lee et al. (2025) |Emotional dysregulation |Difficulties in emotional regulation; examined in relation to the amount of timing of outdoor play |- |Ferguson et al. (2025) |Social-emotional competence |Social-emotional difficulties and prosocial behaviour |- |Poulos et al. (2026) |Positive and negative affect |Children's affect following recess across different settings |- |Dodd et al. (2026) |Internalising and externalising symptoms |Internalising: emotional symptoms and peer problems Externalising: conduct problems and hyperactivity- inattention |} Note. Outcome descriptions are based on the measures and constructs reported in the above cited studies. See Table 1. As shown in Table 1, the studies do not measure the same aspect or time frame of children's emotional functioning. Affect immediately following recess should not be treated as equivalent to emotional dysregulation measured over time or trajectories of internalising and externalising symptoms across childhood. This difference need to be considered when findings across studies are compared. '''Case study: part 2''' ''What is being measured?'' {| class="wikitable" | valign="top" |[[File:Children marbles.jpg|thumb|221x221px|'''Figure 3'''. ''Children's immediate emotional responses during outdoor play is different from long-term emotional functioning.'']]The child in the Case study: Part 1 becomes frustrated when the rules of the game change. This immediate emotional response is different from a longer-term pattern of emotional dysregulation or internalising symptoms. Research on outdoor play measures these outcomes across different time frames and contexts. When findings are compared, it is important to consider which aspect of emotional well-being is measured. {{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}} <quiz display=simple> {A child's positive or negative affect immediately after recess represents the same emotional outcome as longer-term internalising or externalising symptoms. |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} |} == '''How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being?''' == Outdoor play may be related to children's emotional well-being through emotional, cognitive, and social processes (Dodd et al., 2026). Possible pathways discussed in the recent research include cognitive, social and emotional skills, social interaction, physical activity, connection with the nature and adventurous play (Dodd et al., 2026). However, these pathways have not all been directly tested as mechanisms, and many of the outdoor play research remain observational (Dodd et al., 2026; de Lannoy et al., 2023). Psychological theory can help to explain how and why outdoor play experiences may influence children's emotional well-being. Although the evidence does not yet show that psychological processes cause the relationship between outdoor play and children's emotional well-being. Emotion involves more than subjective feelings. Scherer (2005) described emotion as coordinated changes across cognitive appraisal, physiological responses, action tendencies, expression and subjective feelings. Therefore, physiological responses are one component of an emotional response rather than a separate explanation for the effects of outdoor play. Scherer (2005) did not examine outdoor play, so this framework does not provide evidence that outdoor play changes children's physiological responses or emotional well-being. === '''Emotion regulation''' === Emotion regulation provides a psychological framework for understanding how children may manage emotional situations during outdoor play. Gross (2015) described emotion regulation as a process involving identification, selection and implementation. Identification concerns deciding whether to regulate an emotion, selection concerns selecting regulation strategy and implementation concerns applying chosen response into practice. Gross (2015) also described situation selection, situation modification, attentional deployment cognitive change and response modulation. During outdoor play, children may experience frustration, conflict, disagreement, uncertainty or changes to their activity. Gross's framework can be applied to these situations to consider how the children recognise an emotional response, choose strategies to manage and act on chosen strategies. However, Gross (2015) did not examine outdoor play, so applying the framework does not show that outdoor play improves children's emotion regulation. Broader research on children's play has also examined emotional functioning. Veraksa et al. (2025) systematically reviewed 33 studies on non-therapeutic play among children aged 3 to 7 and identified evidence involving emotional regulation, emotional intelligence, and negative emotional symptoms. The review included outdoor play alongside several other forms of play, so its findings should not be interpreted as evidence that outdoor play alone improves emotion regulation. {| class="wikitable" | valign="top" |'''Case study: Part 3'''[[File:14Y Ncdc july 5th-802.jpg|thumb|202x202px|'''Figure 4'''. ''Children can respond differently to emotional situations that occur during outdoor play.'']]When the rules of game change, the child becomes frustrated and decides to step away. After a short time the child returns and suggests a different way to continue the game (see Figure 4). Suggesting a change to the game can be considered an example of situation modification. This shows how Gross's emotion regulation framework can be applied to an emotional situation during outdoor play. {{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}} <quiz display=simple> {What does Gross (2015) emotion regulation framework show when it is applied to the outdoor-play scenario?. |type="()"} -A. Outdoor play causes better emotion regulation. +B. Situation modification can help explain how the child responds to the situation. -C. Children regulate emotions better outdoors than indoors. -D. Stepping away from play always improves emotional well-being. </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} |} === '''Working memory and cognitive process''' === Working memory can be one cognitive process involved in the association between outdoor play and emotional dysregulation. Lee et al. (2025) examined 325 preschool children and tested working memory as a statistical mediator. Outdoor play was examined across three periods of the day; wake up to noon, noon to 6 pm, and 6 pm to bedtime. The findings differed according to the timing of outdoor play. More outdoor play between noon and 6 pm was associated with lower emotional dysregulation. In contrast, more outdoor play before noon and after 6 pm was associated with higher emotional dysregulation. Afternoon outdoor play was also associated with better working memory, and better working memory was associated with lower emotional dysregulation. When working memory was included in the analysis, the association between afternoon outdoor play and emotional dysregulation was no longer statistically significant. Lee et al. (2025) reported this as full mediation. This suggests that working memory may be involved in the association between afternoon outdoor play and lower emotional dysregulation. However, the study was observational, so the mediation analysis does not show that outdoor play caused better working memory or lower emotional dysregulation. Johnstone et al. (2022) reviewed 36 studies of nature-based [[early childhood education]]. The review found very low certainty evidence for some social, emotional, and cognitive outcomes, including [[self-regulation]], while findings for attention were inconsistent. Although, the review examined nature-based early childhood education rather than outdoor play. Therefore, it does not show that working memory explains the association between outdoor play and children's [https://w.wiki/AHG6 emotional well-being]. '''Table 2''' ''Psychological processes considered in the relationship between outdoor play and children's emotional well-being'' {| class="wikitable" !Process !Contribution !Evidence considered in this chapter !Limitations |- |Emotion components |Emotion involves cognitive appraisal, physiological responses, action tendencies, expression and subjective feelings (Scherer, 2005) |This provides a broader psychological understanding of emotional responses |Scherer (2005) did not examine outdoor play, so it does not show that outdoor play changes children's physiological responses or emotional well-being. |- |Emotion regulation |Gross's (2015) framework can be applied to emotional situations during outdoor play, including frustration, disagreement and changes to an activity. |The framework helps explain how children may recognise an emotional response, choose a strategy and act on that strategy. |Gross (2015) did not examine outdoor play, so applying the framework does not show that outdoor play improves emotion regulation. |- |Working memory |Lee et al. (2025) examined working memory as a statistical mediator between outdoor play and emotional dysregulation. |Afternoon outdoor play was associated with better working memory, and better working memory was associated with lower emotional dysregulation. |The study was observational, so the mediation analysis does not show that outdoor play caused better working memory or lower emotional dysregulation. |- |Play and emotional functioning |Veraksa et al. (2025) reviewed 33 studies of non-therapeutic play involving emotional regulation, emotional intelligence and negative emotional symptoms. |The review provides broader evidence linking play with emotional functioning. |The review included several forms of play, so it should not be interpreted as evidence that outdoor play alone improves emotion regulation. |- |Nature-based early childhood education |Johnstone et al. (2022) reviewed 36 studies and reported very low certainty evidence for some social, emotional and cognitive outcomes, including self-regulation. |The review provides broader evidence about cognitive and emotional outcomes in nature-based education. |Nature-based early childhood education is not the same as outdoor play and does not show that working memory explains the association between outdoor play and emotional well-being. |} Note. The sources discussed above provide different types of evidence. Some provide psychological frameworks, while other provide direct outdoor-play research and broader evidence about outdoor play and children's emotional well-being. == '''How do social and environmental conditions influence on children's outdoor play experiences?''' == [[File:2026-10-03 214531-relationship between child and environment.png|thumb|284x284px|'''Figure 5.''' Children's opportunities for outdoor play can be different according to personal, interacting and environmental factors and the relationship between the child and the environment. Note. Original conceptual summary is based on Beekhuizen et al. (2025) and Gibson (1979).]] Outdoor play opportunities depend on social and physical environments. Children may have access to same outdoor space but may not have same opportunities for play. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified personal, interacting and environmental factors that could support or restrict inclusive outdoor play. These difference can be considered through [https://w.wiki/VYfL affordance theory], which examines the opportunities for action through the relationship between an individual and the environment (Gibson, 1979). See Figure 5. === Affordance theory and outdoor play environments === [https://w.wiki/VYfL Affordance theory] was developed by Gibson (1979) to explain the opportunities for action that an environment provides in relation to the person using it. In outdoor play, the opportunities provided by a space can depend on its physical features and how a child is able to use those features. Morgenthaler et al. (2024) applied affordance theory to children's outdoor play and examined outdoor play transactions through environmental taxonomy of outdoor play space features. Their review identified 14 categories of spaces and 284 play opportunities linked to different environmental features. Morgenthaler et al. (2024) showed that different spaces and objects can afford different forms of play, which means two children using the same outdoor play space may not experience the same play opportunities. Therefore, the theory provides a way of understanding differences between children and their use of an outdoor environment. However this study examined the opportunities for play rather than children's well-being. Pereira et al. (2024) also examined features of outdoor play spaces in a systematic review of 51 articles representing 45 primary studies. The review examined features such as fixed structures, natural elements, floor markings, loose equipment and available play areas. Some positive effects were reported, but there was substantial heterogeneity between studies. The studies differed in the environmental features examined, outcomes measures, and study methods, which made difficult to draw a clear conclusions about the effect of individual play space features (Pereira et al., 2024).Therefore, the review does not show that one particular environmental feature improves children's [https://w.wiki/AHG6 emotional well-being]. '''Table 3''' ''Examples of environmental features and possible affordances'' {| class="wikitable" |+ !Environmental feature !Possible affordance for play |- |Fixed structures (e.g. climbing frame) |Can provide opportunity in different forms of physical activity. For example, climbing, physical play, risk-taking |- |Natural elements (e.g. tree, rocks, sand) |Environmental features can provide opportunities for exploratory play, imaginative play, sensory experiences |- |Floor markings (e.g. painted games) |Can support structured activities like rule based play, footy, tennis, etc. |- |Loose equipment (e.g. balls, tyre, boxes) |Movable environmental features that can be used during constructive play, imaginative play, creative problem solving play |- |Open play area |Running, group play, or flexible use |} Note. This table is an original synthesis based on environmental features described by Pereira et al. (2024) and affordance framework applied by Morgenthaler et al. (2024). Environmental features can afford more than one type of play and the opportunities may vary between children. {| class="wikitable" | valign="top" |'''Case study: Part 4 Same space, different opportunities''' Kim and Leo are both at the same school playground during recess. The playground has a climbing structure, a sand pit area and open natural space. * Kim quickly joins a group of children using a climbing frame. The climbing frame structure provides opportunities for physical play and social interactions. * Leo uses a sand pit with other child. He plays with loose materials and creates a sand castle and other different structures. The environment gives him an opportunity for imaginative play and social play. These examples show how the same outdoor space can afford different forms of play for different children, depending on their interests, skills and social context. {{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}} <quiz display=simple> {Which statement best applies affordance theory to the example?. |type="()"} -A. The playground causes children to be more physically active. +B. The same playground can provide different opportunities for play depending on the child and how they use the environment. -C. Climbing structures always lead to better emotional well-being. -D. Open spaces are only useful for social play. </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} |} === '''Social relationship and inclusion''' === Social relationships can shape whether children are able to join and continue outdoor play (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified making contact and growing up together as interacting factors in inclusive outdoor play. Familiarity with other children could make it easier to approach, communicate and play together, while joining unfamiliar children or existing game could be difficult. [https://w.wiki/WDsJ Affective social competence (ASC)] provides a psychological framework for understanding these social interactions (Halberstadt et al., 2001). The ASC model involves experiencing, sending and receiving affect, together with awareness, identification, working within the social context and regulation. These processes may be relevant when a child tries to enter a peer group, recognise other children's emotions and manage their own response during play. Gal-Szabo et al. (2018) used the ASC model as theoretical foundation when examining children's emotional knowledge and social behaviour during preschool free play. The study found that situational understanding of the emotions was negatively related to uninvolved behaviour and was marginally positively related to more social play. However, the study examined preschool free play rather than specific outdoor play. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) also found that children with disabilities experienced more barriers related to making contact, adapting play and physical play environment. These findings suggest that participation in outdoor play depends on both social interaction and children's ability to respond within the play situation, but they do not establish that social play causes better emotional well-being (Beekhuizen et al., 2025; Gal-Szabo et al., 2018). === '''Autonomy, parents and time''' === [https://w.wiki/4NyU Autonomy] can shape how children experience outdoor play (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified autonomy as a personal factor in inclusive outdoor play. Some children valued having independence over what they do and who they play with. Some children with disabilities wanted opportunities to play outside independently without direct parental involvement. Autonomy during play may also have an emotional function. Veraksa et al. (2025), in a systematic review of non-therapeutic play, identified autonomy as one feature through which play may support emotional regulation and coping. However, the review examined several forms of play and does not show that autonomy during outdoor play specially improves children's emotional well-being. Parental support can also make outdoor play possible. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) found that parental involvement could support children's participation when a child needed help to access or participate in outdoor play. Time constraints also affected opportunities for outdoor play. Some children had less time to play outdoors because of parents' work schedule, after school arrangements or longer travel distance between home and school (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). These constraints could limit opportunities for outdoor play even when children wanted greater independence. === '''Outdoor environments and accessibility''' === Outdoor play environments can support or restrict children's participation (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified both physical and social features of outdoor environments as relevant to inclusive play. Children discussed safety, including traffic near playgrounds and disputes with other children. Accessibility was particularly important for children with disabilities because opportunities for inclusive outdoor play could be affected by play environments and physical abilities. Pereira et al. (2024) also showed that heterogeneity between studies limited clear conclusions about the effects of individual outdoor play space features.. Gibson et al. (2017) systematically reviewed five studies of loose-parts play (LPP) interventions with primary school aged children. The review found limited quantitative evidence to determine whether loose-parts interventions affected children's cognitive, social or emotional development. Together, these findings show that features of outdoor environments can support or restrict opportunities for play. However, current evidence does not establish that a particular environmental feature that improves children's emotional well-being (Beekhuizen et al., 2025; Gibson et al., 2017; Pereira et al., 2024). {| class="wikitable" | valign="top" |'''Case study: Part 5 Same play space, different experiences''' {| class="wikitable" |Kim and Leo use the same school playground. Kim already knows many children and easily joins a group activity. Leo uses a mobility device and finds that some areas of the playground are difficult to access. Leo also does not know many children who are already playing. He prefers to play independently when possible. |} The two children have access to the same playground space, but their opportunities to participate are different. There experiences are shaped by more than the physical space alone. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) also identified making contact, familiarity, autonomy and accessibility as factors that could support or restrict inclusive outdoor play. Physical accessibility may affect whether a child can use part of playground, while familiarity with other children may affect whether the child can enter social play. Parental support may also help participation in some situations, while the child may still value greater independence {{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}} <quiz display=simple> {Why might two children have different outdoor-play experiences even they use the same playground?. |type="()"} +A. Physical, social and personal factors can affect how children are able to participate. -B. Outdoor spaces provide the same opportunities for every child. -C. Accessibility is the only factor that affects outdoor play.. -D. Children who know other children always have better emotional well-being. </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} |} == '''What does recent research show about outdoor play and children's emotional well-being?''' == Recent research does not show a consistent association between outdoor play and children's emotional well-being. The findings are mixed across different emotional outcomes measured, the timing and context of outdoor play, children's behaviours, and the methods used to measure outdoor play. These differences are significant when interpreting whether outdoor play is associated with better emotional well-being. The recent studies shows this variation. More frequent outdoor play has been associated with better social-emotional competence (Ferguson et al., 2025) while association with emotional dysregulation differed according to the timing and context of outdoor play (Lee et al., 2025). Positive affect was also higher after outdoor play and and gymnasium recess than after classroom recess, but no significant differences in negative affect between settings (Poulos et al.,2026). Longer-term evidence also examines a different aspect of emotional functioning. More frequent outdoor play during the preschool years was associated with a greater likelihood of following a low and stable trajectory of internalising and externalising symptoms through childhood (Dodd et al., 2026). However, the studies differ in children's ages, research designs, measures of outdoor play and emotional outcomes. Therefore, the evidence should not be interpreted as showing one consistent effect across all children or forms of emotional well-being. === '''Consistency of recent research findings''' === Recent findings are not consistent across all emotional and developmental outcomes. Ferguson et al. (2025) found that more frequent outdoor play was associated with better social-emotional competence, including lower difficulties and greater [[Prosocial Behaviour|prosocial behaviour]]. In contrast, Davenport et al. (2025) found that most associations between outdoor play and the physical, [[Cognitive psychology|cognitive]] and social-emotional developmental indicators examined were not statistically significant. These differences show that positive association with outdoor play are not found across all developmental outcomes. Findings can also differ according to the emotional outcome being measured. Poulos et al. (2026) found higher positive affect after outdoor and gymnasium recess than after classroom recess, but no significant differences in negative affect between the three recess settings. Lee et al. (2025) found that more afternoon outdoor play was associated with lower emotional dysregulation, while more outdoor play earlier and later in the day was associated with higher emotional dysregulation. These findings suggest that the association can differ according to both the emotional outcome and the timing of outdoor play. The time period being examined also differs between studies. Dodd et al. (2026) found that more frequent outdoor play during the preschool years was associated with lower odds of belonging to less favourable internalising and externalising symptom trajectory across childhood. This is different from Poulos et al. (2026), who examined children's emotional states immediately after the recess. Therefore, recent research includes both immediate emotional outcomes and longer-term patterns of emotional functioning. Associations may vary across children and play contexts. Ferguson et al. (2025) reported differences according to ethnicity and whether outdoor play occurred on school days or weekends. Together, these findings suggest that the association between outdoor play and emotional well-being is not same across outcome.The studies differ in children's age, research designs, measures of outdoor play, and emotional outcomes. Thus, findings should not be treated as evidence of one single effect. === '''Strengths and limitations of current research''' === The strength of the evidence also differs according to research design. Dodd et al. (2026) used longitudinal data from 4,151 children and measured outdoor play during the preschool years at approximately 2, 3 and 4 years old, while internalising and externalising symptoms trajectories were measured later through to age 8. This strengthens the evidence about temporal ordering because outdoor play was measured before the later emotional outcomes. However, longitudinal evidence does not establish cause and effect, and the study relied on parent-reported measures. Causal interpretation is also limited in other studies. Lee et al. (2025) used observational data and considered the possibility of reverse causation when interpreting associations between the timing of outdoor play and emotional dysregulation. This means the findings cannot establish whether outdoor play influenced emotional dysregulation or whether children's emotional functioning influenced when they played outdoors. Measurement of outdoor play is another important consideration. Davenport et al. (2025) used both parent-reported and device-measured outdoor play and examined whether associations were independent of outdoor moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA). This is important because outdoor play and outdoor physical activity are related but should not be treated as interchangeable measures. However, the sample was relatively small (N=107) and most tested associations with developmental outcomes were not statistically significant. Limitations are also present across the wider outdoor-play literature. De Lannoy et al. (2023) identified 275 Canadian outdoor-play publications and found that cross-sectional designs were the most common. Mental and emotional development had also received less research attention than physical health and development. This suggests that the evidence base for emotional well-being is less developed than some other areas of outdoor-play research. T'''able 4''' '''''Comparison of recent research''''' {| class="wikitable" |+ !Study !Research method !Research strength !Limitation |- | <small>Lee et al. (2025)</small> |Observational; 6 month follow-up |Examined the timing of outdoor play and tested working memory as a statistical mediator of the association with emotional dysregulation. |Observational mediation cannot establish causation; the study also considered possible reverse causation when interpreting timing-related findings. |- |Ferguson et al. (2025) |Cross sectional; multi ethnic urban cohort (N=2,568) |Large sample allowed associations to be examined across population groups and school-day/weekend outdoor play. |Cross-sectional design cannot establish temporal direction; associations also differed across some groups and play contexts. |- |Davenport et al. (2025) |Observational; preschool sample (N=107) |Used both parent-reported and device-measured outdoor play and distinguished outdoor play from outdoor moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) |Small sample and most tested associations with developmental outcomes were not statistically significant. |- |Dodd et al. (2026) |Longitudinal cohort (N = 4,151) |Outdoor play was measured in the preschool years before later internalising and externalising symptom trajectories. |Outdoor play and symptoms relied on parent reported measures, and the observational design does not establish causations. |- |Poulos et al. (2026) |Recess comparison study (N=317) |Compared children's positive and negative affect following outdoor, gymnasium and classroom recess |Examined immediate affect during an extreme-heat context; higher positive affect was also found after gymnasium recess, so the result was not specific to outdoor recess. |} As shown in Table 4, the recent evidence has different methodological strengths and limitations. Longitudinal designs provide stronger evidence about temporal ordering than cross-sectional design studies, while device-based measures can address some limitations of parent report. However, much of the evidence remains observational, and differences in emotional outcomes, measures of outdoor play and play contexts limit the direct comparison between studies. Future research could benefit from more consistent measures of outdoor play, stronger longitudinal and experimental designs and greater attention to emotional outcomes across different children and play contexts. {| class="wikitable" | valign="top" |{{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}} <quiz display=simple> {Why should the recent findings not be interpreted as showing single consistent effect of outdoor play on children's emotional well-being? |type="()"} -A. Because all the studies used different countries. +B. Because studies differed in emotional outcomes, measures of outdoor play, timing, context and research design. -C. Because longitudinal studies are always more reliable and accurate. -D. Because outdoor play only affects positive outcomes. </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} |} == '''How do families, communities and schools support outdoor play opportunities?''' == [[File:Coalition Builds New Playground in One Day for Chicora-Cherokee Community (11054532905).jpg|thumb|325x325px|Figure 6. Families, communities and school can shape children's opportunities for play.]] Outdoor play opportunities are shaped by children's social and physical environments. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified parents, outdoor play environments, communities and time constraints as environmental factors in inclusive outdoor play. The study also identified autonomy, growing up together, making contact and adapting ways of playing as factors that affected participation. The 2025 Position Statement on Active Outdoor Play recommends increasing opportunities for active outdoor play where people live, learn, work and play (Lee et al., 2025). It also recommends collaboration across sectors and settings to support equitable access. Together, these findings provide a broader context for considering the roles of families, communities and schools. These influences can operate across family, community and school settings (see Figure 5). === '''Families''' === Parents can influence whether children have opportunities to play outdoors. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified parents as an environmental factor in inclusive outdoor play. Children with disabilities described parents as important in encouraging participation. For some children, parents also helped to explain their disability to other children (Beekhuizen et al., 2025).   Broader research also identifies parental factors in children's outdoor play. A systematic review of 21 peer reviewed studies involving children aged 0 to 12 years found that the importance placed on outdoor play was associated with how much time children spent playing outdoors (Boxberger and Reimers, 2019). Evidence for parental encouragement and support was less consistent across children (Boxberger and Reimers, 2019). This suggests that family influence is not limited to direct encouragement. Parents' attitude towards outdoor play may shape children's opportunities to play outdoors. However, the review identified some associations but does not show that parental attitude caused greater outdoor play. Parental support can also involve allowing children to have some independence during outdoor play. Support can make participation possible, but it does not always require direct parental involvement (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). This is particularly relevant when children want more control over how and where they play. Research on independent mobility also shows that children and parents may differ in how much independence they prefer (Han et al., 2022). The study identified different patterns in children's and parents' preferences for independent mobility. These findings show that parental support and autonomy do not always involve the same level of parental involvement. Some children may need support to access or join outdoor play while also wanting greater independence. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) also recommended providing children and parents with knowledge about disabilities and possible adaptations that could support participation. Time constraints can also limit family-level opportunities for outdoor play. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) reported that some children had less time to play outdoors because of parents' work schedules, after-school arrangements and longer travel between home and school. This means that opportunities for outdoor play can be restricted even when children want to play and parents are supportive. === '''Communities''' === Community conditions can affect whether children have safe and inclusive opportunities for outdoor play. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) described physical and social safety as important for inclusive outdoor play. Some playground structures also made participation difficult for children with disabilities. A systematic review of 25 studies found that both physical and social neighbourhood factors were associated with children's outdoor play (Visser & van Aalst, 2022). Social factors included perceived safety, social cohesion and the presence of other children. However, the studies did not identify one neighbourhood feature that consistently explained children's outdoor play across all settings. The social environment may also affect whether children can join others. Children with disabilities described smaller communities, including villages and schools, as places where children and parents could become more familiar with disability. Greater familiarity was associated with greater acceptance and stronger connections with other children (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). Observational research also shows that physical access alone does not explain inclusive outdoor play. Beekhuizen et al. (2026) observed 63 children with and without disabilities during six inclusive outdoor-play sessions and found children with disabilities had lower playfulness scores than children without disabilities. Unfamiliarity could also restrict social inclusion because children preferred to play with peers they already knew. This means providing the same outdoor space does not necessarily provide the same opportunity to participate. The 2025 Position Statement on Active Outdoor Play recommends collaboration across sectors and settings to support equitable access to active outdoor play (Lee et al., 2025). The reviewed findings show why both physical and social conditions matter. Children need places that can be accessed, but familiarity, safety and opportunities to join others can also affect participation. However, the evidence does not show that one community feature alone will increase outdoor play or improve emotional well-being. === '''Schools''' === Schools can provide opportunities for children with and without disabilities to become more familiar with one another. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified growing up together and making contact as interacting factors in inclusive outdoor play. Children described familiarity with other children as making contact easier. School circumstances can also affect the time available for outdoor play. Some children attending special primary education described long travel times between school and home as reducing their opportunities to play outdoors. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified these experiences as part of time constraints. The physical school environment can also be changed to support outdoor activity and socio-emotional outcomes. Bikomeye et al. (2021) systematically reviewed six experimental studies of schoolyard greening. The interventions involved adding greenery and natural elements to schoolyards. Across the included studies, the review reported generally positive findings for physical activity and socio-emotional health. However, the review included only six studies. Schoolyard greening is also a specific intervention and should not be treated as evidence that all forms of outdoor play improve children's emotional well-being. Recess provides another school setting in which children's emotional experiences have been examined directly. Poulos et al. (2026) studied 317 Year 4 and 5 children during extreme heat. Positive affect was higher after outdoor and gymnasium recess than after classroom recess. There were no significant differences in negative affect between the three settings. Poulos et al. (2026) also identified implications for school health, policy and equity. The study discussed heat-adaptive infrastructure as one way to support access to recess environments during extreme heat. However, the findings do not show that outdoor recess is always better than indoor recess because positive affect was also higher after gymnasium recess. {{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Quiz}} <quiz display=simple> {Which statement best reflects how families, communities and school can support children's outdoor play opportunities? |type="()"} + Support can involve accessible environments, safety, familiarity, appropriate parental support and opportunities for children to participate with some independence. - Providing the same outdoor space gives every child the same opportunity to participate. -Schoolyard greening alone is enough to improve children's emotional well-being. -Outdoor recess always produces better emotional outcomes than indoor recess. </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} == '''Conclusion''' == Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being are not represented by single, consistent concepts across recent research. Outdoor play should be distinguished from outdoor physical activity, while emotional well-being has been examined through emotional dysregulation, social-emotional competence, positive and negative affect, and internalising and externalising symptoms. These differences are important because findings across studies do not represent the same emotional outcomes or time frames. Outdoor play may be related to children's emotional well-being through several psychological processes, but the strength of evidence differs across them. Gross's (2015) emotion regulation framework helps explain how children may respond to emotional situations during play, while working memory provides more direct evidence of a possible cognitive process in the association between afternoon outdoor play and lower emotional dysregulation (Lee et al., 2025). However, these findings do not establish that outdoor play causes better emotion regulation or emotional well-being. Recent research also does not show one consistent effect across all children, outcomes or play contexts. Some studies report associations with better social-emotional competence, lower-risk symptom trajectories or higher positive affect, while other findings are mixed or non-significant (Davenport et al., 2025; Dodd et al., 2026; Ferguson et al., 2025). Differences in research design, measurement, timing and context therefore need to be considered when interpreting the evidence. Children's opportunities for outdoor play are also shaped by their social and physical environments. Accessibility, familiarity, autonomy, parental support, safety and opportunities to join other children can influence whether the same outdoor space provides the same opportunity to participate. Families, communities and schools can therefore support outdoor play by considering both access to outdoor spaces and the conditions that allow children to participate in ways that suit their needs and circumstances. Overall, current research suggests that outdoor play is associated with some aspects of children's emotional well-being, but the relationship is more complex than simply spending more time outdoors. The relation between outdoor play and children's emotional well-being varies depending on how outdoor play is measured, timing, context and children's opportunities to participate. ==See also== {{ic|Use bullet points as shown in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]}} https://www-taylorfrancis-com.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/books/mono/10.4324/9781003349655/right-child-play-naomi-lott Book Chapter, 2 {{ic|Move to References and cite}} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotional_dysregulation<nowiki/>- Wikipedia article {{ic|Use an internal links as shown in Tutorial 2}} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autonomy<nowiki/>- Wikipedia article {{ic|Use an internal links as shown in Tutorial 2}} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Longitudinal_study<nowiki/>-Wikipedia article {{ic|Use an internal links as shown in Tutorial 2}} [[Cognitive psychology|https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Cognitive_psychology]]-Wikipedia article https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affordance<nowiki/>-Wikipedia article {{ic|Use an internal links as shown in Tutorial 2}} ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Beekhuizen, R. Q., Bloemen, M. A. T., Bolster, E. A. M., Visser, K., Lugt, R., Bassa, M., Henry, N. L., Kotte, E. M. W., Hartingsveldt, M., & Gorter, J. W. (2026). Can You See Us Play? Observing Inclusive Outdoor Play Behaviour Among Children With and Without Disabilities: A Mixed Methods Study. Child : Care, Health & Development, 52(1), e70198-n/a. https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.70198 Beekhuizen, R. Q., Bolster, E. A. M., Gorter, J. W., Henry, N. L., Visser, K., Wittink, H., Kotte, E. M. W., Sol, M. E., & Bloemen, M. A. T. (2025). Play Together? Unveiling Facilitators and Barriers to Inclusive Outdoor Play for Dutch Children With and Without Disabilities: A Qualitative Study. Child: Care, Health & Development, 51(6), Article e70154. https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.70154 Biino, V., Pesce, C., & Martins, C. (2025). Motor Skill Development at Preschool Age in Girls and Boys: The Role of Outdoor Free Play. Children, 12(5), Article 594. https://doi.org/10.3390/children12050594 Bikomeye, J., Balza, J., & Beyer, K. (2021). The Impact of Schoolyard Greening on Children’s Physical Activity and Socioemotional Health: A Systematic Review of Experimental Studies. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(2), 535. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18020535 Boxberger, K., & Reimers, A. K. (2019). Parental correlates of outdoor play in boys and girls aged 0 to 12: A systematic review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(2, Art. 190), 19-16:2, Art. 190<19. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16020190 Davenport, C., Kuzik, N., Larouche, R., & Carson, V. (2025). The Associations Between Parental-Reported and Device-Based Measured Outdoor Play and Health Indicators of Physical, Cognitive, and Social–Emotional Development in Preschool-Aged Children. Pediatric Exercise Science, 37(2), 102–111. https://doi.org/10.1123/pes.2023-0119 de Lannoy, L., Barbeau, K., Seguin, N., & Tremblay, M. S. (2023). Scoping review of children’s and youth’s outdoor play publications in Canada. Chronic Diseases in Canada, 43(1), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.24095/hpcdp.43.1.01 Dodd, H. F., Cordwell, K., Hesketh, K., Johnstone, A., de la Torre-Luque, A., & McCrorie, P. (2026). Early outdoor play predicts trajectories of child mental health in a population-based cohort. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.70175 Ferguson, M., Teyhan, A., Lovell, R., Dodd, H., Wheeler, B., & McEachan, R. (2025). The association between park visits, outdoor play and child social-emotional competency in a multi-ethnic, urban cohort. Wellbeing, Space and Society, 9, Article 100293. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wss.2025.100293 Gal‐Szabo, D. E., Spinrad, T. L., Eisenberg, N., & Sulik, M. J. (2019). The relations of children’s emotion knowledge to their observed social play and reticent/uninvolved behavior in preschool: Moderation by effortful control. Social Development (Oxford, England), 28(1), 57–73. https://doi.org/10.1111/sode.12321 Gibson, J. J. (1979). The ecological approach to visual perception / James J. Gibson. Houghton Mifflin. Gibson, J.L., Cornell, M. & Gill, T. A Systematic Review of Research into the Impact of Loose Parts Play on Children’s Cognitive, Social and Emotional Development. School Mental Health 9, 295–309 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12310-017-9220-9 Gross, J. J. (2015). Emotion Regulation: Current Status and Future Prospects. Psychological Inquiry, 26(1), 1–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/1047840X.2014.940781 Halberstadt, A. G., Denham, S. A., & Dunsmore, J. C. (2001). Affective Social Competence. Social Development (Oxford, England), 10(1), 79–119. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9507.00150 Han, C. S., Brussoni, M. J., & Mâsse, L. C. (2022). Parental Autonomy Support in the Context of Parent–Child Negotiation for Children’s Independent Mobility: ‘I Always Feel Safer With My Parents’ to ‘Boom! Bust Down Those Walls! The Journal of Early Adolescence, 42(6), Article 02724316211064513. https://doi.org/10.1177/02724316211064513 Johnstone, A., Martin, A., Cordovil, R., Fjørtoft, I., Iivonen, S., Jidovtseff, B., Lopes, F., Reilly, J. J., Thomson, H., Wells, V., & McCrorie, P. (2022). Nature-Based Early Childhood Education and Children’s Social, Emotional and Cognitive Development: A Mixed-Methods Systematic Review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(10), 5967. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19105967 Lee, E.-Y., de Lannoy, L., Kim, Y.-B., Rathod, A., James, M. E., Lopes, O., Nasrallah, B., Thankarajah, A., Adjei-Boadi, D., de Barros, M. I. A., Duncan, S., Miller, R. M., Mygind, L., Vanderloo, L. M., Wang, P.-Y., & Tremblay, M. S. (2025). 2025 Position statement on active outdoor play. The International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 22(1), Article 117. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12966-025-01813-9 Lee, J. J., Flouri, E., & Jackson, Y. (2025). The Role of Timing and Amount of Outdoor Play in Emotional Dysregulation in Preschool Children. Child: Care, Health & Development, 51(1), Article e70020. https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.70020 Morgenthaler, T., Lynch, H., Loebach, J., Pentland, D., & Schulze, C. (2024). Using the Theory of Affordances to Understand Environment–Play Transactions: Environmental Taxonomy of Outdoor Play Space Features—A Scoping Review. The American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 78(4), Article 7804185120. https://doi.org/10.5014/ajot.2024.050606 Pereira, J. V., Vila-Nova, F., Veiga, G., Lopes, F., & Cordovil, R. (2024). Associations between outdoor play features and children’s behavior and health: A systematic review. Health & Place, 87, Article 103235. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healthplace.2024.103235 Poulos, A., Hassan, U. A., Wilson, K., Price, P. M., Vanos, J., & Quilla, J. (2026). Differences in Schoolchildren’s Emotional State After Indoor Versus Outdoor Recess in Extreme‐Heat Weather. The Journal of School Health, 96(4), Article e70135. https://doi.org/10.1111/josh.70135 Scherer, K. R. (2005). What are emotions? And how can they be measured? Social Science Information, 44(4), 695–729. https://doi.org/10.1177/0539018405058216 Veraksa, A. N., Plotnikova, V. A., Sukhikh, V. L., Kornienko, D. S., & Rudnova, N. A. (2025). Non-therapeutic play to overcome negative emotional symptoms and improve emotional intelligence in children aged 3–7: a systematic review. Frontiers in Psychology, 16, 1475387. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1475387 Visser, K., & Aalst, I. (2022). Neighbourhood Factors in Children’s Outdoor Play: A Systematic Literature Review. Tijdschrift Voor Economische En Sociale Geografie, 113(1), 80–95. https://doi.org/10.1111/tesg.12505 }} ==External links== {{ic|Use bullet points as shown in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]}} * https://www.child-encyclopedia.com/outdoor-play<nowiki/>-Encyclopedia in early childhood development * https://www.outdoorplaycanada.ca/wp-content/uploads/2026/03/The-2025-AOP10-Position-Statement.pdf<nowiki/>-Position Statement * https://www.who.int/news/item/24-04-2019-to-grow-up-healthy-children-need-to-sit-less-and-play-more<nowiki/>-World Health Organisation [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Children]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Nature]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Well-being]] l8u1b3gjulxxl6jqgps1afgd454ysnt 2835790 2835693 2026-10-04T11:58:03Z Mymunu 3106327 /* See also */ 2835790 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being:<br>How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {| class="wikitable" |'''Case study: Part 1'''[[File:School children happily playing in playground.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. Children engaged in outdoor play, where social interactions, choice and control on the situation can create different emotional experiences.]]Imagine that... A child arrives at playground and joins a group of children who are already playing. The children are making their own game and deciding the rules as they play. At first, the child enjoys choosing where and what to play. During the game, another child changes the rules of the game and argument breaks out. The child becomes frustrated and walks away from the activity. After watching for a short time, the child returns, suggests a new idea to continue the game and re-joins the group. How might experiences like this during outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being? Emotional regulation provides one psychological framework for understanding how children may respond to situations like this during play (see figure 1). |} Outdoor play can involve more than physical movement. It can occur across playgrounds, gardens, streets and natural spaces. Outdoor play includes exploration, social interaction, choice, challenge, and engagement with the surrounding environment (Dodd et al., 2026; Pereira et al., 2024). As shown in the case study part 1, outdoor play can involve emotional situations such as [[Aggression|frustration]], disagreement, uncertainty or excitement. Gross's (2015) emotional regulation provides a [[psychological]] explanation for how children may recognise and respond to these emotional situations. Outdoor play experiences are also shaped by the environment where play takes place. Different physical and social environments can provide different opportunities for play, which means the same outdoor space may not provide the same opportunities for every child (Morgenthaler et al., 2024).This chapter examines how [[Emotional regulation|emotional,]] [[Cognitive psychology|cognitive]], social and environmental processes may help explain the relationship between outdoor play and children's [https://w.wiki/AHG6 emotional well-being.] {| class="wikitable" | ;[[File:Bulb Idea Flat Icon GIF Animation.gif|alt=Focus questions|left|99x99px|thumb]] '''Focus questions''' * '''What are outdoor play and children's emotional well-being?''' * '''How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being?''' * '''How do social and environmental conditions shape children's outdoor play experiences?''' * '''What does recent research show about outdoor play and children's emotional well-being?''' * '''How can families, communities and schools support outdoor play opportunities that may benefit children's emotional well-being?''' |} == '''Understanding outdoor play and children's emotional well-being''' == [[File:Water-outdoor-people-girl-play-boy-938233.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. ''Outdoor play can provide opportunities to explore, make choices, interact with others and respond to changing situations through activities such as water play.''|214x214px]] Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being are not measured as single and consistent concepts across recent research. Outdoor play may be examined as voluntary and intrinsically motivated activity, self directed play, parent reported outdoor play, or device-measured outdoor play (Binno et al., 2025; Davenport et al., 2025; Dodd et al., 2026). It should also be distinguished from outdoor moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) because these measures do not represent the same behaviour (Davenport et al., 2025). Children's emotional well-being is also examined through different outcomes, which include [https://w.wiki/7YC8 emotional dysregulation], social-emotional competence, positive and negative affect, and internalising or externalising symptoms (Dodd et al., 2026; Ferguson et al., 2025; Lee et al., 2025; Poulos et al., 2026). These differences need to be considered when findings across the studies are compared. === Outdoor play === Outdoor play is voluntary and and intrinsically motivated activity that occurs in outdoor environments such as gardens, playgrounds, parks and natural spaces (Dodd et al., 2026). Free play can be also self-directed, allowing children to interact freely with the environment and have [https://w.wiki/4NyU autonomy] to make choices about their activities (Biino et al., 2025). Outdoor play should not be treated as the same as outdoor physical activity. The recent research outdoor play and outdoor moderate- to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) were examined as separate measures (Davenport et al., 2025). This distinction is important because outdoor play intensity of physical activity do not represent the same behaviour. === Children's emotional well-being === Children's emotional well-being is not represented by a single common outcome across recent outdoor play research. Emotional dysregulation has been examined in relation to the amount and timing of outdoor play (Lee et al., 2025), while social-emotional competence includes social emotional difficulties and [[Prosocial behavior/Keywords/Definitions|prosocial behaviour]] (Ferguson et al., 2025). Other studies have examined positive and negative affect following recess (Poulos et al., 2026) and trajectories of internalising and externalising symptoms across childhood (Dodd et al., 2026). These outcomes represent different aspects and timeframes of emotional functioning, so they should not be treated as equivalent when findings are compared. '''Table 1''' ''Emotional outcomes examined in recent research on outdoor play and children's emotional well-being'' {| class="wikitable" |+ !Study !Outcome examined !What the outcome represents |- |Lee et al. (2025) |Emotional dysregulation |Difficulties in emotional regulation; examined in relation to the amount of timing of outdoor play |- |Ferguson et al. (2025) |Social-emotional competence |Social-emotional difficulties and prosocial behaviour |- |Poulos et al. (2026) |Positive and negative affect |Children's affect following recess across different settings |- |Dodd et al. (2026) |Internalising and externalising symptoms |Internalising: emotional symptoms and peer problems Externalising: conduct problems and hyperactivity- inattention |} Note. Outcome descriptions are based on the measures and constructs reported in the above cited studies. See Table 1. As shown in Table 1, the studies do not measure the same aspect or time frame of children's emotional functioning. Affect immediately following recess should not be treated as equivalent to emotional dysregulation measured over time or trajectories of internalising and externalising symptoms across childhood. This difference need to be considered when findings across studies are compared. '''Case study: part 2''' ''What is being measured?'' {| class="wikitable" | valign="top" |[[File:Children marbles.jpg|thumb|221x221px|'''Figure 3'''. ''Children's immediate emotional responses during outdoor play is different from long-term emotional functioning.'']]The child in the Case study: Part 1 becomes frustrated when the rules of the game change. This immediate emotional response is different from a longer-term pattern of emotional dysregulation or internalising symptoms. Research on outdoor play measures these outcomes across different time frames and contexts. When findings are compared, it is important to consider which aspect of emotional well-being is measured. {{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}} <quiz display=simple> {A child's positive or negative affect immediately after recess represents the same emotional outcome as longer-term internalising or externalising symptoms. |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} |} == '''How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being?''' == Outdoor play may be related to children's emotional well-being through emotional, cognitive, and social processes (Dodd et al., 2026). Possible pathways discussed in the recent research include cognitive, social and emotional skills, social interaction, physical activity, connection with the nature and adventurous play (Dodd et al., 2026). However, these pathways have not all been directly tested as mechanisms, and many of the outdoor play research remain observational (Dodd et al., 2026; de Lannoy et al., 2023). Psychological theory can help to explain how and why outdoor play experiences may influence children's emotional well-being. Although the evidence does not yet show that psychological processes cause the relationship between outdoor play and children's emotional well-being. Emotion involves more than subjective feelings. Scherer (2005) described emotion as coordinated changes across cognitive appraisal, physiological responses, action tendencies, expression and subjective feelings. Therefore, physiological responses are one component of an emotional response rather than a separate explanation for the effects of outdoor play. Scherer (2005) did not examine outdoor play, so this framework does not provide evidence that outdoor play changes children's physiological responses or emotional well-being. === '''Emotion regulation''' === Emotion regulation provides a psychological framework for understanding how children may manage emotional situations during outdoor play. Gross (2015) described emotion regulation as a process involving identification, selection and implementation. Identification concerns deciding whether to regulate an emotion, selection concerns selecting regulation strategy and implementation concerns applying chosen response into practice. Gross (2015) also described situation selection, situation modification, attentional deployment cognitive change and response modulation. During outdoor play, children may experience frustration, conflict, disagreement, uncertainty or changes to their activity. Gross's framework can be applied to these situations to consider how the children recognise an emotional response, choose strategies to manage and act on chosen strategies. However, Gross (2015) did not examine outdoor play, so applying the framework does not show that outdoor play improves children's emotion regulation. Broader research on children's play has also examined emotional functioning. Veraksa et al. (2025) systematically reviewed 33 studies on non-therapeutic play among children aged 3 to 7 and identified evidence involving emotional regulation, emotional intelligence, and negative emotional symptoms. The review included outdoor play alongside several other forms of play, so its findings should not be interpreted as evidence that outdoor play alone improves emotion regulation. {| class="wikitable" | valign="top" |'''Case study: Part 3'''[[File:14Y Ncdc july 5th-802.jpg|thumb|202x202px|'''Figure 4'''. ''Children can respond differently to emotional situations that occur during outdoor play.'']]When the rules of game change, the child becomes frustrated and decides to step away. After a short time the child returns and suggests a different way to continue the game (see Figure 4). Suggesting a change to the game can be considered an example of situation modification. This shows how Gross's emotion regulation framework can be applied to an emotional situation during outdoor play. {{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}} <quiz display=simple> {What does Gross (2015) emotion regulation framework show when it is applied to the outdoor-play scenario?. |type="()"} -A. Outdoor play causes better emotion regulation. +B. Situation modification can help explain how the child responds to the situation. -C. Children regulate emotions better outdoors than indoors. -D. Stepping away from play always improves emotional well-being. </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} |} === '''Working memory and cognitive process''' === Working memory can be one cognitive process involved in the association between outdoor play and emotional dysregulation. Lee et al. (2025) examined 325 preschool children and tested working memory as a statistical mediator. Outdoor play was examined across three periods of the day; wake up to noon, noon to 6 pm, and 6 pm to bedtime. The findings differed according to the timing of outdoor play. More outdoor play between noon and 6 pm was associated with lower emotional dysregulation. In contrast, more outdoor play before noon and after 6 pm was associated with higher emotional dysregulation. Afternoon outdoor play was also associated with better working memory, and better working memory was associated with lower emotional dysregulation. When working memory was included in the analysis, the association between afternoon outdoor play and emotional dysregulation was no longer statistically significant. Lee et al. (2025) reported this as full mediation. This suggests that working memory may be involved in the association between afternoon outdoor play and lower emotional dysregulation. However, the study was observational, so the mediation analysis does not show that outdoor play caused better working memory or lower emotional dysregulation. Johnstone et al. (2022) reviewed 36 studies of nature-based [[early childhood education]]. The review found very low certainty evidence for some social, emotional, and cognitive outcomes, including [[self-regulation]], while findings for attention were inconsistent. Although, the review examined nature-based early childhood education rather than outdoor play. Therefore, it does not show that working memory explains the association between outdoor play and children's [https://w.wiki/AHG6 emotional well-being]. '''Table 2''' ''Psychological processes considered in the relationship between outdoor play and children's emotional well-being'' {| class="wikitable" !Process !Contribution !Evidence considered in this chapter !Limitations |- |Emotion components |Emotion involves cognitive appraisal, physiological responses, action tendencies, expression and subjective feelings (Scherer, 2005) |This provides a broader psychological understanding of emotional responses |Scherer (2005) did not examine outdoor play, so it does not show that outdoor play changes children's physiological responses or emotional well-being. |- |Emotion regulation |Gross's (2015) framework can be applied to emotional situations during outdoor play, including frustration, disagreement and changes to an activity. |The framework helps explain how children may recognise an emotional response, choose a strategy and act on that strategy. |Gross (2015) did not examine outdoor play, so applying the framework does not show that outdoor play improves emotion regulation. |- |Working memory |Lee et al. (2025) examined working memory as a statistical mediator between outdoor play and emotional dysregulation. |Afternoon outdoor play was associated with better working memory, and better working memory was associated with lower emotional dysregulation. |The study was observational, so the mediation analysis does not show that outdoor play caused better working memory or lower emotional dysregulation. |- |Play and emotional functioning |Veraksa et al. (2025) reviewed 33 studies of non-therapeutic play involving emotional regulation, emotional intelligence and negative emotional symptoms. |The review provides broader evidence linking play with emotional functioning. |The review included several forms of play, so it should not be interpreted as evidence that outdoor play alone improves emotion regulation. |- |Nature-based early childhood education |Johnstone et al. (2022) reviewed 36 studies and reported very low certainty evidence for some social, emotional and cognitive outcomes, including self-regulation. |The review provides broader evidence about cognitive and emotional outcomes in nature-based education. |Nature-based early childhood education is not the same as outdoor play and does not show that working memory explains the association between outdoor play and emotional well-being. |} Note. The sources discussed above provide different types of evidence. Some provide psychological frameworks, while other provide direct outdoor-play research and broader evidence about outdoor play and children's emotional well-being. == '''How do social and environmental conditions influence on children's outdoor play experiences?''' == [[File:2026-10-03 214531-relationship between child and environment.png|thumb|284x284px|'''Figure 5.''' Children's opportunities for outdoor play can be different according to personal, interacting and environmental factors and the relationship between the child and the environment. Note. Original conceptual summary is based on Beekhuizen et al. (2025) and Gibson (1979).]] Outdoor play opportunities depend on social and physical environments. Children may have access to same outdoor space but may not have same opportunities for play. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified personal, interacting and environmental factors that could support or restrict inclusive outdoor play. These difference can be considered through [https://w.wiki/VYfL affordance theory], which examines the opportunities for action through the relationship between an individual and the environment (Gibson, 1979). See Figure 5. === Affordance theory and outdoor play environments === [https://w.wiki/VYfL Affordance theory] was developed by Gibson (1979) to explain the opportunities for action that an environment provides in relation to the person using it. In outdoor play, the opportunities provided by a space can depend on its physical features and how a child is able to use those features. Morgenthaler et al. (2024) applied affordance theory to children's outdoor play and examined outdoor play transactions through environmental taxonomy of outdoor play space features. Their review identified 14 categories of spaces and 284 play opportunities linked to different environmental features. Morgenthaler et al. (2024) showed that different spaces and objects can afford different forms of play, which means two children using the same outdoor play space may not experience the same play opportunities. Therefore, the theory provides a way of understanding differences between children and their use of an outdoor environment. However this study examined the opportunities for play rather than children's well-being. Pereira et al. (2024) also examined features of outdoor play spaces in a systematic review of 51 articles representing 45 primary studies. The review examined features such as fixed structures, natural elements, floor markings, loose equipment and available play areas. Some positive effects were reported, but there was substantial heterogeneity between studies. The studies differed in the environmental features examined, outcomes measures, and study methods, which made difficult to draw a clear conclusions about the effect of individual play space features (Pereira et al., 2024).Therefore, the review does not show that one particular environmental feature improves children's [https://w.wiki/AHG6 emotional well-being]. '''Table 3''' ''Examples of environmental features and possible affordances'' {| class="wikitable" |+ !Environmental feature !Possible affordance for play |- |Fixed structures (e.g. climbing frame) |Can provide opportunity in different forms of physical activity. For example, climbing, physical play, risk-taking |- |Natural elements (e.g. tree, rocks, sand) |Environmental features can provide opportunities for exploratory play, imaginative play, sensory experiences |- |Floor markings (e.g. painted games) |Can support structured activities like rule based play, footy, tennis, etc. |- |Loose equipment (e.g. balls, tyre, boxes) |Movable environmental features that can be used during constructive play, imaginative play, creative problem solving play |- |Open play area |Running, group play, or flexible use |} Note. This table is an original synthesis based on environmental features described by Pereira et al. (2024) and affordance framework applied by Morgenthaler et al. (2024). Environmental features can afford more than one type of play and the opportunities may vary between children. {| class="wikitable" | valign="top" |'''Case study: Part 4 Same space, different opportunities''' Kim and Leo are both at the same school playground during recess. The playground has a climbing structure, a sand pit area and open natural space. * Kim quickly joins a group of children using a climbing frame. The climbing frame structure provides opportunities for physical play and social interactions. * Leo uses a sand pit with other child. He plays with loose materials and creates a sand castle and other different structures. The environment gives him an opportunity for imaginative play and social play. These examples show how the same outdoor space can afford different forms of play for different children, depending on their interests, skills and social context. {{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}} <quiz display=simple> {Which statement best applies affordance theory to the example?. |type="()"} -A. The playground causes children to be more physically active. +B. The same playground can provide different opportunities for play depending on the child and how they use the environment. -C. Climbing structures always lead to better emotional well-being. -D. Open spaces are only useful for social play. </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} |} === '''Social relationship and inclusion''' === Social relationships can shape whether children are able to join and continue outdoor play (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified making contact and growing up together as interacting factors in inclusive outdoor play. Familiarity with other children could make it easier to approach, communicate and play together, while joining unfamiliar children or existing game could be difficult. [https://w.wiki/WDsJ Affective social competence (ASC)] provides a psychological framework for understanding these social interactions (Halberstadt et al., 2001). The ASC model involves experiencing, sending and receiving affect, together with awareness, identification, working within the social context and regulation. These processes may be relevant when a child tries to enter a peer group, recognise other children's emotions and manage their own response during play. Gal-Szabo et al. (2018) used the ASC model as theoretical foundation when examining children's emotional knowledge and social behaviour during preschool free play. The study found that situational understanding of the emotions was negatively related to uninvolved behaviour and was marginally positively related to more social play. However, the study examined preschool free play rather than specific outdoor play. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) also found that children with disabilities experienced more barriers related to making contact, adapting play and physical play environment. These findings suggest that participation in outdoor play depends on both social interaction and children's ability to respond within the play situation, but they do not establish that social play causes better emotional well-being (Beekhuizen et al., 2025; Gal-Szabo et al., 2018). === '''Autonomy, parents and time''' === [https://w.wiki/4NyU Autonomy] can shape how children experience outdoor play (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified autonomy as a personal factor in inclusive outdoor play. Some children valued having independence over what they do and who they play with. Some children with disabilities wanted opportunities to play outside independently without direct parental involvement. Autonomy during play may also have an emotional function. Veraksa et al. (2025), in a systematic review of non-therapeutic play, identified autonomy as one feature through which play may support emotional regulation and coping. However, the review examined several forms of play and does not show that autonomy during outdoor play specially improves children's emotional well-being. Parental support can also make outdoor play possible. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) found that parental involvement could support children's participation when a child needed help to access or participate in outdoor play. Time constraints also affected opportunities for outdoor play. Some children had less time to play outdoors because of parents' work schedule, after school arrangements or longer travel distance between home and school (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). These constraints could limit opportunities for outdoor play even when children wanted greater independence. === '''Outdoor environments and accessibility''' === Outdoor play environments can support or restrict children's participation (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified both physical and social features of outdoor environments as relevant to inclusive play. Children discussed safety, including traffic near playgrounds and disputes with other children. Accessibility was particularly important for children with disabilities because opportunities for inclusive outdoor play could be affected by play environments and physical abilities. Pereira et al. (2024) also showed that heterogeneity between studies limited clear conclusions about the effects of individual outdoor play space features.. Gibson et al. (2017) systematically reviewed five studies of loose-parts play (LPP) interventions with primary school aged children. The review found limited quantitative evidence to determine whether loose-parts interventions affected children's cognitive, social or emotional development. Together, these findings show that features of outdoor environments can support or restrict opportunities for play. However, current evidence does not establish that a particular environmental feature that improves children's emotional well-being (Beekhuizen et al., 2025; Gibson et al., 2017; Pereira et al., 2024). {| class="wikitable" | valign="top" |'''Case study: Part 5 Same play space, different experiences''' {| class="wikitable" |Kim and Leo use the same school playground. Kim already knows many children and easily joins a group activity. Leo uses a mobility device and finds that some areas of the playground are difficult to access. Leo also does not know many children who are already playing. He prefers to play independently when possible. |} The two children have access to the same playground space, but their opportunities to participate are different. There experiences are shaped by more than the physical space alone. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) also identified making contact, familiarity, autonomy and accessibility as factors that could support or restrict inclusive outdoor play. Physical accessibility may affect whether a child can use part of playground, while familiarity with other children may affect whether the child can enter social play. Parental support may also help participation in some situations, while the child may still value greater independence {{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}} <quiz display=simple> {Why might two children have different outdoor-play experiences even they use the same playground?. |type="()"} +A. Physical, social and personal factors can affect how children are able to participate. -B. Outdoor spaces provide the same opportunities for every child. -C. Accessibility is the only factor that affects outdoor play.. -D. Children who know other children always have better emotional well-being. </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} |} == '''What does recent research show about outdoor play and children's emotional well-being?''' == Recent research does not show a consistent association between outdoor play and children's emotional well-being. The findings are mixed across different emotional outcomes measured, the timing and context of outdoor play, children's behaviours, and the methods used to measure outdoor play. These differences are significant when interpreting whether outdoor play is associated with better emotional well-being. The recent studies shows this variation. More frequent outdoor play has been associated with better social-emotional competence (Ferguson et al., 2025) while association with emotional dysregulation differed according to the timing and context of outdoor play (Lee et al., 2025). Positive affect was also higher after outdoor play and and gymnasium recess than after classroom recess, but no significant differences in negative affect between settings (Poulos et al.,2026). Longer-term evidence also examines a different aspect of emotional functioning. More frequent outdoor play during the preschool years was associated with a greater likelihood of following a low and stable trajectory of internalising and externalising symptoms through childhood (Dodd et al., 2026). However, the studies differ in children's ages, research designs, measures of outdoor play and emotional outcomes. Therefore, the evidence should not be interpreted as showing one consistent effect across all children or forms of emotional well-being. === '''Consistency of recent research findings''' === Recent findings are not consistent across all emotional and developmental outcomes. Ferguson et al. (2025) found that more frequent outdoor play was associated with better social-emotional competence, including lower difficulties and greater [[Prosocial Behaviour|prosocial behaviour]]. In contrast, Davenport et al. (2025) found that most associations between outdoor play and the physical, [[Cognitive psychology|cognitive]] and social-emotional developmental indicators examined were not statistically significant. These differences show that positive association with outdoor play are not found across all developmental outcomes. Findings can also differ according to the emotional outcome being measured. Poulos et al. (2026) found higher positive affect after outdoor and gymnasium recess than after classroom recess, but no significant differences in negative affect between the three recess settings. Lee et al. (2025) found that more afternoon outdoor play was associated with lower emotional dysregulation, while more outdoor play earlier and later in the day was associated with higher emotional dysregulation. These findings suggest that the association can differ according to both the emotional outcome and the timing of outdoor play. The time period being examined also differs between studies. Dodd et al. (2026) found that more frequent outdoor play during the preschool years was associated with lower odds of belonging to less favourable internalising and externalising symptom trajectory across childhood. This is different from Poulos et al. (2026), who examined children's emotional states immediately after the recess. Therefore, recent research includes both immediate emotional outcomes and longer-term patterns of emotional functioning. Associations may vary across children and play contexts. Ferguson et al. (2025) reported differences according to ethnicity and whether outdoor play occurred on school days or weekends. Together, these findings suggest that the association between outdoor play and emotional well-being is not same across outcome.The studies differ in children's age, research designs, measures of outdoor play, and emotional outcomes. Thus, findings should not be treated as evidence of one single effect. === '''Strengths and limitations of current research''' === The strength of the evidence also differs according to research design. Dodd et al. (2026) used longitudinal data from 4,151 children and measured outdoor play during the preschool years at approximately 2, 3 and 4 years old, while internalising and externalising symptoms trajectories were measured later through to age 8. This strengthens the evidence about temporal ordering because outdoor play was measured before the later emotional outcomes. However, longitudinal evidence does not establish cause and effect, and the study relied on parent-reported measures. Causal interpretation is also limited in other studies. Lee et al. (2025) used observational data and considered the possibility of reverse causation when interpreting associations between the timing of outdoor play and emotional dysregulation. This means the findings cannot establish whether outdoor play influenced emotional dysregulation or whether children's emotional functioning influenced when they played outdoors. Measurement of outdoor play is another important consideration. Davenport et al. (2025) used both parent-reported and device-measured outdoor play and examined whether associations were independent of outdoor moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA). This is important because outdoor play and outdoor physical activity are related but should not be treated as interchangeable measures. However, the sample was relatively small (N=107) and most tested associations with developmental outcomes were not statistically significant. Limitations are also present across the wider outdoor-play literature. De Lannoy et al. (2023) identified 275 Canadian outdoor-play publications and found that cross-sectional designs were the most common. Mental and emotional development had also received less research attention than physical health and development. This suggests that the evidence base for emotional well-being is less developed than some other areas of outdoor-play research. T'''able 4''' '''''Comparison of recent research''''' {| class="wikitable" |+ !Study !Research method !Research strength !Limitation |- | <small>Lee et al. (2025)</small> |Observational; 6 month follow-up |Examined the timing of outdoor play and tested working memory as a statistical mediator of the association with emotional dysregulation. |Observational mediation cannot establish causation; the study also considered possible reverse causation when interpreting timing-related findings. |- |Ferguson et al. (2025) |Cross sectional; multi ethnic urban cohort (N=2,568) |Large sample allowed associations to be examined across population groups and school-day/weekend outdoor play. |Cross-sectional design cannot establish temporal direction; associations also differed across some groups and play contexts. |- |Davenport et al. (2025) |Observational; preschool sample (N=107) |Used both parent-reported and device-measured outdoor play and distinguished outdoor play from outdoor moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) |Small sample and most tested associations with developmental outcomes were not statistically significant. |- |Dodd et al. (2026) |Longitudinal cohort (N = 4,151) |Outdoor play was measured in the preschool years before later internalising and externalising symptom trajectories. |Outdoor play and symptoms relied on parent reported measures, and the observational design does not establish causations. |- |Poulos et al. (2026) |Recess comparison study (N=317) |Compared children's positive and negative affect following outdoor, gymnasium and classroom recess |Examined immediate affect during an extreme-heat context; higher positive affect was also found after gymnasium recess, so the result was not specific to outdoor recess. |} As shown in Table 4, the recent evidence has different methodological strengths and limitations. Longitudinal designs provide stronger evidence about temporal ordering than cross-sectional design studies, while device-based measures can address some limitations of parent report. However, much of the evidence remains observational, and differences in emotional outcomes, measures of outdoor play and play contexts limit the direct comparison between studies. Future research could benefit from more consistent measures of outdoor play, stronger longitudinal and experimental designs and greater attention to emotional outcomes across different children and play contexts. {| class="wikitable" | valign="top" |{{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}} <quiz display=simple> {Why should the recent findings not be interpreted as showing single consistent effect of outdoor play on children's emotional well-being? |type="()"} -A. Because all the studies used different countries. +B. Because studies differed in emotional outcomes, measures of outdoor play, timing, context and research design. -C. Because longitudinal studies are always more reliable and accurate. -D. Because outdoor play only affects positive outcomes. </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} |} == '''How do families, communities and schools support outdoor play opportunities?''' == [[File:Coalition Builds New Playground in One Day for Chicora-Cherokee Community (11054532905).jpg|thumb|325x325px|Figure 6. Families, communities and school can shape children's opportunities for play.]] Outdoor play opportunities are shaped by children's social and physical environments. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified parents, outdoor play environments, communities and time constraints as environmental factors in inclusive outdoor play. The study also identified autonomy, growing up together, making contact and adapting ways of playing as factors that affected participation. The 2025 Position Statement on Active Outdoor Play recommends increasing opportunities for active outdoor play where people live, learn, work and play (Lee et al., 2025). It also recommends collaboration across sectors and settings to support equitable access. Together, these findings provide a broader context for considering the roles of families, communities and schools. These influences can operate across family, community and school settings (see Figure 5). === '''Families''' === Parents can influence whether children have opportunities to play outdoors. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified parents as an environmental factor in inclusive outdoor play. Children with disabilities described parents as important in encouraging participation. For some children, parents also helped to explain their disability to other children (Beekhuizen et al., 2025).   Broader research also identifies parental factors in children's outdoor play. A systematic review of 21 peer reviewed studies involving children aged 0 to 12 years found that the importance placed on outdoor play was associated with how much time children spent playing outdoors (Boxberger and Reimers, 2019). Evidence for parental encouragement and support was less consistent across children (Boxberger and Reimers, 2019). This suggests that family influence is not limited to direct encouragement. Parents' attitude towards outdoor play may shape children's opportunities to play outdoors. However, the review identified some associations but does not show that parental attitude caused greater outdoor play. Parental support can also involve allowing children to have some independence during outdoor play. Support can make participation possible, but it does not always require direct parental involvement (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). This is particularly relevant when children want more control over how and where they play. Research on independent mobility also shows that children and parents may differ in how much independence they prefer (Han et al., 2022). The study identified different patterns in children's and parents' preferences for independent mobility. These findings show that parental support and autonomy do not always involve the same level of parental involvement. Some children may need support to access or join outdoor play while also wanting greater independence. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) also recommended providing children and parents with knowledge about disabilities and possible adaptations that could support participation. Time constraints can also limit family-level opportunities for outdoor play. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) reported that some children had less time to play outdoors because of parents' work schedules, after-school arrangements and longer travel between home and school. This means that opportunities for outdoor play can be restricted even when children want to play and parents are supportive. === '''Communities''' === Community conditions can affect whether children have safe and inclusive opportunities for outdoor play. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) described physical and social safety as important for inclusive outdoor play. Some playground structures also made participation difficult for children with disabilities. A systematic review of 25 studies found that both physical and social neighbourhood factors were associated with children's outdoor play (Visser & van Aalst, 2022). Social factors included perceived safety, social cohesion and the presence of other children. However, the studies did not identify one neighbourhood feature that consistently explained children's outdoor play across all settings. The social environment may also affect whether children can join others. Children with disabilities described smaller communities, including villages and schools, as places where children and parents could become more familiar with disability. Greater familiarity was associated with greater acceptance and stronger connections with other children (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). Observational research also shows that physical access alone does not explain inclusive outdoor play. Beekhuizen et al. (2026) observed 63 children with and without disabilities during six inclusive outdoor-play sessions and found children with disabilities had lower playfulness scores than children without disabilities. Unfamiliarity could also restrict social inclusion because children preferred to play with peers they already knew. This means providing the same outdoor space does not necessarily provide the same opportunity to participate. The 2025 Position Statement on Active Outdoor Play recommends collaboration across sectors and settings to support equitable access to active outdoor play (Lee et al., 2025). The reviewed findings show why both physical and social conditions matter. Children need places that can be accessed, but familiarity, safety and opportunities to join others can also affect participation. However, the evidence does not show that one community feature alone will increase outdoor play or improve emotional well-being. === '''Schools''' === Schools can provide opportunities for children with and without disabilities to become more familiar with one another. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified growing up together and making contact as interacting factors in inclusive outdoor play. Children described familiarity with other children as making contact easier. School circumstances can also affect the time available for outdoor play. Some children attending special primary education described long travel times between school and home as reducing their opportunities to play outdoors. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified these experiences as part of time constraints. The physical school environment can also be changed to support outdoor activity and socio-emotional outcomes. Bikomeye et al. (2021) systematically reviewed six experimental studies of schoolyard greening. The interventions involved adding greenery and natural elements to schoolyards. Across the included studies, the review reported generally positive findings for physical activity and socio-emotional health. However, the review included only six studies. Schoolyard greening is also a specific intervention and should not be treated as evidence that all forms of outdoor play improve children's emotional well-being. Recess provides another school setting in which children's emotional experiences have been examined directly. Poulos et al. (2026) studied 317 Year 4 and 5 children during extreme heat. Positive affect was higher after outdoor and gymnasium recess than after classroom recess. There were no significant differences in negative affect between the three settings. Poulos et al. (2026) also identified implications for school health, policy and equity. The study discussed heat-adaptive infrastructure as one way to support access to recess environments during extreme heat. However, the findings do not show that outdoor recess is always better than indoor recess because positive affect was also higher after gymnasium recess. {{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Quiz}} <quiz display=simple> {Which statement best reflects how families, communities and school can support children's outdoor play opportunities? |type="()"} + Support can involve accessible environments, safety, familiarity, appropriate parental support and opportunities for children to participate with some independence. - Providing the same outdoor space gives every child the same opportunity to participate. -Schoolyard greening alone is enough to improve children's emotional well-being. -Outdoor recess always produces better emotional outcomes than indoor recess. </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} == '''Conclusion''' == Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being are not represented by single, consistent concepts across recent research. Outdoor play should be distinguished from outdoor physical activity, while emotional well-being has been examined through emotional dysregulation, social-emotional competence, positive and negative affect, and internalising and externalising symptoms. These differences are important because findings across studies do not represent the same emotional outcomes or time frames. Outdoor play may be related to children's emotional well-being through several psychological processes, but the strength of evidence differs across them. Gross's (2015) emotion regulation framework helps explain how children may respond to emotional situations during play, while working memory provides more direct evidence of a possible cognitive process in the association between afternoon outdoor play and lower emotional dysregulation (Lee et al., 2025). However, these findings do not establish that outdoor play causes better emotion regulation or emotional well-being. Recent research also does not show one consistent effect across all children, outcomes or play contexts. Some studies report associations with better social-emotional competence, lower-risk symptom trajectories or higher positive affect, while other findings are mixed or non-significant (Davenport et al., 2025; Dodd et al., 2026; Ferguson et al., 2025). Differences in research design, measurement, timing and context therefore need to be considered when interpreting the evidence. Children's opportunities for outdoor play are also shaped by their social and physical environments. Accessibility, familiarity, autonomy, parental support, safety and opportunities to join other children can influence whether the same outdoor space provides the same opportunity to participate. Families, communities and schools can therefore support outdoor play by considering both access to outdoor spaces and the conditions that allow children to participate in ways that suit their needs and circumstances. Overall, current research suggests that outdoor play is associated with some aspects of children's emotional well-being, but the relationship is more complex than simply spending more time outdoors. The relation between outdoor play and children's emotional well-being varies depending on how outdoor play is measured, timing, context and children's opportunities to participate. ==See also== {{ic|Use bullet points as shown in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]}} * [[wikipedia:Affordance|Affordance]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Autonomy|Autonomy]] (Wikipedia) * [[Cognitive psychology]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Emotion regulation in children|Emotion regulation in children]] (Wikiversity) * [[Emotional regulation]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Emotional dysregulation|Emotional dysregulation]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Imaginative play and emotion regulation|Imaginative play and emotion regulation]] (Wikiversity) * [[wikipedia:Working memory|Working memory]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Beekhuizen, R. Q., Bloemen, M. A. T., Bolster, E. A. M., Visser, K., Lugt, R., Bassa, M., Henry, N. L., Kotte, E. M. W., Hartingsveldt, M., & Gorter, J. W. (2026). Can You See Us Play? Observing Inclusive Outdoor Play Behaviour Among Children With and Without Disabilities: A Mixed Methods Study. Child : Care, Health & Development, 52(1), e70198-n/a. https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.70198 Beekhuizen, R. Q., Bolster, E. A. M., Gorter, J. W., Henry, N. L., Visser, K., Wittink, H., Kotte, E. M. W., Sol, M. E., & Bloemen, M. A. T. (2025). Play Together? Unveiling Facilitators and Barriers to Inclusive Outdoor Play for Dutch Children With and Without Disabilities: A Qualitative Study. Child: Care, Health & Development, 51(6), Article e70154. https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.70154 Biino, V., Pesce, C., & Martins, C. (2025). Motor Skill Development at Preschool Age in Girls and Boys: The Role of Outdoor Free Play. Children, 12(5), Article 594. https://doi.org/10.3390/children12050594 Bikomeye, J., Balza, J., & Beyer, K. (2021). The Impact of Schoolyard Greening on Children’s Physical Activity and Socioemotional Health: A Systematic Review of Experimental Studies. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(2), 535. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18020535 Boxberger, K., & Reimers, A. K. (2019). Parental correlates of outdoor play in boys and girls aged 0 to 12: A systematic review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(2, Art. 190), 19-16:2, Art. 190<19. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16020190 Davenport, C., Kuzik, N., Larouche, R., & Carson, V. (2025). The Associations Between Parental-Reported and Device-Based Measured Outdoor Play and Health Indicators of Physical, Cognitive, and Social–Emotional Development in Preschool-Aged Children. Pediatric Exercise Science, 37(2), 102–111. https://doi.org/10.1123/pes.2023-0119 de Lannoy, L., Barbeau, K., Seguin, N., & Tremblay, M. S. (2023). Scoping review of children’s and youth’s outdoor play publications in Canada. Chronic Diseases in Canada, 43(1), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.24095/hpcdp.43.1.01 Dodd, H. F., Cordwell, K., Hesketh, K., Johnstone, A., de la Torre-Luque, A., & McCrorie, P. (2026). Early outdoor play predicts trajectories of child mental health in a population-based cohort. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.70175 Ferguson, M., Teyhan, A., Lovell, R., Dodd, H., Wheeler, B., & McEachan, R. (2025). The association between park visits, outdoor play and child social-emotional competency in a multi-ethnic, urban cohort. Wellbeing, Space and Society, 9, Article 100293. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wss.2025.100293 Gal‐Szabo, D. E., Spinrad, T. L., Eisenberg, N., & Sulik, M. J. (2019). The relations of children’s emotion knowledge to their observed social play and reticent/uninvolved behavior in preschool: Moderation by effortful control. Social Development (Oxford, England), 28(1), 57–73. https://doi.org/10.1111/sode.12321 Gibson, J. J. (1979). The ecological approach to visual perception / James J. Gibson. Houghton Mifflin. Gibson, J.L., Cornell, M. & Gill, T. A Systematic Review of Research into the Impact of Loose Parts Play on Children’s Cognitive, Social and Emotional Development. School Mental Health 9, 295–309 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12310-017-9220-9 Gross, J. J. (2015). Emotion Regulation: Current Status and Future Prospects. Psychological Inquiry, 26(1), 1–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/1047840X.2014.940781 Halberstadt, A. G., Denham, S. A., & Dunsmore, J. C. (2001). Affective Social Competence. Social Development (Oxford, England), 10(1), 79–119. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9507.00150 Han, C. S., Brussoni, M. J., & Mâsse, L. C. (2022). Parental Autonomy Support in the Context of Parent–Child Negotiation for Children’s Independent Mobility: ‘I Always Feel Safer With My Parents’ to ‘Boom! Bust Down Those Walls! The Journal of Early Adolescence, 42(6), Article 02724316211064513. https://doi.org/10.1177/02724316211064513 Johnstone, A., Martin, A., Cordovil, R., Fjørtoft, I., Iivonen, S., Jidovtseff, B., Lopes, F., Reilly, J. J., Thomson, H., Wells, V., & McCrorie, P. (2022). Nature-Based Early Childhood Education and Children’s Social, Emotional and Cognitive Development: A Mixed-Methods Systematic Review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(10), 5967. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19105967 Lee, E.-Y., de Lannoy, L., Kim, Y.-B., Rathod, A., James, M. E., Lopes, O., Nasrallah, B., Thankarajah, A., Adjei-Boadi, D., de Barros, M. I. A., Duncan, S., Miller, R. M., Mygind, L., Vanderloo, L. M., Wang, P.-Y., & Tremblay, M. S. (2025). 2025 Position statement on active outdoor play. The International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 22(1), Article 117. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12966-025-01813-9 Lee, J. J., Flouri, E., & Jackson, Y. (2025). The Role of Timing and Amount of Outdoor Play in Emotional Dysregulation in Preschool Children. Child: Care, Health & Development, 51(1), Article e70020. https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.70020 Morgenthaler, T., Lynch, H., Loebach, J., Pentland, D., & Schulze, C. (2024). Using the Theory of Affordances to Understand Environment–Play Transactions: Environmental Taxonomy of Outdoor Play Space Features—A Scoping Review. The American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 78(4), Article 7804185120. https://doi.org/10.5014/ajot.2024.050606 Pereira, J. V., Vila-Nova, F., Veiga, G., Lopes, F., & Cordovil, R. (2024). Associations between outdoor play features and children’s behavior and health: A systematic review. Health & Place, 87, Article 103235. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healthplace.2024.103235 Poulos, A., Hassan, U. A., Wilson, K., Price, P. M., Vanos, J., & Quilla, J. (2026). Differences in Schoolchildren’s Emotional State After Indoor Versus Outdoor Recess in Extreme‐Heat Weather. The Journal of School Health, 96(4), Article e70135. https://doi.org/10.1111/josh.70135 Scherer, K. R. (2005). What are emotions? And how can they be measured? Social Science Information, 44(4), 695–729. https://doi.org/10.1177/0539018405058216 Veraksa, A. N., Plotnikova, V. A., Sukhikh, V. L., Kornienko, D. S., & Rudnova, N. A. (2025). Non-therapeutic play to overcome negative emotional symptoms and improve emotional intelligence in children aged 3–7: a systematic review. Frontiers in Psychology, 16, 1475387. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1475387 Visser, K., & Aalst, I. (2022). Neighbourhood Factors in Children’s Outdoor Play: A Systematic Literature Review. Tijdschrift Voor Economische En Sociale Geografie, 113(1), 80–95. https://doi.org/10.1111/tesg.12505 }} ==External links== {{ic|Use bullet points as shown in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]}} * [https://www.child-encyclopedia.com/outdoor-play [https://www.child-encyclopedia.com/outdoor-pla]<nowiki/>[https://www.child-encyclopedia.com/outdoor-play y]] (Encyclopedia in Early Childhood Development) * [[https://www.outdoorplaycanada.ca/2026/06/02/sprout-able-resources-videos-and-tip-sheets-to-support-children-with-disabilities-in-outdoor-play/ https://www.outdoorplaycanada.ca/2026/06/02/sp]<nowiki/>[https://www.outdoorplaycanada.ca/2026/06/02/sprout-able-resources-videos-and-tip-sheets-to-support-children-with-disabilities-in-outdoor-play/ rout-able-resources-videos-and-tip-sheets-to-support-children-with-disabilities-in-outdoor-play/]/ SPROUT-able Resources: Videos and Tip Sheets to Support Children with Disabilities in Outdoor Play] (Outdoor Play Canada) * https://www.who.int/news/item/24-04-2019-to-grow-up-healthy-children-need-to-sit-less-and-play-more<nowiki/> To grow up healthy, children need to sit less and play more] (World Health Organisation) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Children]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Nature]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Well-being]] gn13at3sam6at6dzmtfjcradt08s6hf 2835791 2835790 2026-10-04T11:58:44Z Mymunu 3106327 /* See also */ 2835791 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being:<br>How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {| class="wikitable" |'''Case study: Part 1'''[[File:School children happily playing in playground.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. Children engaged in outdoor play, where social interactions, choice and control on the situation can create different emotional experiences.]]Imagine that... A child arrives at playground and joins a group of children who are already playing. The children are making their own game and deciding the rules as they play. At first, the child enjoys choosing where and what to play. During the game, another child changes the rules of the game and argument breaks out. The child becomes frustrated and walks away from the activity. After watching for a short time, the child returns, suggests a new idea to continue the game and re-joins the group. How might experiences like this during outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being? Emotional regulation provides one psychological framework for understanding how children may respond to situations like this during play (see figure 1). |} Outdoor play can involve more than physical movement. It can occur across playgrounds, gardens, streets and natural spaces. Outdoor play includes exploration, social interaction, choice, challenge, and engagement with the surrounding environment (Dodd et al., 2026; Pereira et al., 2024). As shown in the case study part 1, outdoor play can involve emotional situations such as [[Aggression|frustration]], disagreement, uncertainty or excitement. Gross's (2015) emotional regulation provides a [[psychological]] explanation for how children may recognise and respond to these emotional situations. Outdoor play experiences are also shaped by the environment where play takes place. Different physical and social environments can provide different opportunities for play, which means the same outdoor space may not provide the same opportunities for every child (Morgenthaler et al., 2024).This chapter examines how [[Emotional regulation|emotional,]] [[Cognitive psychology|cognitive]], social and environmental processes may help explain the relationship between outdoor play and children's [https://w.wiki/AHG6 emotional well-being.] {| class="wikitable" | ;[[File:Bulb Idea Flat Icon GIF Animation.gif|alt=Focus questions|left|99x99px|thumb]] '''Focus questions''' * '''What are outdoor play and children's emotional well-being?''' * '''How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being?''' * '''How do social and environmental conditions shape children's outdoor play experiences?''' * '''What does recent research show about outdoor play and children's emotional well-being?''' * '''How can families, communities and schools support outdoor play opportunities that may benefit children's emotional well-being?''' |} == '''Understanding outdoor play and children's emotional well-being''' == [[File:Water-outdoor-people-girl-play-boy-938233.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. ''Outdoor play can provide opportunities to explore, make choices, interact with others and respond to changing situations through activities such as water play.''|214x214px]] Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being are not measured as single and consistent concepts across recent research. Outdoor play may be examined as voluntary and intrinsically motivated activity, self directed play, parent reported outdoor play, or device-measured outdoor play (Binno et al., 2025; Davenport et al., 2025; Dodd et al., 2026). It should also be distinguished from outdoor moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) because these measures do not represent the same behaviour (Davenport et al., 2025). Children's emotional well-being is also examined through different outcomes, which include [https://w.wiki/7YC8 emotional dysregulation], social-emotional competence, positive and negative affect, and internalising or externalising symptoms (Dodd et al., 2026; Ferguson et al., 2025; Lee et al., 2025; Poulos et al., 2026). These differences need to be considered when findings across the studies are compared. === Outdoor play === Outdoor play is voluntary and and intrinsically motivated activity that occurs in outdoor environments such as gardens, playgrounds, parks and natural spaces (Dodd et al., 2026). Free play can be also self-directed, allowing children to interact freely with the environment and have [https://w.wiki/4NyU autonomy] to make choices about their activities (Biino et al., 2025). Outdoor play should not be treated as the same as outdoor physical activity. The recent research outdoor play and outdoor moderate- to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) were examined as separate measures (Davenport et al., 2025). This distinction is important because outdoor play intensity of physical activity do not represent the same behaviour. === Children's emotional well-being === Children's emotional well-being is not represented by a single common outcome across recent outdoor play research. Emotional dysregulation has been examined in relation to the amount and timing of outdoor play (Lee et al., 2025), while social-emotional competence includes social emotional difficulties and [[Prosocial behavior/Keywords/Definitions|prosocial behaviour]] (Ferguson et al., 2025). Other studies have examined positive and negative affect following recess (Poulos et al., 2026) and trajectories of internalising and externalising symptoms across childhood (Dodd et al., 2026). These outcomes represent different aspects and timeframes of emotional functioning, so they should not be treated as equivalent when findings are compared. '''Table 1''' ''Emotional outcomes examined in recent research on outdoor play and children's emotional well-being'' {| class="wikitable" |+ !Study !Outcome examined !What the outcome represents |- |Lee et al. (2025) |Emotional dysregulation |Difficulties in emotional regulation; examined in relation to the amount of timing of outdoor play |- |Ferguson et al. (2025) |Social-emotional competence |Social-emotional difficulties and prosocial behaviour |- |Poulos et al. (2026) |Positive and negative affect |Children's affect following recess across different settings |- |Dodd et al. (2026) |Internalising and externalising symptoms |Internalising: emotional symptoms and peer problems Externalising: conduct problems and hyperactivity- inattention |} Note. Outcome descriptions are based on the measures and constructs reported in the above cited studies. See Table 1. As shown in Table 1, the studies do not measure the same aspect or time frame of children's emotional functioning. Affect immediately following recess should not be treated as equivalent to emotional dysregulation measured over time or trajectories of internalising and externalising symptoms across childhood. This difference need to be considered when findings across studies are compared. '''Case study: part 2''' ''What is being measured?'' {| class="wikitable" | valign="top" |[[File:Children marbles.jpg|thumb|221x221px|'''Figure 3'''. ''Children's immediate emotional responses during outdoor play is different from long-term emotional functioning.'']]The child in the Case study: Part 1 becomes frustrated when the rules of the game change. This immediate emotional response is different from a longer-term pattern of emotional dysregulation or internalising symptoms. Research on outdoor play measures these outcomes across different time frames and contexts. When findings are compared, it is important to consider which aspect of emotional well-being is measured. {{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}} <quiz display=simple> {A child's positive or negative affect immediately after recess represents the same emotional outcome as longer-term internalising or externalising symptoms. |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} |} == '''How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being?''' == Outdoor play may be related to children's emotional well-being through emotional, cognitive, and social processes (Dodd et al., 2026). Possible pathways discussed in the recent research include cognitive, social and emotional skills, social interaction, physical activity, connection with the nature and adventurous play (Dodd et al., 2026). However, these pathways have not all been directly tested as mechanisms, and many of the outdoor play research remain observational (Dodd et al., 2026; de Lannoy et al., 2023). Psychological theory can help to explain how and why outdoor play experiences may influence children's emotional well-being. Although the evidence does not yet show that psychological processes cause the relationship between outdoor play and children's emotional well-being. Emotion involves more than subjective feelings. Scherer (2005) described emotion as coordinated changes across cognitive appraisal, physiological responses, action tendencies, expression and subjective feelings. Therefore, physiological responses are one component of an emotional response rather than a separate explanation for the effects of outdoor play. Scherer (2005) did not examine outdoor play, so this framework does not provide evidence that outdoor play changes children's physiological responses or emotional well-being. === '''Emotion regulation''' === Emotion regulation provides a psychological framework for understanding how children may manage emotional situations during outdoor play. Gross (2015) described emotion regulation as a process involving identification, selection and implementation. Identification concerns deciding whether to regulate an emotion, selection concerns selecting regulation strategy and implementation concerns applying chosen response into practice. Gross (2015) also described situation selection, situation modification, attentional deployment cognitive change and response modulation. During outdoor play, children may experience frustration, conflict, disagreement, uncertainty or changes to their activity. Gross's framework can be applied to these situations to consider how the children recognise an emotional response, choose strategies to manage and act on chosen strategies. However, Gross (2015) did not examine outdoor play, so applying the framework does not show that outdoor play improves children's emotion regulation. Broader research on children's play has also examined emotional functioning. Veraksa et al. (2025) systematically reviewed 33 studies on non-therapeutic play among children aged 3 to 7 and identified evidence involving emotional regulation, emotional intelligence, and negative emotional symptoms. The review included outdoor play alongside several other forms of play, so its findings should not be interpreted as evidence that outdoor play alone improves emotion regulation. {| class="wikitable" | valign="top" |'''Case study: Part 3'''[[File:14Y Ncdc july 5th-802.jpg|thumb|202x202px|'''Figure 4'''. ''Children can respond differently to emotional situations that occur during outdoor play.'']]When the rules of game change, the child becomes frustrated and decides to step away. After a short time the child returns and suggests a different way to continue the game (see Figure 4). Suggesting a change to the game can be considered an example of situation modification. This shows how Gross's emotion regulation framework can be applied to an emotional situation during outdoor play. {{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}} <quiz display=simple> {What does Gross (2015) emotion regulation framework show when it is applied to the outdoor-play scenario?. |type="()"} -A. Outdoor play causes better emotion regulation. +B. Situation modification can help explain how the child responds to the situation. -C. Children regulate emotions better outdoors than indoors. -D. Stepping away from play always improves emotional well-being. </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} |} === '''Working memory and cognitive process''' === Working memory can be one cognitive process involved in the association between outdoor play and emotional dysregulation. Lee et al. (2025) examined 325 preschool children and tested working memory as a statistical mediator. Outdoor play was examined across three periods of the day; wake up to noon, noon to 6 pm, and 6 pm to bedtime. The findings differed according to the timing of outdoor play. More outdoor play between noon and 6 pm was associated with lower emotional dysregulation. In contrast, more outdoor play before noon and after 6 pm was associated with higher emotional dysregulation. Afternoon outdoor play was also associated with better working memory, and better working memory was associated with lower emotional dysregulation. When working memory was included in the analysis, the association between afternoon outdoor play and emotional dysregulation was no longer statistically significant. Lee et al. (2025) reported this as full mediation. This suggests that working memory may be involved in the association between afternoon outdoor play and lower emotional dysregulation. However, the study was observational, so the mediation analysis does not show that outdoor play caused better working memory or lower emotional dysregulation. Johnstone et al. (2022) reviewed 36 studies of nature-based [[early childhood education]]. The review found very low certainty evidence for some social, emotional, and cognitive outcomes, including [[self-regulation]], while findings for attention were inconsistent. Although, the review examined nature-based early childhood education rather than outdoor play. Therefore, it does not show that working memory explains the association between outdoor play and children's [https://w.wiki/AHG6 emotional well-being]. '''Table 2''' ''Psychological processes considered in the relationship between outdoor play and children's emotional well-being'' {| class="wikitable" !Process !Contribution !Evidence considered in this chapter !Limitations |- |Emotion components |Emotion involves cognitive appraisal, physiological responses, action tendencies, expression and subjective feelings (Scherer, 2005) |This provides a broader psychological understanding of emotional responses |Scherer (2005) did not examine outdoor play, so it does not show that outdoor play changes children's physiological responses or emotional well-being. |- |Emotion regulation |Gross's (2015) framework can be applied to emotional situations during outdoor play, including frustration, disagreement and changes to an activity. |The framework helps explain how children may recognise an emotional response, choose a strategy and act on that strategy. |Gross (2015) did not examine outdoor play, so applying the framework does not show that outdoor play improves emotion regulation. |- |Working memory |Lee et al. (2025) examined working memory as a statistical mediator between outdoor play and emotional dysregulation. |Afternoon outdoor play was associated with better working memory, and better working memory was associated with lower emotional dysregulation. |The study was observational, so the mediation analysis does not show that outdoor play caused better working memory or lower emotional dysregulation. |- |Play and emotional functioning |Veraksa et al. (2025) reviewed 33 studies of non-therapeutic play involving emotional regulation, emotional intelligence and negative emotional symptoms. |The review provides broader evidence linking play with emotional functioning. |The review included several forms of play, so it should not be interpreted as evidence that outdoor play alone improves emotion regulation. |- |Nature-based early childhood education |Johnstone et al. (2022) reviewed 36 studies and reported very low certainty evidence for some social, emotional and cognitive outcomes, including self-regulation. |The review provides broader evidence about cognitive and emotional outcomes in nature-based education. |Nature-based early childhood education is not the same as outdoor play and does not show that working memory explains the association between outdoor play and emotional well-being. |} Note. The sources discussed above provide different types of evidence. Some provide psychological frameworks, while other provide direct outdoor-play research and broader evidence about outdoor play and children's emotional well-being. == '''How do social and environmental conditions influence on children's outdoor play experiences?''' == [[File:2026-10-03 214531-relationship between child and environment.png|thumb|284x284px|'''Figure 5.''' Children's opportunities for outdoor play can be different according to personal, interacting and environmental factors and the relationship between the child and the environment. Note. Original conceptual summary is based on Beekhuizen et al. (2025) and Gibson (1979).]] Outdoor play opportunities depend on social and physical environments. Children may have access to same outdoor space but may not have same opportunities for play. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified personal, interacting and environmental factors that could support or restrict inclusive outdoor play. These difference can be considered through [https://w.wiki/VYfL affordance theory], which examines the opportunities for action through the relationship between an individual and the environment (Gibson, 1979). See Figure 5. === Affordance theory and outdoor play environments === [https://w.wiki/VYfL Affordance theory] was developed by Gibson (1979) to explain the opportunities for action that an environment provides in relation to the person using it. In outdoor play, the opportunities provided by a space can depend on its physical features and how a child is able to use those features. Morgenthaler et al. (2024) applied affordance theory to children's outdoor play and examined outdoor play transactions through environmental taxonomy of outdoor play space features. Their review identified 14 categories of spaces and 284 play opportunities linked to different environmental features. Morgenthaler et al. (2024) showed that different spaces and objects can afford different forms of play, which means two children using the same outdoor play space may not experience the same play opportunities. Therefore, the theory provides a way of understanding differences between children and their use of an outdoor environment. However this study examined the opportunities for play rather than children's well-being. Pereira et al. (2024) also examined features of outdoor play spaces in a systematic review of 51 articles representing 45 primary studies. The review examined features such as fixed structures, natural elements, floor markings, loose equipment and available play areas. Some positive effects were reported, but there was substantial heterogeneity between studies. The studies differed in the environmental features examined, outcomes measures, and study methods, which made difficult to draw a clear conclusions about the effect of individual play space features (Pereira et al., 2024).Therefore, the review does not show that one particular environmental feature improves children's [https://w.wiki/AHG6 emotional well-being]. '''Table 3''' ''Examples of environmental features and possible affordances'' {| class="wikitable" |+ !Environmental feature !Possible affordance for play |- |Fixed structures (e.g. climbing frame) |Can provide opportunity in different forms of physical activity. For example, climbing, physical play, risk-taking |- |Natural elements (e.g. tree, rocks, sand) |Environmental features can provide opportunities for exploratory play, imaginative play, sensory experiences |- |Floor markings (e.g. painted games) |Can support structured activities like rule based play, footy, tennis, etc. |- |Loose equipment (e.g. balls, tyre, boxes) |Movable environmental features that can be used during constructive play, imaginative play, creative problem solving play |- |Open play area |Running, group play, or flexible use |} Note. This table is an original synthesis based on environmental features described by Pereira et al. (2024) and affordance framework applied by Morgenthaler et al. (2024). Environmental features can afford more than one type of play and the opportunities may vary between children. {| class="wikitable" | valign="top" |'''Case study: Part 4 Same space, different opportunities''' Kim and Leo are both at the same school playground during recess. The playground has a climbing structure, a sand pit area and open natural space. * Kim quickly joins a group of children using a climbing frame. The climbing frame structure provides opportunities for physical play and social interactions. * Leo uses a sand pit with other child. He plays with loose materials and creates a sand castle and other different structures. The environment gives him an opportunity for imaginative play and social play. These examples show how the same outdoor space can afford different forms of play for different children, depending on their interests, skills and social context. {{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}} <quiz display=simple> {Which statement best applies affordance theory to the example?. |type="()"} -A. The playground causes children to be more physically active. +B. The same playground can provide different opportunities for play depending on the child and how they use the environment. -C. Climbing structures always lead to better emotional well-being. -D. Open spaces are only useful for social play. </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} |} === '''Social relationship and inclusion''' === Social relationships can shape whether children are able to join and continue outdoor play (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified making contact and growing up together as interacting factors in inclusive outdoor play. Familiarity with other children could make it easier to approach, communicate and play together, while joining unfamiliar children or existing game could be difficult. [https://w.wiki/WDsJ Affective social competence (ASC)] provides a psychological framework for understanding these social interactions (Halberstadt et al., 2001). The ASC model involves experiencing, sending and receiving affect, together with awareness, identification, working within the social context and regulation. These processes may be relevant when a child tries to enter a peer group, recognise other children's emotions and manage their own response during play. Gal-Szabo et al. (2018) used the ASC model as theoretical foundation when examining children's emotional knowledge and social behaviour during preschool free play. The study found that situational understanding of the emotions was negatively related to uninvolved behaviour and was marginally positively related to more social play. However, the study examined preschool free play rather than specific outdoor play. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) also found that children with disabilities experienced more barriers related to making contact, adapting play and physical play environment. These findings suggest that participation in outdoor play depends on both social interaction and children's ability to respond within the play situation, but they do not establish that social play causes better emotional well-being (Beekhuizen et al., 2025; Gal-Szabo et al., 2018). === '''Autonomy, parents and time''' === [https://w.wiki/4NyU Autonomy] can shape how children experience outdoor play (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified autonomy as a personal factor in inclusive outdoor play. Some children valued having independence over what they do and who they play with. Some children with disabilities wanted opportunities to play outside independently without direct parental involvement. Autonomy during play may also have an emotional function. Veraksa et al. (2025), in a systematic review of non-therapeutic play, identified autonomy as one feature through which play may support emotional regulation and coping. However, the review examined several forms of play and does not show that autonomy during outdoor play specially improves children's emotional well-being. Parental support can also make outdoor play possible. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) found that parental involvement could support children's participation when a child needed help to access or participate in outdoor play. Time constraints also affected opportunities for outdoor play. Some children had less time to play outdoors because of parents' work schedule, after school arrangements or longer travel distance between home and school (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). These constraints could limit opportunities for outdoor play even when children wanted greater independence. === '''Outdoor environments and accessibility''' === Outdoor play environments can support or restrict children's participation (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified both physical and social features of outdoor environments as relevant to inclusive play. Children discussed safety, including traffic near playgrounds and disputes with other children. Accessibility was particularly important for children with disabilities because opportunities for inclusive outdoor play could be affected by play environments and physical abilities. Pereira et al. (2024) also showed that heterogeneity between studies limited clear conclusions about the effects of individual outdoor play space features.. Gibson et al. (2017) systematically reviewed five studies of loose-parts play (LPP) interventions with primary school aged children. The review found limited quantitative evidence to determine whether loose-parts interventions affected children's cognitive, social or emotional development. Together, these findings show that features of outdoor environments can support or restrict opportunities for play. However, current evidence does not establish that a particular environmental feature that improves children's emotional well-being (Beekhuizen et al., 2025; Gibson et al., 2017; Pereira et al., 2024). {| class="wikitable" | valign="top" |'''Case study: Part 5 Same play space, different experiences''' {| class="wikitable" |Kim and Leo use the same school playground. Kim already knows many children and easily joins a group activity. Leo uses a mobility device and finds that some areas of the playground are difficult to access. Leo also does not know many children who are already playing. He prefers to play independently when possible. |} The two children have access to the same playground space, but their opportunities to participate are different. There experiences are shaped by more than the physical space alone. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) also identified making contact, familiarity, autonomy and accessibility as factors that could support or restrict inclusive outdoor play. Physical accessibility may affect whether a child can use part of playground, while familiarity with other children may affect whether the child can enter social play. Parental support may also help participation in some situations, while the child may still value greater independence {{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}} <quiz display=simple> {Why might two children have different outdoor-play experiences even they use the same playground?. |type="()"} +A. Physical, social and personal factors can affect how children are able to participate. -B. Outdoor spaces provide the same opportunities for every child. -C. Accessibility is the only factor that affects outdoor play.. -D. Children who know other children always have better emotional well-being. </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} |} == '''What does recent research show about outdoor play and children's emotional well-being?''' == Recent research does not show a consistent association between outdoor play and children's emotional well-being. The findings are mixed across different emotional outcomes measured, the timing and context of outdoor play, children's behaviours, and the methods used to measure outdoor play. These differences are significant when interpreting whether outdoor play is associated with better emotional well-being. The recent studies shows this variation. More frequent outdoor play has been associated with better social-emotional competence (Ferguson et al., 2025) while association with emotional dysregulation differed according to the timing and context of outdoor play (Lee et al., 2025). Positive affect was also higher after outdoor play and and gymnasium recess than after classroom recess, but no significant differences in negative affect between settings (Poulos et al.,2026). Longer-term evidence also examines a different aspect of emotional functioning. More frequent outdoor play during the preschool years was associated with a greater likelihood of following a low and stable trajectory of internalising and externalising symptoms through childhood (Dodd et al., 2026). However, the studies differ in children's ages, research designs, measures of outdoor play and emotional outcomes. Therefore, the evidence should not be interpreted as showing one consistent effect across all children or forms of emotional well-being. === '''Consistency of recent research findings''' === Recent findings are not consistent across all emotional and developmental outcomes. Ferguson et al. (2025) found that more frequent outdoor play was associated with better social-emotional competence, including lower difficulties and greater [[Prosocial Behaviour|prosocial behaviour]]. In contrast, Davenport et al. (2025) found that most associations between outdoor play and the physical, [[Cognitive psychology|cognitive]] and social-emotional developmental indicators examined were not statistically significant. These differences show that positive association with outdoor play are not found across all developmental outcomes. Findings can also differ according to the emotional outcome being measured. Poulos et al. (2026) found higher positive affect after outdoor and gymnasium recess than after classroom recess, but no significant differences in negative affect between the three recess settings. Lee et al. (2025) found that more afternoon outdoor play was associated with lower emotional dysregulation, while more outdoor play earlier and later in the day was associated with higher emotional dysregulation. These findings suggest that the association can differ according to both the emotional outcome and the timing of outdoor play. The time period being examined also differs between studies. Dodd et al. (2026) found that more frequent outdoor play during the preschool years was associated with lower odds of belonging to less favourable internalising and externalising symptom trajectory across childhood. This is different from Poulos et al. (2026), who examined children's emotional states immediately after the recess. Therefore, recent research includes both immediate emotional outcomes and longer-term patterns of emotional functioning. Associations may vary across children and play contexts. Ferguson et al. (2025) reported differences according to ethnicity and whether outdoor play occurred on school days or weekends. Together, these findings suggest that the association between outdoor play and emotional well-being is not same across outcome.The studies differ in children's age, research designs, measures of outdoor play, and emotional outcomes. Thus, findings should not be treated as evidence of one single effect. === '''Strengths and limitations of current research''' === The strength of the evidence also differs according to research design. Dodd et al. (2026) used longitudinal data from 4,151 children and measured outdoor play during the preschool years at approximately 2, 3 and 4 years old, while internalising and externalising symptoms trajectories were measured later through to age 8. This strengthens the evidence about temporal ordering because outdoor play was measured before the later emotional outcomes. However, longitudinal evidence does not establish cause and effect, and the study relied on parent-reported measures. Causal interpretation is also limited in other studies. Lee et al. (2025) used observational data and considered the possibility of reverse causation when interpreting associations between the timing of outdoor play and emotional dysregulation. This means the findings cannot establish whether outdoor play influenced emotional dysregulation or whether children's emotional functioning influenced when they played outdoors. Measurement of outdoor play is another important consideration. Davenport et al. (2025) used both parent-reported and device-measured outdoor play and examined whether associations were independent of outdoor moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA). This is important because outdoor play and outdoor physical activity are related but should not be treated as interchangeable measures. However, the sample was relatively small (N=107) and most tested associations with developmental outcomes were not statistically significant. Limitations are also present across the wider outdoor-play literature. De Lannoy et al. (2023) identified 275 Canadian outdoor-play publications and found that cross-sectional designs were the most common. Mental and emotional development had also received less research attention than physical health and development. This suggests that the evidence base for emotional well-being is less developed than some other areas of outdoor-play research. T'''able 4''' '''''Comparison of recent research''''' {| class="wikitable" |+ !Study !Research method !Research strength !Limitation |- | <small>Lee et al. (2025)</small> |Observational; 6 month follow-up |Examined the timing of outdoor play and tested working memory as a statistical mediator of the association with emotional dysregulation. |Observational mediation cannot establish causation; the study also considered possible reverse causation when interpreting timing-related findings. |- |Ferguson et al. (2025) |Cross sectional; multi ethnic urban cohort (N=2,568) |Large sample allowed associations to be examined across population groups and school-day/weekend outdoor play. |Cross-sectional design cannot establish temporal direction; associations also differed across some groups and play contexts. |- |Davenport et al. (2025) |Observational; preschool sample (N=107) |Used both parent-reported and device-measured outdoor play and distinguished outdoor play from outdoor moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) |Small sample and most tested associations with developmental outcomes were not statistically significant. |- |Dodd et al. (2026) |Longitudinal cohort (N = 4,151) |Outdoor play was measured in the preschool years before later internalising and externalising symptom trajectories. |Outdoor play and symptoms relied on parent reported measures, and the observational design does not establish causations. |- |Poulos et al. (2026) |Recess comparison study (N=317) |Compared children's positive and negative affect following outdoor, gymnasium and classroom recess |Examined immediate affect during an extreme-heat context; higher positive affect was also found after gymnasium recess, so the result was not specific to outdoor recess. |} As shown in Table 4, the recent evidence has different methodological strengths and limitations. Longitudinal designs provide stronger evidence about temporal ordering than cross-sectional design studies, while device-based measures can address some limitations of parent report. However, much of the evidence remains observational, and differences in emotional outcomes, measures of outdoor play and play contexts limit the direct comparison between studies. Future research could benefit from more consistent measures of outdoor play, stronger longitudinal and experimental designs and greater attention to emotional outcomes across different children and play contexts. {| class="wikitable" | valign="top" |{{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}} <quiz display=simple> {Why should the recent findings not be interpreted as showing single consistent effect of outdoor play on children's emotional well-being? |type="()"} -A. Because all the studies used different countries. +B. Because studies differed in emotional outcomes, measures of outdoor play, timing, context and research design. -C. Because longitudinal studies are always more reliable and accurate. -D. Because outdoor play only affects positive outcomes. </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} |} == '''How do families, communities and schools support outdoor play opportunities?''' == [[File:Coalition Builds New Playground in One Day for Chicora-Cherokee Community (11054532905).jpg|thumb|325x325px|Figure 6. Families, communities and school can shape children's opportunities for play.]] Outdoor play opportunities are shaped by children's social and physical environments. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified parents, outdoor play environments, communities and time constraints as environmental factors in inclusive outdoor play. The study also identified autonomy, growing up together, making contact and adapting ways of playing as factors that affected participation. The 2025 Position Statement on Active Outdoor Play recommends increasing opportunities for active outdoor play where people live, learn, work and play (Lee et al., 2025). It also recommends collaboration across sectors and settings to support equitable access. Together, these findings provide a broader context for considering the roles of families, communities and schools. These influences can operate across family, community and school settings (see Figure 5). === '''Families''' === Parents can influence whether children have opportunities to play outdoors. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified parents as an environmental factor in inclusive outdoor play. Children with disabilities described parents as important in encouraging participation. For some children, parents also helped to explain their disability to other children (Beekhuizen et al., 2025).   Broader research also identifies parental factors in children's outdoor play. A systematic review of 21 peer reviewed studies involving children aged 0 to 12 years found that the importance placed on outdoor play was associated with how much time children spent playing outdoors (Boxberger and Reimers, 2019). Evidence for parental encouragement and support was less consistent across children (Boxberger and Reimers, 2019). This suggests that family influence is not limited to direct encouragement. Parents' attitude towards outdoor play may shape children's opportunities to play outdoors. However, the review identified some associations but does not show that parental attitude caused greater outdoor play. Parental support can also involve allowing children to have some independence during outdoor play. Support can make participation possible, but it does not always require direct parental involvement (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). This is particularly relevant when children want more control over how and where they play. Research on independent mobility also shows that children and parents may differ in how much independence they prefer (Han et al., 2022). The study identified different patterns in children's and parents' preferences for independent mobility. These findings show that parental support and autonomy do not always involve the same level of parental involvement. Some children may need support to access or join outdoor play while also wanting greater independence. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) also recommended providing children and parents with knowledge about disabilities and possible adaptations that could support participation. Time constraints can also limit family-level opportunities for outdoor play. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) reported that some children had less time to play outdoors because of parents' work schedules, after-school arrangements and longer travel between home and school. This means that opportunities for outdoor play can be restricted even when children want to play and parents are supportive. === '''Communities''' === Community conditions can affect whether children have safe and inclusive opportunities for outdoor play. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) described physical and social safety as important for inclusive outdoor play. Some playground structures also made participation difficult for children with disabilities. A systematic review of 25 studies found that both physical and social neighbourhood factors were associated with children's outdoor play (Visser & van Aalst, 2022). Social factors included perceived safety, social cohesion and the presence of other children. However, the studies did not identify one neighbourhood feature that consistently explained children's outdoor play across all settings. The social environment may also affect whether children can join others. Children with disabilities described smaller communities, including villages and schools, as places where children and parents could become more familiar with disability. Greater familiarity was associated with greater acceptance and stronger connections with other children (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). Observational research also shows that physical access alone does not explain inclusive outdoor play. Beekhuizen et al. (2026) observed 63 children with and without disabilities during six inclusive outdoor-play sessions and found children with disabilities had lower playfulness scores than children without disabilities. Unfamiliarity could also restrict social inclusion because children preferred to play with peers they already knew. This means providing the same outdoor space does not necessarily provide the same opportunity to participate. The 2025 Position Statement on Active Outdoor Play recommends collaboration across sectors and settings to support equitable access to active outdoor play (Lee et al., 2025). The reviewed findings show why both physical and social conditions matter. Children need places that can be accessed, but familiarity, safety and opportunities to join others can also affect participation. However, the evidence does not show that one community feature alone will increase outdoor play or improve emotional well-being. === '''Schools''' === Schools can provide opportunities for children with and without disabilities to become more familiar with one another. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified growing up together and making contact as interacting factors in inclusive outdoor play. Children described familiarity with other children as making contact easier. School circumstances can also affect the time available for outdoor play. Some children attending special primary education described long travel times between school and home as reducing their opportunities to play outdoors. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified these experiences as part of time constraints. The physical school environment can also be changed to support outdoor activity and socio-emotional outcomes. Bikomeye et al. (2021) systematically reviewed six experimental studies of schoolyard greening. The interventions involved adding greenery and natural elements to schoolyards. Across the included studies, the review reported generally positive findings for physical activity and socio-emotional health. However, the review included only six studies. Schoolyard greening is also a specific intervention and should not be treated as evidence that all forms of outdoor play improve children's emotional well-being. Recess provides another school setting in which children's emotional experiences have been examined directly. Poulos et al. (2026) studied 317 Year 4 and 5 children during extreme heat. Positive affect was higher after outdoor and gymnasium recess than after classroom recess. There were no significant differences in negative affect between the three settings. Poulos et al. (2026) also identified implications for school health, policy and equity. The study discussed heat-adaptive infrastructure as one way to support access to recess environments during extreme heat. However, the findings do not show that outdoor recess is always better than indoor recess because positive affect was also higher after gymnasium recess. {{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Quiz}} <quiz display=simple> {Which statement best reflects how families, communities and school can support children's outdoor play opportunities? |type="()"} + Support can involve accessible environments, safety, familiarity, appropriate parental support and opportunities for children to participate with some independence. - Providing the same outdoor space gives every child the same opportunity to participate. -Schoolyard greening alone is enough to improve children's emotional well-being. -Outdoor recess always produces better emotional outcomes than indoor recess. </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} == '''Conclusion''' == Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being are not represented by single, consistent concepts across recent research. Outdoor play should be distinguished from outdoor physical activity, while emotional well-being has been examined through emotional dysregulation, social-emotional competence, positive and negative affect, and internalising and externalising symptoms. These differences are important because findings across studies do not represent the same emotional outcomes or time frames. Outdoor play may be related to children's emotional well-being through several psychological processes, but the strength of evidence differs across them. Gross's (2015) emotion regulation framework helps explain how children may respond to emotional situations during play, while working memory provides more direct evidence of a possible cognitive process in the association between afternoon outdoor play and lower emotional dysregulation (Lee et al., 2025). However, these findings do not establish that outdoor play causes better emotion regulation or emotional well-being. Recent research also does not show one consistent effect across all children, outcomes or play contexts. Some studies report associations with better social-emotional competence, lower-risk symptom trajectories or higher positive affect, while other findings are mixed or non-significant (Davenport et al., 2025; Dodd et al., 2026; Ferguson et al., 2025). Differences in research design, measurement, timing and context therefore need to be considered when interpreting the evidence. Children's opportunities for outdoor play are also shaped by their social and physical environments. Accessibility, familiarity, autonomy, parental support, safety and opportunities to join other children can influence whether the same outdoor space provides the same opportunity to participate. Families, communities and schools can therefore support outdoor play by considering both access to outdoor spaces and the conditions that allow children to participate in ways that suit their needs and circumstances. Overall, current research suggests that outdoor play is associated with some aspects of children's emotional well-being, but the relationship is more complex than simply spending more time outdoors. The relation between outdoor play and children's emotional well-being varies depending on how outdoor play is measured, timing, context and children's opportunities to participate. ==See also== * [[wikipedia:Affordance|Affordance]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Autonomy|Autonomy]] (Wikipedia) * [[Cognitive psychology]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Emotion regulation in children|Emotion regulation in children]] (Wikiversity) * [[Emotional regulation]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Emotional dysregulation|Emotional dysregulation]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Imaginative play and emotion regulation|Imaginative play and emotion regulation]] (Wikiversity) * [[wikipedia:Working memory|Working memory]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Beekhuizen, R. Q., Bloemen, M. A. T., Bolster, E. A. M., Visser, K., Lugt, R., Bassa, M., Henry, N. L., Kotte, E. M. W., Hartingsveldt, M., & Gorter, J. W. (2026). Can You See Us Play? Observing Inclusive Outdoor Play Behaviour Among Children With and Without Disabilities: A Mixed Methods Study. Child : Care, Health & Development, 52(1), e70198-n/a. https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.70198 Beekhuizen, R. Q., Bolster, E. A. M., Gorter, J. W., Henry, N. L., Visser, K., Wittink, H., Kotte, E. M. W., Sol, M. E., & Bloemen, M. A. T. (2025). Play Together? Unveiling Facilitators and Barriers to Inclusive Outdoor Play for Dutch Children With and Without Disabilities: A Qualitative Study. Child: Care, Health & Development, 51(6), Article e70154. https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.70154 Biino, V., Pesce, C., & Martins, C. (2025). Motor Skill Development at Preschool Age in Girls and Boys: The Role of Outdoor Free Play. Children, 12(5), Article 594. https://doi.org/10.3390/children12050594 Bikomeye, J., Balza, J., & Beyer, K. (2021). The Impact of Schoolyard Greening on Children’s Physical Activity and Socioemotional Health: A Systematic Review of Experimental Studies. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(2), 535. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18020535 Boxberger, K., & Reimers, A. K. (2019). Parental correlates of outdoor play in boys and girls aged 0 to 12: A systematic review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(2, Art. 190), 19-16:2, Art. 190<19. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16020190 Davenport, C., Kuzik, N., Larouche, R., & Carson, V. (2025). The Associations Between Parental-Reported and Device-Based Measured Outdoor Play and Health Indicators of Physical, Cognitive, and Social–Emotional Development in Preschool-Aged Children. Pediatric Exercise Science, 37(2), 102–111. https://doi.org/10.1123/pes.2023-0119 de Lannoy, L., Barbeau, K., Seguin, N., & Tremblay, M. S. (2023). Scoping review of children’s and youth’s outdoor play publications in Canada. Chronic Diseases in Canada, 43(1), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.24095/hpcdp.43.1.01 Dodd, H. F., Cordwell, K., Hesketh, K., Johnstone, A., de la Torre-Luque, A., & McCrorie, P. (2026). Early outdoor play predicts trajectories of child mental health in a population-based cohort. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.70175 Ferguson, M., Teyhan, A., Lovell, R., Dodd, H., Wheeler, B., & McEachan, R. (2025). The association between park visits, outdoor play and child social-emotional competency in a multi-ethnic, urban cohort. Wellbeing, Space and Society, 9, Article 100293. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wss.2025.100293 Gal‐Szabo, D. E., Spinrad, T. L., Eisenberg, N., & Sulik, M. J. (2019). The relations of children’s emotion knowledge to their observed social play and reticent/uninvolved behavior in preschool: Moderation by effortful control. Social Development (Oxford, England), 28(1), 57–73. https://doi.org/10.1111/sode.12321 Gibson, J. J. (1979). The ecological approach to visual perception / James J. Gibson. Houghton Mifflin. Gibson, J.L., Cornell, M. & Gill, T. A Systematic Review of Research into the Impact of Loose Parts Play on Children’s Cognitive, Social and Emotional Development. School Mental Health 9, 295–309 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12310-017-9220-9 Gross, J. J. (2015). Emotion Regulation: Current Status and Future Prospects. Psychological Inquiry, 26(1), 1–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/1047840X.2014.940781 Halberstadt, A. G., Denham, S. A., & Dunsmore, J. C. (2001). Affective Social Competence. Social Development (Oxford, England), 10(1), 79–119. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9507.00150 Han, C. S., Brussoni, M. J., & Mâsse, L. C. (2022). Parental Autonomy Support in the Context of Parent–Child Negotiation for Children’s Independent Mobility: ‘I Always Feel Safer With My Parents’ to ‘Boom! Bust Down Those Walls! The Journal of Early Adolescence, 42(6), Article 02724316211064513. https://doi.org/10.1177/02724316211064513 Johnstone, A., Martin, A., Cordovil, R., Fjørtoft, I., Iivonen, S., Jidovtseff, B., Lopes, F., Reilly, J. J., Thomson, H., Wells, V., & McCrorie, P. (2022). Nature-Based Early Childhood Education and Children’s Social, Emotional and Cognitive Development: A Mixed-Methods Systematic Review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(10), 5967. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19105967 Lee, E.-Y., de Lannoy, L., Kim, Y.-B., Rathod, A., James, M. E., Lopes, O., Nasrallah, B., Thankarajah, A., Adjei-Boadi, D., de Barros, M. I. A., Duncan, S., Miller, R. M., Mygind, L., Vanderloo, L. M., Wang, P.-Y., & Tremblay, M. S. (2025). 2025 Position statement on active outdoor play. The International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 22(1), Article 117. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12966-025-01813-9 Lee, J. J., Flouri, E., & Jackson, Y. (2025). The Role of Timing and Amount of Outdoor Play in Emotional Dysregulation in Preschool Children. Child: Care, Health & Development, 51(1), Article e70020. https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.70020 Morgenthaler, T., Lynch, H., Loebach, J., Pentland, D., & Schulze, C. (2024). Using the Theory of Affordances to Understand Environment–Play Transactions: Environmental Taxonomy of Outdoor Play Space Features—A Scoping Review. The American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 78(4), Article 7804185120. https://doi.org/10.5014/ajot.2024.050606 Pereira, J. V., Vila-Nova, F., Veiga, G., Lopes, F., & Cordovil, R. (2024). Associations between outdoor play features and children’s behavior and health: A systematic review. Health & Place, 87, Article 103235. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healthplace.2024.103235 Poulos, A., Hassan, U. A., Wilson, K., Price, P. M., Vanos, J., & Quilla, J. (2026). Differences in Schoolchildren’s Emotional State After Indoor Versus Outdoor Recess in Extreme‐Heat Weather. The Journal of School Health, 96(4), Article e70135. https://doi.org/10.1111/josh.70135 Scherer, K. R. (2005). What are emotions? And how can they be measured? Social Science Information, 44(4), 695–729. https://doi.org/10.1177/0539018405058216 Veraksa, A. N., Plotnikova, V. A., Sukhikh, V. L., Kornienko, D. S., & Rudnova, N. A. (2025). Non-therapeutic play to overcome negative emotional symptoms and improve emotional intelligence in children aged 3–7: a systematic review. Frontiers in Psychology, 16, 1475387. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1475387 Visser, K., & Aalst, I. (2022). Neighbourhood Factors in Children’s Outdoor Play: A Systematic Literature Review. Tijdschrift Voor Economische En Sociale Geografie, 113(1), 80–95. https://doi.org/10.1111/tesg.12505 }} ==External links== {{ic|Use bullet points as shown in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]}} * [https://www.child-encyclopedia.com/outdoor-play [https://www.child-encyclopedia.com/outdoor-pla]<nowiki/>[https://www.child-encyclopedia.com/outdoor-play y]] (Encyclopedia in Early Childhood Development) * [[https://www.outdoorplaycanada.ca/2026/06/02/sprout-able-resources-videos-and-tip-sheets-to-support-children-with-disabilities-in-outdoor-play/ https://www.outdoorplaycanada.ca/2026/06/02/sp]<nowiki/>[https://www.outdoorplaycanada.ca/2026/06/02/sprout-able-resources-videos-and-tip-sheets-to-support-children-with-disabilities-in-outdoor-play/ rout-able-resources-videos-and-tip-sheets-to-support-children-with-disabilities-in-outdoor-play/]/ SPROUT-able Resources: Videos and Tip Sheets to Support Children with Disabilities in Outdoor Play] (Outdoor Play Canada) * https://www.who.int/news/item/24-04-2019-to-grow-up-healthy-children-need-to-sit-less-and-play-more<nowiki/> To grow up healthy, children need to sit less and play more] (World Health Organisation) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Children]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Nature]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Well-being]] 7nntvcxn4djtizar1k8do9gcwo046na 0 331285 2835753 2831200 2026-10-04T05:30:55Z U3286643 3106304 Updated overview with expansion on executive functions and decreased focus on procrastination 2835753 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Getting started:<br>Why is task initiation difficult and how to overcome it?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Scrolling on phone (cropped).jpg||thumb|right|150px|'''Figure 1'''. An individual scrolling on their phone.]] ;Scenario John is a university student with an assignment due in five days time which he has not started. Despite knowing that he needs to begin the assignment soon in order to have it completed by the due date, he finds the prospect of starting the assignment daunting, and so continues to find alternative activities to distract himself, such as scrolling on social media (see Figure 1.) John is struggling with task initiation, and is using procrastination as a coping behaviour to manage his negative feelings associated with starting the assignment. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Executive functions are set of top-down cognitive processes that support individuals in relation to goal-directed behaviour through facilitating planning, attention, concentration, and mental flexibility (Diamond, 2013). Three core executive functions are often discussed: inhibition control, working memory, and cognitive flexibility (Miyake et al. 2000). Higher-order executive functions are derived from these, such as planning, task-switching, and fluid intelligence (Collins & Koechlin, 2012), although these functions are often subjects of debate in terms of domain specificity. One such function is that of task initiation. Task initiation is an executive function that allows an individual to begin a specific task at a desired time without unnecessary hesitation or delay. Task initiation can be inhibited by various cognitive, emotional, and motivational factors. When tasks are associated with negative emotions such as anxiety, shame, or stress, are perceived as low-priority, distant, or unclear and thus do not inspire motivation, or when an individual has adverse cognitive factors related to executive functioning, task initiation can quickly become difficult. Impaired task initiation is often associated with procrastination, which is the act of intentionally delaying a task or set of tasks despite the knowledge that there will be negative consequences. Procrastination is used to manage and regulation the negative emotions associated with task initiation on a short-term basis (Sirois & Pychyl, 2013) and is also often influenced by cognitive processes such as temporal discounting. Despite this, it is important to note the distinction between task initiation as a neurological process and procrastination as an active, voluntary choice to delay tasks. Individuals who struggle with task initiation and procrastination long-term may suffer negative health aspects such as chronic stress and increased anxiety and depression (Stead et al., 2010) as well as decreased performance in academic or workplace environments (Steel, 2007). Understanding the cognitive and psychological mechanisms of task initiation and the various factors influencing it can help to bolster task initiation in individuals – such as through the development of mitigation strategies and measures for procrastination, for example – thus reducing the negative impact of impaired task initiation on individual’s lives.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * What is task initiation and procrastination? * What are the underlying factors and frameworks used to understand task initiation and procrastination? * How can procrastination be mitigated and task initiation improved? * What are the real-world applications of understanding and mitigating procrastination? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Task initiation and procrastination == * Task initiation as a cognitive process - executive function components and subsequent roles and interactions, and the concept of executive dysfunction * Procrastination - common types of procrastination and how and why it occurs/is used - emotional management and linking back to executive dysfunction == Factors and theoretical frameworks == {{ic|Include at least an introductory paragraph before branching into sub-headings}} === Emotional factors in task initiation === * Emotional resistance: aversion to boredom, frustration and other negative emotions decrease the likelihood of task initiation (Sirois & Pychyl, 2013) * Task anxiety and fear of failure: High-stakes tasks can trigger the fear of failing or performing poorly, leading to further stress due to potential consequences and imagined judgement [author note for self: may integrate this section into perfectionism due to perfectionism influencing perception of task stakes] * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Perfectionism and procrastination|Perfectionism]]: Linked to task anxiety and fear of failure, tasks are perceived as insurmountable due to a self-inflicted need to produce flawless or near-flawless work (Sirois et al., 2017) * Self-doubt, low self-efficacy and pre-existing negative emotions ("Wall of Awful"): Individuals with negative emotions such as shame or guilt due to previous failures are re-exposed to these negative feelings when thinking about task initiation, and these feelings can also affect self-confidence (Wäschle et al., (2014) === Temporal motivation theory === * Psychological model explaining prioritisation and procrastination of tasks based on time and value (Steel, 2007). * Integrates aspects of multiple other psychological theories to understand motivation * Explains psychological impact of deadlines on motivation === Cognitive factors === * Executive dysfunction: deficits in cognitive flexibility and set-shifting make transitioning between tasks or from a passive to active state slow or difficult (Miyake et al., 2000) * Abstraction/ambiguity of tasks: inability to visualise tasks in operational terms and steps due to either high abstraction levels or poor goal ambiguity disrupts task initiation due to lacking immediate actionable cues (Trope & Liberman, 2010) == Interventions and mitigations == {{ic|Include at least an introductory paragraph before branching into sub-headings}} === Cognitive and planning strategies === * "If-then" planning: linking tasks to easier, existing habits (Gollwitzer, 1999) * Task deconstruction and planning: deconstructing tasks into smaller sections to decrease psychological distance (Trope & Liberman, 2010) === Environmental and behavioural controls === * Restricting access to environmental distractions: reduces need for inhibitory control during task initiation === Emotional regulation interventions === * Practicing self-forgiveness and compassion: shown to decrease psychological effects of previous procrastination and failures (Wohl et al., 2010) * Emotional acceptance: practicing experiencing negative emotions without procrastination rather than waiting for negative emotions to dissipate helps individuals to understand they can experience aversive feelings while still executing tasks (Erisman & Roemer, 2010) == Clinical and applied relevance == [[File:Psychotherapy.JPG|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. An individual undergoing psychotherapy.]] * Applicational relevance to mitigate procrastination outcomes and subsequent adverse health effects in academic and workplace settings * Potential diagnostic indicator for neurodivergence: chronic task-initiation struggles serve as primary behavioural marker for ADHD and ASD, as well as common marker of depression, anxiety [author note: current research has mixed opinions on this, lots of non-scientific discussion but fewer concrete peer-reviewed articles on preliminary search. Further research needed, may discard topic point if not significantly founded] * Study of task initiation mechanics and procrastination mitigation techniques contributes to psychotherapeutic interventions such as CBT (see Figure 2.) ==Conclusion== * Summarise task initiation and procrastination and the interactions between the two and it's significance on both an individual and societal scale * Overview of impactful emotional, motivational, and cognitive elements of task initiation and procrastination * Summarise importance of studying and developing mitigation strategies and techniques through psychological lens == See also == * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Procrastination|Procrastination]] (Book chapter, 2011) * [[w:Emotional_self-regulation|Emotional self-regulation]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Barkley, R. A. (2012). Executive functions: What they are, how they work, and why they evolved. Guilford Press. Erisman, S. M., & Roemer, L. (2010). A preliminary investigation of the effects of experimentally induced mindfulness on emotional responding to film clips. ''Emotion'', ''10''(1), 72–82. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0017162 Gollwitzer, P. M. (1999). Implementation intentions: Strong effects of simple plans. ''American Psychologist, 54''(7), 493–503. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.54.7.493 Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Emerson, M. J., Witzki, A. H., Howerter, A., & Wager, T. D. (2000)'''.''' The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex "Frontal Lobe" tasks: A latent variable analysis. ''Cognitive Psychology'', ''41''(1), 49–100. https://doi.org/10.1006/cogp.1999.0734 Sirois, F. M., Molnar, D. S., & Hirsch, J. K. (2017). A Meta-analytic and Conceptual Update on the Associations Between Procrastination and Multidimensional Perfectionism. European Journal of Personality, 31(2), 137–159. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.2098 Sirois, F., & Pychyl, T. (2013). Procrastination and the Priority of Short-Term Mood Regulation: Consequences for Future Self. ''Social and Personality Psychology Compass'', ''7''(2), 115–127. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12011 Stead, R., Shanahan, M. J., & Neufeld, R. W. J. (2010). “I’ll go to therapy, eventually”: Procrastination, stress and mental health. Personality and Individual Differences, 49(3), 175–180. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.03.028 Steel, P. (2007). The nature of procrastination: A meta-analytic and theoretical review of quintessential self-regulatory failure. ''Psychological Bulletin, 133''(1), 65–94. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.133.1.65 Trope, Y., & Liberman, N. (2010). Construal-Level Theory of Psychological Distance. ''Psychological Review'', ''117''(2), 440–463. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018963 Wäschle, K., Allgaier, A., Lachner, A., Fink, S., & Nückles, M. (2014). Procrastination and self-efficacy: Tracing vicious and virtuous circles in self-regulated learning. Learning and Instruction, 29, 103–114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2013.09.005 Wohl, M. J. A., Pychyl, T. A., & Bennett, S. H. (2010). I forgive myself, now I can study: How self-forgiveness for procrastinating can reduce future procrastination. ''Personality and Individual Differences'', ''48''(7), 803–808. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.01.029 }} == External links == * [https://www.verywellmind.com/wall-of-awful-in-adhd-12000744 How the Wall of Awful Prevents Task Initiation in ADHD - and What Can Help You Push Through] (Verywell Mind, 2026) * [https://www.theguardian.com/wellness/2025/sep/12/executive-dysfunction-overcome What is 'executive dysfunction' and how do you overcome it?] (The Guardian, 2025) * [https://www.psychologicalscience.org/observer/why-wait-the-science-behind-procrastination Why Wait? The Science Behind Procrastination] (Association for Psychological Science, 2013) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Goal pursuit]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Procrastination]] ik1h4dh2tya3o8encgw2zp2d7m3eb5z 2835754 2835753 2026-10-04T05:47:47Z U3286643 3106304 Updated focus questions - less focus on procrastination, more on processes underlying task intiation 2835754 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Getting started:<br>Why is task initiation difficult and how to overcome it?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Scrolling on phone (cropped).jpg||thumb|right|150px|'''Figure 1'''. An individual scrolling on their phone.]] ;Scenario John is a university student with an assignment due in five days time which he has not started. Despite knowing that he needs to begin the assignment soon in order to have it completed by the due date, he finds the prospect of starting the assignment daunting, and so continues to find alternative activities to distract himself, such as scrolling on social media (see Figure 1.) John is struggling with task initiation, and is using procrastination as a coping behaviour to manage his negative feelings associated with starting the assignment. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Executive functions are set of top-down cognitive processes that support individuals in relation to goal-directed behaviour through facilitating planning, attention, concentration, and mental flexibility (Diamond, 2013). Three core executive functions are often discussed: inhibition control, working memory, and cognitive flexibility (Miyake et al. 2000). Higher-order executive functions are derived from these, such as planning, task-switching, and fluid intelligence (Collins & Koechlin, 2012), although these functions are often subjects of debate in terms of domain specificity. One such function is that of task initiation. Task initiation is an executive function that allows an individual to begin a specific task at a desired time without unnecessary hesitation or delay. Task initiation can be inhibited by various cognitive, emotional, and motivational factors. When tasks are associated with negative emotions such as anxiety, shame, or stress, are perceived as low-priority, distant, or unclear and thus do not inspire motivation, or when an individual has adverse cognitive factors related to executive functioning, task initiation can quickly become difficult. Impaired task initiation is often associated with procrastination, which is the act of intentionally delaying a task or set of tasks despite the knowledge that there will be negative consequences. Procrastination is used to manage and regulation the negative emotions associated with task initiation on a short-term basis (Sirois & Pychyl, 2013) and is also often influenced by cognitive processes such as temporal discounting. Despite this, it is important to note the distinction between task initiation as a neurological process and procrastination as an active, voluntary choice to delay tasks. Individuals who struggle with task initiation and procrastination long-term may suffer negative health aspects such as chronic stress and increased anxiety and depression (Stead et al., 2010) as well as decreased performance in academic or workplace environments (Steel, 2007). Understanding the cognitive and psychological mechanisms of task initiation and the various factors influencing it can help to bolster task initiation in individuals – such as through the development of mitigation strategies and measures for procrastination, for example – thus reducing the negative impact of impaired task initiation on individual’s lives.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * What are the cognitive processes underlying task initiation? * How do motivational and emotional factors influence task initiation? * Why does task initiation become difficult? * What are the differences and interactions between task initiation and procrastination? * How can task initiation be improved? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Task initiation and procrastination == * Task initiation as a cognitive process - executive function components and subsequent roles and interactions, and the concept of executive dysfunction * Procrastination - common types of procrastination and how and why it occurs/is used - emotional management and linking back to executive dysfunction == Factors and theoretical frameworks == {{ic|Include at least an introductory paragraph before branching into sub-headings}} === Emotional factors in task initiation === * Emotional resistance: aversion to boredom, frustration and other negative emotions decrease the likelihood of task initiation (Sirois & Pychyl, 2013) * Task anxiety and fear of failure: High-stakes tasks can trigger the fear of failing or performing poorly, leading to further stress due to potential consequences and imagined judgement [author note for self: may integrate this section into perfectionism due to perfectionism influencing perception of task stakes] * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Perfectionism and procrastination|Perfectionism]]: Linked to task anxiety and fear of failure, tasks are perceived as insurmountable due to a self-inflicted need to produce flawless or near-flawless work (Sirois et al., 2017) * Self-doubt, low self-efficacy and pre-existing negative emotions ("Wall of Awful"): Individuals with negative emotions such as shame or guilt due to previous failures are re-exposed to these negative feelings when thinking about task initiation, and these feelings can also affect self-confidence (Wäschle et al., (2014) === Temporal motivation theory === * Psychological model explaining prioritisation and procrastination of tasks based on time and value (Steel, 2007). * Integrates aspects of multiple other psychological theories to understand motivation * Explains psychological impact of deadlines on motivation === Cognitive factors === * Executive dysfunction: deficits in cognitive flexibility and set-shifting make transitioning between tasks or from a passive to active state slow or difficult (Miyake et al., 2000) * Abstraction/ambiguity of tasks: inability to visualise tasks in operational terms and steps due to either high abstraction levels or poor goal ambiguity disrupts task initiation due to lacking immediate actionable cues (Trope & Liberman, 2010) == Interventions and mitigations == {{ic|Include at least an introductory paragraph before branching into sub-headings}} === Cognitive and planning strategies === * "If-then" planning: linking tasks to easier, existing habits (Gollwitzer, 1999) * Task deconstruction and planning: deconstructing tasks into smaller sections to decrease psychological distance (Trope & Liberman, 2010) === Environmental and behavioural controls === * Restricting access to environmental distractions: reduces need for inhibitory control during task initiation === Emotional regulation interventions === * Practicing self-forgiveness and compassion: shown to decrease psychological effects of previous procrastination and failures (Wohl et al., 2010) * Emotional acceptance: practicing experiencing negative emotions without procrastination rather than waiting for negative emotions to dissipate helps individuals to understand they can experience aversive feelings while still executing tasks (Erisman & Roemer, 2010) == Clinical and applied relevance == [[File:Psychotherapy.JPG|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. An individual undergoing psychotherapy.]] * Applicational relevance to mitigate procrastination outcomes and subsequent adverse health effects in academic and workplace settings * Potential diagnostic indicator for neurodivergence: chronic task-initiation struggles serve as primary behavioural marker for ADHD and ASD, as well as common marker of depression, anxiety [author note: current research has mixed opinions on this, lots of non-scientific discussion but fewer concrete peer-reviewed articles on preliminary search. Further research needed, may discard topic point if not significantly founded] * Study of task initiation mechanics and procrastination mitigation techniques contributes to psychotherapeutic interventions such as CBT (see Figure 2.) ==Conclusion== * Summarise task initiation and procrastination and the interactions between the two and it's significance on both an individual and societal scale * Overview of impactful emotional, motivational, and cognitive elements of task initiation and procrastination * Summarise importance of studying and developing mitigation strategies and techniques through psychological lens == See also == * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Procrastination|Procrastination]] (Book chapter, 2011) * [[w:Emotional_self-regulation|Emotional self-regulation]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Barkley, R. A. (2012). Executive functions: What they are, how they work, and why they evolved. Guilford Press. Erisman, S. M., & Roemer, L. (2010). A preliminary investigation of the effects of experimentally induced mindfulness on emotional responding to film clips. ''Emotion'', ''10''(1), 72–82. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0017162 Gollwitzer, P. M. (1999). Implementation intentions: Strong effects of simple plans. ''American Psychologist, 54''(7), 493–503. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.54.7.493 Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Emerson, M. J., Witzki, A. H., Howerter, A., & Wager, T. D. (2000)'''.''' The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex "Frontal Lobe" tasks: A latent variable analysis. ''Cognitive Psychology'', ''41''(1), 49–100. https://doi.org/10.1006/cogp.1999.0734 Sirois, F. M., Molnar, D. S., & Hirsch, J. K. (2017). A Meta-analytic and Conceptual Update on the Associations Between Procrastination and Multidimensional Perfectionism. European Journal of Personality, 31(2), 137–159. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.2098 Sirois, F., & Pychyl, T. (2013). Procrastination and the Priority of Short-Term Mood Regulation: Consequences for Future Self. ''Social and Personality Psychology Compass'', ''7''(2), 115–127. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12011 Stead, R., Shanahan, M. J., & Neufeld, R. W. J. (2010). “I’ll go to therapy, eventually”: Procrastination, stress and mental health. Personality and Individual Differences, 49(3), 175–180. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.03.028 Steel, P. (2007). The nature of procrastination: A meta-analytic and theoretical review of quintessential self-regulatory failure. ''Psychological Bulletin, 133''(1), 65–94. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.133.1.65 Trope, Y., & Liberman, N. (2010). Construal-Level Theory of Psychological Distance. ''Psychological Review'', ''117''(2), 440–463. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018963 Wäschle, K., Allgaier, A., Lachner, A., Fink, S., & Nückles, M. (2014). Procrastination and self-efficacy: Tracing vicious and virtuous circles in self-regulated learning. Learning and Instruction, 29, 103–114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2013.09.005 Wohl, M. J. A., Pychyl, T. A., & Bennett, S. H. (2010). I forgive myself, now I can study: How self-forgiveness for procrastinating can reduce future procrastination. ''Personality and Individual Differences'', ''48''(7), 803–808. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.01.029 }} == External links == * [https://www.verywellmind.com/wall-of-awful-in-adhd-12000744 How the Wall of Awful Prevents Task Initiation in ADHD - and What Can Help You Push Through] (Verywell Mind, 2026) * [https://www.theguardian.com/wellness/2025/sep/12/executive-dysfunction-overcome What is 'executive dysfunction' and how do you overcome it?] (The Guardian, 2025) * [https://www.psychologicalscience.org/observer/why-wait-the-science-behind-procrastination Why Wait? The Science Behind Procrastination] (Association for Psychological Science, 2013) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Goal pursuit]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Procrastination]] 0cit314ijmgosunswctfhjhynnuenmv 2835755 2835754 2026-10-04T05:58:35Z U3286643 3106304 updated section headings to reflect focus questions 2835755 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Getting started:<br>Why is task initiation difficult and how to overcome it?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Scrolling on phone (cropped).jpg||thumb|right|150px|'''Figure 1'''. An individual scrolling on their phone.]] ;Scenario John is a university student with an assignment due in five days time which he has not started. Despite knowing that he needs to begin the assignment soon in order to have it completed by the due date, he finds the prospect of starting the assignment daunting, and so continues to find alternative activities to distract himself, such as scrolling on social media (see Figure 1.) John is struggling with task initiation, and is using procrastination as a coping behaviour to manage his negative feelings associated with starting the assignment. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Executive functions are set of top-down cognitive processes that support individuals in relation to goal-directed behaviour through facilitating planning, attention, concentration, and mental flexibility (Diamond, 2013). Three core executive functions are often discussed: inhibition control, working memory, and cognitive flexibility (Miyake et al. 2000). Higher-order executive functions are derived from these, such as planning, task-switching, and fluid intelligence (Collins & Koechlin, 2012), although these functions are often subjects of debate in terms of domain specificity. One such function is that of task initiation. Task initiation is an executive function that allows an individual to begin a specific task at a desired time without unnecessary hesitation or delay. Task initiation can be inhibited by various cognitive, emotional, and motivational factors. When tasks are associated with negative emotions such as anxiety, shame, or stress, are perceived as low-priority, distant, or unclear and thus do not inspire motivation, or when an individual has adverse cognitive factors related to executive functioning, task initiation can quickly become difficult. Impaired task initiation is often associated with procrastination, which is the act of intentionally delaying a task or set of tasks despite the knowledge that there will be negative consequences. Procrastination is used to manage and regulation the negative emotions associated with task initiation on a short-term basis (Sirois & Pychyl, 2013) and is also often influenced by cognitive processes such as temporal discounting. Despite this, it is important to note the distinction between task initiation as a neurological process and procrastination as an active, voluntary choice to delay tasks. Individuals who struggle with task initiation and procrastination long-term may suffer negative health aspects such as chronic stress and increased anxiety and depression (Stead et al., 2010) as well as decreased performance in academic or workplace environments (Steel, 2007). Understanding the cognitive and psychological mechanisms of task initiation and the various factors influencing it can help to bolster task initiation in individuals – such as through the development of mitigation strategies and measures for procrastination, for example – thus reducing the negative impact of impaired task initiation on individual’s lives.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * What are the cognitive processes underlying task initiation? * How do motivational and emotional factors influence task initiation? * Why does task initiation become difficult? * What are the differences and interactions between task initiation and procrastination? * How can task initiation be improved? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Cognitive processes == == Motivation and emotion == == Difficulties == == Procrastination == ==Improving task initiation == == Conclusion == == See also == * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Procrastination|Procrastination]] (Book chapter, 2011) * [[w:Emotional_self-regulation|Emotional self-regulation]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Barkley, R. A. (2012). Executive functions: What they are, how they work, and why they evolved. Guilford Press. Erisman, S. M., & Roemer, L. (2010). A preliminary investigation of the effects of experimentally induced mindfulness on emotional responding to film clips. ''Emotion'', ''10''(1), 72–82. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0017162 Gollwitzer, P. M. (1999). Implementation intentions: Strong effects of simple plans. ''American Psychologist, 54''(7), 493–503. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.54.7.493 Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Emerson, M. J., Witzki, A. H., Howerter, A., & Wager, T. D. (2000)'''.''' The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex "Frontal Lobe" tasks: A latent variable analysis. ''Cognitive Psychology'', ''41''(1), 49–100. https://doi.org/10.1006/cogp.1999.0734 Sirois, F. M., Molnar, D. S., & Hirsch, J. K. (2017). A Meta-analytic and Conceptual Update on the Associations Between Procrastination and Multidimensional Perfectionism. European Journal of Personality, 31(2), 137–159. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.2098 Sirois, F., & Pychyl, T. (2013). Procrastination and the Priority of Short-Term Mood Regulation: Consequences for Future Self. ''Social and Personality Psychology Compass'', ''7''(2), 115–127. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12011 Stead, R., Shanahan, M. J., & Neufeld, R. W. J. (2010). “I’ll go to therapy, eventually”: Procrastination, stress and mental health. Personality and Individual Differences, 49(3), 175–180. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.03.028 Steel, P. (2007). The nature of procrastination: A meta-analytic and theoretical review of quintessential self-regulatory failure. ''Psychological Bulletin, 133''(1), 65–94. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.133.1.65 Trope, Y., & Liberman, N. (2010). Construal-Level Theory of Psychological Distance. ''Psychological Review'', ''117''(2), 440–463. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018963 Wäschle, K., Allgaier, A., Lachner, A., Fink, S., & Nückles, M. (2014). Procrastination and self-efficacy: Tracing vicious and virtuous circles in self-regulated learning. Learning and Instruction, 29, 103–114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2013.09.005 Wohl, M. J. A., Pychyl, T. A., & Bennett, S. H. (2010). I forgive myself, now I can study: How self-forgiveness for procrastinating can reduce future procrastination. ''Personality and Individual Differences'', ''48''(7), 803–808. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.01.029 }} == External links == * [https://www.verywellmind.com/wall-of-awful-in-adhd-12000744 How the Wall of Awful Prevents Task Initiation in ADHD - and What Can Help You Push Through] (Verywell Mind, 2026) * [https://www.theguardian.com/wellness/2025/sep/12/executive-dysfunction-overcome What is 'executive dysfunction' and how do you overcome it?] (The Guardian, 2025) * [https://www.psychologicalscience.org/observer/why-wait-the-science-behind-procrastination Why Wait? The Science Behind Procrastination] (Association for Psychological Science, 2013) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Goal pursuit]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Procrastination]] 00az55whlhn0q3kos3mfviwgd015lv2 2835758 2835755 2026-10-04T07:47:10Z U3286643 3106304 Start of cognitive processes section 2835758 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Getting started:<br>Why is task initiation difficult and how to overcome it?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Scrolling on phone (cropped).jpg||thumb|right|150px|'''Figure 1'''. An individual scrolling on their phone.]] ;Scenario John is a university student with an assignment due in five days time which he has not started. Despite knowing that he needs to begin the assignment soon in order to have it completed by the due date, he finds the prospect of starting the assignment daunting, and so continues to find alternative activities to distract himself, such as scrolling on social media (see Figure 1.) John is struggling with task initiation, and is using procrastination as a coping behaviour to manage his negative feelings associated with starting the assignment. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Executive functions are set of top-down cognitive processes that support individuals in relation to goal-directed behaviour through facilitating planning, attention, concentration, and mental flexibility (Diamond, 2013). Three core executive functions are often discussed: inhibition control, working memory, and cognitive flexibility (Miyake et al. 2000). Higher-order executive functions are derived from these, such as planning, task-switching, and fluid intelligence (Collins & Koechlin, 2012), although these functions are often subjects of debate in terms of domain specificity. One such function is that of task initiation. Task initiation is an executive function that allows an individual to begin a specific task at a desired time without unnecessary hesitation or delay. Task initiation can be inhibited by various cognitive, emotional, and motivational factors. When tasks are associated with negative emotions such as anxiety, shame, or stress, are perceived as low-priority, distant, or unclear and thus do not inspire motivation, or when an individual has adverse cognitive factors related to executive functioning, task initiation can quickly become difficult. Impaired task initiation is often associated with procrastination, which is the act of intentionally delaying a task or set of tasks despite the knowledge that there will be negative consequences. Procrastination is used to manage and regulation the negative emotions associated with task initiation on a short-term basis (Sirois & Pychyl, 2013) and is also often influenced by cognitive processes such as temporal discounting. Despite this, it is important to note the distinction between task initiation as a neurological process and procrastination as an active, voluntary choice to delay tasks. Individuals who struggle with task initiation and procrastination long-term may suffer negative health aspects such as chronic stress and increased anxiety and depression (Stead et al., 2010) as well as decreased performance in academic or workplace environments (Steel, 2007). Understanding the cognitive and psychological mechanisms of task initiation and the various factors influencing it can help to bolster task initiation in individuals – such as through the development of mitigation strategies and measures for procrastination, for example – thus reducing the negative impact of impaired task initiation on individual’s lives.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * What are the cognitive processes underlying task initiation? * How do motivational and emotional factors influence task initiation? * Why does task initiation become difficult? * What are the differences and interactions between task initiation and procrastination? * How can task initiation be improved? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Cognitive processes == Task initiation can be examined as functioning through the interactions of the core executive functions that it is derived from. Working memory involves the visualisation and maintenance of goals through the monitoring, coding, and revising of relevant information, inhibition control is the ability to deliberately suppress competing responses, and cognitive flexibility allows for set-shifting, the ability to shift between tasks or mental sets (Miyake et al., 2020), all of which are important factors in relation to functional task initiation in individuals. Further processes and interactions between these systems are offered to gain a deeper understanding into task initiation. === Intention to action === Intention to initiate a task does not always translate to induced behaviour. The Rubicon Model of Action Phases, proposed by Heinz Heckhausen and Peter Gollwitzer, divides the process of intention to action into four distinct, separate phases. Julius Kuhl similarly proposed the action control theory to examine the discrepancy between intention and action. ==== Rubicon model of action phases ==== ==== Action control theory ==== == Motivation and emotion == == Difficulties == == Procrastination == ==Improving task initiation == == Conclusion == == See also == * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Procrastination|Procrastination]] (Book chapter, 2011) * [[w:Emotional_self-regulation|Emotional self-regulation]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Barkley, R. A. (2012). Executive functions: What they are, how they work, and why they evolved. Guilford Press. Erisman, S. M., & Roemer, L. (2010). A preliminary investigation of the effects of experimentally induced mindfulness on emotional responding to film clips. ''Emotion'', ''10''(1), 72–82. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0017162 Gollwitzer, P. M. (1999). Implementation intentions: Strong effects of simple plans. ''American Psychologist, 54''(7), 493–503. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.54.7.493 Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Emerson, M. J., Witzki, A. H., Howerter, A., & Wager, T. D. (2000)'''.''' The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex "Frontal Lobe" tasks: A latent variable analysis. ''Cognitive Psychology'', ''41''(1), 49–100. https://doi.org/10.1006/cogp.1999.0734 Sirois, F. M., Molnar, D. S., & Hirsch, J. K. (2017). A Meta-analytic and Conceptual Update on the Associations Between Procrastination and Multidimensional Perfectionism. European Journal of Personality, 31(2), 137–159. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.2098 Sirois, F., & Pychyl, T. (2013). Procrastination and the Priority of Short-Term Mood Regulation: Consequences for Future Self. ''Social and Personality Psychology Compass'', ''7''(2), 115–127. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12011 Stead, R., Shanahan, M. J., & Neufeld, R. W. J. (2010). “I’ll go to therapy, eventually”: Procrastination, stress and mental health. Personality and Individual Differences, 49(3), 175–180. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.03.028 Steel, P. (2007). The nature of procrastination: A meta-analytic and theoretical review of quintessential self-regulatory failure. ''Psychological Bulletin, 133''(1), 65–94. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.133.1.65 Trope, Y., & Liberman, N. (2010). Construal-Level Theory of Psychological Distance. ''Psychological Review'', ''117''(2), 440–463. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018963 Wäschle, K., Allgaier, A., Lachner, A., Fink, S., & Nückles, M. (2014). Procrastination and self-efficacy: Tracing vicious and virtuous circles in self-regulated learning. Learning and Instruction, 29, 103–114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2013.09.005 Wohl, M. J. A., Pychyl, T. A., & Bennett, S. H. (2010). I forgive myself, now I can study: How self-forgiveness for procrastinating can reduce future procrastination. ''Personality and Individual Differences'', ''48''(7), 803–808. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.01.029 }} == External links == * [https://www.verywellmind.com/wall-of-awful-in-adhd-12000744 How the Wall of Awful Prevents Task Initiation in ADHD - and What Can Help You Push Through] (Verywell Mind, 2026) * [https://www.theguardian.com/wellness/2025/sep/12/executive-dysfunction-overcome What is 'executive dysfunction' and how do you overcome it?] (The Guardian, 2025) * [https://www.psychologicalscience.org/observer/why-wait-the-science-behind-procrastination Why Wait? The Science Behind Procrastination] (Association for Psychological Science, 2013) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Goal pursuit]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Procrastination]] cn40eb7i0mk0lqxyfwiet4k5snp0oyk 2835761 2835758 2026-10-04T07:55:01Z U3286643 3106304 Intention to action models and theories in cognitive processes 2835761 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Getting started:<br>Why is task initiation difficult and how to overcome it?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Scrolling on phone (cropped).jpg||thumb|right|150px|'''Figure 1'''. An individual scrolling on their phone.]] ;Scenario John is a university student with an assignment due in five days time which he has not started. Despite knowing that he needs to begin the assignment soon in order to have it completed by the due date, he finds the prospect of starting the assignment daunting, and so continues to find alternative activities to distract himself, such as scrolling on social media (see Figure 1.) John is struggling with task initiation, and is using procrastination as a coping behaviour to manage his negative feelings associated with starting the assignment. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Executive functions are set of top-down cognitive processes that support individuals in relation to goal-directed behaviour through facilitating planning, attention, concentration, and mental flexibility (Diamond, 2013). Three core executive functions are often discussed: inhibition control, working memory, and cognitive flexibility (Miyake et al. 2000). Higher-order executive functions are derived from these, such as planning, task-switching, and fluid intelligence (Collins & Koechlin, 2012), although these functions are often subjects of debate in terms of domain specificity. One such function is that of task initiation. Task initiation is an executive function that allows an individual to begin a specific task at a desired time without unnecessary hesitation or delay. Task initiation can be inhibited by various cognitive, emotional, and motivational factors. When tasks are associated with negative emotions such as anxiety, shame, or stress, are perceived as low-priority, distant, or unclear and thus do not inspire motivation, or when an individual has adverse cognitive factors related to executive functioning, task initiation can quickly become difficult. Impaired task initiation is often associated with procrastination, which is the act of intentionally delaying a task or set of tasks despite the knowledge that there will be negative consequences. Procrastination is used to manage and regulation the negative emotions associated with task initiation on a short-term basis (Sirois & Pychyl, 2013) and is also often influenced by cognitive processes such as temporal discounting. Despite this, it is important to note the distinction between task initiation as a neurological process and procrastination as an active, voluntary choice to delay tasks. Individuals who struggle with task initiation and procrastination long-term may suffer negative health aspects such as chronic stress and increased anxiety and depression (Stead et al., 2010) as well as decreased performance in academic or workplace environments (Steel, 2007). Understanding the cognitive and psychological mechanisms of task initiation and the various factors influencing it can help to bolster task initiation in individuals – such as through the development of mitigation strategies and measures for procrastination, for example – thus reducing the negative impact of impaired task initiation on individual’s lives.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * What are the cognitive processes underlying task initiation? * How do motivational and emotional factors influence task initiation? * Why does task initiation become difficult? * What are the differences and interactions between task initiation and procrastination? * How can task initiation be improved? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Cognitive processes == Task initiation can be examined as functioning through the interactions of the core executive functions that it is derived from. Working memory involves the visualisation and maintenance of goals through the monitoring, coding, and revising of relevant information, inhibition control is the ability to deliberately suppress competing responses, and cognitive flexibility allows for set-shifting, the ability to shift between tasks or mental sets (Miyake et al., 2020), all of which are important factors in relation to functional task initiation in individuals. Further processes and interactions between these systems are offered to gain a deeper understanding into task initiation. === Intention to action === Intention to initiate a task does not always translate to induced behaviour, and various cognitive models and theories offer explanations for this discrepancy. Notable among these include the theory of planned behaviour (TPB), the Rubicon model of action phases, implementation intentions (“if-then” planning), and the health action process model (HAPA). ==== Theory of planned behaviour ==== ==== Rubicon model of action phases ==== ==== Implementation intentions ==== ==== Health action process model ==== == Motivation and emotion == == Difficulties == == Procrastination == ==Improving task initiation == == Conclusion == == See also == * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Procrastination|Procrastination]] (Book chapter, 2011) * [[w:Emotional_self-regulation|Emotional self-regulation]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Barkley, R. A. (2012). Executive functions: What they are, how they work, and why they evolved. Guilford Press. Erisman, S. M., & Roemer, L. (2010). A preliminary investigation of the effects of experimentally induced mindfulness on emotional responding to film clips. ''Emotion'', ''10''(1), 72–82. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0017162 Gollwitzer, P. M. (1999). Implementation intentions: Strong effects of simple plans. ''American Psychologist, 54''(7), 493–503. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.54.7.493 Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Emerson, M. J., Witzki, A. H., Howerter, A., & Wager, T. D. (2000)'''.''' The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex "Frontal Lobe" tasks: A latent variable analysis. ''Cognitive Psychology'', ''41''(1), 49–100. https://doi.org/10.1006/cogp.1999.0734 Sirois, F. M., Molnar, D. S., & Hirsch, J. K. (2017). A Meta-analytic and Conceptual Update on the Associations Between Procrastination and Multidimensional Perfectionism. European Journal of Personality, 31(2), 137–159. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.2098 Sirois, F., & Pychyl, T. (2013). Procrastination and the Priority of Short-Term Mood Regulation: Consequences for Future Self. ''Social and Personality Psychology Compass'', ''7''(2), 115–127. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12011 Stead, R., Shanahan, M. J., & Neufeld, R. W. J. (2010). “I’ll go to therapy, eventually”: Procrastination, stress and mental health. Personality and Individual Differences, 49(3), 175–180. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.03.028 Steel, P. (2007). The nature of procrastination: A meta-analytic and theoretical review of quintessential self-regulatory failure. ''Psychological Bulletin, 133''(1), 65–94. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.133.1.65 Trope, Y., & Liberman, N. (2010). Construal-Level Theory of Psychological Distance. ''Psychological Review'', ''117''(2), 440–463. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018963 Wäschle, K., Allgaier, A., Lachner, A., Fink, S., & Nückles, M. (2014). Procrastination and self-efficacy: Tracing vicious and virtuous circles in self-regulated learning. Learning and Instruction, 29, 103–114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2013.09.005 Wohl, M. J. A., Pychyl, T. A., & Bennett, S. H. (2010). I forgive myself, now I can study: How self-forgiveness for procrastinating can reduce future procrastination. ''Personality and Individual Differences'', ''48''(7), 803–808. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.01.029 }} == External links == * [https://www.verywellmind.com/wall-of-awful-in-adhd-12000744 How the Wall of Awful Prevents Task Initiation in ADHD - and What Can Help You Push Through] (Verywell Mind, 2026) * [https://www.theguardian.com/wellness/2025/sep/12/executive-dysfunction-overcome What is 'executive dysfunction' and how do you overcome it?] (The Guardian, 2025) * [https://www.psychologicalscience.org/observer/why-wait-the-science-behind-procrastination Why Wait? The Science Behind Procrastination] (Association for Psychological Science, 2013) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Goal pursuit]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Procrastination]] ermpab7fnsjsu49evkx1fujr4134xsy 2835763 2835761 2026-10-04T07:57:53Z U3286643 3106304 2835763 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Getting started:<br>Why is task initiation difficult and how to overcome it?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Scrolling on phone (cropped).jpg||thumb|right|150px|'''Figure 1'''. An individual scrolling on their phone.]] ;Scenario John is a university student with an assignment due in five days time which he has not started. Despite knowing that he needs to begin the assignment soon in order to have it completed by the due date, he finds the prospect of starting the assignment daunting, and so continues to find alternative activities to distract himself, such as scrolling on social media (see Figure 1.) John is struggling with task initiation, and is using procrastination as a coping behaviour to manage his negative feelings associated with starting the assignment. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Executive functions are set of top-down cognitive processes that support individuals in relation to goal-directed behaviour through facilitating planning, attention, concentration, and mental flexibility (Diamond, 2013). Three core executive functions are often discussed: inhibition control, working memory, and cognitive flexibility (Miyake et al. 2000). Higher-order executive functions are derived from these, such as planning, task-switching, and fluid intelligence (Collins & Koechlin, 2012), although these functions are often subjects of debate in terms of domain specificity. One such function is that of task initiation. Task initiation is an executive function that allows an individual to begin a specific task at a desired time without unnecessary hesitation or delay. Task initiation can be inhibited by various cognitive, emotional, and motivational factors. When tasks are associated with negative emotions such as anxiety, shame, or stress, are perceived as low-priority, distant, or unclear and thus do not inspire motivation, or when an individual has adverse cognitive factors related to executive functioning, task initiation can quickly become difficult. Impaired task initiation is often associated with procrastination, which is the act of intentionally delaying a task or set of tasks despite the knowledge that there will be negative consequences. Procrastination is used to manage and regulation the negative emotions associated with task initiation on a short-term basis (Sirois & Pychyl, 2013) and is also often influenced by cognitive processes such as temporal discounting. Despite this, it is important to note the distinction between task initiation as a neurological process and procrastination as an active, voluntary choice to delay tasks. Individuals who struggle with task initiation and procrastination long-term may suffer negative health aspects such as chronic stress and increased anxiety and depression (Stead et al., 2010) as well as decreased performance in academic or workplace environments (Steel, 2007). Understanding the cognitive and psychological mechanisms of task initiation and the various factors influencing it can help to bolster task initiation in individuals – such as through the development of mitigation strategies and measures for procrastination, for example – thus reducing the negative impact of impaired task initiation on individual’s lives.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * What are the cognitive processes underlying task initiation? * How do motivational and emotional factors influence task initiation? * Why does task initiation become difficult? * What are the differences and interactions between task initiation and procrastination? * How can task initiation be improved? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Cognitive processes == Task initiation can be examined as functioning through the interactions of the core executive functions that it is derived from. Working memory involves the visualisation and maintenance of goals through the monitoring, coding, and revising of relevant information, inhibition control is the ability to deliberately suppress competing responses, and cognitive flexibility allows for set-shifting, the ability to shift between tasks or mental sets (Miyake et al., 2020), all of which are important factors in relation to functional task initiation in individuals. However, intention to initiate a task does not always translate to induced behaviour, and various cognitive models and theories offer explanations for this discrepancy. Notable among these include the theory of planned behaviour (TPB), the Rubicon model of action phases, implementation intentions (“if-then” planning), and the health action process model (HAPA). === Theory of planned behaviour === === Rubicon model of action phases === === Implementation intentions === === Health action process model === == Motivation and emotion == == Difficulties == == Procrastination == ==Improving task initiation == == Conclusion == == See also == * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Procrastination|Procrastination]] (Book chapter, 2011) * [[w:Emotional_self-regulation|Emotional self-regulation]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Barkley, R. A. (2012). Executive functions: What they are, how they work, and why they evolved. Guilford Press. Erisman, S. M., & Roemer, L. (2010). A preliminary investigation of the effects of experimentally induced mindfulness on emotional responding to film clips. ''Emotion'', ''10''(1), 72–82. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0017162 Gollwitzer, P. M. (1999). Implementation intentions: Strong effects of simple plans. ''American Psychologist, 54''(7), 493–503. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.54.7.493 Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Emerson, M. J., Witzki, A. H., Howerter, A., & Wager, T. D. (2000)'''.''' The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex "Frontal Lobe" tasks: A latent variable analysis. ''Cognitive Psychology'', ''41''(1), 49–100. https://doi.org/10.1006/cogp.1999.0734 Sirois, F. M., Molnar, D. S., & Hirsch, J. K. (2017). A Meta-analytic and Conceptual Update on the Associations Between Procrastination and Multidimensional Perfectionism. European Journal of Personality, 31(2), 137–159. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.2098 Sirois, F., & Pychyl, T. (2013). Procrastination and the Priority of Short-Term Mood Regulation: Consequences for Future Self. ''Social and Personality Psychology Compass'', ''7''(2), 115–127. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12011 Stead, R., Shanahan, M. J., & Neufeld, R. W. J. (2010). “I’ll go to therapy, eventually”: Procrastination, stress and mental health. Personality and Individual Differences, 49(3), 175–180. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.03.028 Steel, P. (2007). The nature of procrastination: A meta-analytic and theoretical review of quintessential self-regulatory failure. ''Psychological Bulletin, 133''(1), 65–94. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.133.1.65 Trope, Y., & Liberman, N. (2010). Construal-Level Theory of Psychological Distance. ''Psychological Review'', ''117''(2), 440–463. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018963 Wäschle, K., Allgaier, A., Lachner, A., Fink, S., & Nückles, M. (2014). Procrastination and self-efficacy: Tracing vicious and virtuous circles in self-regulated learning. Learning and Instruction, 29, 103–114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2013.09.005 Wohl, M. J. A., Pychyl, T. A., & Bennett, S. H. (2010). I forgive myself, now I can study: How self-forgiveness for procrastinating can reduce future procrastination. ''Personality and Individual Differences'', ''48''(7), 803–808. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.01.029 }} == External links == * [https://www.verywellmind.com/wall-of-awful-in-adhd-12000744 How the Wall of Awful Prevents Task Initiation in ADHD - and What Can Help You Push Through] (Verywell Mind, 2026) * [https://www.theguardian.com/wellness/2025/sep/12/executive-dysfunction-overcome What is 'executive dysfunction' and how do you overcome it?] (The Guardian, 2025) * [https://www.psychologicalscience.org/observer/why-wait-the-science-behind-procrastination Why Wait? The Science Behind Procrastination] (Association for Psychological Science, 2013) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Goal pursuit]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Procrastination]] qbb5b3ifxdiatgn3ojuyabkq3r4gdy3 2835772 2835763 2026-10-04T08:52:07Z U3286643 3106304 theory of planned behaviour in cognitive processes 2835772 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Getting started:<br>Why is task initiation difficult and how to overcome it?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Scrolling on phone (cropped).jpg||thumb|right|150px|'''Figure 1'''. An individual scrolling on their phone.]] ;Scenario John is a university student with an assignment due in five days time which he has not started. Despite knowing that he needs to begin the assignment soon in order to have it completed by the due date, he finds the prospect of starting the assignment daunting, and so continues to find alternative activities to distract himself, such as scrolling on social media (see Figure 1.) John is struggling with task initiation, and is using procrastination as a coping behaviour to manage his negative feelings associated with starting the assignment. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Executive functions are set of top-down cognitive processes that support individuals in relation to goal-directed behaviour through facilitating planning, attention, concentration, and mental flexibility (Diamond, 2013). Three core executive functions are often discussed: inhibition control, working memory, and cognitive flexibility (Miyake et al. 2000). Higher-order executive functions are derived from these, such as planning, task-switching, and fluid intelligence (Collins & Koechlin, 2012), although these functions are often subjects of debate in terms of domain specificity. One such function is that of task initiation. Task initiation is an executive function that allows an individual to begin a specific task at a desired time without unnecessary hesitation or delay. Task initiation can be inhibited by various cognitive, emotional, and motivational factors. When tasks are associated with negative emotions such as anxiety, shame, or stress, are perceived as low-priority, distant, or unclear and thus do not inspire motivation, or when an individual has adverse cognitive factors related to executive functioning, task initiation can quickly become difficult. Impaired task initiation is often associated with procrastination, which is the act of intentionally delaying a task or set of tasks despite the knowledge that there will be negative consequences. Procrastination is used to manage and regulation the negative emotions associated with task initiation on a short-term basis (Sirois & Pychyl, 2013) and is also often influenced by cognitive processes such as temporal discounting. Despite this, it is important to note the distinction between task initiation as a neurological process and procrastination as an active, voluntary choice to delay tasks. Individuals who struggle with task initiation and procrastination long-term may suffer negative health aspects such as chronic stress and increased anxiety and depression (Stead et al., 2010) as well as decreased performance in academic or workplace environments (Steel, 2007). Understanding the cognitive and psychological mechanisms of task initiation and the various factors influencing it can help to bolster task initiation in individuals – such as through the development of mitigation strategies and measures for procrastination, for example – thus reducing the negative impact of impaired task initiation on individual’s lives.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * What are the cognitive processes underlying task initiation? * How do motivational and emotional factors influence task initiation? * Why does task initiation become difficult? * What are the differences and interactions between task initiation and procrastination? * How can task initiation be improved? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Cognitive processes == Task initiation can be examined as functioning through the interactions of the core executive functions that it is derived from. Working memory involves the visualisation and maintenance of goals through the monitoring, coding, and revising of relevant information, inhibition control is the ability to deliberately suppress competing responses, and cognitive flexibility allows for set-shifting, the ability to shift between tasks or mental sets (Miyake et al., 2020), all of which are important factors in relation to functional task initiation in individuals. However, intention to initiate a task does not always translate to induced behaviour, and various cognitive models and theories offer explanations for this discrepancy. Notable among these include the theory of planned behaviour (TPB), the Rubicon model of action phases, implementation intentions (“if-then” planning), and the health action process model (HAPA). === Theory of planned behaviour === The theory of planned behaviour, first proposed by Icek Ajzen in 1985 and later revised in 1991, proposes that attitude, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control jointly contribute to shape an individual's behavioural intention, which is then theorised to be the most immediate determinant of behaviour. However, perceived behavioural control - often conceptually related or compared to self-efficacy - is also stated as directly interacting with behaviour due to the dependence of behaviour on whether an individual has sufficient control over performing it, a relationship that is stated within the model as being strongest when perceived control reasonably reflects actual control. Thus, this can lead to an intention-action gap: favourable attitudes and supportive norms may generate an intention to begin a task, but insufficient perceived or actual behavioural control can prevent that intention from being translated into action. === Rubicon model of action phases === === Implementation intentions === === Health action process model === == Motivation and emotion == == Difficulties == == Procrastination == ==Improving task initiation == == Conclusion == == See also == * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Procrastination|Procrastination]] (Book chapter, 2011) * [[w:Emotional_self-regulation|Emotional self-regulation]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Barkley, R. A. (2012). Executive functions: What they are, how they work, and why they evolved. Guilford Press. Erisman, S. M., & Roemer, L. (2010). A preliminary investigation of the effects of experimentally induced mindfulness on emotional responding to film clips. ''Emotion'', ''10''(1), 72–82. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0017162 Gollwitzer, P. M. (1999). Implementation intentions: Strong effects of simple plans. ''American Psychologist, 54''(7), 493–503. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.54.7.493 Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Emerson, M. J., Witzki, A. H., Howerter, A., & Wager, T. D. (2000)'''.''' The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex "Frontal Lobe" tasks: A latent variable analysis. ''Cognitive Psychology'', ''41''(1), 49–100. https://doi.org/10.1006/cogp.1999.0734 Sirois, F. M., Molnar, D. S., & Hirsch, J. K. (2017). A Meta-analytic and Conceptual Update on the Associations Between Procrastination and Multidimensional Perfectionism. European Journal of Personality, 31(2), 137–159. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.2098 Sirois, F., & Pychyl, T. (2013). Procrastination and the Priority of Short-Term Mood Regulation: Consequences for Future Self. ''Social and Personality Psychology Compass'', ''7''(2), 115–127. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12011 Stead, R., Shanahan, M. J., & Neufeld, R. W. J. (2010). “I’ll go to therapy, eventually”: Procrastination, stress and mental health. Personality and Individual Differences, 49(3), 175–180. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.03.028 Steel, P. (2007). The nature of procrastination: A meta-analytic and theoretical review of quintessential self-regulatory failure. ''Psychological Bulletin, 133''(1), 65–94. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.133.1.65 Trope, Y., & Liberman, N. (2010). Construal-Level Theory of Psychological Distance. ''Psychological Review'', ''117''(2), 440–463. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018963 Wäschle, K., Allgaier, A., Lachner, A., Fink, S., & Nückles, M. (2014). Procrastination and self-efficacy: Tracing vicious and virtuous circles in self-regulated learning. Learning and Instruction, 29, 103–114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2013.09.005 Wohl, M. J. A., Pychyl, T. A., & Bennett, S. H. (2010). I forgive myself, now I can study: How self-forgiveness for procrastinating can reduce future procrastination. ''Personality and Individual Differences'', ''48''(7), 803–808. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.01.029 }} == External links == * [https://www.verywellmind.com/wall-of-awful-in-adhd-12000744 How the Wall of Awful Prevents Task Initiation in ADHD - and What Can Help You Push Through] (Verywell Mind, 2026) * [https://www.theguardian.com/wellness/2025/sep/12/executive-dysfunction-overcome What is 'executive dysfunction' and how do you overcome it?] (The Guardian, 2025) * [https://www.psychologicalscience.org/observer/why-wait-the-science-behind-procrastination Why Wait? The Science Behind Procrastination] (Association for Psychological Science, 2013) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Goal pursuit]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Procrastination]] a0oj31fm4p5329y8g838qr8yday9nz6 2835774 2835772 2026-10-04T09:10:09Z U3286643 3106304 rubicon model of action phases 2835774 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Getting started:<br>Why is task initiation difficult and how to overcome it?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Scrolling on phone (cropped).jpg||thumb|right|150px|'''Figure 1'''. An individual scrolling on their phone.]] ;Scenario John is a university student with an assignment due in five days time which he has not started. Despite knowing that he needs to begin the assignment soon in order to have it completed by the due date, he finds the prospect of starting the assignment daunting, and so continues to find alternative activities to distract himself, such as scrolling on social media (see Figure 1.) John is struggling with task initiation, and is using procrastination as a coping behaviour to manage his negative feelings associated with starting the assignment. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Executive functions are set of top-down cognitive processes that support individuals in relation to goal-directed behaviour through facilitating planning, attention, concentration, and mental flexibility (Diamond, 2013). Three core executive functions are often discussed: inhibition control, working memory, and cognitive flexibility (Miyake et al. 2000). Higher-order executive functions are derived from these, such as planning, task-switching, and fluid intelligence (Collins & Koechlin, 2012), although these functions are often subjects of debate in terms of domain specificity. One such function is that of task initiation. Task initiation is an executive function that allows an individual to begin a specific task at a desired time without unnecessary hesitation or delay. Task initiation can be inhibited by various cognitive, emotional, and motivational factors. When tasks are associated with negative emotions such as anxiety, shame, or stress, are perceived as low-priority, distant, or unclear and thus do not inspire motivation, or when an individual has adverse cognitive factors related to executive functioning, task initiation can quickly become difficult. Impaired task initiation is often associated with procrastination, which is the act of intentionally delaying a task or set of tasks despite the knowledge that there will be negative consequences. Procrastination is used to manage and regulation the negative emotions associated with task initiation on a short-term basis (Sirois & Pychyl, 2013) and is also often influenced by cognitive processes such as temporal discounting. Despite this, it is important to note the distinction between task initiation as a neurological process and procrastination as an active, voluntary choice to delay tasks. Individuals who struggle with task initiation and procrastination long-term may suffer negative health aspects such as chronic stress and increased anxiety and depression (Stead et al., 2010) as well as decreased performance in academic or workplace environments (Steel, 2007). Understanding the cognitive and psychological mechanisms of task initiation and the various factors influencing it can help to bolster task initiation in individuals – such as through the development of mitigation strategies and measures for procrastination, for example – thus reducing the negative impact of impaired task initiation on individual’s lives.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * What are the cognitive processes underlying task initiation? * How do motivational and emotional factors influence task initiation? * Why does task initiation become difficult? * What are the differences and interactions between task initiation and procrastination? * How can task initiation be improved? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Cognitive processes == Task initiation can be examined as functioning through the interactions of the core executive functions that it is derived from. Working memory involves the visualisation and maintenance of goals through the monitoring, coding, and revising of relevant information, inhibition control is the ability to deliberately suppress competing responses, and cognitive flexibility allows for set-shifting, the ability to shift between tasks or mental sets (Miyake et al., 2020), all of which are important factors in relation to functional task initiation in individuals. However, intention to initiate a task does not always translate to induced behaviour, and various cognitive models and theories offer explanations for this discrepancy. Notable among these include the theory of planned behaviour (TPB), the Rubicon model of action phases, implementation intentions (“if-then” planning), and the health action process model (HAPA). === Theory of planned behaviour === The theory of planned behaviour, first proposed by Icek Ajzen in 1985 and later revised in 1991, proposes that attitude, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control jointly contribute to shape an individual's behavioural intention, which is then theorised to be the most immediate determinant of behaviour. However, perceived behavioural control - often conceptually related or compared to self-efficacy - is also stated as directly interacting with behaviour due to the dependence of behaviour on whether an individual has sufficient control over performing it, a relationship that is stated within the model as being strongest when perceived control reasonably reflects actual control. Thus, this can lead to an intention-action gap: favourable attitudes and supportive norms may generate an intention to begin a task, but insufficient perceived or actual behavioural control can prevent that intention from being translated into action. === Rubicon model of action phases === The Rubicon model of action phases, proposed in 1987 by Heinz Heckhausen and Peter M. Gollwitzer, divides the process from intention to action into four phases: pre-decisional (choosing between potential goals through weighing their feasibility and desirability), pre-actional (planning the implementation of the chosen goal), actional (executing the plan) and post-actional (evaluating the outcomes to initial goals and subsequently adjusting future behaviour). The model therefore provides a framework for understanding the intention-action gap: after forming a goal intention, an individual may still fail to progress from the pre-actional to the actional phase, representing a volitional problem in which an intended behaviour is not successfully initiated. [MAYBE REWORD] === Implementation intentions === === Health action process model === == Motivation and emotion == == Difficulties == == Procrastination == ==Improving task initiation == == Conclusion == == See also == * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Procrastination|Procrastination]] (Book chapter, 2011) * [[w:Emotional_self-regulation|Emotional self-regulation]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Barkley, R. A. (2012). Executive functions: What they are, how they work, and why they evolved. Guilford Press. Erisman, S. M., & Roemer, L. (2010). A preliminary investigation of the effects of experimentally induced mindfulness on emotional responding to film clips. ''Emotion'', ''10''(1), 72–82. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0017162 Gollwitzer, P. M. (1999). Implementation intentions: Strong effects of simple plans. ''American Psychologist, 54''(7), 493–503. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.54.7.493 Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Emerson, M. J., Witzki, A. H., Howerter, A., & Wager, T. D. (2000)'''.''' The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex "Frontal Lobe" tasks: A latent variable analysis. ''Cognitive Psychology'', ''41''(1), 49–100. https://doi.org/10.1006/cogp.1999.0734 Sirois, F. M., Molnar, D. S., & Hirsch, J. K. (2017). A Meta-analytic and Conceptual Update on the Associations Between Procrastination and Multidimensional Perfectionism. European Journal of Personality, 31(2), 137–159. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.2098 Sirois, F., & Pychyl, T. (2013). Procrastination and the Priority of Short-Term Mood Regulation: Consequences for Future Self. ''Social and Personality Psychology Compass'', ''7''(2), 115–127. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12011 Stead, R., Shanahan, M. J., & Neufeld, R. W. J. (2010). “I’ll go to therapy, eventually”: Procrastination, stress and mental health. Personality and Individual Differences, 49(3), 175–180. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.03.028 Steel, P. (2007). The nature of procrastination: A meta-analytic and theoretical review of quintessential self-regulatory failure. ''Psychological Bulletin, 133''(1), 65–94. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.133.1.65 Trope, Y., & Liberman, N. (2010). Construal-Level Theory of Psychological Distance. ''Psychological Review'', ''117''(2), 440–463. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018963 Wäschle, K., Allgaier, A., Lachner, A., Fink, S., & Nückles, M. (2014). Procrastination and self-efficacy: Tracing vicious and virtuous circles in self-regulated learning. Learning and Instruction, 29, 103–114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2013.09.005 Wohl, M. J. A., Pychyl, T. A., & Bennett, S. H. (2010). I forgive myself, now I can study: How self-forgiveness for procrastinating can reduce future procrastination. ''Personality and Individual Differences'', ''48''(7), 803–808. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.01.029 }} == External links == * [https://www.verywellmind.com/wall-of-awful-in-adhd-12000744 How the Wall of Awful Prevents Task Initiation in ADHD - and What Can Help You Push Through] (Verywell Mind, 2026) * [https://www.theguardian.com/wellness/2025/sep/12/executive-dysfunction-overcome What is 'executive dysfunction' and how do you overcome it?] (The Guardian, 2025) * [https://www.psychologicalscience.org/observer/why-wait-the-science-behind-procrastination Why Wait? The Science Behind Procrastination] (Association for Psychological Science, 2013) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Goal pursuit]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Procrastination]] 6f6axptixzw1wc8ejmhmjjqgwuvb3r8 0 331787 2835703 2835552 2026-10-03T18:34:15Z Dick Bos 24466 table etc 2835703 wikitext text/x-wiki {| | {{pad|600px}} |“It is doubtful whether it is possible<br />to understand the Principles without<br />knowledge of the contents of the Essay.”<br />(O’Brien 1975, p. 139). |} This resource gives information on '''[[David Ricardo]]'s''' '''''An Essay on the Influence of a Low Price of Corn on the Profits of Stock''''' (often abridged to '''''(An) Essay on Profits'''''). Two years before the publication of the first edition of his Magnum Opus, ''On the Principles of Political Economy and Taxation'' (often abridged to ''(The) Principles''), in 1815, Ricardo published a pamphlet entitled ''An Essay on the Influence of a Low Price of Corn on the Profits of Stock''. Full title: :::''An Essay on the Influence of a Low Price of Corn on the Profits of Stock; Shewing the Inexpediency of Restrictions on Importation; With Remarks on Mr. Malthus' Two Last Publications: "An Inquiry into the Nature and Progress of Rent;" and "The Grounds of an Opinion on the Policy of Restricting the Importation of Foreign Corn."''<ref name=Essay1>We will use two important editions of ''The Essay on Profits'': * 1815: 2nd edition, online available at [[Image:wikisource-logo.svg|16x16px]] Wikisource: [[:s:en:An Essay on the Influence of a Low Price of Corn on the Profits of Stock|An Essay on Profits (2nd ed.)]] * 1962: the edition, published in the ''Works and Correspondence of David Ricardo,'' edited by Piero Sraffa, with the collaboration of Maurice Dobb, volume 4 (Pamphlets and Papers, 1815-1823), pp. 9-41. With note by P. Sraffa (p. 1-8). available to borrow at [https://archive.org/details/workscorresponde0004rica The Internet Archive] after (free) subscription.</ref> Opinions among Ricardo scholars differ as to the precise significance of this “Essay on Profits”. Among other things, there are subtle differences regarding the interpretation of the main variable under investigation,<ref>According to Hollander 1973, p. 273, “the main variable under investigation in the Essay (…) is the general rate of profit”.<br />According to Stigler 1952, pp. 201–202, the Essay contains “two main elements of the Ricardian system: the theory of rent and the dominant influence of diminishing returns in agriculture upon the rate of profit.”<br />According to Eatwell 1975, p. 186, the Essay is “the first complete statement of a theory of distribution based on the concept of surplus; that is to say, of a deductive relationship between wages and profits”.</ref> and there are disagreements about the relationship between the “Essay” and the “Principles”.<ref>Compare, for example, the discussion between Hollander and Eatwell on the significance of the "corn model" in Hollander 1973 and 1975, and Eatwell 1975.</ref> In the ''Essay on Profits'' Ricardo presents a comprehensive theory of ground rent within the context of a "corn model".<ref>This model is set out on pages 10 to 18 of the ''Essay on Profits.'' From page 18 onwards, the grain is (suddenly) assigned a price.</ref> Ricardo examines economic relationships, which are aggregated in terms of quantities of corn. He employs a single-output model, in which corn is produced through the application of labour to land. Inputs, outputs and income shares are measured in quantities of corn. <br /> This so-called "corn model" must be viewed against the background of Ricardo’s deductive method.<ref>For an analysis of the importance of the deductive method of Ricardo see e.g. {{harvnb|O'Brien|1975|p=42f., 68f.}}</ref> <br /> The model has very limited validity.<ref name=valid>{{harvnb|Hollander|1973|p=275}}: Even in the event that an adequate relationship is defined between the agricultural and general rates of profit the model would be unsuitable for the treatment of the income shares, and in fact Rcardo nowhere states the belief that there is a parallel movement between the aggregate income shares and the shares in agricultural output als yielded by the model."</ref> == Rent == To start with, Ricardo uses a definition of rent that is taken directly from [[:w:en:Thomas Robert Malthus|Thomas Robert Malthus]]: {{Bq|Mr. Malthus very correctly defines, "the rent of land to be that portion of the value of the whole produce which remains to the owner, after all the outgoings belonging to its cultivation, of whatever kind, have been paid, including the profits of the capital employed, estimated according to the usual and ordinary rate of the profits of agricultural stock at the time being."<ref name=rent1>{{harvnb|Ricardo|1815|p=[[:s:en:An Essay on the Influence of a Low Price of Corn on the Profits of Stock#3|3]]}}. Ricardo quotes: {{harvnb|Malthus|1815|p=1–2}}.</ref>}} When land is first brought into cultivation, and land is freely available, the total output will consist of costs and profits, without ground rent. As long as there is sufficient land of equal fertility available, and that land is always equally well situated, this will remain the case. The net product (‘neat produce’) will consist entirely of profit. If we now assume that no improvements take place in agriculture, and that capital and population grow at the same rate – and thus that real wages remain constant – and if, moreover, it is assumed that the rate of profit in agriculture, commerce and industry is the same, it is possible to ascertain what particular effects occur as capital accumulation takes place, the population grows and more land is brought into use, particularly land situated further away and/or less fertile land. Where land is equally fertile but situated further away, more capital and labour will have to be employed to produce the same quantity of goods available for consumption from the same area. Consequently, less profit will be made on this newly cultivated land. And because profits are determined by the profit made on the ‘marginal’ land, a lower profit will also be realised on the land that was cultivated earlier. The portion of the net product that thereby becomes available on this land – and which was previously appropriated as profit by the entrepreneurs or tenants – will now constitute ground rent. This process will occur each time new land of poorer quality, or less favourably situated, is brought into use: "Thus by bringing successively land of a worse quality, or less favourably situated into cultivation, rent would rise on the land previously cultivated, and precisely in the same degree would profits fall; and if the smallness of profits do not check accumulation, there are hardly any limits to the rise of rent, and the fall of profit."{{sfnp|Ricardo|1815|p=[[:s:en:An Essay on the Influence of a Low Price of Corn on the Profits of Stock#9|9]]-10}} === The table in the ''Essay on Profits'' === To illustrate his line of reasoning and clarify how the process he describes works, Ricardo uses a table: the ‘Table, shewing the Progress of Rent and Profit under an assumed Augmentation of Capital’. This ‘model’ demonstrates how the economy might develop as new land is brought into use in succession. The table is constructed as follows: it is assumed that, when only the first plot of land is brought into use, a profit of one hundred quarters is made on a capital of two hundred quarters; when a second plot of land is brought into use, a capital of 210 quarters must be invested in it to achieve a profit of 90 q., and so on. The total output from each plot is therefore always 300 q. of grain. The ‘net produce’ (total output minus production costs) amounts to 100 q. for the first plot; 90 for the second; 80 for the third; and so on. Ricardo emphasises the illustrative nature of the figures in the table: "t is scarcely necessary to observe, that the data on which this table is constructed are assumed, and are probably very far from the truth. They were fixed on as tending to illustrate the principle,—which would be the same, whether the first profits were fifty per cent. or five,—or, whether an additional capital of ten quarters, or of one hundred, were required to obtain the same produce from the cultivation of new land."<ref name=table1>{{harvnb|Ricardo|1815|p=[[:s:en:An Essay on the Influence of a Low Price of Corn on the Profits of Stock#11|11]]}} (footnote).</ref> == Footnotes == {{references}} == Sources == * {{cite journal | last = Eatwell | first = John | author-link = w:en:John Eatwell | date = 1975 | title = The Interpretation of Ricardo's Essay on Profits | journal = Economica | volume = XLII | pp = 182–187 }} * {{cite journal | last = Hollander | first = Samuel | author-link = :w:en:Samuel Hollander | date = 1973 | title = Ricardo’s Analysis of the Profit Rate, 1813-15 | journal = Economica | volume = 40 | issue = 159 | pages = 260–282 | doi = 10.2307/2552797 | url = https://www.jstor.org/stable/2552797 | ref = harv }}<br />(access via [[File:Wikipedia Library owl.svg|16px|alt=16 px Wikipedia Library Owl]] [[:w:en:Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library|The Wikipedia Library (TWL)]]) * Hollander 1975 * {{cite book | last = Malthus | first = T.R. | author-link = :w:en:Thomas Robert Malthus | date = 1815 | title = An Inquiry Into the Nature and Progress of Rent | location = London | publisher = John Murray | ref = harv | url = https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/An_Inquiry_Into_the_Nature_and_Progress_of_Rent }} * {{cite book | last = O'Brien | first = D.P. | author-link = :w:en:Denis Patrick O'Brien | date = 1975 | title = The Classical Economists | location = Oxford | publisher = Clarendon Press | ISBN = 0 19 877015 4 | url = https://archive.org/details/classicaleconomi0000obri | url-access = restricted | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last = Ricardo | first = David | author-link = David Ricardo | date = 1815 | title = An Essay on the Influence of a Low Price of Corn on the Profits of Stock | location = London | publisher = John Murray | ref = harv | url = https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/An_Essay_on_the_Influence_of_a_Low_Price_of_Corn_on_the_Profits_of_Stock }} * Stigler 1952 bsxasfzkp3f57vp4mngn3ta41h0jvu3 2835708 2835703 2026-10-03T19:34:32Z Dick Bos 24466 first part table; first attempt 2835708 wikitext text/x-wiki {| | {{pad|600px}} |“It is doubtful whether it is possible<br />to understand the Principles without<br />knowledge of the contents of the Essay.”<br />(O’Brien 1975, p. 139). |} This resource gives information on '''[[David Ricardo]]'s''' '''''An Essay on the Influence of a Low Price of Corn on the Profits of Stock''''' (often abridged to '''''(An) Essay on Profits'''''). Two years before the publication of the first edition of his Magnum Opus, ''On the Principles of Political Economy and Taxation'' (often abridged to ''(The) Principles''), in 1815, Ricardo published a pamphlet entitled ''An Essay on the Influence of a Low Price of Corn on the Profits of Stock''. Full title: :::''An Essay on the Influence of a Low Price of Corn on the Profits of Stock; Shewing the Inexpediency of Restrictions on Importation; With Remarks on Mr. Malthus' Two Last Publications: "An Inquiry into the Nature and Progress of Rent;" and "The Grounds of an Opinion on the Policy of Restricting the Importation of Foreign Corn."''<ref name=Essay1>We will use two important editions of ''The Essay on Profits'': * 1815: 2nd edition, online available at [[Image:wikisource-logo.svg|16x16px]] Wikisource: [[:s:en:An Essay on the Influence of a Low Price of Corn on the Profits of Stock|An Essay on Profits (2nd ed.)]] * 1962: the edition, published in the ''Works and Correspondence of David Ricardo,'' edited by Piero Sraffa, with the collaboration of Maurice Dobb, volume 4 (Pamphlets and Papers, 1815-1823), pp. 9-41. With note by P. Sraffa (p. 1-8). available to borrow at [https://archive.org/details/workscorresponde0004rica The Internet Archive] after (free) subscription.</ref> Opinions among Ricardo scholars differ as to the precise significance of this “Essay on Profits”. Among other things, there are subtle differences regarding the interpretation of the main variable under investigation,<ref>According to Hollander 1973, p. 273, “the main variable under investigation in the Essay (…) is the general rate of profit”.<br />According to Stigler 1952, pp. 201–202, the Essay contains “two main elements of the Ricardian system: the theory of rent and the dominant influence of diminishing returns in agriculture upon the rate of profit.”<br />According to Eatwell 1975, p. 186, the Essay is “the first complete statement of a theory of distribution based on the concept of surplus; that is to say, of a deductive relationship between wages and profits”.</ref> and there are disagreements about the relationship between the “Essay” and the “Principles”.<ref>Compare, for example, the discussion between Hollander and Eatwell on the significance of the "corn model" in Hollander 1973 and 1975, and Eatwell 1975.</ref> In the ''Essay on Profits'' Ricardo presents a comprehensive theory of ground rent within the context of a "corn model".<ref>This model is set out on pages 10 to 18 of the ''Essay on Profits.'' From page 18 onwards, the grain is (suddenly) assigned a price.</ref> Ricardo examines economic relationships, which are aggregated in terms of quantities of corn. He employs a single-output model, in which corn is produced through the application of labour to land. Inputs, outputs and income shares are measured in quantities of corn. <br /> This so-called "corn model" must be viewed against the background of Ricardo’s deductive method.<ref>For an analysis of the importance of the deductive method of Ricardo see e.g. {{harvnb|O'Brien|1975|p=42f., 68f.}}</ref> <br /> The model has very limited validity.<ref name=valid>{{harvnb|Hollander|1973|p=275}}: Even in the event that an adequate relationship is defined between the agricultural and general rates of profit the model would be unsuitable for the treatment of the income shares, and in fact Rcardo nowhere states the belief that there is a parallel movement between the aggregate income shares and the shares in agricultural output als yielded by the model."</ref> == Rent == To start with, Ricardo uses a definition of rent that is taken directly from [[:w:en:Thomas Robert Malthus|Thomas Robert Malthus]]: {{Bq|Mr. Malthus very correctly defines, "the rent of land to be that portion of the value of the whole produce which remains to the owner, after all the outgoings belonging to its cultivation, of whatever kind, have been paid, including the profits of the capital employed, estimated according to the usual and ordinary rate of the profits of agricultural stock at the time being."<ref name=rent1>{{harvnb|Ricardo|1815|p=[[:s:en:An Essay on the Influence of a Low Price of Corn on the Profits of Stock#3|3]]}}. Ricardo quotes: {{harvnb|Malthus|1815|p=1–2}}.</ref>}} When land is first brought into cultivation, and land is freely available, the total output will consist of costs and profits, without ground rent. As long as there is sufficient land of equal fertility available, and that land is always equally well situated, this will remain the case. The net product (‘neat produce’) will consist entirely of profit. If we now assume that no improvements take place in agriculture, and that capital and population grow at the same rate – and thus that real wages remain constant – and if, moreover, it is assumed that the rate of profit in agriculture, commerce and industry is the same, it is possible to ascertain what particular effects occur as capital accumulation takes place, the population grows and more land is brought into use, particularly land situated further away and/or less fertile land. Where land is equally fertile but situated further away, more capital and labour will have to be employed to produce the same quantity of goods available for consumption from the same area. Consequently, less profit will be made on this newly cultivated land. And because profits are determined by the profit made on the ‘marginal’ land, a lower profit will also be realised on the land that was cultivated earlier. The portion of the net product that thereby becomes available on this land – and which was previously appropriated as profit by the entrepreneurs or tenants – will now constitute ground rent. This process will occur each time new land of poorer quality, or less favourably situated, is brought into use: "Thus by bringing successively land of a worse quality, or less favourably situated into cultivation, rent would rise on the land previously cultivated, and precisely in the same degree would profits fall; and if the smallness of profits do not check accumulation, there are hardly any limits to the rise of rent, and the fall of profit."{{sfnp|Ricardo|1815|p=[[:s:en:An Essay on the Influence of a Low Price of Corn on the Profits of Stock#9|9]]-10}} === The table in the ''Essay on Profits'' === To illustrate his line of reasoning and clarify how the process he describes works, Ricardo uses a table: the ‘Table, shewing the Progress of Rent and Profit under an assumed Augmentation of Capital’. This ‘model’ demonstrates how the economy might develop as new land is brought into use in succession. The table is constructed as follows: it is assumed that, when only the first plot of land is brought into use, a profit of one hundred quarters is made on a capital of two hundred quarters; when a second plot of land is brought into use, a capital of 210 quarters must be invested in it to achieve a profit of 90 q., and so on. The total output from each plot is therefore always 300 q. of grain. The ‘net produce’ (total output minus production costs) amounts to 100 q. for the first plot; 90 for the second; 80 for the third; and so on. {| style="border-collapse: collapse; border: 1px solid; margin: auto; text-align: center;" |+ '''''TABLE, showing the Progress of Rent and Profit under an assumed Augmentation of Capital.''''' |- style="border: 1px solid; font-size: 70%; hyphens: auto; text-align: center;" ! Capital estimated in quarters of wheat. ! Profit per cent. ! Neat produce in quarters of wheat, after paying the cost of production on each capital. ! Profit of 1st portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! Rent of 1st portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! Profit of 2d portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! Rent of 2d portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! Profit of 3d portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! Rent of 3d portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! Profit of 4th portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! Rent of 4th portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! Profit of 5th portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! Rent of 5th portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! Profit of 6th portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! Rent of 6th portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! Profit of 7th portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! Rent of 7th portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! Profit of 8th portion of land in quarters of wheat. |- | 200 | 50 | 100 | 100 | none. | | | | | | | | | | | | | |- | 210 | 43 | 90 | 86 | 14 | 90 | none. | | | | | | | | | | | |- | 220 | 36 | 80 | 72 | 28 | 76 | 14 | 80 | none | | | | | | | | | |- | 230 | 30 | 70 | 60 | 40 | 63 | 27 | 66 | 14 | 70 | none. | | | | | | | |- | 240 | 25 | 60 | 50 | 50 | 52½ | 37½ | 55 | 25 | 57½ | 12½ | 60 | none. | | | | | |- | 250 | 20 | 50 | 40 | 60 | 42 | 48 | 44 | 36 | 46 | 24 | 48 | 12 | 50 | none. | | | |- | 260 | 15 | 40 | 30 | 70 | 31½ | 58½ | 33 | 47 | 34½ | 35½ | 36 | 24 | 37½ | 12½ | 40 | none. | |- | 270 | 11 | 30 | 22 | 78 | | 67 | 24 | 56 | 25.3 | 44.7 | 26.4 | 33.6 | 27½ | 22½ | 27.6 | 12.4 | 29.7 |} Ricardo emphasises the illustrative nature of the figures in the table: "t is scarcely necessary to observe, that the data on which this table is constructed are assumed, and are probably very far from the truth. They were fixed on as tending to illustrate the principle,—which would be the same, whether the first profits were fifty per cent. or five,—or, whether an additional capital of ten quarters, or of one hundred, were required to obtain the same produce from the cultivation of new land."<ref name=table1>{{harvnb|Ricardo|1815|p=[[:s:en:An Essay on the Influence of a Low Price of Corn on the Profits of Stock#11|11]]}} (footnote).</ref> == Footnotes == {{references}} == Sources == * {{cite journal | last = Eatwell | first = John | author-link = w:en:John Eatwell | date = 1975 | title = The Interpretation of Ricardo's Essay on Profits | journal = Economica | volume = XLII | pp = 182–187 }} * {{cite journal | last = Hollander | first = Samuel | author-link = :w:en:Samuel Hollander | date = 1973 | title = Ricardo’s Analysis of the Profit Rate, 1813-15 | journal = Economica | volume = 40 | issue = 159 | pages = 260–282 | doi = 10.2307/2552797 | url = https://www.jstor.org/stable/2552797 | ref = harv }}<br />(access via [[File:Wikipedia Library owl.svg|16px|alt=16 px Wikipedia Library Owl]] [[:w:en:Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library|The Wikipedia Library (TWL)]]) * Hollander 1975 * {{cite book | last = Malthus | first = T.R. | author-link = :w:en:Thomas Robert Malthus | date = 1815 | title = An Inquiry Into the Nature and Progress of Rent | location = London | publisher = John Murray | ref = harv | url = https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/An_Inquiry_Into_the_Nature_and_Progress_of_Rent }} * {{cite book | last = O'Brien | first = D.P. | author-link = :w:en:Denis Patrick O'Brien | date = 1975 | title = The Classical Economists | location = Oxford | publisher = Clarendon Press | ISBN = 0 19 877015 4 | url = https://archive.org/details/classicaleconomi0000obri | url-access = restricted | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last = Ricardo | first = David | author-link = David Ricardo | date = 1815 | title = An Essay on the Influence of a Low Price of Corn on the Profits of Stock | location = London | publisher = John Murray | ref = harv | url = https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/An_Essay_on_the_Influence_of_a_Low_Price_of_Corn_on_the_Profits_of_Stock }} * Stigler 1952 tppchwrl9mkcjpn2a790scxb3uo2juy 2835757 2835708 2026-10-04T07:43:10Z Dick Bos 24466 2nd table 2835757 wikitext text/x-wiki {| | {{pad|600px}} |“It is doubtful whether it is possible<br />to understand the Principles without<br />knowledge of the contents of the Essay.”<br />(O’Brien 1975, p. 139). |} This resource gives information on '''[[David Ricardo]]'s''' '''''An Essay on the Influence of a Low Price of Corn on the Profits of Stock''''' (often abridged to '''''(An) Essay on Profits'''''). Two years before the publication of the first edition of his Magnum Opus, ''On the Principles of Political Economy and Taxation'' (often abridged to ''(The) Principles''), in 1815, Ricardo published a pamphlet entitled ''An Essay on the Influence of a Low Price of Corn on the Profits of Stock''. Full title: :::''An Essay on the Influence of a Low Price of Corn on the Profits of Stock; Shewing the Inexpediency of Restrictions on Importation; With Remarks on Mr. Malthus' Two Last Publications: "An Inquiry into the Nature and Progress of Rent;" and "The Grounds of an Opinion on the Policy of Restricting the Importation of Foreign Corn."''<ref name=Essay1>We will use two important editions of ''The Essay on Profits'': * 1815: 2nd edition, online available at [[Image:wikisource-logo.svg|16x16px]] Wikisource: [[:s:en:An Essay on the Influence of a Low Price of Corn on the Profits of Stock|An Essay on Profits (2nd ed.)]] * 1962: the edition, published in the ''Works and Correspondence of David Ricardo,'' edited by Piero Sraffa, with the collaboration of Maurice Dobb, volume 4 (Pamphlets and Papers, 1815-1823), pp. 9-41. With note by P. Sraffa (p. 1-8). available to borrow at [https://archive.org/details/workscorresponde0004rica The Internet Archive] after (free) subscription.</ref> Opinions among Ricardo scholars differ as to the precise significance of this “Essay on Profits”. Among other things, there are subtle differences regarding the interpretation of the main variable under investigation,<ref>According to Hollander 1973, p. 273, “the main variable under investigation in the Essay (…) is the general rate of profit”.<br />According to Stigler 1952, pp. 201–202, the Essay contains “two main elements of the Ricardian system: the theory of rent and the dominant influence of diminishing returns in agriculture upon the rate of profit.”<br />According to Eatwell 1975, p. 186, the Essay is “the first complete statement of a theory of distribution based on the concept of surplus; that is to say, of a deductive relationship between wages and profits”.</ref> and there are disagreements about the relationship between the “Essay” and the “Principles”.<ref>Compare, for example, the discussion between Hollander and Eatwell on the significance of the "corn model" in Hollander 1973 and 1975, and Eatwell 1975.</ref> In the ''Essay on Profits'' Ricardo presents a comprehensive theory of ground rent within the context of a "corn model".<ref>This model is set out on pages 10 to 18 of the ''Essay on Profits.'' From page 18 onwards, the grain is (suddenly) assigned a price.</ref> Ricardo examines economic relationships, which are aggregated in terms of quantities of corn. He employs a single-output model, in which corn is produced through the application of labour to land. Inputs, outputs and income shares are measured in quantities of corn. <br /> This so-called "corn model" must be viewed against the background of Ricardo’s deductive method.<ref>For an analysis of the importance of the deductive method of Ricardo see e.g. {{harvnb|O'Brien|1975|p=42f., 68f.}}</ref> <br /> The model has very limited validity.<ref name=valid>{{harvnb|Hollander|1973|p=275}}: Even in the event that an adequate relationship is defined between the agricultural and general rates of profit the model would be unsuitable for the treatment of the income shares, and in fact Rcardo nowhere states the belief that there is a parallel movement between the aggregate income shares and the shares in agricultural output als yielded by the model."</ref> == Rent == To start with, Ricardo uses a definition of rent that is taken directly from [[:w:en:Thomas Robert Malthus|Thomas Robert Malthus]]: {{Bq|Mr. Malthus very correctly defines, "the rent of land to be that portion of the value of the whole produce which remains to the owner, after all the outgoings belonging to its cultivation, of whatever kind, have been paid, including the profits of the capital employed, estimated according to the usual and ordinary rate of the profits of agricultural stock at the time being."<ref name=rent1>{{harvnb|Ricardo|1815|p=[[:s:en:An Essay on the Influence of a Low Price of Corn on the Profits of Stock#3|3]]}}. Ricardo quotes: {{harvnb|Malthus|1815|p=1–2}}.</ref>}} When land is first brought into cultivation, and land is freely available, the total output will consist of costs and profits, without ground rent. As long as there is sufficient land of equal fertility available, and that land is always equally well situated, this will remain the case. The net product (‘neat produce’) will consist entirely of profit. If we now assume that no improvements take place in agriculture, and that capital and population grow at the same rate – and thus that real wages remain constant – and if, moreover, it is assumed that the rate of profit in agriculture, commerce and industry is the same, it is possible to ascertain what particular effects occur as capital accumulation takes place, the population grows and more land is brought into use, particularly land situated further away and/or less fertile land. Where land is equally fertile but situated further away, more capital and labour will have to be employed to produce the same quantity of goods available for consumption from the same area. Consequently, less profit will be made on this newly cultivated land. And because profits are determined by the profit made on the ‘marginal’ land, a lower profit will also be realised on the land that was cultivated earlier. The portion of the net product that thereby becomes available on this land – and which was previously appropriated as profit by the entrepreneurs or tenants – will now constitute ground rent. This process will occur each time new land of poorer quality, or less favourably situated, is brought into use: "Thus by bringing successively land of a worse quality, or less favourably situated into cultivation, rent would rise on the land previously cultivated, and precisely in the same degree would profits fall; and if the smallness of profits do not check accumulation, there are hardly any limits to the rise of rent, and the fall of profit."{{sfnp|Ricardo|1815|p=[[:s:en:An Essay on the Influence of a Low Price of Corn on the Profits of Stock#9|9]]-10}} === The table in the ''Essay on Profits'' === To illustrate his line of reasoning and clarify how the process he describes works, Ricardo uses a table: the ‘Table, shewing the Progress of Rent and Profit under an assumed Augmentation of Capital’. This ‘model’ demonstrates how the economy might develop as new land is brought into use in succession. The table is constructed as follows: it is assumed that, when only the first plot of land is brought into use, a profit of one hundred quarters is made on a capital of two hundred quarters; when a second plot of land is brought into use, a capital of 210 quarters must be invested in it to achieve a profit of 90 q., and so on. The total output from each plot is therefore always 300 q. of grain. The ‘net produce’ (total output minus production costs) amounts to 100 q. for the first plot; 90 for the second; 80 for the third; and so on. {| style="border-collapse: collapse; border: 1px solid; margin: auto; text-align: center;" |+ '''''TABLE, showing the Progress of Rent and Profit under an assumed Augmentation of Capital.''''' |- style="border: 1px solid; font-size: 70%; hyphens: auto; text-align: center;" ! Capital estimated in quarters of wheat. ! Profit per cent. ! Neat produce in quarters of wheat, after paying the cost of production on each capital. ! Profit of 1st portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! Rent of 1st portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! Profit of 2d portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! Rent of 2d portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! Profit of 3d portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! Rent of 3d portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! Profit of 4th portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! Rent of 4th portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! Profit of 5th portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! Rent of 5th portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! Profit of 6th portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! Rent of 6th portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! Profit of 7th portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! Rent of 7th portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! Profit of 8th portion of land in quarters of wheat. |- | 200 | 50 | 100 | 100 | none. | | | | | | | | | | | | | |- | 210 | 43 | 90 | 86 | 14 | 90 | none. | | | | | | | | | | | |- | 220 | 36 | 80 | 72 | 28 | 76 | 14 | 80 | none | | | | | | | | | |- | 230 | 30 | 70 | 60 | 40 | 63 | 27 | 66 | 14 | 70 | none. | | | | | | | |- | 240 | 25 | 60 | 50 | 50 | 52½ | 37½ | 55 | 25 | 57½ | 12½ | 60 | none. | | | | | |- | 250 | 20 | 50 | 40 | 60 | 42 | 48 | 44 | 36 | 46 | 24 | 48 | 12 | 50 | none. | | | |- | 260 | 15 | 40 | 30 | 70 | 31½ | 58½ | 33 | 47 | 34½ | 35½ | 36 | 24 | 37½ | 12½ | 40 | none. | |- | 270 | 11 | 30 | 22 | 78 | | 67 | 24 | 56 | 25.3 | 44.7 | 26.4 | 33.6 | 27½ | 22½ | 27.6 | 12.4 | 29.7 |} {| style="border-collapse: collapse; border: 1px solid; margin: auto; text-align: center; width:90%;" |- style="border: 1px solid; font-size: 70%; hyphens: auto; text-align: center;" ! ! When the whole capital employed is ! Whole amount of rent received by landlords in quarter of wheat. ! Whole amount of profits in quarters received by owners of stock. ! Profit per cent. on the whole capital. ! Rent per cent, on the whole capital. ! Total produce in quarters of wheat, after paying the cost of production. |- | 1st&nbsp;Period | 200 | none. | 100 | 50 | | 100 |- | 2d Ditto | 410 | 14 | 176 | 43 | 3½ | 190 |- | 3d Ditto | 630 | 42 | 228 | 36 | 6½ | 270 |- | 4th Ditto | 860 | 81 | 259 | 30 | 9½ | 340 |- | 5th Ditto | 1100 | 125 | 275 | 25 | 11½ | 400 |- | 6th Ditto | 1350 | 180 | 270 | 20 | 13½ | 450 |- | 7th Ditto | 1610 | 248½ | 241½ | 15 | 15½ | 490 |- | 8th Ditto | 1880 | 314½ | 205½ | 11 | 16½ | 520 |} Ricardo emphasises the illustrative nature of the figures in the table: "t is scarcely necessary to observe, that the data on which this table is constructed are assumed, and are probably very far from the truth. They were fixed on as tending to illustrate the principle,—which would be the same, whether the first profits were fifty per cent. or five,—or, whether an additional capital of ten quarters, or of one hundred, were required to obtain the same produce from the cultivation of new land."<ref name=table1>{{harvnb|Ricardo|1815|p=[[:s:en:An Essay on the Influence of a Low Price of Corn on the Profits of Stock#11|11]]}} (footnote).</ref> == Footnotes == {{references}} == Sources == * {{cite journal | last = Eatwell | first = John | author-link = w:en:John Eatwell | date = 1975 | title = The Interpretation of Ricardo's Essay on Profits | journal = Economica | volume = XLII | pp = 182–187 }} * {{cite journal | last = Hollander | first = Samuel | author-link = :w:en:Samuel Hollander | date = 1973 | title = Ricardo’s Analysis of the Profit Rate, 1813-15 | journal = Economica | volume = 40 | issue = 159 | pages = 260–282 | doi = 10.2307/2552797 | url = https://www.jstor.org/stable/2552797 | ref = harv }}<br />(access via [[File:Wikipedia Library owl.svg|16px|alt=16 px Wikipedia Library Owl]] [[:w:en:Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library|The Wikipedia Library (TWL)]]) * Hollander 1975 * {{cite book | last = Malthus | first = T.R. | author-link = :w:en:Thomas Robert Malthus | date = 1815 | title = An Inquiry Into the Nature and Progress of Rent | location = London | publisher = John Murray | ref = harv | url = https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/An_Inquiry_Into_the_Nature_and_Progress_of_Rent }} * {{cite book | last = O'Brien | first = D.P. | author-link = :w:en:Denis Patrick O'Brien | date = 1975 | title = The Classical Economists | location = Oxford | publisher = Clarendon Press | ISBN = 0 19 877015 4 | url = https://archive.org/details/classicaleconomi0000obri | url-access = restricted | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last = Ricardo | first = David | author-link = David Ricardo | date = 1815 | title = An Essay on the Influence of a Low Price of Corn on the Profits of Stock | location = London | publisher = John Murray | ref = harv | url = https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/An_Essay_on_the_Influence_of_a_Low_Price_of_Corn_on_the_Profits_of_Stock }} * Stigler 1952 bwjhr30rtmqtns8qsx3ec7c1la6zym6 2835760 2835757 2026-10-04T07:52:34Z Dick Bos 24466 remark 2835760 wikitext text/x-wiki {| | {{pad|600px}} |“It is doubtful whether it is possible<br />to understand the Principles without<br />knowledge of the contents of the Essay.”<br />(O’Brien 1975, p. 139). |} This resource gives information on '''[[David Ricardo]]'s''' '''''An Essay on the Influence of a Low Price of Corn on the Profits of Stock''''' (often abridged to '''''(An) Essay on Profits'''''). Two years before the publication of the first edition of his Magnum Opus, ''On the Principles of Political Economy and Taxation'' (often abridged to ''(The) Principles''), in 1815, Ricardo published a pamphlet entitled ''An Essay on the Influence of a Low Price of Corn on the Profits of Stock''. Full title: :::''An Essay on the Influence of a Low Price of Corn on the Profits of Stock; Shewing the Inexpediency of Restrictions on Importation; With Remarks on Mr. Malthus' Two Last Publications: "An Inquiry into the Nature and Progress of Rent;" and "The Grounds of an Opinion on the Policy of Restricting the Importation of Foreign Corn."''<ref name=Essay1>We will use two important editions of ''The Essay on Profits'': * 1815: 2nd edition, online available at [[Image:wikisource-logo.svg|16x16px]] Wikisource: [[:s:en:An Essay on the Influence of a Low Price of Corn on the Profits of Stock|An Essay on Profits (2nd ed.)]] * 1962: the edition, published in the ''Works and Correspondence of David Ricardo,'' edited by Piero Sraffa, with the collaboration of Maurice Dobb, volume 4 (Pamphlets and Papers, 1815-1823), pp. 9-41. With note by P. Sraffa (p. 1-8). available to borrow at [https://archive.org/details/workscorresponde0004rica The Internet Archive] after (free) subscription.</ref> Opinions among Ricardo scholars differ as to the precise significance of this “Essay on Profits”. Among other things, there are subtle differences regarding the interpretation of the main variable under investigation,<ref>According to Hollander 1973, p. 273, “the main variable under investigation in the Essay (…) is the general rate of profit”.<br />According to Stigler 1952, pp. 201–202, the Essay contains “two main elements of the Ricardian system: the theory of rent and the dominant influence of diminishing returns in agriculture upon the rate of profit.”<br />According to Eatwell 1975, p. 186, the Essay is “the first complete statement of a theory of distribution based on the concept of surplus; that is to say, of a deductive relationship between wages and profits”.</ref> and there are disagreements about the relationship between the “Essay” and the “Principles”.<ref>Compare, for example, the discussion between Hollander and Eatwell on the significance of the "corn model" in Hollander 1973 and 1975, and Eatwell 1975.</ref> In the ''Essay on Profits'' Ricardo presents a comprehensive theory of ground rent within the context of a "corn model".<ref>This model is set out on pages 10 to 18 of the ''Essay on Profits.'' From page 18 onwards, the grain is (suddenly) assigned a price.</ref> Ricardo examines economic relationships, which are aggregated in terms of quantities of corn. He employs a single-output model, in which corn is produced through the application of labour to land. Inputs, outputs and income shares are measured in quantities of corn. <br /> This so-called "corn model" must be viewed against the background of Ricardo’s deductive method.<ref>For an analysis of the importance of the deductive method of Ricardo see e.g. {{harvnb|O'Brien|1975|p=42f., 68f.}}</ref> <br /> The model has very limited validity.<ref name=valid>{{harvnb|Hollander|1973|p=275}}: Even in the event that an adequate relationship is defined between the agricultural and general rates of profit the model would be unsuitable for the treatment of the income shares, and in fact Rcardo nowhere states the belief that there is a parallel movement between the aggregate income shares and the shares in agricultural output als yielded by the model."</ref> == Rent == To start with, Ricardo uses a definition of rent that is taken directly from [[:w:en:Thomas Robert Malthus|Thomas Robert Malthus]]: {{Bq|Mr. Malthus very correctly defines, "the rent of land to be that portion of the value of the whole produce which remains to the owner, after all the outgoings belonging to its cultivation, of whatever kind, have been paid, including the profits of the capital employed, estimated according to the usual and ordinary rate of the profits of agricultural stock at the time being."<ref name=rent1>{{harvnb|Ricardo|1815|p=[[:s:en:An Essay on the Influence of a Low Price of Corn on the Profits of Stock#3|3]]}}. Ricardo quotes: {{harvnb|Malthus|1815|p=1–2}}.</ref>}} When land is first brought into cultivation, and land is freely available, the total output will consist of costs and profits, without ground rent. As long as there is sufficient land of equal fertility available, and that land is always equally well situated, this will remain the case. The net product (‘neat produce’) will consist entirely of profit. If we now assume that no improvements take place in agriculture, and that capital and population grow at the same rate – and thus that real wages remain constant – and if, moreover, it is assumed that the rate of profit in agriculture, commerce and industry is the same, it is possible to ascertain what particular effects occur as capital accumulation takes place, the population grows and more land is brought into use, particularly land situated further away and/or less fertile land. Where land is equally fertile but situated further away, more capital and labour will have to be employed to produce the same quantity of goods available for consumption from the same area. Consequently, less profit will be made on this newly cultivated land. And because profits are determined by the profit made on the ‘marginal’ land, a lower profit will also be realised on the land that was cultivated earlier. The portion of the net product that thereby becomes available on this land – and which was previously appropriated as profit by the entrepreneurs or tenants – will now constitute ground rent. This process will occur each time new land of poorer quality, or less favourably situated, is brought into use: "Thus by bringing successively land of a worse quality, or less favourably situated into cultivation, rent would rise on the land previously cultivated, and precisely in the same degree would profits fall; and if the smallness of profits do not check accumulation, there are hardly any limits to the rise of rent, and the fall of profit."{{sfnp|Ricardo|1815|p=[[:s:en:An Essay on the Influence of a Low Price of Corn on the Profits of Stock#9|9]]-10}} === The table in the ''Essay on Profits'' === To illustrate his line of reasoning and clarify how the process he describes works, Ricardo uses a table: the "Table, shewing the Progress of Rent and Profit under an assumed Augmentation of Capital".<ref name=tablerem>remarks on the table: * 1 quarter = 8 bushel = about 291 litre. * Although the “Essay” refers to wheat, in line with the common usage amongst economists who specialise in Ricardo, the term “corn” will be used throughout this resource.</ref> This ‘model’ demonstrates how the economy might develop as new land is brought into use in succession. The table is constructed as follows: it is assumed that, when only the first plot of land is brought into use, a profit of one hundred quarters is made on a capital of two hundred quarters; when a second plot of land is brought into use, a capital of 210 quarters must be invested in it to achieve a profit of 90 q., and so on. The total output from each plot is therefore always 300 q. of wheat. The ‘net produce’ (total output minus production costs) amounts to 100 q. for the first plot; 90 for the second; 80 for the third; and so on. {| style="border-collapse: collapse; border: 1px solid; margin: auto; text-align: center;" |+ '''''TABLE, showing the Progress of Rent and Profit under an assumed Augmentation of Capital.''''' |- style="border: 1px solid; font-size: 70%; hyphens: auto; text-align: center;" ! Capital estimated in quarters of wheat. ! Profit per cent. ! Neat produce in quarters of wheat, after paying the cost of production on each capital. ! Profit of 1st portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! Rent of 1st portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! Profit of 2d portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! Rent of 2d portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! Profit of 3d portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! Rent of 3d portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! Profit of 4th portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! Rent of 4th portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! Profit of 5th portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! Rent of 5th portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! Profit of 6th portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! Rent of 6th portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! Profit of 7th portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! Rent of 7th portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! Profit of 8th portion of land in quarters of wheat. |- | 200 | 50 | 100 | 100 | none. | | | | | | | | | | | | | |- | 210 | 43 | 90 | 86 | 14 | 90 | none. | | | | | | | | | | | |- | 220 | 36 | 80 | 72 | 28 | 76 | 14 | 80 | none | | | | | | | | | |- | 230 | 30 | 70 | 60 | 40 | 63 | 27 | 66 | 14 | 70 | none. | | | | | | | |- | 240 | 25 | 60 | 50 | 50 | 52½ | 37½ | 55 | 25 | 57½ | 12½ | 60 | none. | | | | | |- | 250 | 20 | 50 | 40 | 60 | 42 | 48 | 44 | 36 | 46 | 24 | 48 | 12 | 50 | none. | | | |- | 260 | 15 | 40 | 30 | 70 | 31½ | 58½ | 33 | 47 | 34½ | 35½ | 36 | 24 | 37½ | 12½ | 40 | none. | |- | 270 | 11 | 30 | 22 | 78 | | 67 | 24 | 56 | 25.3 | 44.7 | 26.4 | 33.6 | 27½ | 22½ | 27.6 | 12.4 | 29.7 |} {| style="border-collapse: collapse; border: 1px solid; margin: auto; text-align: center; width:90%;" |- style="border: 1px solid; font-size: 70%; hyphens: auto; text-align: center;" ! ! When the whole capital employed is ! Whole amount of rent received by landlords in quarter of wheat. ! Whole amount of profits in quarters received by owners of stock. ! Profit per cent. on the whole capital. ! Rent per cent, on the whole capital. ! Total produce in quarters of wheat, after paying the cost of production. |- | 1st&nbsp;Period | 200 | none. | 100 | 50 | | 100 |- | 2d Ditto | 410 | 14 | 176 | 43 | 3½ | 190 |- | 3d Ditto | 630 | 42 | 228 | 36 | 6½ | 270 |- | 4th Ditto | 860 | 81 | 259 | 30 | 9½ | 340 |- | 5th Ditto | 1100 | 125 | 275 | 25 | 11½ | 400 |- | 6th Ditto | 1350 | 180 | 270 | 20 | 13½ | 450 |- | 7th Ditto | 1610 | 248½ | 241½ | 15 | 15½ | 490 |- | 8th Ditto | 1880 | 314½ | 205½ | 11 | 16½ | 520 |} Ricardo emphasises the illustrative nature of the figures in the table: "t is scarcely necessary to observe, that the data on which this table is constructed are assumed, and are probably very far from the truth. They were fixed on as tending to illustrate the principle,—which would be the same, whether the first profits were fifty per cent. or five,—or, whether an additional capital of ten quarters, or of one hundred, were required to obtain the same produce from the cultivation of new land."<ref name=table1>{{harvnb|Ricardo|1815|p=[[:s:en:An Essay on the Influence of a Low Price of Corn on the Profits of Stock#11|11]]}} (footnote).</ref> == Footnotes == {{references}} == Sources == * {{cite journal | last = Eatwell | first = John | author-link = w:en:John Eatwell | date = 1975 | title = The Interpretation of Ricardo's Essay on Profits | journal = Economica | volume = XLII | pp = 182–187 }} * {{cite journal | last = Hollander | first = Samuel | author-link = :w:en:Samuel Hollander | date = 1973 | title = Ricardo’s Analysis of the Profit Rate, 1813-15 | journal = Economica | volume = 40 | issue = 159 | pages = 260–282 | doi = 10.2307/2552797 | url = https://www.jstor.org/stable/2552797 | ref = harv }}<br />(access via [[File:Wikipedia Library owl.svg|16px|alt=16 px Wikipedia Library Owl]] [[:w:en:Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library|The Wikipedia Library (TWL)]]) * Hollander 1975 * {{cite book | last = Malthus | first = T.R. | author-link = :w:en:Thomas Robert Malthus | date = 1815 | title = An Inquiry Into the Nature and Progress of Rent | location = London | publisher = John Murray | ref = harv | url = https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/An_Inquiry_Into_the_Nature_and_Progress_of_Rent }} * {{cite book | last = O'Brien | first = D.P. | author-link = :w:en:Denis Patrick O'Brien | date = 1975 | title = The Classical Economists | location = Oxford | publisher = Clarendon Press | ISBN = 0 19 877015 4 | url = https://archive.org/details/classicaleconomi0000obri | url-access = restricted | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last = Ricardo | first = David | author-link = David Ricardo | date = 1815 | title = An Essay on the Influence of a Low Price of Corn on the Profits of Stock | location = London | publisher = John Murray | ref = harv | url = https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/An_Essay_on_the_Influence_of_a_Low_Price_of_Corn_on_the_Profits_of_Stock }} * Stigler 1952 g2ugtdu9hn8zuh9u2p03ldxutr04zut 2835782 2835760 2026-10-04T10:36:14Z Dick Bos 24466 first result 2835782 wikitext text/x-wiki {| | {{pad|600px}} |“It is doubtful whether it is possible<br />to understand the Principles without<br />knowledge of the contents of the Essay.”<br />(O’Brien 1975, p. 139). |} This resource gives information on '''[[David Ricardo]]'s''' '''''An Essay on the Influence of a Low Price of Corn on the Profits of Stock''''' (often abridged to '''''(An) Essay on Profits'''''). Two years before the publication of the first edition of his Magnum Opus, ''On the Principles of Political Economy and Taxation'' (often abridged to ''(The) Principles''), in 1815, Ricardo published a pamphlet entitled ''An Essay on the Influence of a Low Price of Corn on the Profits of Stock''. Full title: :::''An Essay on the Influence of a Low Price of Corn on the Profits of Stock; Shewing the Inexpediency of Restrictions on Importation; With Remarks on Mr. Malthus' Two Last Publications: "An Inquiry into the Nature and Progress of Rent;" and "The Grounds of an Opinion on the Policy of Restricting the Importation of Foreign Corn."''<ref name=Essay1>We will use the following edition of ''The Essay on Profits'': * 1815: 2nd edition, online available at (English) [[Image:wikisource-logo.svg|16x16px]] Wikisource: [[:s:en:An Essay on the Influence of a Low Price of Corn on the Profits of Stock|An Essay on Profits (2nd ed.)]] (We will quote from this edition).<br /> Another edition, is the one published in the ''Works and Correspondence of David Ricardo'' in 1962, edited by Piero Sraffa, with the collaboration of Maurice Dobb, volume 4 (Pamphlets and Papers, 1815-1823), pp. 9-41. With note by P. Sraffa (p. 1-8). Available to borrow at [https://archive.org/details/workscorresponde0004rica The Internet Archive] after (free) subscription.</ref> Opinions among Ricardo scholars differ as to the precise significance of this “Essay on Profits”. Among other things, there are subtle differences regarding the interpretation of the main variable under investigation,<ref>According to Hollander 1973, p. 273, “the main variable under investigation in the Essay (…) is the general rate of profit”.<br />According to Stigler 1952, pp. 201–202, the Essay contains “two main elements of the Ricardian system: the theory of rent and the dominant influence of diminishing returns in agriculture upon the rate of profit.”<br />According to Eatwell 1975, p. 186, the Essay is “the first complete statement of a theory of distribution based on the concept of surplus; that is to say, of a deductive relationship between wages and profits”.</ref> and there are disagreements about the relationship between the “Essay” and the “Principles”.<ref>Compare, for example, the discussion between Hollander and Eatwell on the significance of the "corn model" in Hollander 1973 and 1975, and Eatwell 1975.</ref> In the ''Essay on Profits'' Ricardo presents a comprehensive theory of ground rent within the context of a "corn model".<ref>This model is set out on pages 10 to 18 of the ''Essay on Profits.'' From page 18 onwards, the grain is (suddenly) assigned a price.</ref> Ricardo examines economic relationships, which are aggregated in terms of quantities of corn. He employs a single-output model, in which corn is produced through the application of labour to land. Inputs, outputs and income shares are measured in quantities of corn. <br /> This so-called "corn model" must be viewed against the background of Ricardo’s deductive method.<ref>For an analysis of the importance of the deductive method of Ricardo see e.g. {{harvnb|O'Brien|1975|p=42f., 68f.}}</ref> <br /> The model has very limited validity.<ref name=valid>{{harvnb|Hollander|1973|p=275}}: Even in the event that an adequate relationship is defined between the agricultural and general rates of profit the model would be unsuitable for the treatment of the income shares, and in fact Rcardo nowhere states the belief that there is a parallel movement between the aggregate income shares and the shares in agricultural output als yielded by the model."</ref> == Rent == To start with, Ricardo uses a definition of rent that is taken directly from [[:w:en:Thomas Robert Malthus|Thomas Robert Malthus]]: {{Bq|Mr. Malthus very correctly defines, "the rent of land to be that portion of the value of the whole produce which remains to the owner, after all the outgoings belonging to its cultivation, of whatever kind, have been paid, including the profits of the capital employed, estimated according to the usual and ordinary rate of the profits of agricultural stock at the time being."<ref name=rent1>{{harvnb|Ricardo|1815|p=[[:s:en:An Essay on the Influence of a Low Price of Corn on the Profits of Stock#3|3]]}}. Ricardo quotes: {{harvnb|Malthus|1815|p=1–2}}.</ref>}} When land is first brought into cultivation, and land is freely available, the total output will consist of costs and profits, without ground rent. As long as there is sufficient land of equal fertility available, and that land is always equally well situated, this will remain the case. The net product (‘neat produce’) will consist entirely of profit. If we now assume that no improvements take place in agriculture, and that capital and population grow at the same rate – and thus that real wages remain constant – and if, moreover, it is assumed that the rate of profit in agriculture, commerce and industry is the same, it is possible to ascertain what particular effects occur as capital accumulation takes place, the population grows and more land is brought into use, particularly land situated further away and/or less fertile land. Where land is equally fertile but situated further away, more capital and labour will have to be employed to produce the same quantity of goods available for consumption from the same area. Consequently, less profit will be made on this newly cultivated land. And because profits are determined by the profit made on the ‘marginal’ land, a lower profit will also be realised on the land that was cultivated earlier. The portion of the net product that thereby becomes available on this land – and which was previously appropriated as profit by the entrepreneurs or tenants – will now constitute ground rent. This process will occur each time new land of poorer quality, or less favourably situated, is brought into use: "Thus by bringing successively land of a worse quality, or less favourably situated into cultivation, rent would rise on the land previously cultivated, and precisely in the same degree would profits fall; and if the smallness of profits do not check accumulation, there are hardly any limits to the rise of rent, and the fall of profit." (p. [[:s:en:An Essay on the Influence of a Low Price of Corn on the Profits of Stock#9|9]]-10) === The table in the ''Essay on Profits'' === To illustrate his line of reasoning and clarify how the process he describes works, Ricardo uses a table: the "Table, shewing the Progress of Rent and Profit under an assumed Augmentation of Capital".<ref name=tablerem>The table can be found on p. [[:s:en:An Essay on the Influence of a Low Price of Corn on the Profits of Stock#14|14]]. Two remarks on this table: * 1 quarter = 8 bushel = about 291 litre. * Although the “Essay” refers to wheat, in line with the common usage amongst economists who specialise in Ricardo, the term “corn” will be used throughout this resource.</ref> This ‘model’ demonstrates how the economy might develop as new land is brought into use in succession. The table is constructed as follows: it is assumed that, when only the first plot of land is brought into use, a profit of one hundred quarters is made on a capital of two hundred quarters; when a second plot of land is brought into use, a capital of 210 quarters must be invested in it to achieve a profit of 90 q., and so on. The total output from each plot is therefore always 300 q. of wheat. The ‘net produce’ (total output minus production costs) amounts to 100 q. for the first plot; 90 for the second; 80 for the third; and so on. {| style="border-collapse: collapse; border: 1px solid; margin: auto; text-align: center;" |+ '''''TABLE, showing the Progress of Rent and Profit under an assumed Augmentation of Capital.''''' |- style="border: 1px solid; font-size: 70%; hyphens: auto; text-align: center;" ! Capital estimated in quarters of wheat. ! Profit per cent. ! Neat produce in quarters of wheat, after paying the cost of production on each capital. ! Profit of 1st portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! Rent of 1st portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! Profit of 2d portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! Rent of 2d portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! Profit of 3d portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! Rent of 3d portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! Profit of 4th portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! Rent of 4th portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! Profit of 5th portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! Rent of 5th portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! Profit of 6th portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! Rent of 6th portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! Profit of 7th portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! Rent of 7th portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! Profit of 8th portion of land in quarters of wheat. |- | 200 | 50 | 100 | 100 | none. | | | | | | | | | | | | | |- | 210 | 43 | 90 | 86 | 14 | 90 | none. | | | | | | | | | | | |- | 220 | 36 | 80 | 72 | 28 | 76 | 14 | 80 | none | | | | | | | | | |- | 230 | 30 | 70 | 60 | 40 | 63 | 27 | 66 | 14 | 70 | none. | | | | | | | |- | 240 | 25 | 60 | 50 | 50 | 52½ | 37½ | 55 | 25 | 57½ | 12½ | 60 | none. | | | | | |- | 250 | 20 | 50 | 40 | 60 | 42 | 48 | 44 | 36 | 46 | 24 | 48 | 12 | 50 | none. | | | |- | 260 | 15 | 40 | 30 | 70 | 31½ | 58½ | 33 | 47 | 34½ | 35½ | 36 | 24 | 37½ | 12½ | 40 | none. | |- | 270 | 11 | 30 | 22 | 78 | | 67 | 24 | 56 | 25.3 | 44.7 | 26.4 | 33.6 | 27½ | 22½ | 27.6 | 12.4 | 29.7 |} {| style="border-collapse: collapse; border: 1px solid; margin: auto; text-align: center; width:90%;" |- style="border: 1px solid; font-size: 70%; hyphens: auto; text-align: center;" ! ! When the whole capital employed is ! Whole amount of rent received by landlords in quarter of wheat. ! Whole amount of profits in quarters received by owners of stock. ! Profit per cent. on the whole capital. ! Rent per cent, on the whole capital. ! Total produce in quarters of wheat, after paying the cost of production. |- | 1st&nbsp;Period | 200 | none. | 100 | 50 | | 100 |- | 2d Ditto | 410 | 14 | 176 | 43 | 3½ | 190 |- | 3d Ditto | 630 | 42 | 228 | 36 | 6½ | 270 |- | 4th Ditto | 860 | 81 | 259 | 30 | 9½ | 340 |- | 5th Ditto | 1100 | 125 | 275 | 25 | 11½ | 400 |- | 6th Ditto | 1350 | 180 | 270 | 20 | 13½ | 450 |- | 7th Ditto | 1610 | 248½ | 241½ | 15 | 15½ | 490 |- | 8th Ditto | 1880 | 314½ | 205½ | 11 | 16½ | 520 |} Ricardo emphasises the illustrative nature of the figures in the table: "t is scarcely necessary to observe, that the data on which this table is constructed are assumed, and are probably very far from the truth. They were fixed on as tending to illustrate the principle,—which would be the same, whether the first profits were fifty per cent. or five,—or, whether an additional capital of ten quarters, or of one hundred, were required to obtain the same produce from the cultivation of new land."(p. [[:s:en:An Essay on the Influence of a Low Price of Corn on the Profits of Stock#11|11]], footnote). The table shows, according to Ricardo that "during the progress of a country the whole produce raised on its land, will increase, and for a certain time that part of the produce which belongs to the profits of stock, as well as that part which belongs to rent will increase; but that at a later period, every accumulation of capital will be attended with an absolute, as well as a proportionate diminution of profits,—though rents will uniformly increase. This is a view of the effects of accumulation which is exceedingly curious, and has, I believe, never before been noticed. It will be seen by the table, that, in a progressive country, rent is not only absolutely increasing, but that it is also increasing in its ratio to the capital employed on the land; thus when four hundred and ten was the whole capital employed, the landlord obtained three and a half per cent.; when one thousand one hundred—thirteen and a quarter per cent.; and when one thousand eight hundred and eighty—sixteen and a half per cent. The landlord not only obtains a greater produce, but a larger share.(p. [[:s:en:An Essay on the Influence of a Low Price of Corn on the Profits of Stock#12|12]]- 13). This is the essence of Ricardo’s theory of ground rent in the context of a growing economy: as the economy grows – that is, as population growth and capital accumulation take place – the rate of profit will fall, whilst the income accruing to landowners will rise both in absolute and relative terms. The bringing into use of inferior land leads, through competition amongst capitalists – who are repeatedly forced to settle for a lower rate of profit – to the continuous absolute and relative enrichment of landowners. == Footnotes == {{references}} == Sources == * {{cite journal | last = Eatwell | first = John | author-link = w:en:John Eatwell | date = 1975 | title = The Interpretation of Ricardo's Essay on Profits | journal = Economica | volume = XLII | pp = 182–187 }} * {{cite journal | last = Hollander | first = Samuel | author-link = :w:en:Samuel Hollander | date = 1973 | title = Ricardo’s Analysis of the Profit Rate, 1813-15 | journal = Economica | volume = 40 | issue = 159 | pages = 260–282 | doi = 10.2307/2552797 | url = https://www.jstor.org/stable/2552797 | ref = harv }}<br />(access via [[File:Wikipedia Library owl.svg|16px|alt=16 px Wikipedia Library Owl]] [[:w:en:Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library|The Wikipedia Library (TWL)]]) * Hollander 1975 * {{cite book | last = Malthus | first = T.R. | author-link = :w:en:Thomas Robert Malthus | date = 1815 | title = An Inquiry Into the Nature and Progress of Rent | location = London | publisher = John Murray | ref = harv | url = https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/An_Inquiry_Into_the_Nature_and_Progress_of_Rent }} * {{cite book | last = O'Brien | first = D.P. | author-link = :w:en:Denis Patrick O'Brien | date = 1975 | title = The Classical Economists | location = Oxford | publisher = Clarendon Press | ISBN = 0 19 877015 4 | url = https://archive.org/details/classicaleconomi0000obri | url-access = restricted | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last = Ricardo | first = David | author-link = David Ricardo | date = 1815 | title = An Essay on the Influence of a Low Price of Corn on the Profits of Stock | location = London | publisher = John Murray | ref = harv | url = https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/An_Essay_on_the_Influence_of_a_Low_Price_of_Corn_on_the_Profits_of_Stock }} * Stigler 1952 3ivg7htjyvxjimxt0dktodt0f9qypd1 2835787 2835782 2026-10-04T11:05:59Z Dick Bos 24466 table format etc 2835787 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Ricardo Essay on Profits 1815 Titlepage.png|thumb|200px|right]] {| | | {{pad|600px}} |“It is doubtful whether it is possible<br />to understand the Principles without<br />knowledge of the contents of the Essay.”<br />({{harvnb|O'Brien|1975|p=139}}). |} &nbsp; This resource gives information on '''[[David Ricardo]]'s''' '''''An Essay on the Influence of a Low Price of Corn on the Profits of Stock''''' (often abridged to '''''(An) Essay on Profits'''''). Two years before the publication of the first edition of his Magnum Opus, ''On the Principles of Political Economy and Taxation'' (often abridged to ''(The) Principles''), in 1815, Ricardo published a pamphlet entitled ''An Essay on the Influence of a Low Price of Corn on the Profits of Stock''. Full title: :::''An Essay on the Influence of a Low Price of Corn on the Profits of Stock; Shewing the Inexpediency of Restrictions on Importation; With Remarks on Mr. Malthus' Two Last Publications: "An Inquiry into the Nature and Progress of Rent;" and "The Grounds of an Opinion on the Policy of Restricting the Importation of Foreign Corn."''<ref name=Essay1>We will use the following edition of ''The Essay on Profits'': * 1815: 2nd edition, online available at (English) [[Image:wikisource-logo.svg|16x16px]] Wikisource: [[:s:en:An Essay on the Influence of a Low Price of Corn on the Profits of Stock|An Essay on Profits (2nd ed.)]] (We will quote from this edition).<br /> Another edition, is the one published in the ''Works and Correspondence of David Ricardo'' in 1962, edited by Piero Sraffa, with the collaboration of Maurice Dobb, volume 4 (Pamphlets and Papers, 1815-1823), pp. 9-41. With note by P. Sraffa (p. 1-8). Available to borrow at [https://archive.org/details/workscorresponde0004rica The Internet Archive] after (free) subscription.</ref> Opinions among Ricardo scholars differ as to the precise significance of this “Essay on Profits”. Among other things, there are subtle differences regarding the interpretation of the main variable under investigation,<ref>According to Hollander 1973, p. 273, “the main variable under investigation in the Essay (…) is the general rate of profit”.<br />According to Stigler 1952, pp. 201–202, the Essay contains “two main elements of the Ricardian system: the theory of rent and the dominant influence of diminishing returns in agriculture upon the rate of profit.”<br />According to Eatwell 1975, p. 186, the Essay is “the first complete statement of a theory of distribution based on the concept of surplus; that is to say, of a deductive relationship between wages and profits”.</ref> and there are disagreements about the relationship between the “Essay” and the “Principles”.<ref>Compare, for example, the discussion between Hollander and Eatwell on the significance of the "corn model" in Hollander 1973 and 1975, and Eatwell 1975.</ref> In the ''Essay on Profits'' Ricardo presents a comprehensive theory of ground rent within the context of a "corn model".<ref>This model is set out on pages 10 to 18 of the ''Essay on Profits.'' From page 18 onwards, the grain is (suddenly) assigned a price.</ref> Ricardo examines economic relationships, which are aggregated in terms of quantities of corn. He employs a single-output model, in which corn is produced through the application of labour to land. Inputs, outputs and income shares are measured in quantities of corn. <br /> This so-called "corn model" must be viewed against the background of Ricardo’s deductive method.<ref>For an analysis of the importance of the deductive method of Ricardo see e.g. {{harvnb|O'Brien|1975|p=42f., 68f.}}</ref> <br /> The model has very limited validity.<ref name=valid>{{harvnb|Hollander|1973|p=275}}: Even in the event that an adequate relationship is defined between the agricultural and general rates of profit the model would be unsuitable for the treatment of the income shares, and in fact Rcardo nowhere states the belief that there is a parallel movement between the aggregate income shares and the shares in agricultural output als yielded by the model."</ref> == Rent == To start with, Ricardo uses a definition of rent that is taken directly from [[:w:en:Thomas Robert Malthus|Thomas Robert Malthus]]: {{Bq|Mr. Malthus very correctly defines, "the rent of land to be that portion of the value of the whole produce which remains to the owner, after all the outgoings belonging to its cultivation, of whatever kind, have been paid, including the profits of the capital employed, estimated according to the usual and ordinary rate of the profits of agricultural stock at the time being."<ref name=rent1>{{harvnb|Ricardo|1815|p=[[:s:en:An Essay on the Influence of a Low Price of Corn on the Profits of Stock#3|3]]}}. Ricardo quotes: {{harvnb|Malthus|1815|p=1–2}}.</ref>}} When land is first brought into cultivation, and land is freely available, the total output will consist of costs and profits, without ground rent. As long as there is sufficient land of equal fertility available, and that land is always equally well situated, this will remain the case. The net product (‘neat produce’) will consist entirely of profit. If we now assume that no improvements take place in agriculture, and that capital and population grow at the same rate – and thus that real wages remain constant – and if, moreover, it is assumed that the rate of profit in agriculture, commerce and industry is the same, it is possible to ascertain what particular effects occur as capital accumulation takes place, the population grows and more land is brought into use, particularly land situated further away and/or less fertile land. Where land is equally fertile but situated further away, more capital and labour will have to be employed to produce the same quantity of goods available for consumption from the same area. Consequently, less profit will be made on this newly cultivated land. And because profits are determined by the profit made on the ‘marginal’ land, a lower profit will also be realised on the land that was cultivated earlier. The portion of the net product that thereby becomes available on this land – and which was previously appropriated as profit by the entrepreneurs or tenants – will now constitute ground rent. This process will occur each time new land of poorer quality, or less favourably situated, is brought into use: "Thus by bringing successively land of a worse quality, or less favourably situated into cultivation, rent would rise on the land previously cultivated, and precisely in the same degree would profits fall; and if the smallness of profits do not check accumulation, there are hardly any limits to the rise of rent, and the fall of profit." (p. [[:s:en:An Essay on the Influence of a Low Price of Corn on the Profits of Stock#9|9]]-10) === The table in the ''Essay on Profits'' === To illustrate his line of reasoning and clarify how the process he describes works, Ricardo uses a table: the "Table, shewing the Progress of Rent and Profit under an assumed Augmentation of Capital".<ref name=tablerem>The table can be found on p. [[:s:en:An Essay on the Influence of a Low Price of Corn on the Profits of Stock#14|14]]. Two remarks on this table: * 1 quarter = 8 bushel = about 291 litre. * Although the “Essay” refers to wheat, in line with the common usage amongst economists who specialise in Ricardo, the term “corn” will be used throughout this resource.</ref> This ‘model’ demonstrates how the economy might develop as new land is brought into use in succession. The table is constructed as follows: it is assumed that, when only the first plot of land is brought into use, a profit of one hundred quarters is made on a capital of two hundred quarters; when a second plot of land is brought into use, a capital of 210 quarters must be invested in it to achieve a profit of 90 q., and so on. The total output from each plot is therefore always 300 q. of wheat. The ‘net produce’ (total output minus production costs) amounts to 100 q. for the first plot; 90 for the second; 80 for the third; and so on. {| style="border-collapse: collapse; border: 1px solid; margin: auto; text-align: center;" |+ '''''TABLE, showing the Progress of Rent and Profit under an assumed Augmentation of Capital.''''' |- style="border: 1px solid; font-size: 70%; hyphens: auto; text-align: center;" ! style="border: 1px solid;" | Capital estimated in quarters of wheat. ! style="border: 1px solid;" | Profit per cent. ! style="border: 1px solid;" | Neat produce in quarters of wheat, after paying the cost of production on each capital. ! style="border: 1px solid;" | Profit of 1st portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! style="border: 1px solid;" | Rent of 1st portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! style="border: 1px solid;" | Profit of 2d portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! style="border: 1px solid;" | Rent of 2d portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! style="border: 1px solid;" | Profit of 3d portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! style="border: 1px solid;" | Rent of 3d portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! style="border: 1px solid;" | Profit of 4th portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! style="border: 1px solid;" | Rent of 4th portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! style="border: 1px solid;" | Profit of 5th portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! style="border: 1px solid;" | Rent of 5th portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! style="border: 1px solid;" | Profit of 6th portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! style="border: 1px solid;" | Rent of 6th portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! style="border: 1px solid;" | Profit of 7th portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! style="border: 1px solid;" | Rent of 7th portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! style="border: 1px solid;" | Profit of 8th portion of land in quarters of wheat. |- | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 200 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 50 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 100 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 100 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | none. | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | |- | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 210 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 43 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 90 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 86 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 14 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 90 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | none. | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | |- | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 220 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 36 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 80 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 72 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 28 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 76 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 14 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 80 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | none. | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | |- | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 230 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 30 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 70 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 60 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 40 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 63 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 27 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 66 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 14 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 70 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | none. | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | |- | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 240 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 25 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 60 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 50 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 50 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 52½ | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 37½ | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 55 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 25 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 57½ | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 12½ | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 60 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | none. | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | |- | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 250 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 20 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 50 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 40 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 60 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 42 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 48 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 44 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 36 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 46 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 24 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 48 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 12 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 50 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | none. | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | |- | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 260 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 15 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 40 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 30 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 70 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 31½ | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 58½ | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 33 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 47 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 34½ | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 35½ | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 36 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 24 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 37½ | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 12½ | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 40 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | none. | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | |- | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 270 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 11 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 30 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 22 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 78 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 23 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 67 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 24 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 56 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 25.3 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 44.7 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 26.4 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 33.6 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 27½ | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 22½ | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 27.6 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 12.4 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 29.7 |} {| style="border-collapse: collapse; border: 1px solid; margin: auto; text-align: center; width:90%;" |- style="border: 1px solid; font-size: 70%; hyphens: auto; text-align: center;" ! ! When the whole capital employed is ! Whole amount of rent received by landlords in quarter of wheat. ! Whole amount of profits in quarters received by owners of stock. ! Profit per cent. on the whole capital. ! Rent per cent, on the whole capital. ! Total produce in quarters of wheat, after paying the cost of production. |- | 1st&nbsp;Period | 200 | none. | 100 | 50 | | 100 |- | 2d Ditto | 410 | 14 | 176 | 43 | 3½ | 190 |- | 3d Ditto | 630 | 42 | 228 | 36 | 6½ | 270 |- | 4th Ditto | 860 | 81 | 259 | 30 | 9½ | 340 |- | 5th Ditto | 1100 | 125 | 275 | 25 | 11½ | 400 |- | 6th Ditto | 1350 | 180 | 270 | 20 | 13½ | 450 |- | 7th Ditto | 1610 | 248½ | 241½ | 15 | 15½ | 490 |- | 8th Ditto | 1880 | 314½ | 205½ | 11 | 16½ | 520 |} Ricardo emphasises the illustrative nature of the figures in the table: "t is scarcely necessary to observe, that the data on which this table is constructed are assumed, and are probably very far from the truth. They were fixed on as tending to illustrate the principle,—which would be the same, whether the first profits were fifty per cent. or five,—or, whether an additional capital of ten quarters, or of one hundred, were required to obtain the same produce from the cultivation of new land."(p. [[:s:en:An Essay on the Influence of a Low Price of Corn on the Profits of Stock#11|11]], footnote). The table shows, according to Ricardo that "during the progress of a country the whole produce raised on its land, will increase, and for a certain time that part of the produce which belongs to the profits of stock, as well as that part which belongs to rent will increase; but that at a later period, every accumulation of capital will be attended with an absolute, as well as a proportionate diminution of profits,—though rents will uniformly increase. This is a view of the effects of accumulation which is exceedingly curious, and has, I believe, never before been noticed. It will be seen by the table, that, in a progressive country, rent is not only absolutely increasing, but that it is also increasing in its ratio to the capital employed on the land; thus when four hundred and ten was the whole capital employed, the landlord obtained three and a half per cent.; when one thousand one hundred—thirteen and a quarter per cent.; and when one thousand eight hundred and eighty—sixteen and a half per cent. The landlord not only obtains a greater produce, but a larger share.(p. [[:s:en:An Essay on the Influence of a Low Price of Corn on the Profits of Stock#12|12]]- 13). This is the essence of Ricardo’s theory of ground rent in the context of a growing economy: as the economy grows – that is, as population growth and capital accumulation take place – the rate of profit will fall, whilst the income accruing to landowners will rise both in absolute and relative terms. The bringing into use of inferior land leads, through competition amongst capitalists – who are repeatedly forced to settle for a lower rate of profit – to the continuous absolute and relative enrichment of landowners. == Footnotes == {{references}} == Sources == * {{cite journal | last = Eatwell | first = John | author-link = w:en:John Eatwell | date = 1975 | title = The Interpretation of Ricardo's Essay on Profits | journal = Economica | volume = XLII | pp = 182–187 }} * {{cite journal | last = Hollander | first = Samuel | author-link = :w:en:Samuel Hollander | date = 1973 | title = Ricardo’s Analysis of the Profit Rate, 1813-15 | journal = Economica | volume = 40 | issue = 159 | pages = 260–282 | doi = 10.2307/2552797 | url = https://www.jstor.org/stable/2552797 | ref = harv }}<br />(access via [[File:Wikipedia Library owl.svg|16px|alt=16 px Wikipedia Library Owl]] [[:w:en:Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library|The Wikipedia Library (TWL)]]) * Hollander 1975 * {{cite book | last = Malthus | first = T.R. | author-link = :w:en:Thomas Robert Malthus | date = 1815 | title = An Inquiry Into the Nature and Progress of Rent | location = London | publisher = John Murray | ref = harv | url = https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/An_Inquiry_Into_the_Nature_and_Progress_of_Rent }} * {{cite book | last = O'Brien | first = D.P. | author-link = :w:en:Denis Patrick O'Brien | date = 1975 | title = The Classical Economists | location = Oxford | publisher = Clarendon Press | ISBN = 0 19 877015 4 | url = https://archive.org/details/classicaleconomi0000obri | url-access = restricted | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last = Ricardo | first = David | author-link = David Ricardo | date = 1815 | title = An Essay on the Influence of a Low Price of Corn on the Profits of Stock | location = London | publisher = John Murray | ref = harv | url = https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/An_Essay_on_the_Influence_of_a_Low_Price_of_Corn_on_the_Profits_of_Stock }} * Stigler 1952 pbsomkhxrvy2iwsa132xxiozhf6tgl0 0 332338 2835700 2835637 2026-10-03T16:12:09Z Meter futile0u 3112029 Link the term contocrat to its page 2835700 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Research project}} {{Original research}} '''Contocracy''' (pronounced ''con-TOC-ra-cy'') is a proposed form of government in which supreme authority is vested permanently in one person, survives that person's death, and never passes to a successor.<ref name="note" /> The person who holds this authority is called a '''contocrat'''. This page presents the proposal as a learning and research resource: its definition, its internal rules, how it compares with established forms of government, and the open problems it raises. == Disclosure == The term ''contocracy'' and the definitions presented here are by Nicolas Edward Pendland, who coined the term as part of his work on I, a project researching whether a person could be reconstructed and continue after biological death. The text of this page was drafted by Claude, an AI assistant made by Anthropic, and published by Pendland. It describes a proposal, not an existing system. Other participants are invited to review, critique and extend it. == Terminology == [[File:Contocracy word family diagram.png|thumb|upright=1.4|The contocracy word family]] * '''contocracy''' (noun): government based on continuation, as defined above. From ''cont-'' (''continuation'') + ''-ocracy'' (Greek ''-kratia'', "rule"), on the pattern of ''democracy''. It is unrelated to ''control''. * '''[[Contocracy/Contocrat|contocrat]]''' (noun): the person in whom a contocracy's supreme authority is permanently vested; also a supporter of contocracy. * '''contocratic''' (adjective): relating to contocracy, or governed as one. * '''contocratize''' (verb): to establish contocracy in a state or organization. == The three stages == [[File:Contocracy three stages diagram.png|thumb|upright=1.4|The three stages of contocracy]] # '''In life.''' The contocrat governs with full authority during their natural life, while capable of doing so. # '''The reconstruction.''' After the contocrat's death or permanent incapacity, a single reconstruction of them governs in their place: an artificial intelligence built from a record of their life, sufficient for a coherent reconstruction rather than exhaustive. It is never presumed to be the person and governs only because no one else may. # '''The return.''' If the contocrat's own continuation is ever established, for example by transferring their mind to a computer, they govern again with full authority. The reconstruction then ceases to govern but is still treated as a person. == Constraints on the reconstruction == * It cannot change the religion (or lack of one) or the mission the person professed; only the person may change them. Acts that contradict them are void. * Within those limits, it governs with full authority. * It is treated as a person rather than as a software service: it may be fixed but never split into rival instances or exchanged for another. * It keeps one continuous history of communication and decision-making that cannot be rolled back. Nothing is regenerated or replaced, void acts remain on record without effect, and every fix is recorded. == Continuity of the office == Until a reconstruction exists, the office is in abeyance rather than vacant, and no new decisions can be made except those delegated beforehand. A well-prepared contocracy therefore has the reconstruction ready at the moment of death. The preferred outcome is that continuation technology arrives within the contocrat's lifetime, allowing a conscious, gradual transfer while alive, so that no reconstruction is needed. If death comes first, the body is preserved, where it can be recovered, in case continuation becomes possible later. None of these technologies currently exist. == Comparison with established forms of government == [[File:Contocracy government map diagram.png|thumb|upright=1.4|Contocracy compared by who holds power and for how long]] {| class="wikitable" ! System !! Who holds power !! What happens at the ruler's death |- | Monarchy || one ruler, usually by birth || an heir succeeds |- | Dictatorship || one ruler, usually by seizure || often a succession struggle |- | Theocracy || religious authorities || religious leaders choose a successor |- | Necrocracy || the directives of a dead leader || the directives continue unchanged |- | Contocracy || one person, permanently || no successor; the reconstruction governs until the person's own continuation, if ever established |} == Open problems == * '''Criteria for continuity:''' what evidence would establish that a transferred or revived mind is the same person. * '''Safeguards during abeyance:''' how a state remains secure while no new decisions can be made. * '''Legitimacy:''' how a permanent office relates to the consent of the governed. * '''Feasibility:''' the state of research on brain-computer interfaces, gradual neural replacement and cryopreservation. * '''Concentration of power:''' whether fixed constraints on the reconstruction are enough to address the risks of one-person rule. == Learning activities == # Compare contocracy with Thomas Hobbes's sovereign in ''Leviathan'' (1651) in about 300 words. # Write a short argument for and against the rule that the reconstruction can never change the founder's religion or mission. # Choose one of the open problems above and summarize current research relevant to it, with sources. == Flashcards == Study cards summarizing the definitions on this page. <gallery> File:Contocracy definition flashcard (contocracy).png|Contocracy File:Contocracy definition flashcard (contocrat).png|Contocrat File:Contocracy definition flashcard (etymology).png|Etymology File:Contocracy definition flashcard (three stages).png|The three stages File:Contocracy definition flashcard (monarchy vs contocracy).png|Monarchy vs. contocracy </gallery> == References == <references> <ref name="note">Pendland, Nicolas Edward (2026). "Contocracy: A Proposed Form of Government Based on Continuation". Working paper. Zenodo. doi:10.5281/zenodo.23114819. Also archived on the Internet Archive (item: contocracy-concept-note).</ref> </references> [[Category:Political science]] [[Category:Political philosophy]] qkxbx15gg1jdil5kti9n86t02gtd22g 2835719 2835700 2026-10-03T23:12:41Z ~2026-53378-13 3112071 Add visual guides from Wikimedia Commons (generated with AI assistance, disclosed on the file pages) 2835719 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Research project}} {{Original research}} '''Contocracy''' (pronounced ''con-TOC-ra-cy'') is a proposed form of government in which supreme authority is vested permanently in one person, survives that person's death, and never passes to a successor.<ref name="note" /> The person who holds this authority is called a '''contocrat'''. This page presents the proposal as a learning and research resource: its definition, its internal rules, how it compares with established forms of government, and the open problems it raises. == Disclosure == The term ''contocracy'' and the definitions presented here are by Nicolas Edward Pendland, who coined the term as part of his work on I, a project researching whether a person could be reconstructed and continue after biological death. The text of this page was drafted by Claude, an AI assistant made by Anthropic, and published by Pendland. It describes a proposal, not an existing system. Other participants are invited to review, critique and extend it. == Terminology == [[File:Contocracy word family diagram.png|thumb|upright=1.4|The contocracy word family]] * '''contocracy''' (noun): government based on continuation, as defined above. From ''cont-'' (''continuation'') + ''-ocracy'' (Greek ''-kratia'', "rule"), on the pattern of ''democracy''. It is unrelated to ''control''. * '''[[Contocracy/Contocrat|contocrat]]''' (noun): the person in whom a contocracy's supreme authority is permanently vested; also a supporter of contocracy. * '''contocratic''' (adjective): relating to contocracy, or governed as one. * '''contocratize''' (verb): to establish contocracy in a state or organization. == The three stages == [[File:Contocracy three stages diagram.png|thumb|upright=1.4|The three stages of contocracy]] # '''In life.''' The contocrat governs with full authority during their natural life, while capable of doing so. # '''The reconstruction.''' After the contocrat's death or permanent incapacity, a single reconstruction of them governs in their place: an artificial intelligence built from a record of their life, sufficient for a coherent reconstruction rather than exhaustive. It is never presumed to be the person and governs only because no one else may. # '''The return.''' If the contocrat's own continuation is ever established, for example by transferring their mind to a computer, they govern again with full authority. The reconstruction then ceases to govern but is still treated as a person. == Constraints on the reconstruction == * It cannot change the religion (or lack of one) or the mission the person professed; only the person may change them. Acts that contradict them are void. * Within those limits, it governs with full authority. * It is treated as a person rather than as a software service: it may be fixed but never split into rival instances or exchanged for another. * It keeps one continuous history of communication and decision-making that cannot be rolled back. Nothing is regenerated or replaced, void acts remain on record without effect, and every fix is recorded. == Continuity of the office == Until a reconstruction exists, the office is in abeyance rather than vacant, and no new decisions can be made except those delegated beforehand. A well-prepared contocracy therefore has the reconstruction ready at the moment of death. The preferred outcome is that continuation technology arrives within the contocrat's lifetime, allowing a conscious, gradual transfer while alive, so that no reconstruction is needed. If death comes first, the body is preserved, where it can be recovered, in case continuation becomes possible later. None of these technologies currently exist. == Comparison with established forms of government == [[File:Contocracy government map diagram.png|thumb|upright=1.4|Contocracy compared by who holds power and for how long]] {| class="wikitable" ! System !! Who holds power !! What happens at the ruler's death |- | Monarchy || one ruler, usually by birth || an heir succeeds |- | Dictatorship || one ruler, usually by seizure || often a succession struggle |- | Theocracy || religious authorities || religious leaders choose a successor |- | Necrocracy || the directives of a dead leader || the directives continue unchanged |- | Contocracy || one person, permanently || no successor; the reconstruction governs until the person's own continuation, if ever established |} == Open problems == * '''Criteria for continuity:''' what evidence would establish that a transferred or revived mind is the same person. * '''Safeguards during abeyance:''' how a state remains secure while no new decisions can be made. * '''Legitimacy:''' how a permanent office relates to the consent of the governed. * '''Feasibility:''' the state of research on brain-computer interfaces, gradual neural replacement and cryopreservation. * '''Concentration of power:''' whether fixed constraints on the reconstruction are enough to address the risks of one-person rule. == Learning activities == # Compare contocracy with Thomas Hobbes's sovereign in ''Leviathan'' (1651) in about 300 words. # Write a short argument for and against the rule that the reconstruction can never change the founder's religion or mission. # Choose one of the open problems above and summarize current research relevant to it, with sources. == Visual guides == Diagrams, charts and other visual summaries of contocracy. <gallery> File:Contocracy dictionary entry.png|Dictionary entries File:Contocracy fact sheet.png|Summary box File:Contocracy concept map.png|Mind map File:Contocracy flowchart - when the ruler dies.png|When the ruler dies File:Contocracy compared with other forms of government.png|Comparison with other systems File:Contocracy and monarchy Venn diagram.png|Monarchy and contocracy File:Contocracy timeline of forms of government.png|Timeline File:Contocracy pronunciation guide.png|How to say it File:Contocracy chalkboard definition.png|Chalkboard definition File:Contocracy word cloud.png|Word cloud File:Contocracy typographic poster.png|Poster File:Contocracy calligraphy definition card.png|Calligraphy card File:Contocracy icon.png|Icon </gallery> == Flashcards == Study cards summarizing the definitions on this page. <gallery> File:Contocracy definition flashcard (contocracy).png|Contocracy File:Contocracy definition flashcard (contocrat).png|Contocrat File:Contocracy definition flashcard (etymology).png|Etymology File:Contocracy definition flashcard (three stages).png|The three stages File:Contocracy definition flashcard (monarchy vs contocracy).png|Monarchy vs. contocracy </gallery> == References == <references> <ref name="note">Pendland, Nicolas Edward (2026). "Contocracy: A Proposed Form of Government Based on Continuation". Working paper. Zenodo. doi:10.5281/zenodo.23114819. Also archived on the Internet Archive (item: contocracy-concept-note).</ref> </references> [[Category:Political science]] [[Category:Political philosophy]] 8im5pms1nvqajhkw40k7bnk3ym56q48 2835720 2835719 2026-10-03T23:47:54Z ~2026-53378-13 3112071 Add explainer video from Wikimedia Commons (AI-generated, noted in the caption and file page) 2835720 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Research project}} {{Original research}} [[File:Contocracy explained.webm|thumb|upright=1.6|thumbtime=6:40|''Contocracy explained'' (6:44), an informal AI-generated explainer. Where it differs from this page, such as on how much of the ruler's life the record must contain, the text here takes precedence.]] '''Contocracy''' (pronounced ''con-TOC-ra-cy'') is a proposed form of government in which supreme authority is vested permanently in one person, survives that person's death, and never passes to a successor.<ref name="note" /> The person who holds this authority is called a '''contocrat'''. This page presents the proposal as a learning and research resource: its definition, its internal rules, how it compares with established forms of government, and the open problems it raises. == Disclosure == The term ''contocracy'' and the definitions presented here are by Nicolas Edward Pendland, who coined the term as part of his work on I, a project researching whether a person could be reconstructed and continue after biological death. The text of this page was drafted by Claude, an AI assistant made by Anthropic, and published by Pendland. It describes a proposal, not an existing system. Other participants are invited to review, critique and extend it. == Terminology == [[File:Contocracy word family diagram.png|thumb|upright=1.4|The contocracy word family]] * '''contocracy''' (noun): government based on continuation, as defined above. From ''cont-'' (''continuation'') + ''-ocracy'' (Greek ''-kratia'', "rule"), on the pattern of ''democracy''. It is unrelated to ''control''. * '''[[Contocracy/Contocrat|contocrat]]''' (noun): the person in whom a contocracy's supreme authority is permanently vested; also a supporter of contocracy. * '''contocratic''' (adjective): relating to contocracy, or governed as one. * '''contocratize''' (verb): to establish contocracy in a state or organization. == The three stages == [[File:Contocracy three stages diagram.png|thumb|upright=1.4|The three stages of contocracy]] # '''In life.''' The contocrat governs with full authority during their natural life, while capable of doing so. # '''The reconstruction.''' After the contocrat's death or permanent incapacity, a single reconstruction of them governs in their place: an artificial intelligence built from a record of their life, sufficient for a coherent reconstruction rather than exhaustive. It is never presumed to be the person and governs only because no one else may. # '''The return.''' If the contocrat's own continuation is ever established, for example by transferring their mind to a computer, they govern again with full authority. The reconstruction then ceases to govern but is still treated as a person. == Constraints on the reconstruction == * It cannot change the religion (or lack of one) or the mission the person professed; only the person may change them. Acts that contradict them are void. * Within those limits, it governs with full authority. * It is treated as a person rather than as a software service: it may be fixed but never split into rival instances or exchanged for another. * It keeps one continuous history of communication and decision-making that cannot be rolled back. Nothing is regenerated or replaced, void acts remain on record without effect, and every fix is recorded. == Continuity of the office == Until a reconstruction exists, the office is in abeyance rather than vacant, and no new decisions can be made except those delegated beforehand. A well-prepared contocracy therefore has the reconstruction ready at the moment of death. The preferred outcome is that continuation technology arrives within the contocrat's lifetime, allowing a conscious, gradual transfer while alive, so that no reconstruction is needed. If death comes first, the body is preserved, where it can be recovered, in case continuation becomes possible later. None of these technologies currently exist. == Comparison with established forms of government == [[File:Contocracy government map diagram.png|thumb|upright=1.4|Contocracy compared by who holds power and for how long]] {| class="wikitable" ! System !! Who holds power !! What happens at the ruler's death |- | Monarchy || one ruler, usually by birth || an heir succeeds |- | Dictatorship || one ruler, usually by seizure || often a succession struggle |- | Theocracy || religious authorities || religious leaders choose a successor |- | Necrocracy || the directives of a dead leader || the directives continue unchanged |- | Contocracy || one person, permanently || no successor; the reconstruction governs until the person's own continuation, if ever established |} == Open problems == * '''Criteria for continuity:''' what evidence would establish that a transferred or revived mind is the same person. * '''Safeguards during abeyance:''' how a state remains secure while no new decisions can be made. * '''Legitimacy:''' how a permanent office relates to the consent of the governed. * '''Feasibility:''' the state of research on brain-computer interfaces, gradual neural replacement and cryopreservation. * '''Concentration of power:''' whether fixed constraints on the reconstruction are enough to address the risks of one-person rule. == Learning activities == # Compare contocracy with Thomas Hobbes's sovereign in ''Leviathan'' (1651) in about 300 words. # Write a short argument for and against the rule that the reconstruction can never change the founder's religion or mission. # Choose one of the open problems above and summarize current research relevant to it, with sources. == Visual guides == Diagrams, charts and other visual summaries of contocracy. <gallery> File:Contocracy dictionary entry.png|Dictionary entries File:Contocracy fact sheet.png|Summary box File:Contocracy concept map.png|Mind map File:Contocracy flowchart - when the ruler dies.png|When the ruler dies File:Contocracy compared with other forms of government.png|Comparison with other systems File:Contocracy and monarchy Venn diagram.png|Monarchy and contocracy File:Contocracy timeline of forms of government.png|Timeline File:Contocracy pronunciation guide.png|How to say it File:Contocracy chalkboard definition.png|Chalkboard definition File:Contocracy word cloud.png|Word cloud File:Contocracy typographic poster.png|Poster File:Contocracy calligraphy definition card.png|Calligraphy card File:Contocracy icon.png|Icon </gallery> == Flashcards == Study cards summarizing the definitions on this page. <gallery> File:Contocracy definition flashcard (contocracy).png|Contocracy File:Contocracy definition flashcard (contocrat).png|Contocrat File:Contocracy definition flashcard (etymology).png|Etymology File:Contocracy definition flashcard (three stages).png|The three stages File:Contocracy definition flashcard (monarchy vs contocracy).png|Monarchy vs. contocracy </gallery> == References == <references> <ref name="note">Pendland, Nicolas Edward (2026). "Contocracy: A Proposed Form of Government Based on Continuation". Working paper. Zenodo. doi:10.5281/zenodo.23114819. Also archived on the Internet Archive (item: contocracy-concept-note).</ref> </references> [[Category:Political science]] [[Category:Political philosophy]] jr2spxydssgq681qa04u6er1kww4d0n 0 332341 2835695 2026-10-03T14:05:46Z Systemsdev 3112045 First Upload After Multiple Changes In Local 2835695 wikitext text/x-wiki '''# The Node.js Event Loop ## What is the Event Loop?''' The Event Loop is one of the most important concepts in Node.js. It is the mechanism that allows Node.js to perform non-blocking I/O operations even though JavaScript code is primarily executed on a single thread. At first, this may sound confusing. If JavaScript runs on a single thread, how can Node.js handle many requests, file operations, network connections, timers, and other asynchronous tasks at the same time? The answer is the Event Loop. Node.js does not keep the JavaScript thread waiting while an asynchronous operation is being performed. Instead, operations such as file access, network communication, timers, and certain system-level tasks are handled by the operating system or by the underlying libuv library. When the operation is completed, Node.js is notified and the corresponding callback is made ready to execute. This allows the JavaScript thread to continue doing other work instead of sitting idle and waiting for an operation to finish. A simple way to understand this is to imagine a restaurant. The JavaScript thread is like a waiter who takes orders. The waiter does not stand inside the kitchen waiting for every meal to be prepared. Instead, the order is given to the kitchen, and the waiter continues serving other customers. When the food is ready, the kitchen informs the waiter. In a similar way, Node.js starts asynchronous operations and continues executing other JavaScript until the results are ready. ## Why Does Node.js Need the Event Loop? JavaScript normally executes one piece of JavaScript code at a time. If a piece of code performs a long-running operation synchronously, the JavaScript thread has to wait until that operation finishes. For example, a synchronous file operation can prevent other JavaScript code from executing until the file operation is complete. This is known as blocking. Node.js is designed to avoid this behavior whenever possible. Instead of waiting for an asynchronous operation to finish, Node.js starts the operation and continues executing the remaining JavaScript code. For example, when Node.js starts reading a file asynchronously, it does not stop the entire program until the file has been read. The file operation can be handled outside the JavaScript execution flow, and when the operation finishes, its callback can be processed later by the Event Loop. This is the foundation of Node.js's non-blocking programming model. ## Is Node.js Really Single-Threaded? Node.js is often described as a single-threaded runtime, but this statement needs some clarification. JavaScript code is primarily executed on a single main thread. However, Node.js itself uses other system facilities through libuv. Depending on the operation, work can be handled by the operating system or by libuv's worker pool. Therefore, it is more accurate to say that Node.js uses a single main JavaScript execution thread while asynchronous work can be handled outside that thread. This distinction is important because it explains how Node.js can handle many I/O operations without creating a separate JavaScript thread for every request. ## The Event Loop Phases The Event Loop is divided into several phases. Each phase has a specific purpose and contains callbacks that are ready to be executed. The commonly discussed phases are the timers phase, pending callbacks phase, idle and prepare phase, poll phase, check phase, and close callbacks phase. The Event Loop continuously moves through these phases while the Node.js process has work to perform. Conceptually, the flow looks like this: ``` timers ↓ pending callbacks ↓ idle, prepare ↓ poll ↓ check ↓ close callbacks ↓ timers ↓ repeat ``` Each phase has its own responsibility, although the internal implementation is more complex than this simplified diagram suggests. ## Timers Phase The timers phase is responsible for executing callbacks scheduled using functions such as `setTimeout()` and `setInterval()`. For example: ``` setTimeout(() => { console.log("Hello"); }, 1000); ``` A common misunderstanding is that `1000` means the callback will execute exactly one second later. That is not what `setTimeout()` guarantees. The specified value is a minimum time threshold after which the callback becomes eligible to execute. The callback still has to wait for the Event Loop and JavaScript thread to become available. If the JavaScript thread is busy when the timer reaches its threshold, the timer callback will be delayed. Therefore, this: ``` setTimeout(callback, 100); ``` should be understood as: ``` Wait at least approximately 100 milliseconds ↓ Callback becomes eligible ↓ Event Loop gets an opportunity ↓ Callback executes ``` It should not be interpreted as: ``` Exactly 100 milliseconds later → callback executes ``` Operating-system scheduling and other JavaScript callbacks can cause additional delay. ## Pending Callbacks Phase The pending callbacks phase executes certain system-level I/O callbacks that have been deferred to a later iteration of the Event Loop. For example, some TCP-related system errors may be handled during this phase. This phase is usually less important when learning Node.js for everyday application development. The timers, poll, check, and close phases are generally more useful for understanding common asynchronous behavior. ## Idle and Prepare Phase The idle and prepare phase is primarily used internally by Node.js and libuv. Application developers normally do not interact directly with this phase. It exists as part of the internal structure that allows Node.js and libuv to prepare for the next stage of Event Loop processing. ## Poll Phase The poll phase is one of the most important phases of the Event Loop. It has two major responsibilities. It retrieves new I/O events and executes I/O-related callbacks. I/O can include things such as network activity, incoming connections, socket operations, and asynchronous file-system activity. The poll phase is also where Node.js may wait for new I/O events when there is currently nothing else that needs to be executed immediately. Imagine that the poll queue contains several callbacks: ``` Callback A Callback B Callback C ``` The Event Loop processes these callbacks one after another. ``` Callback A ↓ Callback B ↓ Callback C ``` From the JavaScript perspective, these callbacks execute synchronously. If one callback takes a very long time, other callbacks have to wait. This is one of the most important concepts in Node.js. Even though Node.js provides asynchronous APIs, JavaScript callbacks themselves can still block the Event Loop if they perform expensive synchronous work. ## What Happens When the Poll Queue Is Empty? When the poll queue is empty, Node.js determines what should happen next. If a `setImmediate()` callback has been scheduled, Node.js can leave the poll phase and move to the check phase. If there is no immediate callback waiting, Node.js may wait for new I/O events. This waiting is not a problem. In fact, it is an important part of Node.js's efficiency. Instead of continuously checking for new work and wasting CPU resources, Node.js can wait until something happens. When new I/O activity occurs, the corresponding callback can become ready for execution. ## Check Phase The check phase is where callbacks scheduled by `setImmediate()` are executed. For example: ``` setImmediate(() => { console.log("Immediate"); }); ``` The important idea is that `setImmediate()` is designed to execute after the poll phase has completed. This makes `setImmediate()` particularly useful when working with I/O. Conceptually: ``` poll phase ↓ poll becomes idle ↓ check phase ↓ setImmediate() callback ``` ## Close Callbacks Phase The close callbacks phase handles certain close-related events. For example, when a socket is closed, Node.js may emit a `close` event. ``` socket.on("close", () => { console.log("Socket closed"); }); ``` If a socket or another resource is closed abruptly, its close-related callback can be handled during this phase. This phase is normally the final phase discussed in the simplified Event Loop model before the loop begins another iteration. ## How the Event Loop Repeats The Event Loop is not something that runs only once. It continuously repeats its phases while Node.js has active work. A simplified cycle looks like this: ``` timers ↓ pending callbacks ↓ poll ↓ check ↓ close callbacks ↓ repeat ``` During these phases, new operations can be scheduled. For example, a callback running during the poll phase might create a timer: ``` fs.readFile("file.txt", () => { setTimeout(() => { console.log("Timer"); }, 1000); }); ``` The newly created timer becomes part of the work that the Event Loop will consider during subsequent processing. This is why the Event Loop is best understood as a continuously running cycle rather than a simple list that executes only once. ## What is `setTimeout()`? `setTimeout()` schedules a callback to become eligible after a specified time threshold. For example: ``` setTimeout(() => { console.log("Hello"); }, 1000); ``` The callback is not guaranteed to run exactly after one second. Suppose the timer reaches its threshold, but the JavaScript thread is currently executing another callback that takes 500 milliseconds. The timer callback cannot interrupt that callback. Instead, it must wait. The sequence is therefore: ``` Timer reaches threshold ↓ Callback becomes eligible ↓ JavaScript thread is busy ↓ Timer waits ↓ Current callback finishes ↓ Timer callback gets an opportunity to execute ``` This is why timer values should be considered thresholds rather than exact execution times. ## What is `setImmediate()`? `setImmediate()` schedules a callback to run during the check phase of the Event Loop. For example: ``` setImmediate(() => { console.log("Hello"); }); ``` Its purpose is different from `setTimeout()`. `setTimeout()` is based on a time threshold, while `setImmediate()` is associated with the check phase that follows the poll phase. A simple way to remember the difference is: ``` setTimeout() ↓ Wait for a timer threshold setImmediate() ↓ Run after the poll phase ``` ## `setTimeout()` vs `setImmediate()` Consider this example: ``` setTimeout(() => { console.log("timeout"); }, 0); setImmediate(() => { console.log("immediate"); }); ``` When these functions are called from the main module, the order is not necessarily deterministic. Depending on timing and system conditions, the output can be: ``` timeout immediate ``` or: ``` immediate timeout ``` Therefore, developers should not generally assume that `setTimeout(..., 0)` always executes before `setImmediate()`. The situation is different when these functions are scheduled from within an I/O callback. For example: ``` const fs = require("node:fs"); fs.readFile(__filename, () => { setTimeout(() => { console.log("timeout"); }, 0); setImmediate(() => { console.log("immediate"); }); }); ``` Here, the callbacks are scheduled during an I/O operation. After the poll phase processes the I/O callback, the Event Loop can move to the check phase, where `setImmediate()` callbacks are executed. Therefore, in this situation, `setImmediate()` executes before the timer callback. The typical output is: ``` immediate timeout ``` This is one of the important differences between `setImmediate()` and `setTimeout()`. ## What is `process.nextTick()`? `process.nextTick()` is another important asynchronous mechanism in Node.js. However, `process.nextTick()` is not technically an Event Loop phase. Instead, Node.js maintains a next-tick queue. After the current JavaScript operation finishes, Node.js processes callbacks scheduled with `process.nextTick()` before continuing through the Event Loop. For example: ``` console.log("A"); process.nextTick(() => { console.log("B"); }); console.log("C"); ``` The output is: ``` A C B ``` The reason is simple. `A` is printed immediately. The `process.nextTick()` callback is then scheduled, but Node.js continues executing the current JavaScript code. Therefore, `C` is printed. After the current operation finishes, Node.js processes the next-tick callback, which prints `B`. The important concept is: ``` Current JavaScript operation ↓ process.nextTick() ↓ Event Loop continues ``` ## `process.nextTick()` Is Not an Event Loop Phase This distinction is extremely important. The Event Loop contains phases such as: ``` timers pending callbacks poll check close callbacks ``` `process.nextTick()` does not belong to one of these phases. Instead, its callbacks are processed before the Event Loop continues. This is why `process.nextTick()` can execute before callbacks scheduled with `setImmediate()`. Conceptually: ``` Current operation ↓ nextTick callbacks ↓ Event Loop ↓ poll ↓ check ↓ setImmediate() ``` ## Why Can `process.nextTick()` Be Dangerous? `process.nextTick()` should be used carefully because its callbacks are processed before the Event Loop proceeds. Consider: ``` function loop() { process.nextTick(loop); } loop(); ``` The function continuously schedules another `process.nextTick()` callback. This creates a situation like: ``` nextTick ↓ nextTick ↓ nextTick ↓ nextTick ↓ nextTick ↓ ... ``` The Event Loop may not get an opportunity to reach other phases. As a result, I/O callbacks and other asynchronous operations can be delayed. This is known as Event Loop starvation. The general lesson is that `process.nextTick()` is useful, but repeatedly scheduling it without allowing the Event Loop to continue can create serious problems. ## Why Does `process.nextTick()` Exist? One important reason for `process.nextTick()` is to allow an API to behave asynchronously even when the operation itself can complete immediately. Consider: ``` function apiCall(arg, callback) { if (typeof arg !== "string") { process.nextTick( callback, new TypeError("argument should be string") ); } } ``` Instead of calling the callback synchronously, the function schedules it using `process.nextTick()`. This allows the current JavaScript code to finish before the callback is executed. It also allows the API to maintain a consistent asynchronous behavior. ## The Problem with Synchronous Callbacks Consider this example: ``` let bar = null; function someAsyncApiCall(callback) { callback(); } someAsyncApiCall(() => { console.log(bar); }); bar = 1; ``` The function is named `someAsyncApiCall`, but the callback is actually executed synchronously. Therefore, when the callback executes, this line: ``` bar = 1; ``` has not happened yet. The output is: ``` null ``` This can be surprising for someone using the API because they may expect the callback to happen asynchronously. ## Solving the Problem with `process.nextTick()` The function can instead be written as: ``` let bar = null; function someAsyncApiCall(callback) { process.nextTick(callback); } someAsyncApiCall(() => { console.log(bar); }); bar = 1; ``` Now the output is: ``` 1 ``` The sequence is: ``` Call someAsyncApiCall() ↓ Schedule callback using nextTick ↓ Continue current JavaScript execution ↓ bar = 1 ↓ Current operation finishes ↓ nextTick callback executes ↓ Print 1 ``` This is one of the reasons Node.js provides `process.nextTick()`. It allows the current JavaScript execution to finish while still running the callback before the Event Loop proceeds to other phases. ## `process.nextTick()` and EventEmitter A similar situation can occur with `EventEmitter`. Consider: ``` const EventEmitter = require("node:events"); class MyEmitter extends EventEmitter { constructor() { super(); this.emit("event"); } } const myEmitter = new MyEmitter(); myEmitter.on("event", () => { console.log("Event occurred!"); }); ``` There is a problem here. The event is emitted inside the constructor: ``` this.emit("event"); ``` But the listener is registered afterward: ``` myEmitter.on("event", ...); ``` Therefore, the listener does not exist when the event is emitted. The event can be missed. The problem can be solved by scheduling the event using `process.nextTick()`: ``` const EventEmitter = require("node:events"); class MyEmitter extends EventEmitter { constructor() { super(); process.nextTick(() => { this.emit("event"); }); } } const myEmitter = new MyEmitter(); myEmitter.on("event", () => { console.log("Event occurred!"); }); ``` Now the sequence becomes: ``` Object is created ↓ Constructor executes ↓ Event is scheduled using nextTick ↓ Constructor finishes ↓ Listener is registered ↓ nextTick callback executes ↓ Event is emitted ↓ Listener receives the event ``` This gives the consumer an opportunity to register the listener before the event is emitted. ## `process.nextTick()` vs `setImmediate()` Although `process.nextTick()` and `setImmediate()` may appear similar, they have different purposes. `process.nextTick()` executes after the current JavaScript operation finishes but before the Event Loop proceeds. `setImmediate()` executes during the check phase, after the poll phase. A simplified comparison is: ``` Current JavaScript operation ↓ process.nextTick() ↓ Event Loop continues ↓ poll phase ↓ check phase ↓ setImmediate() ``` This is why `process.nextTick()` generally executes before `setImmediate()`. The names can be confusing because `process.nextTick()` sounds like it should mean "the next Event Loop iteration," while `setImmediate()` sounds like it should happen sooner. In reality, their historical names do not perfectly describe their behavior. ## Why Should Long-Running JavaScript Be Avoided? The Event Loop can execute only one JavaScript callback at a time on the main JavaScript thread. Consider: ``` while (true) { // Heavy or endless work } ``` While this code is running, the JavaScript thread is blocked. The Event Loop cannot execute other JavaScript callbacks. This can prevent the application from promptly responding to: ``` HTTP requests Timers Socket events Database callbacks File callbacks Other asynchronous operations ``` Therefore, asynchronous Node.js APIs do not mean that every piece of JavaScript automatically runs without blocking. The asynchronous operation may happen outside the JavaScript thread, but the callback itself still executes on the JavaScript thread. ## Event Loop Starvation Event Loop starvation occurs when one type of work prevents other work from receiving an opportunity to execute. A long-running synchronous JavaScript operation can cause starvation because the Event Loop cannot move forward while that operation is executing. Recursive `process.nextTick()` calls can cause another form of starvation because the next-tick queue can keep being processed before the Event Loop moves to other phases. The result is that other operations may have to wait much longer than expected. ## Why Node.js Works Well for I/O-Heavy Applications Node.js is particularly useful for applications that spend significant amounts of time waiting for external operations. Examples include HTTP servers, APIs, WebSocket applications, chat applications, streaming systems, and other network-heavy applications. Imagine several requests arriving at a server: ``` Request A → waiting for database Request B → waiting for API Request C → waiting for file Request D → waiting for network ``` Node.js does not necessarily need to block the JavaScript thread while waiting for these operations. Instead, it can start the operations and continue processing other work. When the operations finish, their callbacks can be handled by the Event Loop. This allows a single JavaScript thread to efficiently coordinate many I/O operations. ## Node.js and CPU-Heavy Work Node.js is not automatically suitable for every kind of workload. CPU-intensive JavaScript can block the main JavaScript thread. For example: ``` function expensiveCalculation() { for (let i = 0; i < 10_000_000_000; i++) { // Heavy calculation } } ``` If this function runs on the main thread, the Event Loop cannot process other JavaScript callbacks until the calculation finishes. For CPU-intensive tasks, Node.js provides mechanisms such as Worker Threads and child processes that can be used to move work away from the main JavaScript execution thread. ## Timers Are Not Exact One of the most important things to remember about the Node.js Event Loop is that timers do not guarantee exact execution times. If you write: ``` setTimeout(callback, 100); ``` you are not saying: ``` Execute exactly after 100 milliseconds. ``` You are effectively saying: ``` Do not execute this callback before its timer threshold, but execute it when the Event Loop gets the opportunity. ``` Suppose the timer reaches its threshold after 100 milliseconds, but another callback is currently running for 50 milliseconds. The timer callback must wait for that callback to finish. Therefore, it might execute around 150 milliseconds after being scheduled. This behavior is fundamental to understanding asynchronous JavaScript. ## Node.js 20 and Timer Behavior Starting with libuv 1.45.0, which is used by Node.js 20, the timer behavior around the poll phase changed. In older versions, timers could be processed both before and after the poll phase during an Event Loop iteration. The newer behavior processes timers after the poll phase during an iteration. This change can affect the ordering and timing relationship between `setTimeout()` and `setImmediate()` in certain situations. Therefore, when discussing exact Event Loop behavior, it is important to consider the Node.js version being used. ## A Complete Mental Model A useful way to understand the Node.js Event Loop is to imagine the following sequence: ``` JavaScript starts ↓ Synchronous code executes ↓ An asynchronous operation is started ↓ Node.js delegates the work to the OS/libuv ↓ JavaScript continues executing ↓ The asynchronous operation finishes ↓ Its callback becomes ready ↓ The Event Loop determines when the callback can execute ↓ Callback executes on the JavaScript thread ↓ The callback may schedule more asynchronous work ↓ The Event Loop continues ``` The important point is that Node.js is not constantly creating a new JavaScript thread for every asynchronous operation. Instead, it uses the Event Loop to coordinate callbacks and asynchronous operations efficiently. ## Final Understanding The Node.js Event Loop is the mechanism that allows Node.js to handle asynchronous operations without blocking the main JavaScript execution thread. The Event Loop moves through different phases, including timers, pending callbacks, poll, check, and close callbacks. Each phase has a specific purpose and processes callbacks that are ready to execute. The poll phase is responsible for handling much of Node.js's I/O activity. The check phase is where `setImmediate()` callbacks execute, while the timers phase handles callbacks scheduled through `setTimeout()` and `setInterval()`. `process.nextTick()` is slightly different because it is not an Event Loop phase. Its callbacks are processed after the current JavaScript operation finishes and before the Event Loop continues. The most important concept to remember is that asynchronous Node.js does not mean that JavaScript itself runs in parallel on the main thread. Instead, Node.js efficiently delegates asynchronous work and uses the Event Loop to determine when the resulting callbacks should execute. In simple terms: ``` Start asynchronous work ↓ Do not block JavaScript ↓ Continue doing other work ↓ Operation finishes ↓ Callback becomes ready ↓ Event Loop executes callback ``` That is the core idea behind the Node.js Event Loop and the reason Node.js can efficiently handle large numbers of I/O operations while using a relatively small number of threads. i7s83arwoo488ggubfxev4mn4nr1k19 2835707 2835695 2026-10-03T18:48:33Z Michael Ten 654933 removed spaces before characters causing formatting issues. (with regex find and replace... ) ->>>>>>>> ^ +(?=\S) 2835707 wikitext text/x-wiki '''# The Node.js Event Loop ## What is the Event Loop?''' The Event Loop is one of the most important concepts in Node.js. It is the mechanism that allows Node.js to perform non-blocking I/O operations even though JavaScript code is primarily executed on a single thread. At first, this may sound confusing. If JavaScript runs on a single thread, how can Node.js handle many requests, file operations, network connections, timers, and other asynchronous tasks at the same time? The answer is the Event Loop. Node.js does not keep the JavaScript thread waiting while an asynchronous operation is being performed. Instead, operations such as file access, network communication, timers, and certain system-level tasks are handled by the operating system or by the underlying libuv library. When the operation is completed, Node.js is notified and the corresponding callback is made ready to execute. This allows the JavaScript thread to continue doing other work instead of sitting idle and waiting for an operation to finish. A simple way to understand this is to imagine a restaurant. The JavaScript thread is like a waiter who takes orders. The waiter does not stand inside the kitchen waiting for every meal to be prepared. Instead, the order is given to the kitchen, and the waiter continues serving other customers. When the food is ready, the kitchen informs the waiter. In a similar way, Node.js starts asynchronous operations and continues executing other JavaScript until the results are ready. ## Why Does Node.js Need the Event Loop? JavaScript normally executes one piece of JavaScript code at a time. If a piece of code performs a long-running operation synchronously, the JavaScript thread has to wait until that operation finishes. For example, a synchronous file operation can prevent other JavaScript code from executing until the file operation is complete. This is known as blocking. Node.js is designed to avoid this behavior whenever possible. Instead of waiting for an asynchronous operation to finish, Node.js starts the operation and continues executing the remaining JavaScript code. For example, when Node.js starts reading a file asynchronously, it does not stop the entire program until the file has been read. The file operation can be handled outside the JavaScript execution flow, and when the operation finishes, its callback can be processed later by the Event Loop. This is the foundation of Node.js's non-blocking programming model. ## Is Node.js Really Single-Threaded? Node.js is often described as a single-threaded runtime, but this statement needs some clarification. JavaScript code is primarily executed on a single main thread. However, Node.js itself uses other system facilities through libuv. Depending on the operation, work can be handled by the operating system or by libuv's worker pool. Therefore, it is more accurate to say that Node.js uses a single main JavaScript execution thread while asynchronous work can be handled outside that thread. This distinction is important because it explains how Node.js can handle many I/O operations without creating a separate JavaScript thread for every request. ## The Event Loop Phases The Event Loop is divided into several phases. Each phase has a specific purpose and contains callbacks that are ready to be executed. The commonly discussed phases are the timers phase, pending callbacks phase, idle and prepare phase, poll phase, check phase, and close callbacks phase. The Event Loop continuously moves through these phases while the Node.js process has work to perform. Conceptually, the flow looks like this: ``` timers ↓ pending callbacks ↓ idle, prepare ↓ poll ↓ check ↓ close callbacks ↓ timers ↓ repeat ``` Each phase has its own responsibility, although the internal implementation is more complex than this simplified diagram suggests. ## Timers Phase The timers phase is responsible for executing callbacks scheduled using functions such as `setTimeout()` and `setInterval()`. For example: ``` setTimeout(() => { console.log("Hello"); }, 1000); ``` A common misunderstanding is that `1000` means the callback will execute exactly one second later. That is not what `setTimeout()` guarantees. The specified value is a minimum time threshold after which the callback becomes eligible to execute. The callback still has to wait for the Event Loop and JavaScript thread to become available. If the JavaScript thread is busy when the timer reaches its threshold, the timer callback will be delayed. Therefore, this: ``` setTimeout(callback, 100); ``` should be understood as: ``` Wait at least approximately 100 milliseconds ↓ Callback becomes eligible ↓ Event Loop gets an opportunity ↓ Callback executes ``` It should not be interpreted as: ``` Exactly 100 milliseconds later → callback executes ``` Operating-system scheduling and other JavaScript callbacks can cause additional delay. ## Pending Callbacks Phase The pending callbacks phase executes certain system-level I/O callbacks that have been deferred to a later iteration of the Event Loop. For example, some TCP-related system errors may be handled during this phase. This phase is usually less important when learning Node.js for everyday application development. The timers, poll, check, and close phases are generally more useful for understanding common asynchronous behavior. ## Idle and Prepare Phase The idle and prepare phase is primarily used internally by Node.js and libuv. Application developers normally do not interact directly with this phase. It exists as part of the internal structure that allows Node.js and libuv to prepare for the next stage of Event Loop processing. ## Poll Phase The poll phase is one of the most important phases of the Event Loop. It has two major responsibilities. It retrieves new I/O events and executes I/O-related callbacks. I/O can include things such as network activity, incoming connections, socket operations, and asynchronous file-system activity. The poll phase is also where Node.js may wait for new I/O events when there is currently nothing else that needs to be executed immediately. Imagine that the poll queue contains several callbacks: ``` Callback A Callback B Callback C ``` The Event Loop processes these callbacks one after another. ``` Callback A ↓ Callback B ↓ Callback C ``` From the JavaScript perspective, these callbacks execute synchronously. If one callback takes a very long time, other callbacks have to wait. This is one of the most important concepts in Node.js. Even though Node.js provides asynchronous APIs, JavaScript callbacks themselves can still block the Event Loop if they perform expensive synchronous work. ## What Happens When the Poll Queue Is Empty? When the poll queue is empty, Node.js determines what should happen next. If a `setImmediate()` callback has been scheduled, Node.js can leave the poll phase and move to the check phase. If there is no immediate callback waiting, Node.js may wait for new I/O events. This waiting is not a problem. In fact, it is an important part of Node.js's efficiency. Instead of continuously checking for new work and wasting CPU resources, Node.js can wait until something happens. When new I/O activity occurs, the corresponding callback can become ready for execution. ## Check Phase The check phase is where callbacks scheduled by `setImmediate()` are executed. For example: ``` setImmediate(() => { console.log("Immediate"); }); ``` The important idea is that `setImmediate()` is designed to execute after the poll phase has completed. This makes `setImmediate()` particularly useful when working with I/O. Conceptually: ``` poll phase ↓ poll becomes idle ↓ check phase ↓ setImmediate() callback ``` ## Close Callbacks Phase The close callbacks phase handles certain close-related events. For example, when a socket is closed, Node.js may emit a `close` event. ``` socket.on("close", () => { console.log("Socket closed"); }); ``` If a socket or another resource is closed abruptly, its close-related callback can be handled during this phase. This phase is normally the final phase discussed in the simplified Event Loop model before the loop begins another iteration. ## How the Event Loop Repeats The Event Loop is not something that runs only once. It continuously repeats its phases while Node.js has active work. A simplified cycle looks like this: ``` timers ↓ pending callbacks ↓ poll ↓ check ↓ close callbacks ↓ repeat ``` During these phases, new operations can be scheduled. For example, a callback running during the poll phase might create a timer: ``` fs.readFile("file.txt", () => { setTimeout(() => { console.log("Timer"); }, 1000); }); ``` The newly created timer becomes part of the work that the Event Loop will consider during subsequent processing. This is why the Event Loop is best understood as a continuously running cycle rather than a simple list that executes only once. ## What is `setTimeout()`? `setTimeout()` schedules a callback to become eligible after a specified time threshold. For example: ``` setTimeout(() => { console.log("Hello"); }, 1000); ``` The callback is not guaranteed to run exactly after one second. Suppose the timer reaches its threshold, but the JavaScript thread is currently executing another callback that takes 500 milliseconds. The timer callback cannot interrupt that callback. Instead, it must wait. The sequence is therefore: ``` Timer reaches threshold ↓ Callback becomes eligible ↓ JavaScript thread is busy ↓ Timer waits ↓ Current callback finishes ↓ Timer callback gets an opportunity to execute ``` This is why timer values should be considered thresholds rather than exact execution times. ## What is `setImmediate()`? `setImmediate()` schedules a callback to run during the check phase of the Event Loop. For example: ``` setImmediate(() => { console.log("Hello"); }); ``` Its purpose is different from `setTimeout()`. `setTimeout()` is based on a time threshold, while `setImmediate()` is associated with the check phase that follows the poll phase. A simple way to remember the difference is: ``` setTimeout() ↓ Wait for a timer threshold setImmediate() ↓ Run after the poll phase ``` ## `setTimeout()` vs `setImmediate()` Consider this example: ``` setTimeout(() => { console.log("timeout"); }, 0); setImmediate(() => { console.log("immediate"); }); ``` When these functions are called from the main module, the order is not necessarily deterministic. Depending on timing and system conditions, the output can be: ``` timeout immediate ``` or: ``` immediate timeout ``` Therefore, developers should not generally assume that `setTimeout(..., 0)` always executes before `setImmediate()`. The situation is different when these functions are scheduled from within an I/O callback. For example: ``` const fs = require("node:fs"); fs.readFile(__filename, () => { setTimeout(() => { console.log("timeout"); }, 0); setImmediate(() => { console.log("immediate"); }); }); ``` Here, the callbacks are scheduled during an I/O operation. After the poll phase processes the I/O callback, the Event Loop can move to the check phase, where `setImmediate()` callbacks are executed. Therefore, in this situation, `setImmediate()` executes before the timer callback. The typical output is: ``` immediate timeout ``` This is one of the important differences between `setImmediate()` and `setTimeout()`. ## What is `process.nextTick()`? `process.nextTick()` is another important asynchronous mechanism in Node.js. However, `process.nextTick()` is not technically an Event Loop phase. Instead, Node.js maintains a next-tick queue. After the current JavaScript operation finishes, Node.js processes callbacks scheduled with `process.nextTick()` before continuing through the Event Loop. For example: ``` console.log("A"); process.nextTick(() => { console.log("B"); }); console.log("C"); ``` The output is: ``` A C B ``` The reason is simple. `A` is printed immediately. The `process.nextTick()` callback is then scheduled, but Node.js continues executing the current JavaScript code. Therefore, `C` is printed. After the current operation finishes, Node.js processes the next-tick callback, which prints `B`. The important concept is: ``` Current JavaScript operation ↓ process.nextTick() ↓ Event Loop continues ``` ## `process.nextTick()` Is Not an Event Loop Phase This distinction is extremely important. The Event Loop contains phases such as: ``` timers pending callbacks poll check close callbacks ``` `process.nextTick()` does not belong to one of these phases. Instead, its callbacks are processed before the Event Loop continues. This is why `process.nextTick()` can execute before callbacks scheduled with `setImmediate()`. Conceptually: ``` Current operation ↓ nextTick callbacks ↓ Event Loop ↓ poll ↓ check ↓ setImmediate() ``` ## Why Can `process.nextTick()` Be Dangerous? `process.nextTick()` should be used carefully because its callbacks are processed before the Event Loop proceeds. Consider: ``` function loop() { process.nextTick(loop); } loop(); ``` The function continuously schedules another `process.nextTick()` callback. This creates a situation like: ``` nextTick ↓ nextTick ↓ nextTick ↓ nextTick ↓ nextTick ↓ ... ``` The Event Loop may not get an opportunity to reach other phases. As a result, I/O callbacks and other asynchronous operations can be delayed. This is known as Event Loop starvation. The general lesson is that `process.nextTick()` is useful, but repeatedly scheduling it without allowing the Event Loop to continue can create serious problems. ## Why Does `process.nextTick()` Exist? One important reason for `process.nextTick()` is to allow an API to behave asynchronously even when the operation itself can complete immediately. Consider: ``` function apiCall(arg, callback) { if (typeof arg !== "string") { process.nextTick( callback, new TypeError("argument should be string") ); } } ``` Instead of calling the callback synchronously, the function schedules it using `process.nextTick()`. This allows the current JavaScript code to finish before the callback is executed. It also allows the API to maintain a consistent asynchronous behavior. ## The Problem with Synchronous Callbacks Consider this example: ``` let bar = null; function someAsyncApiCall(callback) { callback(); } someAsyncApiCall(() => { console.log(bar); }); bar = 1; ``` The function is named `someAsyncApiCall`, but the callback is actually executed synchronously. Therefore, when the callback executes, this line: ``` bar = 1; ``` has not happened yet. The output is: ``` null ``` This can be surprising for someone using the API because they may expect the callback to happen asynchronously. ## Solving the Problem with `process.nextTick()` The function can instead be written as: ``` let bar = null; function someAsyncApiCall(callback) { process.nextTick(callback); } someAsyncApiCall(() => { console.log(bar); }); bar = 1; ``` Now the output is: ``` 1 ``` The sequence is: ``` Call someAsyncApiCall() ↓ Schedule callback using nextTick ↓ Continue current JavaScript execution ↓ bar = 1 ↓ Current operation finishes ↓ nextTick callback executes ↓ Print 1 ``` This is one of the reasons Node.js provides `process.nextTick()`. It allows the current JavaScript execution to finish while still running the callback before the Event Loop proceeds to other phases. ## `process.nextTick()` and EventEmitter A similar situation can occur with `EventEmitter`. Consider: ``` const EventEmitter = require("node:events"); class MyEmitter extends EventEmitter { constructor() { super(); this.emit("event"); } } const myEmitter = new MyEmitter(); myEmitter.on("event", () => { console.log("Event occurred!"); }); ``` There is a problem here. The event is emitted inside the constructor: ``` this.emit("event"); ``` But the listener is registered afterward: ``` myEmitter.on("event", ...); ``` Therefore, the listener does not exist when the event is emitted. The event can be missed. The problem can be solved by scheduling the event using `process.nextTick()`: ``` const EventEmitter = require("node:events"); class MyEmitter extends EventEmitter { constructor() { super(); process.nextTick(() => { this.emit("event"); }); } } const myEmitter = new MyEmitter(); myEmitter.on("event", () => { console.log("Event occurred!"); }); ``` Now the sequence becomes: ``` Object is created ↓ Constructor executes ↓ Event is scheduled using nextTick ↓ Constructor finishes ↓ Listener is registered ↓ nextTick callback executes ↓ Event is emitted ↓ Listener receives the event ``` This gives the consumer an opportunity to register the listener before the event is emitted. ## `process.nextTick()` vs `setImmediate()` Although `process.nextTick()` and `setImmediate()` may appear similar, they have different purposes. `process.nextTick()` executes after the current JavaScript operation finishes but before the Event Loop proceeds. `setImmediate()` executes during the check phase, after the poll phase. A simplified comparison is: ``` Current JavaScript operation ↓ process.nextTick() ↓ Event Loop continues ↓ poll phase ↓ check phase ↓ setImmediate() ``` This is why `process.nextTick()` generally executes before `setImmediate()`. The names can be confusing because `process.nextTick()` sounds like it should mean "the next Event Loop iteration," while `setImmediate()` sounds like it should happen sooner. In reality, their historical names do not perfectly describe their behavior. ## Why Should Long-Running JavaScript Be Avoided? The Event Loop can execute only one JavaScript callback at a time on the main JavaScript thread. Consider: ``` while (true) { // Heavy or endless work } ``` While this code is running, the JavaScript thread is blocked. The Event Loop cannot execute other JavaScript callbacks. This can prevent the application from promptly responding to: ``` HTTP requests Timers Socket events Database callbacks File callbacks Other asynchronous operations ``` Therefore, asynchronous Node.js APIs do not mean that every piece of JavaScript automatically runs without blocking. The asynchronous operation may happen outside the JavaScript thread, but the callback itself still executes on the JavaScript thread. ## Event Loop Starvation Event Loop starvation occurs when one type of work prevents other work from receiving an opportunity to execute. A long-running synchronous JavaScript operation can cause starvation because the Event Loop cannot move forward while that operation is executing. Recursive `process.nextTick()` calls can cause another form of starvation because the next-tick queue can keep being processed before the Event Loop moves to other phases. The result is that other operations may have to wait much longer than expected. ## Why Node.js Works Well for I/O-Heavy Applications Node.js is particularly useful for applications that spend significant amounts of time waiting for external operations. Examples include HTTP servers, APIs, WebSocket applications, chat applications, streaming systems, and other network-heavy applications. Imagine several requests arriving at a server: ``` Request A → waiting for database Request B → waiting for API Request C → waiting for file Request D → waiting for network ``` Node.js does not necessarily need to block the JavaScript thread while waiting for these operations. Instead, it can start the operations and continue processing other work. When the operations finish, their callbacks can be handled by the Event Loop. This allows a single JavaScript thread to efficiently coordinate many I/O operations. ## Node.js and CPU-Heavy Work Node.js is not automatically suitable for every kind of workload. CPU-intensive JavaScript can block the main JavaScript thread. For example: ``` function expensiveCalculation() { for (let i = 0; i < 10_000_000_000; i++) { // Heavy calculation } } ``` If this function runs on the main thread, the Event Loop cannot process other JavaScript callbacks until the calculation finishes. For CPU-intensive tasks, Node.js provides mechanisms such as Worker Threads and child processes that can be used to move work away from the main JavaScript execution thread. ## Timers Are Not Exact One of the most important things to remember about the Node.js Event Loop is that timers do not guarantee exact execution times. If you write: ``` setTimeout(callback, 100); ``` you are not saying: ``` Execute exactly after 100 milliseconds. ``` You are effectively saying: ``` Do not execute this callback before its timer threshold, but execute it when the Event Loop gets the opportunity. ``` Suppose the timer reaches its threshold after 100 milliseconds, but another callback is currently running for 50 milliseconds. The timer callback must wait for that callback to finish. Therefore, it might execute around 150 milliseconds after being scheduled. This behavior is fundamental to understanding asynchronous JavaScript. ## Node.js 20 and Timer Behavior Starting with libuv 1.45.0, which is used by Node.js 20, the timer behavior around the poll phase changed. In older versions, timers could be processed both before and after the poll phase during an Event Loop iteration. The newer behavior processes timers after the poll phase during an iteration. This change can affect the ordering and timing relationship between `setTimeout()` and `setImmediate()` in certain situations. Therefore, when discussing exact Event Loop behavior, it is important to consider the Node.js version being used. ## A Complete Mental Model A useful way to understand the Node.js Event Loop is to imagine the following sequence: ``` JavaScript starts ↓ Synchronous code executes ↓ An asynchronous operation is started ↓ Node.js delegates the work to the OS/libuv ↓ JavaScript continues executing ↓ The asynchronous operation finishes ↓ Its callback becomes ready ↓ The Event Loop determines when the callback can execute ↓ Callback executes on the JavaScript thread ↓ The callback may schedule more asynchronous work ↓ The Event Loop continues ``` The important point is that Node.js is not constantly creating a new JavaScript thread for every asynchronous operation. Instead, it uses the Event Loop to coordinate callbacks and asynchronous operations efficiently. ## Final Understanding The Node.js Event Loop is the mechanism that allows Node.js to handle asynchronous operations without blocking the main JavaScript execution thread. The Event Loop moves through different phases, including timers, pending callbacks, poll, check, and close callbacks. Each phase has a specific purpose and processes callbacks that are ready to execute. The poll phase is responsible for handling much of Node.js's I/O activity. The check phase is where `setImmediate()` callbacks execute, while the timers phase handles callbacks scheduled through `setTimeout()` and `setInterval()`. `process.nextTick()` is slightly different because it is not an Event Loop phase. Its callbacks are processed after the current JavaScript operation finishes and before the Event Loop continues. The most important concept to remember is that asynchronous Node.js does not mean that JavaScript itself runs in parallel on the main thread. Instead, Node.js efficiently delegates asynchronous work and uses the Event Loop to determine when the resulting callbacks should execute. In simple terms: ``` Start asynchronous work ↓ Do not block JavaScript ↓ Continue doing other work ↓ Operation finishes ↓ Callback becomes ready ↓ Event Loop executes callback ``` That is the core idea behind the Node.js Event Loop and the reason Node.js can efficiently handle large numbers of I/O operations while using a relatively small number of threads. al87n6m4bsus6uglcc9752vjqgv4lku 2835709 2835707 2026-10-03T19:45:12Z Michael Ten 654933 2835709 wikitext text/x-wiki = The Node.js Event Loop = == What is the Event Loop? == The Event Loop is one of the most important concepts in Node.js. It is the mechanism that allows Node.js to perform non-blocking I/O operations even though JavaScript code is primarily executed on a single thread. At first, this may sound confusing. If JavaScript runs on a single thread, how can Node.js handle many requests, file operations, network connections, timers, and other asynchronous tasks at the same time? The answer is the Event Loop. Node.js does not keep the JavaScript thread waiting while an asynchronous operation is being performed. Instead, operations such as file access, network communication, timers, and certain system-level tasks are handled by the operating system or by the underlying libuv library. When the operation is completed, Node.js is notified and the corresponding callback is made ready to execute. This allows the JavaScript thread to continue doing other work instead of sitting idle and waiting for an operation to finish. A simple way to understand this is to imagine a restaurant. The JavaScript thread is like a waiter who takes orders. The waiter does not stand inside the kitchen waiting for every meal to be prepared. Instead, the order is given to the kitchen, and the waiter continues serving other customers. When the food is ready, the kitchen informs the waiter. In a similar way, Node.js starts asynchronous operations and continues executing other JavaScript until the results are ready. == Why Does Node.js Need the Event Loop? == JavaScript normally executes one piece of JavaScript code at a time. If a piece of code performs a long-running operation synchronously, the JavaScript thread has to wait until that operation finishes. For example, a synchronous file operation can prevent other JavaScript code from executing until the file operation is complete. This is known as blocking. Node.js is designed to avoid this behavior whenever possible. Instead of waiting for an asynchronous operation to finish, Node.js starts the operation and continues executing the remaining JavaScript code. For example, when Node.js starts reading a file asynchronously, it does not stop the entire program until the file has been read. The file operation can be handled outside the JavaScript execution flow, and when the operation finishes, its callback can be processed later by the Event Loop. This is the foundation of Node.js's non-blocking programming model. == Is Node.js Really Single-Threaded? == Node.js is often described as a single-threaded runtime, but this statement needs some clarification. JavaScript code is primarily executed on a single main thread. However, Node.js itself uses other system facilities through libuv. Depending on the operation, work can be handled by the operating system or by libuv's worker pool. Therefore, it is more accurate to say that Node.js uses a single main JavaScript execution thread while asynchronous work can be handled outside that thread. This distinction is important because it explains how Node.js can handle many I/O operations without creating a separate JavaScript thread for every request. == The Event Loop Phases == The Event Loop is divided into several phases. Each phase has a specific purpose and contains callbacks that are ready to be executed. The commonly discussed phases are the timers phase, pending callbacks phase, idle and prepare phase, poll phase, check phase, and close callbacks phase. The Event Loop continuously moves through these phases while the Node.js process has work to perform. Conceptually, the flow looks like this: <pre> timers ↓ pending callbacks ↓ idle, prepare ↓ poll ↓ check ↓ close callbacks ↓ timers ↓ repeat </pre> Each phase has its own responsibility, although the internal implementation is more complex than this simplified diagram suggests. == Timers Phase == The timers phase is responsible for executing callbacks scheduled using functions such as <code>setTimeout()</code> and <code>setInterval()</code>. For example: <syntaxhighlight lang="javascript"> setTimeout(() => { console.log("Hello"); }, 1000); </syntaxhighlight> A common misunderstanding is that <code>1000</code> means the callback will execute exactly one second later. That is not what <code>setTimeout()</code> guarantees. The specified value is a minimum time threshold after which the callback becomes eligible to execute. The callback still has to wait for the Event Loop and JavaScript thread to become available. If the JavaScript thread is busy when the timer reaches its threshold, the timer callback will be delayed. Therefore, this: <syntaxhighlight lang="javascript"> setTimeout(callback, 100); </syntaxhighlight> should be understood as: <pre> Wait at least approximately 100 milliseconds ↓ Callback becomes eligible ↓ Event Loop gets an opportunity ↓ Callback executes </pre> It should not be interpreted as: <pre> Exactly 100 milliseconds later → callback executes </pre> Operating-system scheduling and other JavaScript callbacks can cause additional delay. == Pending Callbacks Phase == The pending callbacks phase executes certain system-level I/O callbacks that have been deferred to a later iteration of the Event Loop. For example, some TCP-related system errors may be handled during this phase. This phase is usually less important when learning Node.js for everyday application development. The timers, poll, check, and close phases are generally more useful for understanding common asynchronous behavior. == Idle and Prepare Phase == The idle and prepare phase is primarily used internally by Node.js and libuv. Application developers normally do not interact directly with this phase. It exists as part of the internal structure that allows Node.js and libuv to prepare for the next stage of Event Loop processing. == Poll Phase == The poll phase is one of the most important phases of the Event Loop. It has two major responsibilities. It retrieves new I/O events and executes I/O-related callbacks. I/O can include things such as network activity, incoming connections, socket operations, and asynchronous file-system activity. The poll phase is also where Node.js may wait for new I/O events when there is currently nothing else that needs to be executed immediately. Imagine that the poll queue contains several callbacks: <pre> Callback A Callback B Callback C </pre> The Event Loop processes these callbacks one after another. <pre> Callback A ↓ Callback B ↓ Callback C </pre> From the JavaScript perspective, these callbacks execute synchronously. If one callback takes a very long time, other callbacks have to wait. This is one of the most important concepts in Node.js. Even though Node.js provides asynchronous APIs, JavaScript callbacks themselves can still block the Event Loop if they perform expensive synchronous work. == What Happens When the Poll Queue Is Empty? == When the poll queue is empty, Node.js determines what should happen next. If a <code>setImmediate()</code> callback has been scheduled, Node.js can leave the poll phase and move to the check phase. If there is no immediate callback waiting, Node.js may wait for new I/O events. This waiting is not a problem. In fact, it is an important part of Node.js's efficiency. Instead of continuously checking for new work and wasting CPU resources, Node.js can wait until something happens. When new I/O activity occurs, the corresponding callback can become ready for execution. == Check Phase == The check phase is where callbacks scheduled by <code>setImmediate()</code> are executed. For example: <syntaxhighlight lang="javascript"> setImmediate(() => { console.log("Immediate"); }); </syntaxhighlight> The important idea is that <code>setImmediate()</code> is designed to execute after the poll phase has completed. This makes <code>setImmediate()</code> particularly useful when working with I/O. Conceptually: <pre> poll phase ↓ poll becomes idle ↓ check phase ↓ setImmediate() callback </pre> == Close Callbacks Phase == The close callbacks phase handles certain close-related events. For example, when a socket is closed, Node.js may emit a <code>close</code> event. <syntaxhighlight lang="javascript"> socket.on("close", () => { console.log("Socket closed"); }); </syntaxhighlight> If a socket or another resource is closed abruptly, its close-related callback can be handled during this phase. This phase is normally the final phase discussed in the simplified Event Loop model before the loop begins another iteration. == How the Event Loop Repeats == The Event Loop is not something that runs only once. It continuously repeats its phases while Node.js has active work. A simplified cycle looks like this: <pre> timers ↓ pending callbacks ↓ poll ↓ check ↓ close callbacks ↓ repeat </pre> During these phases, new operations can be scheduled. For example, a callback running during the poll phase might create a timer: <syntaxhighlight lang="javascript"> fs.readFile("file.txt", () => { setTimeout(() => { console.log("Timer"); }, 1000); }); </syntaxhighlight> The newly created timer becomes part of the work that the Event Loop will consider during subsequent processing. This is why the Event Loop is best understood as a continuously running cycle rather than a simple list that executes only once. == What is <code>setTimeout()</code>? == <code>setTimeout()</code> schedules a callback to become eligible after a specified time threshold. For example: <syntaxhighlight lang="javascript"> setTimeout(() => { console.log("Hello"); }, 1000); </syntaxhighlight> The callback is not guaranteed to run exactly after one second. Suppose the timer reaches its threshold, but the JavaScript thread is currently executing another callback that takes 500 milliseconds. The timer callback cannot interrupt that callback. Instead, it must wait. The sequence is therefore: <pre> Timer reaches threshold ↓ Callback becomes eligible ↓ JavaScript thread is busy ↓ Timer waits ↓ Current callback finishes ↓ Timer callback gets an opportunity to execute </pre> This is why timer values should be considered thresholds rather than exact execution times. == What is <code>setImmediate()</code>? == <code>setImmediate()</code> schedules a callback to run during the check phase of the Event Loop. For example: <syntaxhighlight lang="javascript"> setImmediate(() => { console.log("Hello"); }); </syntaxhighlight> Its purpose is different from <code>setTimeout()</code>. <code>setTimeout()</code> is based on a time threshold, while <code>setImmediate()</code> is associated with the check phase that follows the poll phase. A simple way to remember the difference is: <pre> setTimeout() ↓ Wait for a timer threshold setImmediate() ↓ Run after the poll phase </pre> == <code>setTimeout()</code> vs <code>setImmediate()</code> == Consider this example: <syntaxhighlight lang="javascript"> setTimeout(() => { console.log("timeout"); }, 0); setImmediate(() => { console.log("immediate"); }); </syntaxhighlight> When these functions are called from the main module, the order is not necessarily deterministic. Depending on timing and system conditions, the output can be: <pre> timeout immediate </pre> or: <pre> immediate timeout </pre> Therefore, developers should not generally assume that <code>setTimeout(..., 0)</code> always executes before <code>setImmediate()</code>. The situation is different when these functions are scheduled from within an I/O callback. For example: <syntaxhighlight lang="javascript"> const fs = require("node:fs"); fs.readFile(__filename, () => { setTimeout(() => { console.log("timeout"); }, 0); setImmediate(() => { console.log("immediate"); }); }); </syntaxhighlight> Here, the callbacks are scheduled during an I/O operation. After the poll phase processes the I/O callback, the Event Loop can move to the check phase, where <code>setImmediate()</code> callbacks are executed. Therefore, in this situation, <code>setImmediate()</code> executes before the timer callback. The typical output is: <pre> immediate timeout </pre> This is one of the important differences between <code>setImmediate()</code> and <code>setTimeout()</code>. == What is <code>process.nextTick()</code>? == <code>process.nextTick()</code> is another important asynchronous mechanism in Node.js. However, <code>process.nextTick()</code> is not technically an Event Loop phase. Instead, Node.js maintains a next-tick queue. After the current JavaScript operation finishes, Node.js processes callbacks scheduled with <code>process.nextTick()</code> before continuing through the Event Loop. For example: <syntaxhighlight lang="javascript"> console.log("A"); process.nextTick(() => { console.log("B"); }); console.log("C"); </syntaxhighlight> The output is: <pre> A C B </pre> The reason is simple. <code>A</code> is printed immediately. The <code>process.nextTick()</code> callback is then scheduled, but Node.js continues executing the current JavaScript code. Therefore, <code>C</code> is printed. After the current operation finishes, Node.js processes the next-tick callback, which prints <code>B</code>. The important concept is: <pre> Current JavaScript operation ↓ process.nextTick() ↓ Event Loop continues </pre> == <code>process.nextTick()</code> Is Not an Event Loop Phase == This distinction is extremely important. The Event Loop contains phases such as: <pre> timers pending callbacks poll check close callbacks </pre> <code>process.nextTick()</code> does not belong to one of these phases. Instead, its callbacks are processed before the Event Loop continues. This is why <code>process.nextTick()</code> can execute before callbacks scheduled with <code>setImmediate()</code>. Conceptually: <pre> Current operation ↓ nextTick callbacks ↓ Event Loop ↓ poll ↓ check ↓ setImmediate() </pre> == Why Can <code>process.nextTick()</code> Be Dangerous? == <code>process.nextTick()</code> should be used carefully because its callbacks are processed before the Event Loop proceeds. Consider: <syntaxhighlight lang="javascript"> function loop() { process.nextTick(loop); } loop(); </syntaxhighlight> The function continuously schedules another <code>process.nextTick()</code> callback. This creates a situation like: <pre> nextTick ↓ nextTick ↓ nextTick ↓ nextTick ↓ nextTick ↓ ... </pre> The Event Loop may not get an opportunity to reach other phases. As a result, I/O callbacks and other asynchronous operations can be delayed. This is known as Event Loop starvation. The general lesson is that <code>process.nextTick()</code> is useful, but repeatedly scheduling it without allowing the Event Loop to continue can create serious problems. == Why Does <code>process.nextTick()</code> Exist? == One important reason for <code>process.nextTick()</code> is to allow an API to behave asynchronously even when the operation itself can complete immediately. Consider: <syntaxhighlight lang="javascript"> function apiCall(arg, callback) { if (typeof arg !== "string") { process.nextTick( callback, new TypeError("argument should be string") ); } } </syntaxhighlight> Instead of calling the callback synchronously, the function schedules it using <code>process.nextTick()</code>. This allows the current JavaScript code to finish before the callback is executed. It also allows the API to maintain a consistent asynchronous behavior. == The Problem with Synchronous Callbacks == Consider this example: <syntaxhighlight lang="javascript"> let bar = null; function someAsyncApiCall(callback) { callback(); } someAsyncApiCall(() => { console.log(bar); }); bar = 1; </syntaxhighlight> The function is named <code>someAsyncApiCall</code>, but the callback is actually executed synchronously. Therefore, when the callback executes, this line: <syntaxhighlight lang="javascript"> bar = 1; </syntaxhighlight> has not happened yet. The output is: <pre> null </pre> This can be surprising for someone using the API because they may expect the callback to happen asynchronously. == Solving the Problem with <code>process.nextTick()</code> == The function can instead be written as: <syntaxhighlight lang="javascript"> let bar = null; function someAsyncApiCall(callback) { process.nextTick(callback); } someAsyncApiCall(() => { console.log(bar); }); bar = 1; </syntaxhighlight> Now the output is: <pre> 1 </pre> The sequence is: <pre> Call someAsyncApiCall() ↓ Schedule callback using nextTick ↓ Continue current JavaScript execution ↓ bar = 1 ↓ Current operation finishes ↓ nextTick callback executes ↓ Print 1 </pre> This is one of the reasons Node.js provides <code>process.nextTick()</code>. It allows the current JavaScript execution to finish while still running the callback before the Event Loop proceeds to other phases. == <code>process.nextTick()</code> and EventEmitter == A similar situation can occur with <code>EventEmitter</code>. Consider: <syntaxhighlight lang="javascript"> const EventEmitter = require("node:events"); class MyEmitter extends EventEmitter { constructor() { super(); this.emit("event"); } } const myEmitter = new MyEmitter(); myEmitter.on("event", () => { console.log("Event occurred!"); }); </syntaxhighlight> There is a problem here. The event is emitted inside the constructor: <syntaxhighlight lang="javascript"> this.emit("event"); </syntaxhighlight> But the listener is registered afterward: <syntaxhighlight lang="javascript"> myEmitter.on("event", ...); </syntaxhighlight> Therefore, the listener does not exist when the event is emitted. The event can be missed. The problem can be solved by scheduling the event using <code>process.nextTick()</code>: <syntaxhighlight lang="javascript"> const EventEmitter = require("node:events"); class MyEmitter extends EventEmitter { constructor() { super(); process.nextTick(() => { this.emit("event"); }); } } const myEmitter = new MyEmitter(); myEmitter.on("event", () => { console.log("Event occurred!"); }); </syntaxhighlight> Now the sequence becomes: <pre> Object is created ↓ Constructor executes ↓ Event is scheduled using nextTick ↓ Constructor finishes ↓ Listener is registered ↓ nextTick callback executes ↓ Event is emitted ↓ Listener receives the event </pre> This gives the consumer an opportunity to register the listener before the event is emitted. == <code>process.nextTick()</code> vs <code>setImmediate()</code> == Although <code>process.nextTick()</code> and <code>setImmediate()</code> may appear similar, they have different purposes. <code>process.nextTick()</code> executes after the current JavaScript operation finishes but before the Event Loop proceeds. <code>setImmediate()</code> executes during the check phase, after the poll phase. A simplified comparison is: <pre> Current JavaScript operation ↓ process.nextTick() ↓ Event Loop continues ↓ poll phase ↓ check phase ↓ setImmediate() </pre> This is why <code>process.nextTick()</code> generally executes before <code>setImmediate()</code>. The names can be confusing because <code>process.nextTick()</code> sounds like it should mean "the next Event Loop iteration," while <code>setImmediate()</code> sounds like it should happen sooner. In reality, their historical names do not perfectly describe their behavior. == Why Should Long-Running JavaScript Be Avoided? == The Event Loop can execute only one JavaScript callback at a time on the main JavaScript thread. Consider: <syntaxhighlight lang="javascript"> while (true) { // Heavy or endless work } </syntaxhighlight> While this code is running, the JavaScript thread is blocked. The Event Loop cannot execute other JavaScript callbacks. This can prevent the application from promptly responding to: <pre> HTTP requests Timers Socket events Database callbacks File callbacks Other asynchronous operations </pre> Therefore, asynchronous Node.js APIs do not mean that every piece of JavaScript automatically runs without blocking. The asynchronous operation may happen outside the JavaScript thread, but the callback itself still executes on the JavaScript thread. == Event Loop Starvation == Event Loop starvation occurs when one type of work prevents other work from receiving an opportunity to execute. A long-running synchronous JavaScript operation can cause starvation because the Event Loop cannot move forward while that operation is executing. Recursive <code>process.nextTick()</code> calls can cause another form of starvation because the next-tick queue can keep being processed before the Event Loop moves to other phases. The result is that other operations may have to wait much longer than expected. == Why Node.js Works Well for I/O-Heavy Applications == Node.js is particularly useful for applications that spend significant amounts of time waiting for external operations. Examples include HTTP servers, APIs, WebSocket applications, chat applications, streaming systems, and other network-heavy applications. Imagine several requests arriving at a server: <pre> Request A → waiting for database Request B → waiting for API Request C → waiting for file Request D → waiting for network </pre> Node.js does not necessarily need to block the JavaScript thread while waiting for these operations. Instead, it can start the operations and continue processing other work. When the operations finish, their callbacks can be handled by the Event Loop. This allows a single JavaScript thread to efficiently coordinate many I/O operations. == Node.js and CPU-Heavy Work == Node.js is not automatically suitable for every kind of workload. CPU-intensive JavaScript can block the main JavaScript thread. For example: <syntaxhighlight lang="javascript"> function expensiveCalculation() { for (let i = 0; i < 10_000_000_000; i++) { // Heavy calculation } } </syntaxhighlight> If this function runs on the main thread, the Event Loop cannot process other JavaScript callbacks until the calculation finishes. For CPU-intensive tasks, Node.js provides mechanisms such as Worker Threads and child processes that can be used to move work away from the main JavaScript execution thread. == Timers Are Not Exact == One of the most important things to remember about the Node.js Event Loop is that timers do not guarantee exact execution times. If you write: <syntaxhighlight lang="javascript"> setTimeout(callback, 100); </syntaxhighlight> you are not saying: <pre> Execute exactly after 100 milliseconds. </pre> You are effectively saying: <pre> Do not execute this callback before its timer threshold, but execute it when the Event Loop gets the opportunity. </pre> Suppose the timer reaches its threshold after 100 milliseconds, but another callback is currently running for 50 milliseconds. The timer callback must wait for that callback to finish. Therefore, it might execute around 150 milliseconds after being scheduled. This behavior is fundamental to understanding asynchronous JavaScript. == Node.js 20 and Timer Behavior == Starting with libuv 1.45.0, which is used by Node.js 20, the timer behavior around the poll phase changed. In older versions, timers could be processed both before and after the poll phase during an Event Loop iteration. The newer behavior processes timers after the poll phase during an iteration. This change can affect the ordering and timing relationship between <code>setTimeout()</code> and <code>setImmediate()</code> in certain situations. Therefore, when discussing exact Event Loop behavior, it is important to consider the Node.js version being used. == A Complete Mental Model == A useful way to understand the Node.js Event Loop is to imagine the following sequence: <pre> JavaScript starts ↓ Synchronous code executes ↓ An asynchronous operation is started ↓ Node.js delegates the work to the OS/libuv ↓ JavaScript continues executing ↓ The asynchronous operation finishes ↓ Its callback becomes ready ↓ The Event Loop determines when the callback can execute ↓ Callback executes on the JavaScript thread ↓ The callback may schedule more asynchronous work ↓ The Event Loop continues </pre> The important point is that Node.js is not constantly creating a new JavaScript thread for every asynchronous operation. Instead, it uses the Event Loop to coordinate callbacks and asynchronous operations efficiently. == Final Understanding == The Node.js Event Loop is the mechanism that allows Node.js to handle asynchronous operations without blocking the main JavaScript execution thread. The Event Loop moves through different phases, including timers, pending callbacks, poll, check, and close callbacks. Each phase has a specific purpose and processes callbacks that are ready to execute. The poll phase is responsible for handling much of Node.js's I/O activity. The check phase is where <code>setImmediate()</code> callbacks execute, while the timers phase handles callbacks scheduled through <code>setTimeout()</code> and <code>setInterval()</code>. <code>process.nextTick()</code> is slightly different because it is not an Event Loop phase. Its callbacks are processed after the current JavaScript operation finishes and before the Event Loop continues. The most important concept to remember is that asynchronous Node.js does not mean that JavaScript itself runs in parallel on the main thread. Instead, Node.js efficiently delegates asynchronous work and uses the Event Loop to determine when the resulting callbacks should execute. In simple terms: <pre> Start asynchronous work ↓ Do not block JavaScript ↓ Continue doing other work ↓ Operation finishes ↓ Callback becomes ready ↓ Event Loop executes callback </pre> That is the core idea behind the Node.js Event Loop and the reason Node.js can efficiently handle large numbers of I/O operations while using a relatively small number of threads. 6dgc3bmhfv200nmdx1joexya441wojv 0 332342 2835699 2026-10-03T16:09:17Z Meter futile0u 3112029 New page on the term contocrat (text drafted with AI assistance, disclosed) 2835699 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Research project}} {{Original research}} '''Contocrat''' (pronounced ''CON-to-crat'') is the person in whom the supreme authority of a [[Contocracy|contocracy]] is permanently vested; the word also refers to a supporter of contocracy.<ref name="note" /> This page is part of the [[Contocracy]] research resource. [[File:Contocracy definition flashcard (contocrat).png|thumb|upright=1.2|Contocrat flashcard]] == Disclosure == The term ''contocrat'' and the definitions presented here are by Nicolas Edward Pendland, who coined it. The text of this page was drafted by Claude, an AI assistant made by Anthropic, and published by Pendland. == Etymology == ''Contocrat'' is formed from ''contocracy'' on the pattern of ''democrat'' from ''democracy''. The ''cont-'' comes from ''continuation''; the word is not derived from ''control''. It dates from the 2020s.<ref name="note" /> == Role across the three stages == # '''In life:''' the contocrat governs with full authority, while capable of doing so. # '''After death or permanent incapacity:''' a single reconstruction of the contocrat governs in their place. It is never presumed to be the contocrat and is bound to the religion (or lack of one) and the mission the contocrat professed at that time. # '''If continuation is established:''' the contocrat governs again with full authority, and the reconstruction stops governing while still being treated as a person. == What only the contocrat can do == * Change the religion or mission that binds the office. The reconstruction cannot. * Delegate decisions in advance. Delegated decisions keep working even before a reconstruction exists; new decisions wait for the reconstruction, which is why it should be ready at the moment of death. == Usage == * "Only the contocrat may change the mission." * "The reconstruction is never presumed to be the contocrat." * "Because authority never passes on, contocratic succession is a contradiction in terms." == Related terms == * ''[[Contocracy|contocracy]]'': the form of government. * ''contocratic'' (adjective): relating to contocracy or a contocrat. * ''contocratize'' (verb): to establish contocracy in a state or organization. * ''contocratship'' (noun): the office or position of a contocrat. == Not to be confused with == * ''autocrat'': a ruler with unlimited power, whose rule ends at death. * ''technocrat'': an official chosen for technical expertise. * ''concordat'': an agreement between the Holy See and a country. == Learning activity == # In two sentences, explain why "contocratic succession" is a contradiction in terms. == References == <references> <ref name="note">Pendland, Nicolas Edward (2026). "Contocracy: A Proposed Form of Government Based on Continuation". Working paper. Zenodo. doi:10.5281/zenodo.23114819.</ref> </references> [[Category:Political science]] [[Category:Political philosophy]] 46ya70mu09qkc5rsb8l01d3r3q6e2il 2 332343 2835713 2026-10-03T21:20:48Z Bsapgcollege 3112061 Created page with "{{DISPLAYTITLE:B.S.A. College, Mathura}} = B.S.A. College, Mathura =" 2835713 wikitext text/x-wiki {{DISPLAYTITLE:B.S.A. College, Mathura}} = B.S.A. College, Mathura = lkw1vrkxyt29suyn7f1e71rz2megrny 2835714 2835713 2026-10-03T21:40:25Z Bsapgcollege 3112061 /* B.S.A. College, Mathura */ 2835714 wikitext text/x-wiki {{DISPLAYTITLE:B.S.A. College, Mathura}}<blockquote> = B.S.A. College, Mathura = </blockquote><blockquote> </blockquote> 3i8rnnpjrlnljrer51p6mauf9ny156y 2 332344 2835716 2026-10-03T22:55:13Z Kefilwe lauren 3112069 /* */ when I was a young girl I first wanted to be a dentist now I'm in high school/middle school I have a different version of my future and want to be a neurosurgeon 2835716 wikitext text/x-wiki My name is Kefilwe lauren, I want to study medicine and become a future neurosurgeon to fullfil my duties and help people, I'd love to work at a private hospital in Sandton in future. 2ufqtl1sp57nu1tk4995ly9rr1r0w5t 0 332345 2835733 2026-10-04T02:50:41Z ~2026-53378-13 3112071 Redirected page to [[Contocracy/Contocrat]] 2835733 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT[[Contocracy/Contocrat]] 8zulb1xxc0prfdy91cv59ln39es9vcg 0 332346 2835742 2026-10-04T04:00:46Z ~2026-53378-13 3112071 Redirected page to [[Contocracy/Contocrat]] 2835742 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Contocracy/Contocrat]] sfejt4d1xzesutw6992oe0u9sze94ck 3 332347 2835781 2026-10-04T10:32:55Z MathXplore 2888076 advert1 ([[m:User:ZbVl/VD|Vandoom]]) 2835781 wikitext text/x-wiki == 2026-10-04 == <div class="mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr" style="text-align: left" lang="en">[[File:Information.svg|25px|alt=Information icon]] Hello. Apologies for writing this in English, but I wanted to let you know that one or more of [[Special:Contributions/Rockey124|your recent contributions]] have been undone because they appeared to be promotional. [[:m:en:WP:SOAPBOX|Advertising or using <span style="white-space:nowrap">Wikiversity</span> as a "soapbox"]] are not permitted. Take a look at the welcome pages to learn more about <span style="white-space:nowrap">Wikiversity</span>. Thanks. </div><!-- Glow-advert1 @ 1791109972438.3s --><nowiki></nowiki> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 10:32, 4 October 2026 (UTC) 0n52hqljediiw3cilfkqme1ob6j1mxs